Formula Booklet Physics XI For Iit Jee PDF

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Formula Booklet Physics XI
Dear students
Most students tend to take it easy after the board examinations of Class X. The summer
vacations immediately after Class X are a great opportunity for the students to race ahead of
other students in the competitive world of IITJEE, where less than 2% students get selected
every year for the prestigious institutes.
Some students get governed completely by the emphasis laid by the teachers of the school in
which they are studying. Since, the objective of the teachers in the schools rarely is to equip the
student with the techniques reqired to crack IITJEE, most of the students tend to take it easy in
Class XI. Class XI does not even have the pressure of board examinations.
So, while the teachers and the school environment is often not oriented towards the serious
preparation of IITJEE, the curriculum of Class XI is extremely important to achieve success in
IITJEE or any other competitive examination like AIEEE.
The successful students identify these points early in their Class XI and race ahead of rest of
the competition. We suggest that you start as soon as possible.
In this booklet we have made a sincere attempt to bring your focus to Class XI and keep your
velocity of preparations to the maximum. The formulae will help you revise your chapters in a
very quick time and the motivational quotes will help you move in the right direction.
Hope youll benefit from this book and all the best for your examinations.
Praveen Tyagi
Gaurav Mittal
Prasoon Kumar
QUEST - Power Coaching for IITJEE

1, Vigyan Vihar, Near Anand Vihar, Delhi 92. Ph: 55270275, 55278916
E-16/289, Sector 8, Rohini, Delhi 85, Ph: 55395439, 30911585
CONTENTS
Description
Page Number
1.
Units, Dimensions & Measurements
03
2.
Motion in one Dimension & Newtons Laws of Motion
04
3.
Vectors
06
4.
Circular Motion, Relative Motion, and Projectile Motion
07
5.
Friction & Dynamics of Rigid Body
09
6.
Conservation Laws & Collisions
12
7.
Simple Harmonic Motion & Lissajous Figures
14
8.
Gravitation
18
9.
Properties of Matter
20
10. Heat & Thermodynamics
25
11. Waves
30
12. Study Tips
35

UNITS, DIMENSIONS AND MEASUREMENTS

(i)
SI Units:
(a)
Time-second(s);
(b)
Length-metre (m);
(c)
Mass-kilogram (kg);
(d)
Amount of substancemole (mol); (e) Temperature-Kelvin (K);
(f)
Electric Current ampere (A);
(g)
Luminous Intensity Candela (Cd)
(ii)
Uses of dimensional analysis

(a)
To check the accuracy of a given relation
(b)
To derive a relative between different physical quantities
(c)
To convert a physical quantity from one system to another system
a
n1u 2 = n 2 u 2
or
M
L
T
n 2 = n1 1 x 1 x 1
M2
L2
T2
X1 X 2 + ... + X N
N
(iii)
Mean or average value: X =
(iv)
Absolute error in each measurement: |Xi| = | X Xi|
(v)
Mean absolute error: Xm=
(vi)
(vii)
| Xi |
N
X
X
X
x 100
Percentage error =
X
Fractional error =
(viii) Combination of error: If =
Xa Y b
Zc
, then maximum fractional error in is:
X
Y
=| a |
+| b|
+|c|
X
Y

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION & NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

(i)
Displacement: | displacement | distance covered
(ii)
Average speed: v =
(iii)
(iv)
s1 + s 2
s +s
= 1 2
s
s
t1 + t 2
1
+ 2
v1 v 2
(a)
If s1 = s2 = d, then v =
(b)
If t1 = t2, then v =
2 v1 v 2
= Harmonic mean
v1 + v 2
v1 + v 2
=arithmetic mean
2
Average velocity: (a) v av =
r2 r1
; (b) | v av | v
t 2 t1
dr
Instantaneous velocity: v =
and | v | = v = instantaneous speed
dt
v v
= 2 1
t 2 t1
(v)
Average acceleration: a av
(vi)
Instantaneous acceleration: a = d v / dt
dv
v
dx
In one dimension, a = (dv/dt) =

(vii)
Equations of motion in one dimension:

(a)
v = u + at;
1 2
at ;
2
(b)
x = ut +
(c)
v2 u2 + 2ax;
(d)
x = vt
(e)
1 2
at ;
2
v+u
x=
t;
2
1 2
at ;
2
(f)
s = x x 0 = ut +
(g)
2
2
v = u + 2a (xx0)
a
(2n1)
2
(viii) Distance travelled in nth second: dn = u +

(ix)
Motion of a ball: (a) when thrown up: h = (u2/2g) and t = (u/g)

(b) when dropped: v = (2gh)
and t = (2h/g)
(x)
Resultant force: F = (F12 + F22 + 2F1F2 cos )
(xi)
Condition for equilibrium: (a) F3 = (F1 + F2 ) ; (b) F1 + F2 F3 |F1 F2|
(xii)
Lamis Theorem:
P
Q
R
=
=
sin ( ) sin ( ) sin ( )
(xiii) Newtons second law: F = m a ; F = d p / dt
(xiv) Impulse: p = F t and p 2 p1 =12

(xv)
Fdt
Newtons third law:


(1)
(a)
F12 = F12
(b)
m
F = F21
M+m
F
Acceleration: a =
M+m
(c)
(2)
Contact force: F12 =
F21
Fig. 1
(xvi) Inertial mass: mI = F/a

(xvii) Gravitational mass: mG =
F12
F FR 2
=
; m I = mG
g GM
(xviii) Non inertial frame: If a 0 be the acceleration of frame, then pseudo force F = m a 0
Example: Centrifugal force =
mv 2
= m 2 r
r
(xix) Lift problems: Apparent weight = M(g a0)

(+ sign is used when lift is moving up while sign when lift is moving down)
m1
(xx)
Pulley Problems:
(a)
For figure (2):
Tension in the string, T =
m1m 2
g
m1 + m 2
Acceleration of the system, a =

The force on the pulley, F =
(b)
m2
g
m1 + m 2
Frictionless
surface
T
m2
Fig. 2
m 2g
2 m1m 2
g
m1 + m 2
For figure (3):

Tension in the string, T =
2m1m 2
g
m1 + m 2
Acceleration of the system, a =
The force on the pulley, F =
m 2 m1
g
m 2 + m1
T
T
4m1m 2
g
m1 + m 2
T
T
a
m1
Fig. 3
m2

VECTORS
(i)
Vector addition: R = A + B = B + A and A B = A + ( B )
(ii)
Unit vector: A = ( A/ A)
(iii)
Magnitude: A = (A 2x + A 2y + A 2z )
(iv)
Direction cosines: cos = (Ax/A), cos = (Ay/A), cos = (Az/A)
(v)
Projection:
(b)
Component
of B along A = A . B
1
(c)
If A = A x i + A y j, then its angle with the xaxis is = tan (Ay/Ax)
Dot product:
A . B = AB cos ,
(a)
(vii)
Component of A along B = A . B
(vi)
(a)
(b)
A . B = A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz
Cross product:
(a)
A x B = AB
(b)
sin n ;
A x A = 0;
Ax B=
(c)
i
Ax
j
Ay
k
Az
Bx
By
Bz
(viii) Examples:

(a)
W= F. r;
(e) v = w x r ;
(b) P = F . v ;
(f) = x F ;
(c) = E . A;
Area of a parallelogram: Area = | A x B |
(x)
Area of a triangle: Area =
(xii)
(g) F m = q v x B
(ix)
(xi)
(d) = B . A;
1
|Ax B |
2
^
^
^
Gradient operator: V = i
+j
+k
x
y
z
Volume of a parallelopiped: V = A . B x C

