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Introduction To Modern Power Electronics
Introduction To Modern Power Electronics
to
Introduction to Modern
Power Electronics
by
Andrzej M. Trzynadlowski
Chapter 1
P1.3.
(a)
P1.4.
[1 + cos( 90 o )] = 0.318 pu
(b)
From Fig. 1.18(a), Vo,1,p = 0.5 pu. Thus, Vo,1 = 0.5/2 = 0.35 pu
(a)
(b)
1
1
[ - + sin( )] = 0.5 pu
2
2 2
V o,h =
(c)
P1.5.
0. 52 - 0. 424 2 = 0.265 pu
provided in Appendix B are used, in the angle-domain version (substitute 2 for T and
t for t). The output voltage waveform, vo(t) has both the odd and half-wave
symmetries, so that there are no even harmonics. Consequently, the peak value, Vo,k,p,
of the kth harmonic can be found as
2
=
=
V o,k, p V o,k,s
vo ( t)sin(kt)dt
k = 1,3,5,...
which yields
V o,k, p =
4V i
k = 1,3,5,...
k
It can be seen that the amplitude, Vo,1,p, of the fundamental voltage is as much as
27% higher than the dc input voltage, Vi.
P1.6.
(a)
V o,dc =
115 2
[1 + cos( 30 o )] = 96.6 V
(b)
V o = 115 2
1
1
[ - + sin( 60 o )] = 113.3 V
2
6 2
Eq. (1.45) for a generic ac voltage controller was used. It is also valid for the generic
rectifier, since the rms value does not depend on the sign of a function.
V o,ac =
(c)
P1.7.
f1 = 120 Hz
P1.8.
This is a rather tedious problem. The waveform of output voltage, vo(t), given
by
has only the half-wave symmetry. Therefore, only odd harmonics are present in the
spectrum, and the amplitudes of odd harmonics must be computed as
V o,k, p =
V o,k,s + V o,k,c
For instance, with f = 90o, the peak value of fundamental voltage, Vo,1,p, is
V o,1, p =
P1.9.
0. 5 2 + (-0.3183 )2 = 0.5927
symmetry, so that all harmonics are present, including the dc component ("zero
harmonic"). Analogous waveform in the generic ac voltage controller has the half-wave
symmetry, and only odd harmonics appear in the spectrum of output voltage. The dc
component and even harmonics are absent.
S3 & S4:
D3,4 = 0
S5:
D5 = 1 - 0.7 = 0.3
D1,2 = 0
S3 & S4:
S5:
D5 = 1 - 0.35 = 0.65
P1.16. (a)
(b)
(c)
P1.17. (a)
S1 & S2 ON
S3 & S4 OFF
S5 OFF
(b)
S1 & S2 OFF
S3 & S4 OFF
S5 ON
(c)
S1 & S2 OFF
S3 & S4 ON
S5 OFF
Dn
22.5o
0.287
12.9o
67.5o
0.693
31.2o
112.5o
0.693
31.2o
157.5o
0.287
12.9o
202.5o
0.287
12.9o
247.5o
0.693
31.2o
292.5o
0.693
31.2o
337.5o
0.287
12.9o
M
io(t1)=io(t0 )+ [Vi,p _sin( t0 )_ - Rio(t0 )- E]T
L
and
i o ( t 2 ) = i o ( t 1 )[1 -
R
E
(1 - M)T] - (1 - M)T
L
L
where T = 1/720 s. Substituting the data (if you have the first print of the book,
correct the inductance, L, to 12 mH), yields
io(t1) = 0.971io(t0) + 19.65 |sin(377t0)| - 5.21
and
Vo-E
R
where
Vo=
V i, p M = 108 V
io (A)
t (s)
io (A)
0.0000
36.0
0.0090
29.1
0.0007
29.7
0.0097
23.0
0.0014
23.7
0.0104
27.0
0.0021
27.6
0.0111
21.0
0.0028
21.6
0.0118
32.2
0.0035
32.8
0.0125
26.0
0.0042
26.6
0.0132
39.7
0.0049
40.3
0.0139
33.4
0.0056
33.9
0.0146
44.2
0.0063
44.7
0.0153
37.7
0.0069
38.2
0.0160
41.2
0.0083
35.3
0.0167
34.8
Correction of the initial current to 33.8 A yields the final value of the current equal to
the initial value:
t (s)
io (A)
t (s)
io (A)
0.0000
33.8
0.0090
27.6
0.0007
27.6
0.0097
21.6
0.0014
21.6
0.0104
25.6
0.0021
25.6
0.0111
19.6
0.0028
19.6
0.0118
30.8
0.0035
30.9
0.0125
24.7
0.0042
24.8
0.0132
38.5
0.0049
38.5
0.0139
32.1
0.0056
32.2
0.0146
43.0
0.0063
43.0
0.0153
36.6
0.0069
36.6
0.0160
40.1
0.0083
33.8
0.0167
33.8
The substantial ripple of the current results from the low switching frequency. In
practice, it would be an order of magnitude higher. Note that once the current
equations are found, a simple computer program allows easy repeating of the
calculations with various values of io(0).
