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Thermal Reovery Methods
Thermal Reovery Methods
Heat and gases from the combustion pressurize the reservoir, and decrease
viscosity both by heating and cracking. Often water is injected behind the
fire front.
Heat Transfer Mechanisms:
Before discussing heat transfer mechanisms, it is important to define
the physical significance of thermal properties, quantities and concepts to
be used.
Heat: is a form of energy (enthalpy), is the amount of thermal energy in a
given mass of the material above a prescribed reference temperature ad
pressure.
Temperature: is a manifestation of the average kinetic energy of the
molecules of a material due to thermal agitation. Temperature is not
energy; rather, it is a measure of the thermal energy content of a material.
Heat
Heat Conduction: is the process by which heat is transferred through nonflowing materials by molecular collisions from a region of high temperature
to a region of lower temperature. The physical law describing heat
conduction known as Fouriers first law.
q = -kA T / x
k = thermal conductivity of the material.
k = 0.5778 Btu / hr-ft-.oF
q/A = 0.317 Btu / hr-ft2
Density
Specific Heat
Thermal Conduc.
Thermal Diffusiv.
(lb/cu ft)
(Btu / lb,oF)
(Btu/hr-ft- oF)
(ft2 / hr)
Sandstone
130
0.183
0.507
0.0213
Silty sand
119
0.202
0.400
0.0167
Siltstone
120
0.204
0.396
0.0162
Shale
145
0.192
0.603
0.0216
Limestone
137
0.202
0.983
0.0355
Sand (fine)
102
0.362
0.632
0.0194
Sand (coarse)
109
0.322
0.322
0.0161
Sandstone
142
0.252
1.592
0.0445
Silty sand
132
0.288
1.500
0.0394
Siltstone
132
0.276
1.510
0.0414
Shale
149
0.213
0.975
0.0307
Limestone
149
0.266
2.050
0.0517
Sand (fine)
126
0.339
1.590
0.0372
Sand (coarse)
130
0.315
1.775
0.0433
h (Btu / ht-ft2-oF)
1-5
2-100
20-3000
500-5000
1000-20000
Emissivity
400 to 1100
0.11 to 0.19
400 to 1100
0.04 to 0.08
400 to 1100
0.75 to 0.95
350 to 1200
0.05 to 0.30
450 to 1600
0.50 to 0.60
Metal
q=
T1 T4
X A X B X C
+
+
k A A k B A kC A
resistance
Radial Systems:
q=
2L(T1 T4 )
ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) ln(r4 / r3 )
+
+
kA
kB
kC
Ui =
Uo =
1
1 Ai ln(ro / ri ) Ai 1
+
+
h
2
kL
Ao ho
i
1
Ao 1 Ao ln(ro / ri ) 1
+
+
2kL
ho
Ai hi
Example-1:
Calculate heat required to vaporize 1 kg of water at 20 C and atmospheric
pressure.
Solution:
In order to vaporize water, it must be heated to 100 C
Cw = 4.3245 3.69x10-3 T + 2.428x10-5 T2
at 20 C Cw 4.18 kJ/kg-K
Heat required to heat 1 kg of water from 20 C to 100 C will be:
4.18 kJ/kg-K * 1 kg * (100 20) = 334 kJ
Heat required to vaporize it:
Lv = hs - hw
hw = Cw T
hw = 4.18 * 100 = 418 kJ/kg
hs = 27772 Ps0.01267
Ps = 14.7 psia * 6894 Pa/Psia * 1/100 Mpa/Pa = 0.10133 MPa
hs = 2772 (0.10133)0.01267 = 2692 kJ/kg
Lv = hs hw = 2692 418 = 2274 kJ/kg
Total heat required;
334 + 2274 = 2608 kJ/kg
Example-2 :
How many s.m3 of 250 C hot gas will be required to heat 1 m3 of oil sand
from 20 C to 250 C. (sand = 2500 kg/m3)
Solution:
Cp = 0.8 + 1.3 x 10-3 T 9 x 10-7 T2 ;kJ/kg-K
Cp = 0.8 + 1.3 x 10-3 (273 + 20) 9 x 10-7 (273 + 20)2
= 1.11 kJ/kg-K
M = Cp = Volumetric heat capacity = 2500 * 1.11 = 2780 kJ/m3 - K
Assume that, no heat loss to the surroundings, so all the heat will be
utilized to increase temperature of the porous sand;
Heat required to increase the sand temperature from 20 to 250 C;
= 2780 kJ/m3-K * (250 20) K * 1 m3 = 63.9 x 10
kJ
m3 of sand is required.