CIRCULAR MOTION, RELATIVE MOTION & PROJECTILE MOTION

(i)
Uniform Circular Motion:

(a)
v = r;
2
2
(b)
a = (v /r) = r ;
2
(c)
F = (mv /r);
(d)
(e)
r . v = 0;
v.a =0
(ii)
2
Cyclist taking a turn: tan = (v /rg)
(iii)
Car taking a turn on level road: v = (srg)
(iv)
2
Banking of Roads: tan = v /rg
(v)
Air plane taking a turn: tan = v /r g
(vi)
Overloaded truck:
(a)
Rinner wheel < Router wheel
(b)
maximum safe velocity on turn, v = (gdr/2h)
(vii)
Nonuniform Circular Motion:

(a)
Centripetal acceleration ar = (v2/r);
(b)
Tangential acceleration at = (dv/dt);
(c)
Resultant acceleration a= (a 2r + a 2t )
(viii) Motion in a vertical Circle:

(a)
For lowest point A and highest point B, TA TB = 6 mg; v2A = v2B + 4gl ; vA (5gl); and vB
(gl)
(b)
Condition for Oscillation: vA < (2gl)
(c)
Condition for leaving Circular path: (2gl) < vA < (5gl)
(ix)
Relative velocity: v BA = v B v A
(x)
Condition for Collision of ships: ( r A v B ) x ( v A v B ) = 0
(xi)
Crossing a River:
(a)
Beat Keeps its direction perpendicular to water current
(1)
vR =( ( v 2w + v 2b ) ; (2) = tan1 ( v w / v b );
(3)
t=(x/vb) (it is minimum) (4) Drift on opposite bank = (v w/vb)x
(b)
Boat to reach directly opposite to starting point:
(1) sin = (vw/vb); (2) vresultant = vb cos ; (3) t=

(xii)
x
v b cos
Projectile thrown from the ground:

g x2
(a)
equation of trajectory: y = x tan
(b)
time of flight: T =
(c)
(d)
Horizontal range, R = (u2 sin 2/g)

2
2
Maximum height attained, H = (u sin /2g)
2 u sin
g
2u 2 cos 2

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Range is maximum when = 450

0
Ranges are same for projection angles and (90 )
Velocity at the top most point is = u cos
2
tan = gT /2R
2
(H/T ) = (g/8)
(xiii) Projectile thrown from a height h in horizontal direction:

(a)
T = (2h/g);
(b)
R = v(2h/g);
2
2
(c)
y = h (gx /2u )
(d)
2
Magnitude of velocity at the ground = (u + 2gh)
(e)
Angle at which projectiles strikes the ground, = tan
2gh
u
(xiv) Projectile on an inclined plane:
2u sin ( 0 )
g cos 0
(a)
Time of flight, T =
(b)
Horizontal range, R =
2 u 2 sin ( 0 ) cos
g cos 2 0

FRICTION
(i)
Force of friction:
(a)
s sN (self adjusting); (s)max = sN
(b)
k = kN (k = coefficient of kinetic friction)
(c)
k < s
(ii)
Acceleration on a horizontal plane: a = (F kN)/M
(iii)
2
Acceleration of a body sliding on an inclined plane: a = g sin (1 k cot t )
(iv)
Force required to balance an object against wall: F = (Mg/s)
(v)
Angle of friction: tan = s (s = coefficient of static friction)

DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES
2 1
=
t 2 t1
t
(i)
Average angular velocity: =
(ii)
Instantaneous angular velocity: = (d/dt)
(iii)
Relation between v, and r : v=r; In vector form v = x r ; In general form, v = r sin
(iv)
Average angular acceleration: =
(v)
2
2
Instantaneous angular acceleration: = (d/dt) = (d /dt )
(vi)
Relation between linear and angular acceleration:

(a)
aT = r and aR = (v2/r) = 2R
(b)
Resultant acceleration, a = (a 2T + a 2R )
(c)
In vector form,
2 1
=
t 2 t1
t

a = a T + a R , where a T = x r and a R = x u = x x r
(vii)
Equations for rotational motion:

(a)
= 0 + t;
1
(b)
= 0t + t2;
2
(c)
2 02 = 2
(viii) Centre of mass: For two particle system:

(a)
x CM =
m 1x 1 + m 2 x 2
;
m1 + m 2
(b)
v CM =
m1 v1 + m 2 v 2
m1 + m 2
(c)
a CM =
m 1a 1 + m 2 a 2
m1 + m 2
Also v CM =
(ix)
dx CM
dv
d 2 x CM
and a CM = CM =
dt
dt
dt 2
Centre of mass: For many particle system:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
X CM =
mi x i
;
M
m i r i
;
M
d r CM
;
dt
d v CM
;
dt
r CM =
v CM =
a CM =
P CM = M v CM = m i v i ;
F ext = M a CM = m i a i = Fi . If F ext = 0, a CM = 0, V CM = constant ;
Also, moment of masses about CM is zero, i.e., m i r i = 0 or m1r1 = m 2 r2

2
(x)
Moment of Inertia:
(a) I = mi ri
2
(b) I = r , where = m1m2/(m1 + m2)
(xi)
2
2
2
Radius of gyration: (a) K = (I/M) ; (b) K = [(r1 + r2 + + rn )/n] = root mean square distance.
(xii)
Kinetic energy of rotation: K =
1
I2
2
or I = (2K/2)
(xiii) Angular momentum: (a ) L = r x p ; (b) L = rp sin ; (c ) m v d
(xiv) Torque: (a ) = r x F ; (b ) = r F sin

(xv)
Relation between and L: = dL/ dt ;
(xvi) Relation between L and I: (a) L = I; (b) K =
1 2
I = L2/2I
2
(xvii) Relation between and :

(a)
= I,
(b)
If = 0, then (dL/dt)=0 or L=constant or, I=constant i.e., I11= I22
(Laws of conservation of angular momentum)
(xviii) Angular impulse: L = t

=
(xix) Rotational work done: W
(xx)
d = av
Rotational Power: P = .
(xxi) (a)
(b)
Perpendicular axes theorem: Iz = Ix + Iy

2
Parallel axes theorem: I = Ic + Md
(xxii) Moment of Inertia of some objects

(a)
Ring:
I = MR2 (axis); I =
2
1
MR2 (Diameter);
2
I = 2 MR (tangential to rim, perpendicular to plane);

2
I = (3/2) MR (tangential to rim and parallel to diameter)

10
(b)
(c)
1
1
MR2 (axis); I = MR2 (diameter)
2
4
1
Cylinder: I = MR 2 (axis )
2
Disc: I =
(d)
(e)
(f)
Thin rod: I = (ML /12) (about centre); I = (ML /3) (about one end)
Hollow sphere : Idia = (2/3) MR2; Itangential = (5/3) MR2
Solid sphere: Idia = (2/5) MR2 ; Itangential = (7/5) MR2
(g)
Rectangular: I C =
(h)
Cube: I = (1/6) Ma
(i)
Annular disc: I = (1/2) M ( R12 + R 22 )
(j)
(k)
(l)
Right circular cone: I = (3/10) MR2

Triangular lamina: I = (1/6) Mh2 (about base axis)
Elliptical lamina: I = (1/4) Ma2 (about minor axis) and I = (1/4) Mb2 (about major axis)
M l2 + b2
(centre)
12
2
(xxiii) Rolling without slipping on a horizontal surface:

K=
K2
1
1
1
MV 2 + I 2 = MV 2 1 +
2
2
2
2
R
( Q V = R and I = MK2)
For inclined plane

(a)
Velocity at the bottom, v =
(b)
Acceleration, a = g sin
(c)
Time taken to reach the bottom, t =
2gh
K2
1 +
K2
1 +
r 2
K2
2s 1 + 2
g sin
(xxiv) Simple pendulum: = T = 2 (L/g)

2
2
(xxv) Compound Pendulum: T = 2 (I/Mg l), where l = M (K + l )
Minimum time period, T0 = 2 (2K/g)
(xxvi) Time period for disc: T = 2 (3R/2g)

Minimum time period for disc, T = 2 (1.414R/g)
(xxvii) Time period for a rod of length L pivoted at one end: T = 2(2L/3g
The heights by great men reached and kept

were not attained by sudden flight,
but they, while their companions slept
were toiling upwards in the night.