P1.22. Substituting the data, including T = 1/500 s, to Eqs. (1.73) and (1.75), yields
io(t1) = 0.4io(t0) + 9.76sin(314t0)
and
io(t2) = 0.8io(t1)
The initial current, io(0), can be found using Eq. (1.70), which gives io(0) = -5.92 A.
Computed values of the current are tabulated below.
t (s)
io (A)
t (s)
io (A)
0.0000
-5.92
0.0115
3.14
0.0015
-2.37
0.0120
2.51
0.0020
-1.89
0.0135
-4.73
0.0035
4.98
0.0140
-3.79
0.0040
3.98
0.0155
-10.80
0.0055
10.88
0.0160
-8.64
0.0060
8.70
0.0175
-12.74
0.0075
12.76
0.0180
-10.19
0.0080
10.21
0.0195
-9.81
0.0095
9.82
0.0200
-7.85
0.0100
7.86
The poor convergence is due to the low load inductance and low switching
frequency. The initial current must be corrected to -7.87 A to yield the final value
equal to the initial value:
t (s)
io (A)
t (s)
io (A)
0.0000
-7.87
0.0115
3.16
0.0015
-3.15
0.0120
2.53
10
0.0020
-2.52
0.0135
-4.71
0.0035
4.73
0.0140
-3.77
0.0040
3.78
0.0155
-10.78
0.0055
10.79
0.0160
-8.63
0.0060
8.63
0.0175
-12.74
0.0075
12.74
0.0180
-10.19
0.0080
10.19
0.0195
-9.84
0.0095
9.82
0.0200
-7.87
0.0100
7.86
Note that once the current equations are found, a simple computer program allows
easy repeating of the calculations with various values of io(0).
11
Chapter 4
P4.1.
V o,dc =
3 3 230 2
_
= 155.3 V
2
3
P4.2.
The output voltage of the rectifier varies between VLN,p and VLN,p/2 (see Fig.
4.3), that is, between 187.8 V and 93.9 V. Therefore, with E = 180 V, the conduction is
discontinuous.
12
P4.3.
The output voltage of the rectifier varies between VLL,p and 3VLL,p/2, that is,
between 650.5 V and 563.4 V. Therefore, with E = 480 V, the conduction is continuous.
P4.4.
kE = 480/(4602) = 0.74
= tan-1(377 0.05/2.1) = 83.6o
P4.5.
kE = 600/(4602) = 0.922
c = sin-1(0.922) - /3 = 7.2o
e = 60o - 7.2o = 52.8o
= 52.8o - 7.2o = 45.6o
P4.8.
As seen from the diagram in Fig. 4.21, it is the firing angle of 30 o that is
always feasible. This is because the SCRs are fired at the instant when the
corresponding line-to-line voltage is peaking.
13
According to Fig. 4.21, the firing angle of 25 o is feasible, and according to Fig. 4.22, the
conduction is continuous with this angle. Thus,
Vo = (3/) 2 230 cos(25o) = 281.5 V
and
Io = (281.5 - 260)/0.15 = 143.4 A
o
io ( t) = 1069[ sin( t - 0.4 ) - 1.62 + 0.918 e 1.76 ]
14
Substituting and f in condition (4.45) gives kE < -0.52 (this value can also be read
from the diagram in Fig. 4.22). Consequently, E < -0.52 325 V, that is, E < -169 V.
