INTRODUCTION

Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical

plants. The primary task of a cooling tower is to reject heat into the
atmosphere.

They

represent

relatively

inexpensive

and

dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water.

The make-up water source is used to replenish water lost to
evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the cooling
tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the
exchangers or to other units for further cooling. Typical closed loop
cooling tower system. Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb
temperature must be made on the basis of conditions existing at the tower site. The
temperature selected is generally close to the average maximum wet bulb for the
sooner months. An important aspect of wet bulb selection is, whether it is specified
as ambient or inlet. The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which exists generally
in the cooling tower area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature of the
air entering the tower.
Mechanical draft towers utilize large fans to force or suck air through
circulated water. The water falls downward over till surfaces, which help increase the
contact time between the water and the air - this helps maximise heat transfer
between the two. Cooling rates of Mechanical draft towers depend upon their fan
diameter and speed of operation. Since, the mechanical draft cooling towers are
1

much more widely used

TERMINOLOGY

i) Windage or Drift Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the
exhaust air. Drift droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water
entering the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced by employing baffle-like
devices, called drift eliminators, through which the air must travel after leaving the fill
and spray zones of the tower. Drift can also be reduced by using warmer entering
cooling tower temperatures.

ii) Blow-out Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at the air
inlet openings. Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind, through splashing or
misting. Devices such as wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and water diverters
are used to limit these losses.

iii) Plume The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The plume is
visible when water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient air, like
the saturated air in one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain conditions, a cooling
tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to its surroundings. Note that the
water evaporated in the cooling process is "pure" water, in contrast to the very small
2

percentage of drift droplets or water blown out of the air inlets.

Iv) Draw-off or Blow-down The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed
(usually discharged to a drain) in order to maintain the amount of Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS) and other impurities at an acceptably low level. Higher TDS
concentration in solution may result from greater cooling tower efficiency. However the
higher the TDS concentration, the greater the risk of scale, biological growth and
corrosion.The amount of blow-down is primarily designated by measuring by
the electrical conductivity of the circulating water. Biological growth, scaling and
corrosion can be prevented by chemicals(respectively, biocide, sulfuric acid, corrosion
inhibitor). On the other hand, the only practical way to decrease the electrical
conductivity is by increasing the amount of blow-down discharge and subsequently
increasing the amount of clean make-upwater.

v) Make-up The water that must be added to the circulating water system in order to
compensate for water losses such as evaporation, drift loss, blow-out, blow-down, etc.

vi) Noise Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given
distance and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by the
movement of air by fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, vibration of the
structure, and the motors, gearboxes or drive belts.

vii) Approach The approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-water
3

temperature and the entering-air wet bulb temperature (twb). Since the cooling towers
are based on the principles of evaporative cooling, the maximum cooling tower
efficiencydepends on the wet bulb temperature of the air. The wet-bulb temperature is
a type of temperature measurement that reflects the physical properties of a system
with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air and water vapor

vii) Range The range is the temperature difference between the warm water inlet and
cooled water exit.

vii) Fill Inside the tower, fills are added to increase contact surface as well as contact
time between air and water, to provide better heat transfer. The efficiency of the
tower depends on the selection and amount of fill. There are two types of fills that
may be used:

Film type fill (causes water to spread into a thin film)

Splash type fill (breaks up falling stream of water and interrupts its vertical
progress)

vii) Full-Flow Filtration Full-flow filtration continuously strains particulates out of the
entire system flow. For example, in a 100-ton system, the flow rate would be roughly
300 gal/min. A filter would be selected to accommodate the entire 300 gal/min flow
rate. In this case, the filter typically is installed after the cooling tower on the
discharge side of the pump. While this is the ideal method of filtration, for higher flow
systems it may be cost prohibitive.
.
4

viii) Side-Stream Filtration Side-stream filtration, although popular and effective,

does not provide complete protection. With side-stream filtration, a portion of the
water is filtered continuously. This method works on the principle that continuous
particle removal will keep the system clean. Manufacturers typically package sidestream filters on a skid,complete with a pump and controls. For high flow systems,
this method is cost-effective.Properly sizing a side-stream filtration system is critical
to obtain satisfactory filter performance, but there is some debate over how to
properly size the side-stream system. Many engineers size the system to
continuously filter the cooling tower basin water at a rate equivalent to 10% of the
total circulationflow rate. For example, if the total flow of a system is 1,200 gal/min (a
400-ton system), a 120 gal/min side-stream system is specified.