11
CONSERVATION LAWS AND COLLISIONS

(i)
Work done: (a) W = F . d ; (b) W = Fd cos ; (c) W =xx2

1
(ii)
Conservation forces: a(ba )
F . d r ab(b)
Path 1
F . d r ;(c)
F .d r = 0
closed
path
Path 2
For conservative forces, one must have: V x F = 0

Potential energy: (a) VU = W; (b) F = (dU/dX ) ;
(iv)
Gravitational potential energy: (a) U = mgh ; (b) U =
(v)
Spring potential energy: (a ) 2U =
(vi)
Kinetic energy: (a) K = W

2 =
(vii)
Total mechanical energy: = E = K + U
Kx 2 ; (b ) 2U =
1
2
mv
2f
(viii) Conservation of energy: K = U
mv i2 ;
(c)
(iii)
F = VU
GMm
(R + h )
K x 2 2 x1 2
(b ) 12 K =
mv 2
or, K + U = Ki + Ui
In an isolated system, Etotal = constant
(ix)
Power: (a) P = (dw/dt) ; (b) P = (dw/dt) ; (c) P = F . v
(x)
Tractive force: F = (P/v)
(xi)
Equilibrium Conditions:
(a)
For equilibrium, (dU/dx) = 0
(b)
For stable equilibrium: U(x) = minimum, (dU/dx) = 0 and (d2U/dx2) is positive
2
2
(c)
For unstable equilibrium: U(x) = maximum, (dU/dx) = 0 and (d U/dx ) is negative
2
2
(d)
For neutral equilibrium: U(x) = constant, (dU/dx) = 0 and (d U/dx ) is zero
(xii)
Velocity of a particle in terms of U(x): v =
2
[E U(x )]
m
(xiii) Momentum:
(a)
(b)
p = m v;

F = d p / dt ,
(b)
Conservation of momentum: If F net = 0, then p f = p i ,
(c)
Recoil speed of gun, v G =
mB
x vB
mG
(xiv) Impulse: p = F av t
(xv)
Collision in one dimension:

(a)
Momentum conservation : m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
(b)
For elastic collision,1 e = 1 =1 coefficient
of restitution
1 2
1
2
2
2
2 1v 1 + m 2v 2
2
(c)
Energy conservation:
m1u21 + m22u2 = m
(d)
st
nd
Velocities of 1 and 2 body after collision are:

12
m m2
v1 = 1
m1 + m 2
(e)
(f)
(g)
2 m1
2m 2
u1 +
m + m u 2 ; v2 = m + m
1
2
1
2
m m1
u1 + 2
m + m u2
1
2
If m1 = m2 = m, then v1 = u2 and v2 = u1
Coefficient of restitution, e = (v2v1/u1 = u2)
e = 1 for perfectly elastic collision and e=0 for perfectly inelastic collision. For inelastic
collision 0 < e < 1
(xvi) Inelastic collision of a ball dropped from height h0

2n
(a)
Height attained after nth impact, hn = e h0
2
2
(b)
Total distance traveled when the ball finally comes to rest, s = h0 (1+e )/(1e )
(c)
Total time taken, t =
2h 0 1 + e
g 1 e
(xvii) Loss of KE in elastic collision: For the first incident particle

m m2
= 1
K i m1 + m 2
and
K lost
K lost
4m1m 2
=
= 100%
; If m1 = m 2 ,
Ki
Ki
(m1 + m 2 )2
(xviii) Loss of KE in inelastic collision: Klost = Ki K=
1 m1 m 2
(u1 u2)2 (1e2)
2 m1 + m 2
Velocity after inelastic collision (with target at rest)

m em 2
v1 = 1
m1 + m 2
m (1 + e )
u 1 and v 2 = 1
u1
m1 + m 2
(xix) Oblique Collision (target at rest):

m1u1 = m1v1 cos 1 + m2v2 cos 2 and m1v1 sin 1 = m2v 2 sin 2
Solving, we get: m1u12 = m1v12 + m2v22
(xx)
dV
dM
= v el
dt
dt
M0 mb
[M0 = original mass of rocket plus fuel and mb = mass of fuel burnt]
V = vrel loge
M0
Rocket equation: (a) M

(b)
(c)
If we write M = M0 mb = mass of the rocket and full at any time, than velocity of rocks at
that time is:
V = vrel loge (M0/M)
(xxi) Conservation of angular momentum:

(a)
If ext = 0, then L = Li
v max rmax
=
v min
rmin
(b)
For planets,
(c)
I
Spinning skater, I11 = I2W 2 or = i i


13
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION AND LISSAJOUS FIGURES

(i)
Simple Harmonic Motion:

(a)
F = Kx ;
K
x or a = 2x, where = (K/m);
m
(b)
a=
(c)
Fmax = KA and amax = 2A

d2x
+ 2 x = 0
(ii)
Equation of motion:
(iii)
Displacement: x = A sin (t + )
(a)
If = 0, x = A sin t ;
(b)
If = /2, x = A cos t
2
2
1
(c)
If x = C sin t + D cos t, then x = A sin (t + ) with A= (C +D ) and = tan (D/C)
(iv)
Velocity:
(a)
v = A cos (+ );
(b)
If =0, v = A cos t;
(c)
vmax =A
2
2
(d)
v = (A x );
(e)
x2
A
v2
2 A 2
dt 2
=1
(v)
Acceleration:
(a)
a = 2 x = 2A sin (t+) ;
2
(b)
If =0, a= A sin t
2
(c)
|amax| = A;
2
(d)
Fmax = m A
(vi)
Frequency and Time period:

(a)
= (K/m) ;
(vii)
1
2
(K / m );
(b)
(c)
T = 2
m
K
Energy in 1SHM: Potential Energy:

(a)
U = 2 Kx2 ;
dU
;
dx
(b)
F=
(c)
Umax = 2 m A ;
(d)
U =2 m A sin t
(viii) Energy in SHM: Kinetic energy:

1
(a)
K = 2 mv2;
(b)
K= 2 m2 (A2x2);
(c)
2 2
2
K =2 m A cos t ;
(d)
Kmax =2 m2A2

14
(ix)
Total energy:
(a)
E = K + U = conserved;
2 2
(b)
E = (1/2) m A ;
(c)
E = Kmax = Umax
(x)
Average PE and KE:

(a)
< U > = (1/4) m2A2 ;
2 2
(b)
< K > = (1/4) m A ;
(c)
(E/2) = < U > = < K >
(xi)
Some relations:
(a)
v12 v 22
x 22 x 12
(b) T = 2
x 22 x 12
v12 v 22
; (c) A =
(v1x 2 )2 (v 2 x1 )2
v12 v 22
(xii) Spring mass system:

(a)
mg = Kx0;
(b)
x0
m
= 2
K
g
T = 2
m + (m s / 3)
K
(xiii) Massive spring: T = 2

(xiv) Cutting a spring:
(a)
K = nK ;
(b)
T = T0/(n) ;
(c)
= (n) 0
(d)
n +1
K, K2 =
n
If spring is cut into two pieces of lengths l1 and l2 such that l1 = nl2, then K1 =
(n +1) K and K1l1 = K2l2
(xv)
Springs in parallel:
(a)
K = K1 + K2 ;
(b)
T = 2 [m/(K1 + K2)]
(c)
If T1 = 2 (m/K1) and T2 = 2(m/K2), then for the parallel combination:
1
T2
1
T12
or T =
T22
T1T2
T12
+ T22
and 2 = 12 + 22
(xvi) Springs in series:

(a)
K1x1 = K2x2 = Kx = F applied
(b)
(c)
(d)
1
1
1
=
+
K K1 K 2
1
12
T = 2
K=
or
22
K 1K 2
K1 + K 2
or T 2 T12 + T22
m(K1 + K 2 )
K 1K 2
or
1
2
K 1K 2
m (K 1 + K 2 )
(xvii) Torsional pendulum:

(a)
I=C
or
(b)
(c)
=0 sin (t+);
= (C/I) ;
d 2
dt
C
=0;
I

15
1
2
C
;
I
(d)
(e)
4
T = 2(I/C), where C = r /2l
(xviii) Simple pendulum:

(a)
I = = mgl sin or
(b)
= (g/l) ;
(c)
(d)
T = 2 (l/g)
1
2
d 2
d 2 g
g
+ sin = 0 or
+ =0;
dt
l
dt 2 l
2
(g/l ) ;
(xix) Second pendulum:

(a)
T = 2 sec ;
(b)
l = 99.3 cm
(xx)
Infinite length pendulum:

(a)
T = 2
(b)
T=2
1
;
1
1
g +
l Re
Re
(when l)
g
A 2
(xxi) Anharmonic pendulum: T T0 1 + 0 T0 1 +
2
16
16 l
(xxii) Tension in string of a simple pendulum: T = (3 mg cos 2 mg cos 0)

(xxiii) Conical Pendulum:
(a)
v = (gR tan ) ;
(b)
T = 2 (L cos /g)
(xxiv) Compound pendulum: T = 2
(a)
(b)
(l + K / l)
2
For a bar: T = 2(2L/3g) ;

For a disc : T = 2 (3R/2g)
(xxv) Floating cylinder:

(a)
K = Ag ;
(b)
T = 2(m/Ag) = 2(Ld/g)
(xxvi) Liquid in Utube:
(a)
K = 2A g and m = AL ;
(b)
T = 2(L/2g) = 2(h/g)
(xxvii) Ball in bowl: T = 2[(R r)/g]
(xxviii) Piston in a gas cylinder:
A2E
;
V
(a)
K=
(b)
T = 2
mV
A2E

16
(c)
T = 2
(d)
T = 2
Vm
(EP for Isothermal process);
A 2P
Vm
(E = P for adiabatic process)
2 P
(xxix) Elastic wire:

AY
;
l
(a)
K=
(b)
T = 2
lm
AY
(xxx) Tunnel across earth: T = 2(Re/g)

(xxxi) Magnetic dipole in magnetic field: T = 2(I/MB)
(xxxii) Electrical LC circuit: T = 2 LC or
(xxxiii) Lissajous figures
Case (a): 1 = 2 =
1
2 LC
or 1 : 2 = 1 : 1
x2
General equation:
y2
b2
2 xy
cos = sin 2
ab
For = 0 : y = (b/a) x ; straight line with positive slope

For = /4 :
For = /2 :
x2
a
x2
a2
+
+
y2
b
y2
b2
2 xy 1
= ; oblique ellipse
ab
2
= 1 ; symmetrical ellipse
For = : y = (b/a) x ; straight line with negative slope.

Case (b): For 1 : 2 = 2:1 with x = a sin (2t + ) and y = b sin t
For = 0, : Figure of eight
3
,
: Double parabola
4 4
3
For = , : Single parabola
2 2
For =

17
GRAVITATION
(i)
Newtons law of gravitation:

(a)
11
F = G m1m2/r ; (b) a = 6.67 x 10
K.m /(kg) ; (c)
(ii)
Acceleration due to gravity (a) g = GM/R2 ;
(iii)
Variation of g:
(a)
due to shape ; gequator < gpole
2
(b)
due to rotation of earth: (i) gpole = GM/R (No effect)
(ii) gequator =
GM
R2
dF
2 dr
=
F
r
(b) Weight W = mg
2 R
(iii) gequator < gpole

2
2
(iv) R = 0.034 m/s
(v) If 17 0 or T = (T0/17) = (24/17)h = 1.4 h, then object would
float on equator
(c)
(iv)
At a height h above earths surface g = g 1
2h
, if h < < R
g
(d)
At a depth of below earths surface: g = g 1
R
GM m 1
g earth
Acceleration on moon: gm =
6
R 2m
GM ^
r (outside) ;
r2
(b)
r r (inside)
Gravitational field: (a) g =
(vi)
Gravitational potential energy of mass m:

(a)
At a distance r : U(r) = GMm/r
(b)
At the surface of the earth: U0 = GMm/R
(c)
At any height h above earths surface: U U0 = mgh (for h < < R)
or
(vii)
g =
GM
(v)
U = mgh (if origin of potential energy is shifted to the surface of earth)
Potential energy and gravitational force: F = (dU/dR)
(viii) Gravitational potential: V(r) = GM/r

(ix)
Gravitational potential energy of system of masses:

(a)
Two particles: U = Gm1m2/r
(b)
(x)
(xi)
Three particles: U =
Gm1m 2 Gm1m 3 Gm 2 m 3
r12
r13
r23
Escape velocity:
2GM
or ve = (2gR) = (gD)
R
(a)
ve =
(b)
ve = R
8G
3
Maximum height attained by a projectile:

h=
(v e / v)
or v = v e
h
h
ve
R+h
R
(if h < < R)

18
(xii)
Orbital velocity of satellite:
(a ) v 0 =
GM
;
r
(b) v 0 = v e
R
;
2 (R + h )
(xiii) Time period of satellite: (a) T = 2
(c) v0 ve/2
(R + h )3
GM
(xiv) Energy of satellite: (a) Kinetic energy K =

(b)
(c)
(d)
(xv)
(if h<<R)
; (b ) T = 2
(if h << R )
1
1 GMm
mv 20 =
2
2 r
GMm
= 2K ;
r
1 GMm
;
Total energy E=K + U=
r
2
1 GMm
E = U/2 = K ; (e) BE = E =
2
r
Potential energy U =
Geosynchronous satellite: (a) T = 24 hours ; (b) T2 =

(c)
R
g
GMT 2
h =
4 2
4 2
(R + h )3 ;
GM
1/ 3
R ;
(d) h 36,000 km.
(xvi) Keplers law:

(a)
Law of orbits: Orbits are elliptical
(b)
Law of areas: Equal area is swept in equal time
2
3
2
2
3
(c)
Law of period: T r ; T = (4 /GM)r
The most powerful weapon on earth is

human soul on fire!