Example-3:
Calculate heat content of 1 m3 of 25 % porosity rock filled with 150 F hot
water for rock. (sand 2500 kg/m3)
Solution:
Cp = 1.11 kJ/kg-K ,
hgw = hf + fs hfg
Oil field steam generators produce wet steam usually of 80 to 85 % quality.
This means 80 to 85 % of the water mass is vaporized and 10 to 15 % is still
in the liquid phase. The decrease in the latent heat content of steam
becomes larger than the increase of the sensible heat with pressure.
Steam Injection:
Solution:
From Steam Tables;
P = 1560 psia
hf = 619.1 BTU/lbm
h gw h feedw = ( h f + f s h fg ) h feedw
Therefore, the steam generator heat loss is
Qg = Q (h f + f s h fg ) h feedw
Example-5:
A steam generator produces steam of 85 % quality at 1000 psia saturation
pressure, consuming 911 lbm/hr fuel oil with 19800 BTU/lbm heat of
combustion. The feed water rate is 150 m3/day at 60F. Find the heat loss
and the efficiency of the generator.
Solution:
From Steam Table;
At 1000 psia
hf = 542.4
BTU/lbm
Q g = Q (h f + f s h fg ) h feedw
To calculate the combined heat loss rate by radiation and convection, for an
insulated pipe, it is necessary to calculate the overall heat transfer
coefficient,
Uo =
1
d ln(d e / d o )
1
+ e
hc + hr
2k ins
where;
BTU/hr-ft2-F
Qs = A Uo (Ts Ta)
In order to calculate hc and hr, Tsurf is needed,
Tsurf = Ts
Qs
U*A
U* = (2 kins)/(de ln (de/do))
where
(T )
surf
calc
(Tsurf
ass
0.1
( f st )wellhead = ( f st )generatoroutlet
Qs L
mLv
2riUk e
az 2
Qw ( BTU / day ) =
(To b )z
k e + riUf (t D )
2
tD =
et
rw2
tD =
et
re2
f (t D )
1
ln(t D ) + 0.403
2
For values, tD 100, look at Table 3.1 (from Willhites book, p.73)
For different casing sizes and injection times, and assuming that e = 0.96
ft2/day, the dimensionless transient heat conduction time function f(tD)
values are given in the following table.
CASING
SIZE (in)
100
25
50
75
4 1/2
2.96
3.81
4.08
4.37
4.48
5 1/2
2.89
3.56
3.99
4.08
4.27
2.64
3.32
3.64
3.90
3.98
8 5/8
2.46
3.10
3.42
3.64
3.81
Example-6:
Calculate the percentage of heat loss in a well-insulated well bore when the
wet steam produced by a generator reaches the wellhead and is injected
through 2 in tubing to a 2000 ft depth. The injection time is 100 days.
Geothermal gradient, a = 0.02 F/ft
Geothermal surface temperature = 70 F
Tubing size = 2 in.
ri = 1 in/12 in/ft
Psaturation = 1000 psia
Casing size = 7 in.
ke = 33.6 BTU/day-F-ft
e = 0.96 ft2/day
Solution:
Ts= 544.61 F when Ps = 1000 psia
f(tD) = 3.98 at t = 100 days and 7 casing.
1.0in
BTU
BTU
* 30(
) * 33.6(
)
2
12in / ft
day ft F
day ft F
Qw =
*A
BTU
1. 0
BTU
33.6(
)+
ft * 30(
) * (3.98)
12
day ft F
day ft 2 F
2
0.02
A = (544.61 70 )F * 2000 ft
F / ft * (2000) 2 ft 2
2
Qw =
or
527.78
(94920 40000) = 11.02 x10 6 BTU / day
43.550
= 459116 BTU/hr
Z 1 aZ aZ 2
Rh
2 Rh
f s ( Z ) = f s (0) * 1
+
Qv
Qv
where
Q v = Wi Lv f s ( 0 ) ,
BTU/day
Wi Rh g
Z 1 = Tinj b
/ a
g
J
c
, ft
g
1
=
g c J 778
b = surface temperature,
Qw
1
(Tinj Ta )
=
L
Rh
Qw = well bore heat loss, BTU/day
Ta = mean surface temperature, F
Rh = (BTU/ft-day-F)-1
The depth at which all the injected steam has condensed (hot water point)
is found by setting fs(z) = 0.