Ix) Cycle of concentration Maximum allowed multiplier for the amount of

miscellaneous substances in circulating water compared to the amount of those
substances in make-up water.

x) Treated timber A structural material for cooling towers which was largely
abandoned about 10 years ago.[when?] It is still used occasionally due to its low initial
costs, in spite of its short life expectancy. The life of treated timber varies a lot,
depending on the operating conditions of the tower, such as frequency of shutdowns,
treatment of the circulating water, etc. Under proper working conditions, the estimated
life of treated timber structural members is about 10 years.

xi) Leaching The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the
water flowing through a wood structure cooling tower.
5

xii) Pultruded FRP A common structural material for smaller cooling towers, fibre
reinforced plastic (FRP) is known for its high corrosion-resistance capabilities.
Pultuded FRP is produced using pultrusion technology, and has become the most
common structural material for small cooling towers. It offers lower costs and
requires less maintenance compared to reinforced concrete, which is still in use for
large structures.

COOLING TOWER TYPES

Cooling towers fall into two main categories: Natural draft and Mechanical
draft. Natural draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through
the media. Due to the large size of these towers, they are generally used for water
flow rates above 45,000 m3/hr. These types of towers are used only by utility power
stations.
Mechanical draft towers utilize large fans to force or suck air through
circulated water. The water falls downward over till surfaces, which help increase the
contact time between the water and the air - this helps maximise heat transfer
between the two. Cooling rates of Mechanical draft towers depend upon their fan
diameter and speed of operation. Since, the mechanical draft cooling towers are
much more widely used,

MECHANICAL DRAFT TOWERS

Mechanical draft towers are available in the following airflow arrangements:

1.Counter flow forced draft

2.Cross flow forced draft

In the counter flow induced draft design, hot water enters at the top, while
the air is introduced at the bottom and exits at the top. Both forced and induced draft
fans are used. In cross flow induced draft towers, the water enters at the top and
passes over the fill. The air, however, is introduced at the side either on one side
(single-flow tower) or opposite sides (double-flow tower). An induced draft fan draws

the air across the wetted fill and expels it through the top of the structure. The Figure
7.2 illustrates various cooling tower types. Mechanical draft towers arc available in a
large range of capacities. Normal capacities range from approximately 10 tons, 2.5
m3/hr flow to several thousand tons and m /hr. Towers can be either factory built or
field erected for example concrete towers arc only field erected.
Many towers arc constructed so that they can be grouped together to
achieve the desired capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two or
more individual cooling towers or cells. The number of cells they have, e.g., a eightcell tower, often refers to such towers. Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or
round depending upon the shape of the individual cells and whether the air inlets are
located on the sides or bottoms of the cells.

COMPONENTS OF COOLING TOWER

The basic components of an evaporative tower arc: Frame and casing, fill,
cold water basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.

FRAME AND CASING:

Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures
(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as
some glass fiber units, the casing may essentially he the frame. Fill: Most towers
employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximising water
and air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type. With splash till, waterfalls over
successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking into smaller
droplets, while also wetting the till surface. Plastic splash till promotes better heat
8

transfer than the wood splash fill. Film fill consists of thin, closely spaced plastic
surfaces over which the water spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the air.

COLD WATER BASIN:

The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower, receives the
cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a
sump or low point for the cold water discharge connection. En many tower designs,
the cold water basin is beneath the entire till. In some forced draft counter flow
design, however, the water at the bottom of the till is channelled to a perimeter
trough that functions as the cold water basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath
the fill to blow the air up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted on
legs, providing easy access to the fans and their motors.

DRIFT ELIMINATORS:
These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise would
be lost to the atmosphere. Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a
tower. The inlet may take up an entire side of a towercross flow design or be
located low on the side or the bottom of counter flow designs. Louvers: Generally,
cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equalize air flow
into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs do
not require louvers.