P4.15.
n
Dn
1,n
2,n
7.5o
0.487
7.30o
3.85o
11.15o
22.5o
0.635
9.52o
17.74o
27.26o
37.5o
0.739
11.08o
31.96o
43.04o
52.5o
0.793
11.90o
46.55o
58.45o
P4.16.
15
Dn
1,n
2,n
7.5o
0.705
10.58o
2.21o
12.79o
22.5o
0.792
11.88o
16.56o
28.44o
37.5o
0.795
11.92o
31.54o
43.46o
52.5o
0.774
11.61o
46.70o
58.31o
sin(
) = 5.4_ 10 -6 s = 5.4 s
24_2_50
24
[1 - cos(
)] = 7.1_ 10 -6 s = 7.1 s
24_2_50
24
At t = 15o,
vo,1 = vCB = 4602cos(15o + 30o) = 460 V
vo,2 = vCA = -4602sin(15o) = -168.4 V
vo = 460 - 168.4 = 291.6 V
16
P4.20.
3
o
V LL, pk(rat) cos( 30 ) = 400
V LL, pk(rat) =
400
3
cos( 30 o )
17
= 483.7 kV
Chapter 5
P5.2.
_ = tan -1 (
377_0.005
) = 43. 3o
2
18
Values of the magnitude control ratio, M, for individual firing angles, f, can now be
estimated from Fig. 5.3 as approximately equidistant from the characteristics for the
purely resistive and purely inductive loads.
Vo
30o
1.0
120 V
90o
0.8
96 V
150o
0.2
24 V
P5.3.
P5.4.
Vo
20o
0.98
260 V
90o
0.55
146 V
130o
0.12
32 V
P5.5.
Vo = 0.65 115 = 93 V
P5.6.
19
P5.7.
Similarly to the input voltage, the output voltage, vo, is the line-to-line voltage.
Vo = 0.4 230 = 145 V
Vo,1 = 0.4 230 = 92 V
P5.8.
_0.8_460 = 351 V
P5.9.
Permitted states of the matrix converter: 73, 74, 76, 81, 82, 84, 97, 98, 100,
137, 138, 140, 145, 146, 148, 161, 162, 164, 265, 266, 268, 273, 274, 276, 289, 290, 292
20
Chapter 6
P6.1.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Io = 168/10 = 16.8 A
P6.2.
No. There is no EMF in the load, which therefore cannot supply any power.
P6.3.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Io = 168/10 = 16.8 A
21
P6.4.
P6.5.
P6.6.
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Io = (-105 + 120)/0.5 = 30 A
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
22
P6.7.
P6.8.
(a)
(b)
Io = (125 - 100)/0.5 = 50 A
(c)
M = 125/150 = 0.833
(d)
D1 = 0.833
Vo = E + RIo
(a)
(b)
P6.9.
(a)
(b)
P6.10. From Eq. (6.18), with M = 0.5 (which results in the highest ripple),
23
0.02 >
0.5(1 - 0.5)
2 3 f sw(pu)
E = 240 V
E/Vi = 0.6
E = -240 V
E/Vi = -0.6
E/Vi = -0.6
24
25
Chapter 7
P7.1.
P7.2.
In both modes of the inverter, the output voltage waveform has both the odd
and half-wave symmetry. Therefore, Eq. (B.23) can be used, which, in the angledomain version yields
ck =
4
4
sin
(k
t)d
t
=
[
cos
(k
)
cos
(k
)]
d
d
k
2
for k = 1, 3, 5, .... In the simple square-wave mode, d = 0, and in the optimal squrewave mode, d = 0.405 rad.
26
MODE:
simple
squarewave
optimal
squarewave
ck
ck
1.273
1.170
0.424
0.148
0.255
0.112
0.182
0.173
Note that the low-order voltage harmonics in the optimal square-wave mode are
significantly reduced in comparison with those in the simple square-wave mode.
P7.3.
P7.4.
(peak line-to-line)
(rms line-to-line)
27
(rms line-to-neutral)
P7.5.
5 - 1 - 3 - 2 - 6 - 4 - ...
P7.6.