19
SURFACE TENSION
Force
F
= ;
Length l
(a)
(ii)
Combination of n drops into one big drop: (a) R = n1/3r
T=
(b) T =
Surface energy W
=
Surface area
A
(i)
(b)
2
2
1/3
Ei = n(4r T), E = 4R T, (E/Ei) = n ,
(c)
E = 4R2T (n1/3 1) = 4R3T
1
r
(iii)
Increase in temperature: =
(iv)
Shape of liquid surface:
(v)
E
1
= 1
1/3
E i n
3T 1 1
or
s r R
3T
sJ
1 1

r R
Fcohesive
(a)
Plane surface (as for water silver) if Fadhesive >
(b)
Concave surface (as for water glass) if Fadhesive >
(c)
Convex surface (as for mercuryglass) if Fadhesive <
2
Fcohesive
2
Fcohesive
2
Angle of contact:
(a)
Acute: If Fa> Fc/2 ;
(b)
obtuse: if Fa<Fc/2 ;
0
(c)
c=90 : if Fa=Fc/2
(d)
cos c =
Tsa Tsl
, (where Tsa, Tsl and Tla represent solid-air, solid- liquid and liquid-air
Tla
surface tensions respectively). Here c is acute if Tsl < Tsa while c is obtuse if Tsl > Tsa
(vi)
Excess pressure:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(vii)
General formula: Pexcess = T

+
R1 R 2
For a liquid drop: Pexcess = 2T/R
For an air bubble in liquid: Pexcess = 2T/R
For a soap bubble: Pexcess = 4T/R
Pressure inside an air bubble at a depth h in a liquid: Pin = Patm + hdg + (2T/R)
Forces between two plates with thin water film separating them:
(a)
(b)
(c)
1
r
P = T
1
;
R
1 1
F = AT ;
r R
If separation between plates is d, then P = 2T/d and F = 2AT/d
(viii) Double bubble: Radius of Curvature of common film Rcommon =

(ix)
Capillary rise:
(a)
h=
2T cos
;
rdg
(b)
h=
2T
(For water = 00)
rdg
rR
Rr

20
(c)
(d)
(x)
rdg h +
3
If weight of water in meniseus is taken into account then T =

2 cos
2T cos ( )
Capillary depression, h
rdg
Combination of two soap bubbles:

(a)
If V is the increase in volume and S is the increase in surface area, then 3P0V + 4TS =
0 where P0 is the atmospheric pressure
(b)
If the bubbles combine in environment of zero outside pressure isothermally, then S = 0 or
R3 = R 12 + R 22
ELASTICITY
(i)
Stress: (a) Stress = [Deforming force/crosssectional area];

2
(b) Tensile or longitudinal stress = (F/ r );
(c) Tangential or shearing stress = (F/A);
(d) Hydrostatic stress = P
(ii)
Strain: (a) Tensile or longitudinal strain = (L/L);

(b) Shearing strain = ;
(c) Volume strain = (V/V)
(iii)
Hooks law:
FL
A(L)
(a)
For stretching: Stress = Y x Strain or Y =
(b)
For shear: Stress = x Strain or = F/A
(c)
For volume elasticity: Stress = B x Strain or B =
(V/V )
(iv)
Compressibility: K = (1/B)
(v)
Elongation of a wire due to its own weight: L =
(vi)
Bulk modulus of an idea gas: Bisothermal = P and Badiabatic = P (where = Cp/Cv)
(vii)
Stress due to heating or cooling of a clamped rod

Thermal stress = Y (t) and force = YA (t)
1 MgL 1 L2 g
=
2 YA 2 Y
(viii) Torsion of a cylinder:

(a)
r = l (where = angle of twist and = angle of shear);
(b)
restoring torque = c
(c)
restoring Couple per unit twist, c = r4/2l (for solid cylinder)
and C = (r24 r14)/2l (for hollow cylinder)
(ix)
Work done in stretching:
1 (stress )
1
1
x stress x strain x volume = Y (strain)2 x volume =
x volume
2
2
Y
2
1
Potential energy stored, U = W =
x stress x strain x volume
2
1
x stress x strain
Potential energy stored per unit volume, u =
2
2
(a)
(b)
(c)
(x)
W=
Loaded beam:

21
(xi)
(xii)
Wl 3
(a)
depression, =
(b)
Depression, =
(rectangular )
4Ybd 3
Wl 3
12Yr 2
(cylindrical )
Positions ratio:
D r
=
D
r
(a)
Lateral strain =
(b)
Longitudinal strain = (L/L)
(c)
Poissons ratio =
(d)
Theoretically, 1 < < 0.5 but experimentally 0.2 0.4
lateral strain
r/r
=
longitudinal strain L / L
Relations between Y, , B and :

(a)
Y = 3B (12) ;
(b)
Y = 2 (1+ );
1
1
1
=
+
Y 9 B 3
(c)
(xiii) Interatomic force constant: k = Yr0 (r0 = equilibrium inter atomic separation)
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
or P1V1 = P2V2
(i)
Boyles law: PV = constant
(i)
Chares law: (V/T) = constant or (V1/T1) = (V2/T2)
(ii)
Pressure temperature law: (P1/T1) = (P2/T2)
(iii)
Avogadros principle: At constant temperature and pressure, Volume of gas,

V number of moles,
Where = N/Na [N = number of molecules in the sample
and NA = Avogadros number = 6.02 x 1023/mole]
=
(iv)
M sample
The pressure on the wall : P =
mN
mN
1 mN 2
1
< v 2x > =
< v2 > =
v rms = v 2rms
V
3V
3 V
3
RMS speed:
2
2
(a)
rms = (v1 + v2 + + v 2N /N);
(b)
rms = (3P/) ;
(c)
rms = (3KT/m);
(d)
(vi)
[Msample = mass of gas sample and M = molecular weight]
Kinetic Theory:
(a)
Momentum delivered to the wall perpendicular to the xaxis, P = 2m v x
(b)
Time taken between two successive collisions on the same wall by the same molecule: t =
(2L/v x)
(c)
The frequency of collision: coll. = (x/2L)
(d)
Total force exerted on the wall by collision of various molecules: F = (MN/L) <v x2>
(e)
(v)
rms = (3RT/M) ; (e)
( rms )1
( rms )2
m2
=
m1
M2
M1
Kinetic interpretation of temperature:

22
(ix)
(x)
(a)
(1/2) Mv2 rms = (3/2) RT ;
2
(b)
(1/2) mv rms = (3/2) KT
(c)
Kinetic energy of one molecule = (3/2) KT ;
(d)
kinetic energy of one mole of gas = (3/2) RT
(e)
Kinetic energy of one gram of gas (3/2) (RT/M)
Maxwell molecular speed distribution:
KT
3/2
v 2 e - mv
/ 2 KT
(a)
n (v) = 4N
(b)
The average speed: v =
(c)
The rms speed: v rms =
(d)
The most probable speed: p =
(e)
Speed relations: (I) vp < v < vrms