NOZZLES:
These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the
9

top of the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles
can either be fixed in place and have either round or square spray patterns or can be
tart of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-section towers.
FANS:
Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans arc used in towers. Generally,
propeller fins are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal
fans arc found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size. piopeller fans can
either be fixed or variable pitch. A fan having non-automatic adjustable pitch blades
permits the same fan to be used over a wide range of kW with the fan adjusted to
deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption.
Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to changing load
conditions. Tower Materials In the early days of cooling tower manufacture, towers
were constructed primarily of wood. Wooden components included the frame,
casing, louvers, fill, and often the cold water basin. If the basin was not of wood, it
likely was of concrete. Today, tower manufacturers fabricate towers and tower
components from a variety of materials. Often several materials are used to enhance
corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote reliability and long service
life. Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fiber, and concrete are
widely used in tower construction as well as aluminum and various types of plastics
for some components. Wood towers are still available, but they have glass fiber
rather than wood panels (casing) over the wood framework.
The inlet air louvers may be glass fiber, the fill may be plastic, and the cold
water basin may be steel. Larger towers sometimes are made of concrete. Many
towerscasings and basins are constructed of galvanized steel or, where a
10

corrosive atmosphere is a problem, stainless steel. Sometimes a galvanized tower

has a stainlcss stccl basin. Glass fiber is also widely used for cooling tower casings
and basins, giving long life and protection from the harmful effects of many
chemicals.

11

Heal Load
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being
served. The degree of cooling required is controlled by the desired operating
temperature level of the process. In most cases, a low operating temperature is
desirable to increase process efficiency or to improve the quality or quantity of the
product. In some applications (e.g. internal combustion engines), however, high
operating temperatures arc desirable. The size and cost of the cooling tower is
proportional to the heat load. If heat load calculations are low undersized equipment
will be purchased.
If the calculated load is high, oversize and more costly, equipment will result.
Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the process involved,
Determination of accurate process heat loads can become very complex but proper
consideration can produce satisfactory results. On the other hand, air conditioning
and refrigeration heat loads can be determined with greater accuracy. Information is
available for the heat rejection requirements of various types of power equipment.

FACTORS
WET BULB TEMPERATURE
Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in perfonnancc of evaporative
water cooling equipment. It is a controlling factor from the aspect of minimum cold
water temperature to which water can be cooled by the evaporative method. Thus,
the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling tower determines operating
temperature levels throughout the plant, process, or system. T
12

Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the entering wet bulb
temperature, when operating without a heat load. However, a thermal potential is
required to reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water to the entering air wet bulb
temperature, when a heat load is applied. The approach obtained is a function of
thermal conditions and tower capability.
Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be
made on the basis of conditions existing at the tower site. The temperature selected
is generally close to the average maximum wet bulb for the sununer months. An
important aspect of wet bulb selection is, whether it is specified as ambient or inlet.
The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which exists generally in the cooling tower
area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower.
The later can be. and often is, affected by discharge vapours being re
circulated into the tower. Recirculation raises the effective wet bulb temperature of
the air entering the tower with corresponding increase in the cold water temperature.
Since there is no initial knowledge or control over the recirculation factor, the
ambient wet bulb should be specified. The cooling tower supplier is required to
furnish a tower of sufficient capability to absorb the effects of the increased wet bulb
temperature peculiar to his own equipment.
It is very important to have the cold water temperature low enough to
exchange heat or to condense vapours at the optimum temperature level. By
evaluating the cost and size of heat exchangers versus the cost anti size of the
cooling tower, the quantity and temperature of the cooling tower water can be
selected to get the maximum economy for the particular process.

13

EFFICIENT SYSTEM OPERATION

COOLING WATER TREATMENT

Cooling water treatment is mandatory for any cooling tower whether with
splash fill or with film type fill for controlling suspended solids, algac growth, etc.
With increasing costs of water, efforts to increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by
Cooling Water Treatment would help to reduce make up water requirements
significantly. In large industries, power plants, COC improvement is often considered
as a key area for water conservation.

COOLING TOWER FANS

The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air
through the system, overcoming the system resistance which is defined as the
pressure loss. The product of air flow and the pressure loss is air power
dcvclopcdlwork done by the fan; this may be also termed as fan output and input kW
depends on fan efficiency. The fin efficiency in turn is greatly dependent Ofl the
profile of the blade. An aerodynamic profile with optimum twist, taper and higher
coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio can provide the fan total efficiency as high
as 85-92 %. However, this efficiency is drastically affected by the factors such as tip
clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc. Cooling towers vary in size from
small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid structures (as in the adjacent image) that can
be up to 200 metres (660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter, or rectangular
structures (as in Image 3) that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80 metres (260 ft)
long. The hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants,
14

although they are also used to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial
plants. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers
are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat
from air conditioning.