0 4 < /3
F(m, 4) = 2 0.9 cos(52.5o - 60o) - 1 = 0.785
a = (1 + 0.785)/2 = 0.8925
A,4 = 0.8925 15o = 13.3875o
1A,4 = 52.5o + 13.3875o/2 = 59.19375o
2A,4 = 52.5o - 13.3875o/2 = 45.80625o
Phase B:
Phase C:
28
c = (1 + 0.096)/2 = 0.548
C,4 = 0.548 15o = 8.22o
1C,4 = 52.5o + 8.22o/2 = 56.61o
2C,4 = 52.5o - 8.22o/2 = 48.39o
The first angle indicates the turn-on instant of the upper (common-anode) switch in a
given phase (leg) of the inverter, the second angle indicates the turn-off instant of this
switch. Vice-versa, the other (common-cathode) switch turns off at the first angle and
turns on at the second angle.
P7.7.
29
t0 = 0.174 292 = 51 s
P7.8.
States and their durations are the same for both versions of the space-vector PWM
technique. In Problems 7.7 and 7.8, the same state sequence, 3 - 1 - 0, applies to the
switching interval in question. However, in the next switching interval, the highquality state sequence would be 1 - 3 - 7, and the high-efficiency sequence 0 - 1 - 3.
P7.9.
In the angle domain, the 19th switching interval extends from 180o to 190o.
State 3 occupies the first 0.747 of this interval, from 180 o to 180o + 0.747 10o =
187.47o. State 1 occupies the next 0.079 of the interval, from 187.47 o to 187.47o + 0.079
30
10o = 188.26o. State 0 occupies the remaining part of the interval, from 188.26 o to
190o. In the next, 20th, switching interval, the first state is State 1. The last state in the
previous, 18th, interval was State 7. Consequently, prior to the beginning of the
switching interval in question, all switching variables are 1 (State 7). At 180 o,
switching variable a changes from 1 to 0 (State 3), at 187.47o, variable b changes from
1 to 0 (State 1), and at 188.26 o, variable c follows suit (State 0). At 190o, variable c
changes from 0 to 1 (State 1). Thus:
Switch SA:
Switch SA':
Switch SB:
Switch SB':
Switch SC:
Switch SC':
P7.10. In the angle domain, the 19th switching interval extends from 180o to 190o.
State 3 occupies the first 0.747 of this interval, from 180 o to 180o + 0.747 10o =
187.47o. State 1 occupies the next 0.079 of the interval, from 187.47 o to 187.47o + 0.079
10o = 188.26o. State 0 occupies the remaining part of the interval, from 188.26 o to
190o. In the next, 20th, switching interval, the first state is State 0 again. The last state
in the previous, 18th, interval was State 3. Consequently, prior to the beginning of the
switching interval in question, a = 0, b = 1, and c = 1 (State 3). The switching
variables do not change at 180o since the first state in the 19th switching interval is
State 3 again. At 187.47o, variable b changes from 1 to 0 (State 1), and at 188.26 o,
variable c follows suit (State 0). At 190o, the 20th switching interval begins, and the
inverter remains in State 0. Thus:
Switch SA:
Switch SA':
Switch SB:
Switch SB':
Switch SC:
Switch SC':
is not switched
is not switched
turns off at 187.47o
turns on at 187.47o
turns off at 188.26o
turns on at 188.26o
31
Comparison of results of this problem with those of Problem 7.9 well illustrates the
reduction in the number of switchings when the high-quality state sequence is
replaced with the high-efficiency sequence.
P7.11. Switching variable a changes from 0 to 1 at 0o, 14.80o, 89.07o, 92.07o, 170.52o,
189.48o, 267.93o, 270.93o, and 345.2o. It changes from 1 to 0 at 9.48o, 87.93o, 90.93o,
165.2o, 180o, 194.8o, 269.07o, 272.07o, and 350.52o.
P7.13. Switching pattern for switch SA is: 2.24o (ON), 5.6o (OFF), 21.26o, 30o, 38.74o,
54.4o, 57.76o, 122.24o, 125.6o, 141.26o, 150o, 158.74o, 174.4o (ON), and 177.76o (OFF).
Switching pattern for switch SA' is shifted by 180 o, that is, 182.24o (ON), 185.6o (OFF),
..., 357.76o (OFF).
32
V LL =
12
2
2 1
5 1
[ 12 dt + 0.52 dt] = [ + 0.25( - )] = 0.7674
0
4
12 4
1
4
V LL,1, p =
=
4
[
12
4
1
5
1
[ sin( ) - sin(0) + 0.5 sin( ) - 0.5 sin( )] = 1.065
4
12
4
and the rms value, VLL,1 = 1.065/2 = 0.7531. Hence, the harmonic content is
V LL,h =
33
and the total harmonic distortion of the line-to-line voltage is dh,LL= 0.1274/0.7531 =
0.169.
