UNIT 3: SYNTAX

LESSON ONE
Words, Phrases and Clauses

What is syntax?

Syntax is the study of the structure

of sentences.
Syntax analyzes how words
combine to form sentences.
Sentences are made up of smaller
units, called phrases (which in turn
are made up of words).

Why is syntax important?

We speak in sentences not in words. To

understand the structure of a language it is
necessary to study the structure of sentences.
If we learn to analyze the structure of
sentences, we will also learn to analyze their
meaning.
The study of syntax is the study of the
function of words, which is necessary to
understand the structure and the meaning of
a language.

The basic functions

Subject: obligatory element; it specifies the entity

about which we will say something (the doer of the
action, the entity described, etc.)
Object: obligatory element, it completes the meaning
of a word or sentence.
Subject or Object Complement: obligatory element
that adds a description of the subject or the object.
These function also receive the names of Attribute and
Predicative.
Modifier: optional element; adds additional
information that specifies a noun
Adverbial: optional element; modifies a verb,
adjective or adverb

The structure of sentences

wor
d

wor
d

wor
d

wor
d

phrase

wor
d

wor
d

phrase

phrase

clause

wor
d

wor
d

phrase

What is a sentence?

A sentence is basically a string of words that

follow the grammatical rules of a language.
A sentence expresses a complete thought
A sentence is made up of phrases. At the
very least a sentence contains a verb phrase
(also known as the predicate) and a subject.
We will use the terms SENTENCE and
CLAUSE indistinctively.

Types of sentences

We can distinguish two types of sentences:

MAIN CLAUSES: they express complete

thoughts and are independent of other words or
sentences.

SUBORDINATE CLAUSES: they are dependent

on other words and help to complete or modify
the meaning of the complete sentence. They
cannot exist independently of the words they
modify or complete.

What is a phrase?

A phrase is a part of a sentence. It does not

express a complete thought.
A phrase is a group of words that function
as a single unit. Usually they can be
substituted by a pronominal form.
All phrases have one word which is the
nucleus, the head. The head of a phrase
determines the kind of phrase we have:
Noun Phrase, Adjective Phrase, Adverb
Phrase, Prepositional Phrase or Verb Phrase.

Noun phrases

A Noun Phrase (NP) is a phrase that is made up

of at least one noun (or a pronoun). The noun is
the head of the NP.
NPs usually function as:
Subjects: THE MAN spoke loudly.
Objects: I met YOUR FRIEND yesterday.
Ill see you after THE CLASS.
Subject Complements: She is A DOCTOR.
Adverbials: Anna got married LAST MONTH.

Adjective phrases

An Adjective Phrase (AP) is a phrase that

is made up of at least one adjective. The
adjective is the head of the NP.
APs usually function as:
Modifiers: I saw a SMALL child.
Subject Complements: She is not
HAPPY.
Object Complements: I consider Peter
STUPID.

Adverb phrases

An Adverb Phrase (AdvP) is a phrase

that is made up of at least one adverb.
The adverb is the head of the AdvP.
AdvPs usually function as:
Adverbials:
Andy was VERY late.
Sally works HARD.

Prepositional phrases

A Prepositional Phrase (PP) is a phrase that is

made up of at least one preposition usually
followed by a NP that functions as the object of
the preposition. The preposition is the head of
the PP.
PPs usually function as:
Adverbials: Anna got married IN JULY.
Objects: I put the book ON THE TABLE.
I bought a ring FOR MY MOTHER.

Verb phrases

A Verb Phrase (VP) is a phrase that is

made up of at least one verb.
Verb phrases often contain noun
phrases, prepositional phrases or
adverb phrases that function as objects
or adverbials of the verb. The verb is
the head of the VP.
VPs function as the head of the clause.

Kinds of Verbs

Verbs can be classified in many different

ways. We will distinguish different types of
verbs according to the following aspects:

according to the meaning and function:

lexical, linking or auxiliary
according to the number of objects it requires:
intransitive, transitive or ditransitive
according to the form: finite or non-finite

Meaning and function

Lexical verbs are main verbs that add the primary

meaning. A main clause must have one and only one lexical
verb.
I READ a novel.
Linking verbs are verbs that do not add much meaning.
They link subjects and subject complements.
Peter BECAME bored.
Auxiliary verbs are verbs that are used to help lexical or
linking verbs by adding grammatical information (aspect,
tense, modality). Auxiliary verbs do not add lexical meaning.
Auxiliary verbs need not be present in a main clause, but
sometimes there are more than one auxiliary verb in a single
clause.
Andrew MAY HAVE BEEN studying too hard.

The number of objects

Intransitive verbs do not need any objects to

complement their meaning.
Peter had to RUN.
Transitive verbs need one object to complement their
meaning. The object may be a Noun Phrase or a
Prepositional Phrase.
I read AN INTERESTING NEWPAPER ARTICLE.
Peter looks after HIS BROTHER.
Ditransitive verbs need two objects to complement their
meaning. The objects may be two Noun Phrases or a Noun
Phrase and a Prepositional Phrase
I told MY SISTER A SECRET.
Pam gave A PRESENT TO MY BROTHER.

The form (I)

All verbs have finite and non-finite forms.

Finite verbs are verbs that are inflected for tense, person
and number. In a complex verb there can only be one
finite form and it is always at the beginning of the
complex verb. A main clause must contain a finite verb.
Sean COMES from Ireland.
Laura SHOULD stay home.
Non-finite verbs are verbs that are not inflected for
tense, person and number. In a complex verb there can be
several non-finite forms. In a main clause the non-finite
forms always follow a finite verb.
John has GONE to London.
Laura should STAY home.

The form (II)

The non-finite forms of verbs are:

The bare infinitive
go, come, speak
The to-infinitive
to go, to come, to speak
The past participle
gone, come, spoken
The ing form
going, coming, speaking

Lexical Verbs

Lexical verbs can be divided into two major

groups:
Dynamic verbs are verbs that indicate actions,
activities, events that have a beginning, a
middle and an end
go, come, speak, eat, give, paint,
Stative verbs are verbs that do not indicate
actions, but states of being. They usually
indicate

Perception: see, taste, smell, hear

Cognition: understand, know, think
Possession: own, have
Mental states: hate, like, need

Dynamic vs. Stative Verbs

Dynamic verbs can appear in the

progressive. Stative verbs cannot.
I am reading a book
*I am needing a favor.

Linking verbs are always stative.

Some verbs may be used, with a
different meaning as dynamic or
stative verbs.
I can see someone right now. (stative)
I am seeing someone right now. (dynamic)