As the metallic fans are manufactured by adopting either extrusion or

casting process it is always difficult to generate the ideal aerodynamic profiles. The
FRP blades are normally hand moulded which facilitates the generation of optimum
aerodynamic profile to meet specific duty condition more efficiently. Cases report
Cooling towers originated out of the development in the 19th century of condensers for use
with the steam engine. Condensers use relatively cool water, via various means, to
condense the steam coming out of the pistons or turbines. This reduces the back pressure,
which in turn reduces the steam consumption, and thus the fuel consumption, while at the
same time increasing power and recycling boiler-water. However the condensers require an
ample supply of cooling water, without which they are impractical the cost of the water
exceeds the savings on fuel. While this was not an issue with marine engines, it formed a
significant limitation for many land-based systems

Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as
machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is
to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating cooling water systems used in power
plants, petroleum refineries,petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants, food
processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial facilities such as in
condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc. The circulation
rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW coa fired ower plant with a cooling tower amounts
to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000 US gallons per minute) and the circulating
water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic metres
15

an hour).

16

Replacement of metallic or Glass fibre reinforced plastic fan blades have been
replaced by efficient hollow FRP blades, with resultant fan energy savings of the
order of 20-30% and with simple pay back period of 6 to 7 months. Also, due to
lightweight, FRP fans need low starting torque resulting in use of lower HP
motors. The lightweight of the fans also increases the life of the gear box, motor
and bearing is and allows for easy handling and maintenance.

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
COMPONENTS

Fan
Dc pump
Sump
tank

FAN
A stand alone fan is typically powered with an electric motor. Fans are
often attached directly to the motor's output, with no need for gears or belts.
Smaller fans are often powered by shaded pole AC motors or brushed or
brushless DC motors. In our case it is powered by dc motor having three blades.

17

DC CENTRIFUGAL PUMP:
Centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to
increase the velocity of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are commonly used to move
liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or
near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially
outward into a diffuser or volute chamber, from where it exits into the
downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are used for large discharge
through smaller heads

The pump is made of molded plastic. The flow rate of the pump is 1 liter /
min and it can deliver the water up to a head of 3 meters.

The centrifugal pump acts as a reversed of an inward radial flow reaction

turbine. This means that the flow in centrifugal pumps is in the radial outward
directions the centrifugal pump works on the principle of forced vortex flow
which means that when a certain mass of liquid is rotated by an external torque,
the rise in pressure head of the rotating liquid is proportional to the square of
tangential velocity of the liquid at that point. Rise in pressure head).thus at the
outlet of the impeller, where radius is more, the rise in pressure head will be
more and the liquid will be discharged at the outlet with a high pressure head.
Due to this high pressure head, the liquid can be lifted to a high level.
Main parts of a centrifugal pump
18

All the main parts of centrifugal pump are

(1) IMPELLER:
The rotating part of a centrifugal pump is called impeller. it consists of
a series of backward curved vanes.the impeller is mounted on a shaft which is
connected to the shaft of an electric motor.
(2) CASING:
The casing of centrifugal pump is similar to the casing of reaction turbine.
it is an air tight passage surrounding the impeller and is designed in such a way
that the kinetic energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is
converted into pressure energy before the designed in such a way that the
kinetic energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted
into pressure energy
before the water leaves the casing and enters the delivery pipe. Suction pipe
with a pipe whose one end is connected to inlet and then other to tank.
(3)SUCTION PIPE FOOT VALVE:
Delivery valve to flow control valve open only in upward direction.A
strains is filled at lower end of the sump

P.M.D.C MOTOR:
The permanent magnet direct current motor ( P.M.D.C) is a 12v dc motor.
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism. A currentcarrying conductor generates a magnetic field; when this is then placed in an
19

external magnetic field, it will experience a force proportional to the current in

the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic field.