Z cond
2
Q
v Rh
= Z1 1 1
aZ12
For depths greater than (Zcond), where only hot water flows,
In many cases
2 Q v Rh aZ 12
Whenever this is the case, the hot water point may be approximated by
R W g
Z cond = [Wi Lv f s (0) Rh ] / Tinj Te (0) h i
gc J
Rh =
1
2
1
ln(ro / ri ) ln(rins / ro )
ln(rco / rci ) ln(rw / rco ) ln(rea / rw ) f (t D )
1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
kp
k ins
hrcan rins
kp
k cem
k ea
k e
h f ri
1
Q ls =
(Tb Ta )
Rh
Heat Amount to the Formation:
The heat losses in a steam injection system begin at the steam
generator and continue to the surface injection lines, to the well bore, and
to the adjacent strata. The remaining heat is given up to the formation
itself, and some of it is transported with the fluids produced.
The beneficial effect of steam injection on oil displacement and
recovery depends on the amount of heat transferred to the formation
itself and on the porous volume swept by the hot fluids. To evaluate this
effect the amount of heat loss to adjacent strata must be known.
The amount of heat lost to adjacent strata varies directly with time
of injection and inversely with formation thickness. So the heat lost can be
a high percentage of the cumulative heat injected in a steam drive process
life time. To reduce the amount of heat lost to adjacent strata, a process
of heat scavenging is accomplished by displacing the hot fluids slug with
cold water injection.
Gates and Ramey (1964) expressed the cumulative heat loss resulting
from injection of hot fluid from time zero to time to, followed by injection
of cold fluid from time to time t as;
(Wo )t
t
to
t to
W
o t t Wo
( )
t t o
( )
Solution:
t = 400 + 500 = 900 days to = 400 days
At time t,
log t = log
log
4t
( h) 2
(4)(0.96)(900)
= 0.15
(70) 2
At time t to = 500
log
(4)(0.96)(500)
= 0 .4
(70) 2
From Figure
(Wo*)t-to = 0.22
(Wo ) t =
900
900 400
0.30
0.22 = 0.40
400
900
rh =
Qf
M s (Ts T )h
ft
where;
Qf = net amount of heat available to formation, BTU
Steam quality = 72 %
hgw = h f + f s * h fg
(saturated liquid)
(vaporization)
qs =
rh =
H ( S o S or ) x 2
Vo (bbl / day ) = 4.273 o
e erfcx
M
T
s
where;
Ho = heat injection rate, BTU/hr
= effective porosity
T = Ts Tr , F
The error function is the group of terms in the parentheses on the RHS
2k c
X =
M h
c
s
0.5
t
,
dimensionless
where;
kc = thermal conductivity of the cap rock, BTU/ft-hr-F
c = thermal diffusivity of the cap rock, ft2/hr
t = injection time, hr
h = formation thickness, ft
The thermal diffusivity of the cap rock (overburden) is
c =
kc
c Cc
H M h
A(t ) = o 2 s c
4k c T
x 2
2x
e erfcx +
1 ,
ft2
A(t ) * h
* 7758 ( S o S or ) ,
43560
bbl
The heated area will expand continuously with time, and assuming an
isotropic and homogeneous formation, the expansion will be radial. When
the so-called critical time is reached, steam drive projects are evaluated
using more complex models (Myhill and Stegemeiers model, JPT, 1978).