(II) v p : v : vrms = (2) : (8/) : (3) = 1.41 : 1.60 : 1.73
8KT
8 RT
RT
=
= 1.60
m
M
M
3kT
=
m
3RT
RT
= 1.73
M
M
2 KT
=
m
2RT
RT
= 1.41
M
M
Internal energy:
(a)
Einternal = (3/2)RT (for one mole)
(b)
Einternal = (3/2 RT (for mole)
(c)
(xi)
Pressure exerted by a gas P =
2 E 2
= E
3 V 3
Degrees of freedom:
(a)
Ideal gas: 3 (all translational)
(b)
Monoatomic gas : 3 (all translational)
(c)
Diatomic gas: 5 (three translational plus two rotational)
(d)
Polyatomic gas (linear molecule e.g. CO2) : 7 (three translational plus two rotational plus two
vibrational)
(e)
Polyatomic gas (nonlinear molecule, e.g., NH3, H2O etc): 6 (three translational plus three
rotational)
(f)
Internal energy of a gas: Einternal = (f/2) RT. (where f = number of degrees of freedom)
(xii) Daltons law: The pressure exerted by a mixture of perfect gases is the sum of the pressures
exerted by the individual gases occupying the same volume alone i.e., P = P1 + P2 + .
(xiii) Van der Walls gas equation:
(a)
P + a (V - b ) = R
V 2
(b)
P + a (V b ) = RT (where Vm = V/ = volume per mole);

m
Vm2
(c)
b = 30 cm3/mole
(d)
Critical values: Pc =
(e)
a
27 b 2
, VC = 3b, TC =
8a
;
27 Rb
PC VC 3
= = 0.375
RTC
8
(xiv) Mean free path: =
1
2 d 2 n
Where n = (N/V) = number of gas molecules per unit volume and

d = diameter of molecules of the gas

23
FLUID MECHANICS
(i)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
The viscous force between two layers of area A having velocity gradient (dv/dx) is given by: F =
A (dv/dx), where is called coefficient of viscosity
In SI system, is measured I Poiseiulle (Pl) 1Pl = 1Nsm2 = 1 decapoise. In egs system, the unit
of is g/cm/sec and is called POISE
When a spherical body is allowed to fall through viscous medium, its velocity increases, till the sum
of viscous drag and upthrust becomes equal to the weight of the body. After that the body moves
with a constant velocity called terminal velocity.
According to STOKEs Law, the viscous drag on a spherical body moving in a fluid is given by: F =
6r v, where r is the radius and v is the velocity of the body.
The terminal velocity is given by: v T =
2 r 2 ( ) g
9
where is the density of the material of the body and is the density of liquid
(v)
Rate of flow of liquid through a capillary tube of radius r and length l

V=
pr 4
p
p
=
=
4
8l
R
8l/r
where p is the pressure difference between two ends of the capillary and R is the fluid resistance
(=8 l/r4)
(vi) The matter which possess the property of flowing is called as FLUID (For example, gases and
liquids)
(vii) Pressure exerted by a column of liquid of height h is : P = hg ( = density of the liquid)
(viii) Pressure at a point within the liquid, P = P0 + hg, where P0 is atmospheric pressure and h is the
depth of point w.r.t. free surface of liquid
(ix) Apparent weight of the body immersed in a liquid Mg = Mg Vg
(x)
If W be the weight of a body and U be the upthrust force of the liquid on the body then
(a)
the body sinks in the liquid of W > U
(b)
the body floats just completely immersed if W = U
(c)
the body floats with a part immersed in the liquid if W < U
(xi)
(xii)
Volume of immersed part of a solid density of solid

=
total volume of solid
density of solid
Equation of Continuity: a1v1 = a2v2
1 2
v = constant
2
a
(xiv) Accelerated fluid containers : tan = x
g
(xiii) Bernouillis theorem: (P/) + gh +
(xv)
ax
Fig. 4
Volume of liquid flowing per second through a tube: R=a1v 1 = a2v2
2gh
a 12
a 22
(xvi) Velocity of efflux of liquid from a hole:

v = (2gh), where h is the depth of a hole from the free surface of liquid
I do not ask to walk smooth paths, nor bear an easy load.

I pray for strength and fortitude to climb rock-strewn road.
Give me such courage I can scale the hardest peaks alone,
And transform every stumbling block into a stepping-stone.
Gail Brook Burkett

24
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

(i)
L2 L1 = L1(T2 T1); A2 A1 = A2 (T2 T1); V2 V1 = V1(T2 T1)

where, L1, A1, V1 are the length, area and volume at temperature T1; and L2, A2, V2 are that at
temperature T2. represents the coefficient of linear expansion, the coefficient of superficial
expansion and the coefficient of cubical expansion.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
If dt be the density at t0C and d0 be that at 00C, then: dt = d0 (1T)

: : = 1 : 2 : 3
If r, a be the coefficients of real and apparent expansions of a liquid and g be the coefficient of the
cubical expansion for the containing vessel (say glass), then
r = a + g
(v)
(vi)
The pressure of the gases varies with temperature as : Pt = P0 (1+ T), where = (1/273) per 0C
If temperature on Celsius scale is C, that on Fahrenheit scale is F, on Kelvin scale is K, and on
Reaumer scale is R, then
(a)
(c)
(vii)
C F 32 K 273 R
=
=
=
5
9
5
4
5
C = (F 32)
9
(b)
F=
9
C + 32
5
(e)
K=
5
(F + 459.4)
9
(d)
K = C + 273
(a)
(b)
Triple point of water = 273.16 K

0
Absolute zero = 0 K = 273.15 C
(c)
For a gas thermometer, T = (273.15)
(d)
For a resistance thermometer, R = R0 [1+ ]
P
(Kelvin )
Ptriple
(viii) If mechanical work W produces the same temperature change as heat H, then we can write:
W = JH, where J is called mechanical equivalent of heat
(ix) The heat absorbed or given out by a body of mass m, when the temperature changes by T is: Q
= mcT, where c is a constant for a substance, called as SPECIFIC HEAT.
(x)
HEAT CAPACITY of a body of mass m is defined as : Q = mc
(xi) WATER EQUIVALENT of a body is numerically equal to the product of its mass and specific heat
i.e., W = mc
(xii) When the state of matter changes, the heat absorbed or evolved is given by: Q = mL, where L is
called LATENT HEAT
(xiii) In case of gases, there are two types of specific heats i.e., cp and cv [cp = specific heat at constant
pressure and Cv = specific heat at constant volume]. Molar specific heats of a gas are: Cp = Mcp
and Cv = Mcv, where M = molecular weight of the gas.
(xiv) Cp > Cv and according to Mayers formula Cp Cv = R
(xv)
For all thermodynamic processes, equation of state for an ideal gas: PV = RT

V
=Constant
(a)
For ISOBARIC process:
P = Constant ;
T
P
(b)
For ISOCHORIC (Isometric) process:
V = Constant; =Constant
T
(c)
For ISOTHERMAL process
T = Constant ; PV= Constant
(d)
For ADIABATIC process:
PV = Constant ; TV1=Constant
1
and P( ) T = Constant
(xvi) Slope on PV diagram

25
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
For isobaric process:

zero
For isochoric process:
infinite
For isothermal process:
slope = (P/V)
For adiabatic process:
slope = (P/V)
Slope of adiabatic curve > slope of isothermal curve.
(xvii) Work done

(a)
For isobaric process: W = P (V2 V1)
(b)
For isochoric process: W = 0
(c)
For isothermal process: W=RT loge (V2/V1)
RT x 2.303 x log10 (V2/V1)
P1V1 x 2.303 x log10 (V2/V1)
RT x 2.303 x log10 (P1/P2)
R (T1 T2 ) (P1V1 P2 V2 )
=
( 1)
( 1)
(d)
For adiabatic process:
(e)
In expansion from same initial state to same final volume
W=
W adiabatic < W isothermal < W isobaric

(f)
In compression from same initial state to same final volume:

W adiabatic < W isothermal < W isobaric
(xviii) Heat added or removed:

(a)
For isobaric process: Q = CpT
(b)
For isochoric process = Q = CvT
(c)
For isothermal process = Q = W = Rt loge (V2/V1)
(d)
For adiabatic process: Q = 0
(xix) Change in internal energy
(a)
For isobaric process = U = CvT
(b)
For isochoric process = U = CvT
(c)
For isothermal process = U = 0
R (T2 T1 )
(d)
For adiabatic process: U = W =
( 1)
(xx) Elasticities of gases
(a)
Isothermal bulk modulus = BI = P
(b)
Adiabatic bulk modulus BA = P
(xxi) For a CYCLIC process, work done W = area enclosed in the cycle on PV diagram.
Further, U = 0 (as state of the system remains unchanged)
So, Q = W
(xxii) Internal energy and specific heats of an ideal gas (Monoatomic gas)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3
RT (for one mole);
2
3
U = RT (for moles)
2
3
U = RT (for moles);
2
1 U 3
Cv=
= R
2
U=

26
(e)
Cp = Cv + R =
(f)
Cp
C
v
5
= R
2
3
5
R+R= R
2
2
3 5
R = = 1.67
2 3
(xxiii) Internal energy and specific heats of a diatomic gas

5
RT (for moles);
2
5
U = RT (for moles)
2
1 U 5
Cv =
= R;
T 2
(a)
U=
(b)
(c)
(d)
Cp = Cv + R =
(e)
C p 7R
=
=
Cv 2
5
7
R+R= R
2
2
5R 7
= = 1.4
2 5
(xxiv) Mixture of gases: = 1 + 2

M=
1M1 + 2 + M 2 N1m1 + N 2 m 2
=
1 + 2
N1 + N 2
Cv =
1C v1 + 2 C v 2
1 + 2
and C p =
1C p1 + 2 C p 2
1 + 2
(xxv) First law of thermodynamics

(a)
(b)
(c)
Q = U + W
or
U = Q W
Both Q, W depends on path, but U does not depend on the path
For isothermal process: Q = W = RT log | V2/V1|, U = 0, T = Constant, PV = Constant
and Ciso =
(d)
For adiabatic process: W =
R (T2 T1 )
, Q = 0, U = Cv (T2T1), Q = 0,
(1 )
Cp
2
PV = constant, Cad = 0 and =
= 1+
Cv
(where is the degree of freedom)

(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
For isochoric process: W = 0, Q = U = CvT, V = constant, and Cv = (R/1)

For isobaric process: Q = CpT, U = CvT., W = RT, P = constant and
Cp = (R/1)
For cyclic process: U = 0, Q = W
For free expansion: U = 0, Q = 0, W = 0
n
For polytropic process: W = [R(T2T1)/1n], Q = C (T2T1), PV = constant and
C=
R
R
+
1 1 n
(xxvi) Second law of thermodynamics

(a)
There are no perfect engines
(b)
There are no perfect refrigerators

27
Q 2 Q 2 T2
,
=
Q1 Q1 T1
(c)
Efficiency of carnot engine: = 1
(d)
Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator:

=
Q2
T2
Heat absorbed from cold reservoir Q 2
=
=
=
Work done on refrigerator
W Q1 Q 2 T1 T2
For a perfect refrigerator, W = 0
or
Q1 = Q2
or
t , where K is coefficient of thermal

x
(xxvii) The amount of heat transmitted is given by: Q = KA
conductivity, A is the area of cross section, is the difference in temperature, t is the time of heat
flow and x is separation between two ends
(xxviii)
Thermal resistance of a conductor of length d = RTh =
d
KA
(xxix) Flow of heat through a composite conductor:
(K11 / d1 ) + (K 2 2 / d 2 )
(K1 / d1 ) + (K 2 / d 2 )
(a)
Temperature of interface, =
(b)
Rate of flow of heat through the composite conductor: H =
(c)
Thermal resistance of the composite conductor

R TH =
(d)
(xxx) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Q
A(1 2 )
=
t (d1 / K1 ) + (d 2 / K 2 )
d1
d
+ 2 = (R Th )1 + (R Th )2
K 1A K 2 A
Equivalent thermal conductivity, K =
d1 + d 2
(d1 / K1 ) + (d 2 / K 2 )
Radiation absorption coefficient:

a = Q0/Q0
Reflection coefficient:
r = Qr/Q0
Transmission coefficient:
t = Qt/Q0
Emissive power:
e or E = Q/A .t
[t = time]
ee0
(e)
Spectral emissive power:
Q
and e =
e =
At (d )
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
Emissivity:
Absorptive power:
Kirchhoffs law:
Stefans law: (a)
For a black body:
For a body:
(j)
Rate of loss of heat:
= e/E ; 0 1
a = Qa/Q0
(e/a)1 = (e/a)B = = E
4
8
2 4
E=T (where =5.67x10 Wm K )
4
4
E = (T T0 )
4
4
e = (T T0 )
dQ
= A ( 4 0 4 )
dt
(k)
For spherical objects:
(dQ / dt )1
(dQ / dt )2
Rate of fall of temperature:
d A 4
A 4
=
04 =
04
dt
ms
V s
(d/dt )1
(d/dt )2
r12
r22
A1 V2 r2
x
=
A 2 V1 r1

28
(For spherical bodies)

(l)
Newtons law of cooling:
(m)
Weins displacement law:
(n)
Weins radiation law:
(o)
Solar Constant:
d
= K (0) or (0) eKT
dt
3
mT = b
(where b = 2.9 x 10 m K)
A
A a/T
d
Ed= 5 (T) d= 5 e

2
1/ 4
RS
R
4
S
T or T = ES
R S
R ES
S =
1/ 2

29
WAVES
1.
Velocity: v = n and n = (1/T)
2.
Velocity of transverse waves in a string: v =
3.
Velocity of longitudinal waves:

(a)
In rods: v = (Y/) (Y Youngs modulus, = density)
(b)
In liquids: v = (B/)
(B = Bulk modulus)
(c)
In gases: v = (P/)
(Laplace formula)
4.
Effect of temperature:
(a)
v = v0 (T/273)
or
(b)
(vsound/vrms) = (/3)
5.
T
=
m
T
r 2 d
v = v0 + 0.61t
2
(vtx)
t x
(b) y = a sin 2
T
Wave equation: (a) y = a sin
(c) y = a sin (t kx), where wave velocity v =
= n
k
(a) vparticle = (y/t)

(b) maximum particle velocity, (vparticle)max = a
6.
Particle velocity:
7.
Strain in medium
(a) strain = (y/x) = ka cos (t kx)
(b) Maximum strain = (y/dx)max = ka
(c) (vparticle/strain) = (/k) = wave velocity
i.e., vparticle = wave velocity x strain in the medium
8.
Wave equation:
9.
Intensity of sound waves:

(a)
I = (E/At)
(b)
If is the density of the medium; v the velocity of the wave; n the frequency and a the
2
2 2
i.e. I n2a2
amplitude then I = 2 v n a
12
2
(c)
Intensity level is decibel: 10 log (I/I0). Where, I0 =Threshold of hearing = 10 Watt/m
10.
Principle of superposition: y = y1 + y2
11.
2
2
Resultant amplitude: a = (a1 + a2 + 2a1a cos )
12.
Resultant intensity: I = I1 + I2 + 2(I1I2 cos )

2
(a)
For constructive interference: = 2n, amax = a1 + a2 and Imax = (I1 + I2)
2
(b)
For destructive interference: = (2n1) , amin = a2 a2 and Imin = (I1=I 2)
13.
(a)
(b)
14.
Stationary waves: The equation of stationary wave,