MOTOR PRINCIPLE:
An electric motor is a machine which converts an electrical energy to
mechanical energy.
All D.C machines have five principal components viz
(i) Field system (II) armature core (iii) armature winding (iv) Commutator (v)
brushes
(ii) Field system:
The function of the field system is to produce Uniform field within which
the armature rotates.it consists of a number of salient poles(of course, even
number) bolted to the inside of circular frame (generally called yoke).the yoke is
usually made of solid cast steel whereas the pole piece are composed of
stacked laminations.
Field coils are mounted on the poles and carry the d.c exciting current.
The field coils are connected in such a way that adjacent poles have opposite
polarity. The m.m.f. developed by the coils produces a magnetic flux that passes
through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame. Practical d.c
machines have air gaps ranging from 0.5mm to 1.5mm.since armature and field
systems are composed of materials that have permeability, most of the m.m.f.of
field coils is required to set up flux in the air gap. By reducing the length of air
gap, we can reduce the size of field coils (number of turns).

20

(iii)

Armature core:

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the
field poles. It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6mm thick)
that are stacked to form a cylindrical core. The laminations are individually
coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact
with each other. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy
current loss. The laminations are slotted to accommodate and provide
mechanical security to the armature winding and to give shorter air gap for the
flux to cross between the pole face and the armature teeth.

(iv)

Armature winding:

The slots of the armature core hold conductors that are connected in a
suitable manner.this are known as armature winding. This is the winding in
which
working e.m.f. is induced.
The armature conductors are connected inseries-parallel: the conductors
being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so
as to increase the current. The armature winding of a d.c.machine is a closed
circuit
winding: the conductors being connected in a symmetrical manner forming a
closed
loop or series of closed loops.

(v) Commutator;
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating
21

voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brushes.the
commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica
sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine. The armature conductors are
soldered to the commutator segments in a suitable manner to give rise to the
armature winding.depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors
are connected to the commutator segments, there are tow types of armature
winding in a.d.c. machine viz(a) lap winding (b) wave winding.
Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will
cause the brushes to bounce, producing unacceptable sparking .the sparks may
burn the brushes and overheat and carbonize the commutator.

(vi)

Brushes:

The purpose of brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the

rotating commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made
of carbon and rest on the commutator,the brush pressure is adjusted by means
of adjustable springs. if the brush pressure is
Very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the
bruches.on the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the
commutator may produce sparking.
STATOR:
The stator is the stationary part of an electric generator or electric motor.
The non-stationary part on an electric motor is the rotor.
Depending on the configuration of a spinning electromotive device the
22

stator may act as the field magnet, interacting with the armature to create
motion, or it may act as the armature, receiving its influence from moving field
coils on the rotor. Depending on the configuration of a spinning electromotive device
the stator may act as the field magnet, interacting with the armature to create motion,
or it may act as the armature, receiving its influence from moving field coils on
the rotor. The first DC generators (known as dynamos) and DC motorsput the field
coils on the stator, and the power generation or motive reaction coils on the rotor. This
is necessary because a continuously moving power switch known as
the commutator is needed to keep the field correctly aligned across the spinning rotor.
The commutator must become larger and more robust as the current increases.

The first DC generators (known as dynamos) and DC motors put the field
coils on the stator, and the power generation or motive reaction coils are on the
rotor. This was necessary because a continuously moving power switch known
as the commutator is needed to keep the field correctly aligned across the
spinning rotor. The commutator must become larger and more robust as the
current increases.
The stator of these devices may be either a permanent magnet or an
electromagnet. Where the stator is an electromagnet, the coil which energizes it
is known as the field coil or field winding.
ROTOR:
The rotor is the non-stationary part of a rotary electric motor or alternator,
which rotates because the wires and magnetic field of the motor are arranged
so that a torque is developed about the rotor's axis. In some designs, the rotor
can act to serve as the motor's armature, across which the input voltage is
supplied.
23

ELECTROMAGNETIC COIL:
An electromagnetic coil is formed when a conductor solid copper wire is
wound around a core or form to create an inductor or electromagnet. One loop
of wire is usually referred to as a turn, and a coil consists of one or more turns.
For use in an electronic circuit, electrical connection terminals called taps are
often
connected to a coil. Coils are often coated with varnish and/or wrapped with
insulating tape to provide additional insulation and secure them in place. A
completed coil assembly with taps etc. is often called a winding. A transformer is
an electromagnetic device that has a primary winding and a secondary winding
that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to another by magnetic coupling
without moving parts. The term tickler coil usually refers to a third coil placed in
relation to a primary coil and secondary coil.
A coil tap is a wiring feature found on some electrical transformers,
inductors and coil pickups, all of which are sets of wire coils. The coil tap are
points in a wire coil where a conductive patch has been exposed. As self
induction is larger for larger coil diameter the current in a thick wire tries to flow
on the inside. The ideal use of copper is achieved by foils. Sometimes this
means that a spiral is a better alternative. Multilayer coils have the problem of
interlayer capacitance, so when multiple layers are needed the shape needs to
be radically changed to a short coil with many layers so that the voltage
between consecutive layers is smaller.