Similarly, to acquire the even and half-wave symmetries, the vAN waveform should be
shifted leftwards by 15o. Then
and, using the same approach as before, the rms value, VLN, of the line-to-neutral
voltage is calculated as 0.441, i.e., equal to VLL/3. The rms value, VLN,1, of the
fundamental line-to-neutral voltage is 0.4348. Thus,
V LN ,h =
P7.18. According to Eqs. (7.12) and (4.89), duty ratio of switch SA in the n th switching
interval is given by
34
1
2
1
D A,n = a n = _1 + m[ sin( n ) + sin(3 n )] _
2
6
3
where
n = (n -
1 2
)
2 18
D A,n
18_120
t OFF =
1 - D A,n
18_120
The extremal values of DA,n occur when m = 1. Indeed observing the waveform of thirdharmonic modulating function in Fig. 4.41, it can be seen that, at certain values of t,
it reaches the extremal values of -1 and +1, corresponding to DA,n = 0 and DA,n = 1,
respectively. The values of tON and tOFF for m = 1 and individual switching intervals
are listed in the following table.
n
DA,n
tON (s)
tOFF (s)
0.6484
300.2
162.8
0.8849
409.7
53.3
0.9904
458.5
4.4
0.9944
460.4
2.6
0.9811
454.2
8.7
35
0.9944
460.4
2.6
0.9904
458.5
4.4
0.8849
409.7
53.3
0.6484
300.2
162.8
10
0.3516
162.8
300.2
11
0.1151
53.3
409.7
12
0.0096
4.4
458.5
13
0.0056
2.6
460.4
14
0.0189
8.7
454.2
15
0.0056
2.6
460.4
16
0.0096
4.4
458.5
17
0.1151
53.3
409.7
18
0.3516
162.8
300.2
It can be seen that the shortest tON and tOFF times are both 2.6 s.
P7.19. The peak value of the voltage supplying the diode rectifier constitutes the
highest voltage in the system. Thus,
Vrat 1.4 2 460 = 911 V
The average output voltage of the rectifier is (3/) 2 460 = 621 V, and it is equal
to the maximum available value of the peak fundamental line-to-line voltage of the
inverter. Therefore, the rms value of this voltage is 621/2 = 439 V, and it is the rated
voltage of the inverter. The rated current of the inverter is 60000/(3 439) = 78.9 A.
Consequently, the rated current, IS(rat), of the inverter switches must satisfy the
36
condition
IS(rat) (2/) 1.25 78.9 = 45 A
while the rated current, ID(rat), of the inverter diodes can be a half of that value, that is,
ID(rat) 45/2 = 23 A
P7.20. The peak value of the voltage supplying the diode rectifier constitutes the
highest voltage in the system. Thus, disregarding the possibility of faulty operation of
the inverter,
Vrat 1.4 2 2400/2 = 2376 V
The average output voltage of the rectifier is (3/) 2 2400 = 3241 V and,
assuming the square-wave operation, the voltage gain of the inverter is 1.065. Hence,
the maximum available value of the peak fundamental line-to-line voltage of the
inverter is 1.065 3241 = 3452 V, and the rms value of this voltage is 3452/2 = 2441
V, and it is the rated voltage of the inverter. The rated current of the inverter is
200000/(3 2441) = 47.3 A. Consequently, the rated current, IS(rat), of the inverter
switches must satisfy the condition
IS(rat) (2/) 1.25 47.3 = 27 A
while the rated current, ID(rat), of the inverter diodes can be a quarter of that value, that
is,
ID(rat) 27/4 = 7 A
37
38
Chapter 8
P8.1.
D = 32/(32 + 8) = 0.8
Vi = Vo/D = 12/0.8 = 15 V
fsw = 1/(32 + 8) = 0.025 MHz = 25 kHz
P8.2.
Vo = 0.6 50 = 30 V
Io = 30/10 = 3 A
It can reasonably be assumed that the minimum value of inductance L for continuous
conduction is to be determined for the worst case, that is, the duty ratio, D, equal zero.
Then, from Eq. (8.11),
L= 2
30
1-0
_
= 6.67_ 10-4 H
3
2_3 15_ 10
V o = 30
P8.3.