(a)
When the wave is reflected from a free boundary, is:
2y
t
2y
= v2
x 2
Beat frequency = n1 n2 and beat period T = (T1T2/T2T1)

If there are N forks in successive order each giving x beat/sec with nearest neighbour, then
nlast = nfirst + (N1)x
y = + 2a cos
2x
2t
sin
= 2a cos kx sin t

30
(b)
When the wave is reflected from a rigid boundary, is:

Y + 2a sin
15.
2x
2t
cos
=2a sin kx cos t
Vibrations of a stretched string:

1
T
m
(a)
For fundamental tone: n1 =
(b)
For p th harmonic : np =
(c)
The ratio of successive harmonic frequencies: n1 : n2 : n3 :.. = 1 : 2 : 3 :
(d)
Sonometer: n =
(e)
Meldes experiment:
l
2l
T
m
T
m
(m = r2 d)
(i) Transverse mode: n =
(ii) Longitudinal mode: n =

16.
2p
2l
p
2l
T
m
T
m
Vibrations of closed organ pipe

v
4L
(a)
For fundamental tone: n1 =
(b)
(c)
For first overtone (third harmonic): n2 = 3n1

Only odd harmonics are found in the vibrations of a closed organ pipe
and n1 : n2 : n3 : ..=1 : 3 : 5 :
17.
Vibrations of open organ pipe:

(a)
For fundamental tone: n1 = (v/2L)
(b)
For first overtone (second harmonic) : n2 = 2n1
(c)
Both even and odd harmonics are found in the vibrations of an open organ pipe and
n1 : n2 : n3 : =1 : 2 : 3 : .
18.
End correction: (a) Closed pipe : L = Lpipe + 0.3d

(b) Open pipe: L = Lpipe + 0.6 d
where d = diameter = 2r
19.
Resonance column:
20.
Kundts tube:
21.
Longitudinal vibration of rods

(a)
Both ends open and clamped in middle:
(i) Fundamental frequency, n1 = (v/2l)
(ii) Frequency of first overtone, n2 = 3n1
(iii)Ratio of frequencies, n1 : n2 : n3 : = 1 3: 5 : ..
(b)
3
;
(b) l2 + e =
4
4
v
l 2 3l1
; (d) n =
or = 2 (l 2 l 1 )
(c) e =
2 (l 2 l 1 )
2
(a) l1 +e =
v air
= air
v rod rod
One end clamped

(i) Fundamental frequency, n1 = (v/4l)
(ii) Frequency of first overtone, n2 = 3n1

31
(iii) Ratio of frequencies, n1 : n2 : n3 : = 1 : 3 : 5 :

22.
Frequency of a turning fork: n
t
l2
Where t = thickness, l = length of prong, E = Elastic constant and = density

23.
Doppler Effect for Sound

(a)
Observer stationary and source moving:
(i) Source approaching: n =
(ii) Source receding: n =

(b)
v
x n
v vs
v vs
x
v
v + vs
v
x n and =
x
v + vs
v
Source stationary and observer moving:

(i) Observer approaching the source: n =
v + v0
xn
v
(ii) Observer receding away from source: n =

(c)
and
and
v v0
x n and
v
Source and observer both moving:

(i) S and O moving towards each other: n =
v + v0
xn
v vs
(ii) S and O moving away from each other: n =
v v0
xn
v + vs
(iii) S and O in same direction, S behind O : n =
v v0
xn
v vs
(iv)S and O in same direction, S ahead of O: n=
v + v0
xn
v + vs
v v m v0
v vm vs
(d)
Effect of motion of medium: n' =
(e)
Change in frequency: (i) Moving source passes a stationary observer: n =

For vs <<v, , =
xn
2vs
xn
v
(ii) Moving observer passes a stationary source: n=

(f)
2 vv s
v 2 v s2
2v 0
xn
v
Source moving towards or away from hill or wall

(i) Source moving towards wall
(a) Observer between source and wall
n =
v
xn
v vs
n =
v
x n (for reflected waves)
v vs
(for direct waves)

32
(b) Source between observer and wall

n =
v
xn
v + vs
n =
v
x n (for reflected waves)
v vs
(for direct waves)
(ii) Source moving away from wall

(a) Observer between source and wall
n =
v
xn
v + vs
n =
v
xn
v + vs
(for direct waves)

(for reflected waves)
(b) Source between observer and wall
(g)
n =
v
xn
v vs
n =
v
xn
v + vs
(for direct waves)

(for reflected waves)
Moving Target:
(i) S and O stationary at the same place and target approaching with speed u
v+u
xn
vu
n =
or
n = 1 +
2u
xn
v
(for u <<v)
(ii) S and O stationary at the same place and target receding with speed u
vu
xn
v+u
n =
(h)
SONAR: n =
or
n = 1
2u
xn
v
(for u <<v)
v v sub
2 v sub
x n 1
xn
v v sub
v
(upper sign for approaching submarine while lower sign for receding submarine)
(i)
Transverse Doppler effect: There is no transverse Doppler effect in sound. For velocity
component vs cos
n=
24.
v
xn
v v s cos
( sign for approaching and + sign for receding)
Doppler Effect for light

(a)
Red shift (when light source is moving away):
n =
1 v / c
xn
1+ v / c
or
v
c
For v << c, n = x n or
(b)
1+ v / c
x
1 v / c
v
c
= x
Blue shift (when light source is approaching)

n =
1+ v / c
xn
1 v / c
or
v
c
For v << c, n = n
=
or
1 v / c
x
1+ v / c
v
c

33
v
c
(c)
Doppler Broadening = 2 = 2
(d)
Transverse Doppler effect:

For light, n = 1
(e)
v2
c
1 v2
xn
x n = 1
2 c 2
(for v << c)
2v
n
c
RADAR: n =

34
STUDY TIPS
Combination of Subjects
Study a combination of subjects during a day i. e. after studying 23 hrs of mathematics
shift to any theoretical subject for 2 horrs. When we study a subject like math, a
particular part of the brain is working more than rest of the brain. When we shift to a
theoretical subject, practically the other part of the brain would become active and the
part studying maths will go for rest.
Revision
Always refresh your memory by revising the matter learned. At the end of the day you
must revise whatever youve learnt during that day (or revise the previous days work
before starting studies the next day). On an average brain is able to retain the newly
learned information 80% only for 12 hours, after that the forgetting cycle begins. After
this revision, now the brain is able to hold the matter for 7 days. So next revision should
be after 7 days (sundays could be kept for just revision). This ways you will get rid of the
problem of forgetting what you study and save a lot of time in restudying that topic.
Use All Your Senses

Whatever you read, try to convert that into picture and visualize it. Our eye memory is
many times stronger than our ear memory since the nerves connecting brain to eye are
many times stronger than nerves connecting brain to ear. So instead of trying to mug up
by repeating it loudly try to see it while reapeating (loudly or in your mind). This is
applicable in theoritical subjects. Try to use all your senses while learning a subject
matter. On an average we remember 25% of what we read, 35% of what we hear, 50%
of what we say, 75% of what we see, 95% of what we read, hear, say and see.
Breathing and Relaxation

Take special care of your breathing. Deep breaths are very important for relaxing your
mind and hence in your concentration. Pranayam can do wonders to your concentration,
relaxation and sharpening your mined (by supplying oxygen to it). Aerobic exercises like
skipping, jogging, swimming and cycling are also very helpful.

35

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