24

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT AND DRAWING

MACHINE COMPONENTS
The SOLAR AIR COLLER consists of the following components to full fill
the requirements of complete operation of the machine.

1. Fan
2. Moto

DESIGN CALCULATION
PUMP CALCULATION:
1. To find out the power required to drive the pump
2. To find the flow rate of pump
a) flow rate
Continuity equation, Q= Area of pump shaft x Velocity
Dia of pump shaft(D) =15mm
25

Dia of outlet of the pump (d) =3mm

Speed of the pump shaft =3000rpm
2

Area = x d /4
2

= x (0 .003) /4
= 7.06 x 10-6 m2
Velocity= x D x n / 60
= x 0.015 x 3000/60
=2.35 m/s
Therefore, Q = 7.06 x 10-6 m2 x 2.35 m/s
3/

= 0.0014 m min
b) To find power

i) Power = force X velocity

ii) Force = pressure X area
iii) Pressure = X g X h
= density of water =1000Kg/m2
2

g = acceleration due to gravity =9.81 m/s h = water head 3m

1kg =10N
Pressure = X g X h
=1000X10 X9.81X3
= 2.9X105 N/m2 p = 2.9 bar

Pressure =F/A
F =P/A
26

F =2.9X10 x /4 x (d)
5

2
-3 2

=2.9 X10 x /4 x (3X10 )

= 2.05 N

Power = force X velocity =2.05 X2.35

= 4.8 W

27

WORKING PRINCIPLE
Hot water flows to the main sewer of the water distribution system. Then, the
water is distributed through a pipe system to spray nozzles. Nozzles cause the
dispersion of the water onto the wet deck surface, thus creating water film of large
contact surface. The water coming off the lower edges of the wet deck surface falls
down in the form of droplets to the cooled water tank, from where it is pumped back to
the cooled equipment.
The process of water cooling occurs mainly as the result of the evaporation of a
small amount of cooled water to the air stream (transport of mass), making the use of
the heat of phase transition (heat of vaporization), which is collected from the water
stream and to a lesser extent as the result of convective heat transfer form water to air
(heat transfer)
Counter-current air flow in the cooling tower is inducted by the suction produced
by the axial fan with a capacity adapted to the required cooling parameters. The fan is
mounted inside the enclosure on the roof of the cooling cell. The air is sucked into the
cell through inlet ports equipped with shutters, which protect the system from sucking
things such as foliage and from splashing cooled water outside the cooling tower.
Then, the sucked air flows through the rain zone under the wet deck surface, through
the fill, splash zone above the wet deck surface and then it undergoes the process of
mist elimination, which minimizes water loss resulting from dissipation of droplets. The
heated and moisten air flows through the fan, and then it is blown away outside
through the upper section of the fan casing to the environment.
29

In a wet cooling tower (or open circuit cooling tower), the warm water can be cooled to
atemperature lower than the ambient air dry-bulb temperature, if the air is relatively dry.
As ambient air is drawn past a flow of water, a small portion of the water evaporates, and
the energy required to evaporate that portion of the water is taken from the remaining
mass of water, thus reducing its temperature. Approximately 970 BTU of heat energy is
absorbed for each pound of evaporated water. Evaporation results in saturated air
conditions, lowering the temperature of the water processed by the tower to a value
close to wet-bulb temperature, which is lower than the ambient dry-bulb temperature
, the difference determined by the initial humidity of the ambient air.

To achieve better performance (more cooling), a medium called fill is

used to increasethe surface area and the time of contact between the air and water
flows. Splash fill consists of material placed to interrupt the water flow causing
splashing. Film fill is composed of thin sheets of material (usually PVC) upon which the
water flows. Both methods create increased surface area and time of contact between
the fluid (water) and the gas (air), to improve heat transfer.