Example-9
An isotropic and homogeneous oil reservoir is subjected to a steam drive
process in which 1200 bbl/day wet steam of 80 % quality is injected at 660
psia into 65 ft of productive formation. Calculate the oil displaced by steam
drive and the cumulative heated area if the injection period is 5 years and
the reservoir rock characteristics are as follows;
c = 0.70 ft2/day
= 26 %
So = 0.60
Solution:
Heat injection rate, Ho is
H o = Cq s (h f + f s h fg hw ) ,
where;
BTU/hr
350lbm / bbl
lbm * day
= 14.583
24hr / day
bbl * hr
fs = 0.80
hf = 478 BTU/lbm
hw = 99.9 BTU/lbm
H o = 14.583
lbm * day
bbl
BTU / lbm
* 1200
* 960.54
= 16.808MMBTU / hr
bbl * hr
day
H (S o S or ) x 2
Vo = 4.273 o
e erfcx
M
T
s
)
)(
BTU
day * ft 3 32 3 o *(496.58 130 )o F
ft F
= 698.6 e x erfcx
where
2k 0.5
0.5
2 * 0.95
t =
x=
t
M h
35
*
65
0
.
70
/
24
x = 0.0053 t
Steps
hours
Time
Time
(days)
(hrs)
e x erfcx
24
0.0259
0.9715
678.6
678.6
679
50
1200
0.1836
0.8224
574.4
30698
31377
100
2400
0.2596
0.7632
533.1
27686
59064
200
4800
0.3672
0.6907
482.4
50775
109839
600
14400
0.6360
0.5521
385.6
173600
283439
1000
24000
0.8211
0.4819
336.6
144440
427879
10
1400
33600
0.9715
0.4338
303.0
127920
555799
12
1825
43900
1.1092
0.3995
279.0
123675
679474
RATEi + RATEi +1
Oil displaced bbl/step =
* t
2
679.6 + 574.4
* 49 = 30698 bbl
2
2x
H M h 2
A(t ) = o 2 s e x erfcx +
1 , ft2
4k T
0.70 2
ft / hr
x2
2x
24
e erfcx +
1
o
o
2
4 * (0.95) BTU / ft hr F * (496.58 130) F
e x erfcx +
2x
1 = 0.6514
x = 0.0053 t ,
(from table)
x = 1.1092
A(t) = 770531 ft2 * 0.65114 = 501 723 ft2
The cumulative oil displaced;
A(t ) * h
* 7758 * * ( S o S or ) ,
43560
bbl
501723 ft 2 * 65 ft
=
* 7758bbl / acre(0.26)(0.60 0.12)
43560 ft 3 / acre
= 724860 bbl
The cumulative oil displaced corresponds to the entire thickness of the
formation. In reality, as we saw less oil is displaced since the steam
segregates gravitationally and overrides. However, oil displaced does not
mean oil produced. Areas of reservoir rock between producers or the lower
half of the formation thickness can receive some of the displaced oil.
Oil-Steam Ratio
This is the ratio of oil production to the cumulative steam injected,
expressed as barrels of condensate.
Cyclic Steam Injection
Cyclic steam injection is a method of simulating well production to obtain
higher oil rates from the first 3 to 4 steam cycles.
A very simple solution for estimating the reservoir response to cyclic steam
injection, taking into consideration only its effect on viscosity, was given by
Smith (1985).
The effect of the heated zone on well productivity can be understood by
picturing a system of two concentric hollow cyclinders of radii (r) and (re)
with a pressure drop given by
Pe Pw = (Pe P ) + (P Pw )
where;
Pe Pw = pressure drop before the first steam injection cycle
(Pe P) + (P Pw) = pressure drop after the steam cycle injection
Using Darcys Law ;
ocold ln(re / rw )
qohot
=
q ocold ohot ln(rh / rw ) + ocold ln(re / rh )
where
rh =
Qf
M s (Ts T )h
, ft
Example-10:
Calculate the productivity increase of a well that produces oil from Kern
River reservoir with 1100 cp initial viscosity, assuming after the first cycle
of steam injection that;
rh, heated radius = 47 ft
Tr = 100 F
Th = 300 F
rw = 3.5 / 12 ft
o = 10 cp
q ohot
1100 ln(700 / 0.29)
=
= 2.83 times
cold
10 ln(47 / 0.29) + 1100 ln(700 / 47)
qo
and is due only to the decrease of the oil viscosity. The productivity of the
well is also improved by the steams well bore cleanup effect, which
increases the rock permeability around the well bore.
Ts = 115.1 * Ps0.225
Ps = psia
h f = 91 * Ps0.2574
Ps = psia
h fg = e
1.41641+1.8406*ln Ps 0.160416*(ln Ps ) 2
Ps = Psia
hw = 0.999(T 32)
T = F