1 - 0.6
= 0.2 V
8_6.67_ 10 _50_ 10 -6 _(15_ 10 3 )2
-4
D = 32/(32 + 8) = 0.8
Vi = Vo (1 - D) = 12 (1 - 0.8) = 2.4 V
39
P8.4.
D = 32/(32 + 8) = 0.8
Vi = Vo (1 - 1/D) = 12 (1 - 1/0.8) = -3 V
fsw = 1/(32 + 8) = 0.025 MHz = 25 kHz
P8.5.
Assuming that the capacitor is selected for the worst case, that is, D = 0, it can be
specified from Eq. (8.9) as
P8.6.
1- 0
_100 = 2_ 10 -5 F = 20 F
3 2
8_ 10 _(25_ 10 )
-3
converter. Here, the solution could end. However, for comparison with the buck
converter in the preceding Problem, let us assume the same duty ratio, D, of 0.5. Then,
Vo = 12/(1 - 0.5) = 24 V.
Assuming fsw = 25 kHz and R = 200 , the required capacitance, for the worst case of
D = 1, can be found from Eq. (8.18) as
1
_100 = 2_ 10 -5 F = 20 F
200_25_ 10 3
40
It can be seen that, in contrast with the buck converter, the ripple of the output voltage
depends on the load, here assumed as 1 k.
P8.7.
P8.8.
1
_100 = 2_ 10 -5 F = 20 F
3
200_25_ 10
Vo = 1 0.4 15 = 6 V
For the worst case of D = 0, the required inductance can be found from Eq. (8.11) as
6
(1 - 0) = 6_ 10 -5 = 60 H
2_25_ 10 3 _2
V o =
P8.9.
1 - 0.4
_6 = 0.075 V = 75 mV
8_6_ 10 _160_ 10-6 _(25_ 103 )2
-5
Io = 100/25 = 4 A
D=
100
Vo
=
= 0.769
k N V i + V o 0.5_60 + 100
41
(1 - 0.769 ) _100
= 20563 Hz 20.5 kHz
f sw >
2_0. 5 2 _4_0.13_ 10 -3
V o =
0.769
_100 = 0.75 V
25_0.2_ 10 -3 _20.5_ 10 3
Vo=1
For the worst case of D = 0, the inductances can be determined from Eqs. (8.57) and
(8.50) as
L1 = 2
(1 - 0 )2 _53.8
= 6.67_ 10 -4 H
2_ 12 _2.69_30_ 10 3
and
(1 - 0 )2 _53.8
= 6.67_ 10 -4 H
L2 = 2
3
2_2.69_30_ 10
42
V o =
1 - 0.35
_53.8 = 0.29 V
8_6.67_ 10 _25_ 10-6 _(30_ 10 3 )2
-4
80
= 0.4
2_2_50
V o =
1 - 2_0.4
_80 = 0.63 V
32_0.1_ 10 _20_ 10 -6 _(20_ 10 3 )2
-3
P8.12. From Eq. (8.60), for D = Dmax= 0.5, Vi = 100(2 0.5) = 100 V
0.1_ 10 -3
= 20
0.25_ 10 -6
35000
= 1.1
31831
43
15
= 0.75
20
f o=
1
2 60_ 10 _120_ 10 - 9
-6
= 59314 Hz
60_ 10-6
= 22.36
120_ 10 -9
24000
= 0.405
59314
20
= 0.8944
22.36
Kv=
1
1
2 1+ [
(0.405 ) ]2
8_0.8944
0.405
2
= 0.1657
44
P8.19.
R = 502/500 = 5
f o=
1
2
= 25291 Hz
12_ 10 -6
= 1.91
3.3_ 10-6
30000
= 1.186
25291
5
= 2.62
1.91
Kv=
8_1.186 2
(1 - 1.186 ) + ( 2
)
_2.62
2
45
= 0.74
Kv=
(2 - k 2f )2 + [
(kf -
1
kf
) ]2
and, as seen in Fig. 8.35, the maximum voltage gain, Kv, occurs with the frequency
ratio, kf, somewhere between 1.25 and 1.5. A computer can be used to search this
range. It turns out that Kv reaches the maximum value of 2.844 when kf = 1.41. Since
kf=
18000
1
= 36 L r
2 10 -6 L r
46