Being very large structures, cooling towers are susceptible to wind damage, and several
spectacular failures have occurred in the past. At Ferrybridge power station on 1
November 1965, the station was the site of a major structural failure, when three of the
cooling towers collapsed owing to vibrations in 85 mph (137 km/h) winds. Although the
structures had been built to withstand higher wind speeds, the shape of the cooling
towers caused westerly winds to be funnelled into the towers themselves, creating
a vortex. Three out of the original eight cooling towers were destroyed, and the
remaining five were severely damaged. The towers were later rebuilt and all eight
30

cooling towers were strengthened to tolerate adverse weather conditions. Building codes
were changed to include improved structural support, and wind tunnel tests were
introduced to check tower structures and configuration.

31

MERITS

Low cost
High reliable
Low maintenance
Simple in design

APPLICATIONS

Energy savings
Reduce maintenance requirements (personnel and equipment replacement
costs)

Precisely control process water temperature stabilization

LIST OF MATERIALS

FACTORS DETERMINING THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The various factors which determine the choice of material are discussed
below.
1. Properties:
The material selected must posses the necessary properties for the
32

proposed application. The various requirements to be satisfied

Can be weight, surface finish, rigidity, ability to withstand environmental attack
from chemicals, service life, reliability etc.

The following four types of principle properties of materials decisively affect

their selection
a. Physical
b. Mechanical
c. From manufacturing point of view
d. Chemical

The various physical properties concerned are melting point, thermal

Conductivity, specific heat, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific gravity,
electrical conductivity, magnetic purposes etc.
The various Mechanical properties Concerned are strength in tensile,
Compressive shear, bending, torsional and buckling load, fatigue resistance,
impact resistance, eleastic limit, endurance limit, and modulus of elasticity,
hardness, wear resistance and sliding properties.
The various properties concerned from the manufacturing point of view are,

Cast ability
Weld ability
Surface properties
Shrinkage
33

Deep drawing etc.

2. Manufacturing case:
Sometimes the demand for lowest possible manufacturing cost or surface
qualities obtainable by the application of suitable coating substances may
demand the use of special materials.

3. Quality Required:
This generally affects the manufacturing process and ultimately the
material. For example, it would never be desirable to go casting of a less number
of components which can be fabricated much more economically by welding or
hand forging the steel.

4. Avilability of Material:
Some materials may be scarce or in short supply.it then becomes
obligatory for the designer to use some other material which though may not be a
perfect substitute for the material designed.the delivery of materials and the
delivery date of product should also be kept in mind.

5. Space consideration:
Sometimes high strength materials have to be selected because the forces
involved are high and space limitations are there.
6. Cost:
As in any other problem, in selection of material the cost of material plays an important
34

part and should not be ignored.

Some times factors like scrap utilization,appearance,and non-maintenance
of the designed part are involved in the selection of proper materials.

S.No

DESCIRPTION

QTY

Material

fan

Ms

Dc pump

Moulded
plastic

Pipe line

plastic

COST ESTIMATION
1. MATERIAL COST.
AMOUNT
S.No

DESCRIPTION

QTY

MATERIAL
(Rs)

1.

battery

plastic

700

2.

fan

M.S

1500

3.

Dc pump

Moulded plastic

4.TOTAL COST:
Total cost = Material Cost +Labour Cost +Overhead Charges
=3700

+
35

800 + 800

1500

=5300 /Total cost for this project (Rs)=5300

CONCLUSION
This article demonstrates rather pointedly that cooling tower performance and
operation are not so straightforward as they many times are thought to be. These
mi sconceptions and inadequate knowledge of cooling tower design can cost you
mone y in all phases of dealing with cooling towers. Purchase of a new tower will
cost mor e in the long run if plant operations do not run efficiently due to an
illdesigned cooling tower. Tower operation, in terms of energy cost, will be more
expensive if utilization of fan power is misunderstood. Upgrading an existing
tower may turn out to be futile because tower performance was viewed in terms
of range. It is necessary to have a working knowledge of the performance of
cooling towers, without misconception, in order to purchase andoperate them to
the best advantage for maximum production a t minimum cost.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Strength of Materials

-R.S.Kurmi

Manufaturing Technology

-M.Haslehurst.

Design of machine elements -R.s.Kurumi

36

37