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The Centrifugal Pump
The Centrifugal Pump
Preface
In the Department of Structural and Fluid Mechanics
we are happy to present the first English edition of the
book: The Centrifugal Pump. We have written the book
because we want to share our knowledge of pump hydraulics, pump design and the basic pump terms which
we use in our daily work.
The Centrifugal Pump is primarily meant as an internal book and is aimed at technicians who work with
development and construction of pump components.
Furthermore, the book aims at our future colleagues,
students at universities and engineering colleges, who
can use the book as a reference and source of inspiration in their studies. Our intention has been to write
an introductory book that gives an overview of the hydraulic components in the pump and at the same time
enables technicians to see how changes in construction and operation influence the pump performance.
In chapter 1, we introduce the principle of the centrifugal pump as well as its hydraulic components, and we
list the different types of pumps produced by Grundfos.
Chapter 2 describes how to read and understand the
pump performance based on the curves for head, power, efficiency and NPSH.
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps................11
1.1 Principle of centrifugal pumps. ......................................12
1.2 The pumps hydraulic components.............................13
1.2.1 Inlet flange and inlet.............................................14
1.2.2 Impeller..........................................................................15
1.2.3 Coupling and drive.................................................17
1.2.4 Impeller seal................................................................18
1.2.5 Cavities and axial bearing................................ 19
1.2.6 Volute casing, diffuser and
outlet flange. ..............................................................21
1.2.7 Return channel and outer sleeve. ................23
1.3 Pump types and systems................................................... 24
1.3.1 The UP pump..............................................................25
1.3.2 The TP pump...............................................................25
1.3.3 The NB pump..............................................................25
1.3.4 The MQ pump............................................................25
1.3.5 The SP pump.............................................................. 26
1.3.6 The CR pump. ............................................................ 26
1.3.7 The MTA pump......................................................... 26
1.3.8 The SE pump...............................................................27
1.3.9 The SEG pump. ..........................................................27
1.4 Summary ..............................................................................................27
Chapter 2. Performance curves ............................................29
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
Velocity triangles.....................................................................60
4.1.1 Inlet.................................................................................. 62
4.1.2 Outlet.............................................................................. 63
Eulers pump equation........................................................ 64
Blade shape and pump curve..........................................66
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Test types......................................................................................98
Measuring pump performance. ....................................99
6.2.1 Flow................................................................................100
6.2.2 Pressure........................................................ 100
6.2.3 Temperature............................................................ 101
6.2.4 Calculation of head............................................. 102
6.2.5 General calculation of head..................... 103
6.2.6 Power consumption. .......................................... 104
6.2.7 Rotational speed................................................... 104
6.3 Measurement of the pumps NPSH.......................... 105
6.3.1 NPSH3% test by lowering the
inlet pressure............................................... 106
6.3.2 NPSH3% test by increasing the flow. ......... 107
6.3.3 Test beds. ................................................................... 107
6.3.4 Water quality. ......................................................... 108
6.3.5 Vapour pressure and density....................... 108
6.3.6 Reference plane..................................................... 108
6.3.7 Barometric pressure...........................................109
6.3.8 Calculation of NPSHA and determination
of NPSH3%. ..................................................................109
6.4 Measurement of force.......................................................109
6.4.1 Measuring system. .............................................. 110
6.4.2 Execution of force measurement. ............. 111
6.5 Uncertainty in measurement of performance. . 111
6.5.1 Standard demands for uncertainties...... 111
6.5.2 Overall uncertainty..............................................112
6.5.3 Test bed uncertainty...........................................112
6.6 Summary......................................................................................112
Appendix....................................................................................... 113
A. Units.........................................................................................................114
B. Control of test results.................................................................. 117
Bibliography ............................................................................................122
Standards...................................................................................................123
Index ............................................................................................................ 124
Substance values for water...........................................................131
List of Symbols........................................................................................132
9
10
Chapter 1
Introduction to
centrifugal pumps
1.1 Principle of the centrifugal pump
1.2 Hydraulic components
1.3 Pump types and systems
1.4 Summary
Impeller
Inlet
Direction of rotation
Outlet
Impeller Impeller
blade
Inlet
12
12
Motor
Coupling
Shaft
Shaft seal
Cavity above impeller
Diffuser
Outlet flange
Inlet flange
Pump housing
13
Impeller
Impeller seal
Inlet
13
Impeller
Inlet
Impeller
Inlet
Endsuction pumps have a very short and straight inlet section because the impeller eye is placed in continuation of
the inlet flange.
The impeller in doublesuction pumps has two impeller eyes.
The inlet splits in two and leads the fluid from the inlet
flange to both impeller eyes. This design minimises the axial
force, see section 1.2.5.
In submersible pumps, the motor is often placed below the
hydraulic parts with the inlet placed in the mid section of
the pump, see figure 1.3. The design prevents hydraulic losses related to leading the fluid along the motor. In addition,
the motor is cooled due to submersion in the fluid.
Impeller
Inlet
Impeller
Inline pump
Endsuction pump
Doublesuction pump
Inlet
Submersible pump
Figure 1.3: Inlet for inline, endsuction, doublesuction and submersible pump.
14
14
The design of the inlet aims at creating a uniform velocity profile into the
impeller since this leads to the best performance. Figure 1.4 shows an example of
the velocity distribution at different cross-sections in the inlet.
1.2.2 Impeller
The blades of the rotating impeller transfer energy to the fluid there by
increasing pressure and velocity. The fluid is sucked into the impeller at the
impeller eye and flows through the impeller channels formed by the blades
between the shroud and hub, see figure 1.5.
The design of the impeller depends on the requirements for pressure, flow
and application. The impeller is the primary component determining the
pump performance. Pumps variants are often created only by modifying
the impeller.
Axial direction
Hub plate
Hub
Impeller channel
(blue area)
Trailing edge
Radial direction
The impellers direction of
rotation
Tangential direction
Leading edge
Shroud plate
Impeller blade
Figure 1.5: The impeller components, definitions of directions and flow relatively to the impeller.
15
15
Radial impeller
Semiaxial impeller
Axial impeller
Impellers without a shroud are called open impellers. Open impellers are
used where it is necessary to clean the impeller and where there is risk of
blocking. A vortex pump with an open impeller is used in waste water application. In this type of pump, the impeller creates a flow resembling the
vortex in a tornado, see figure 1.8. The vortex pump has a low efficiency
compared to pumps with a shroud and impeller seal.
After the basic shape of the impeller has been decided, the design of the
impeller is a question of finding a compromise between friction loss and loss
as a concequence of non uniform velocity profiles. Generally, uniform velocity
profiles can be achieved by extending the impeller blades but this results in
increased wall friction.
16
16
Motor
Shaft seal
In the dry runner pump the motor and the fluid are separated either by a shaft
seal, a separation with long shaft or a magnetic coupling.
In a pump with a shaft seal, the fluid and the motor are separated by seal rings, see
figure 1.9. Mechanical shaft seals are maintenance-free and have a smaller leakage
than stuffing boxes with compressed packing material. The lifetime of mechanical
shaft seals depends on liquid, pressure and temperature.
If motor and fluid are separated by a long shaft, then the two parts will not get
in contact then the shaft seal can be left out, see figure 1.10. This solution has
limited mounting options because the motor must be placed higher than the
hydraulic parts and the fluid surface in the system. Furthermore the solution
results in a lower efficiency because of the leak flow through the clearance between the shaft and the pump housing and because of the friction between the
fluid and the shaft.
Exterior magnets on
the motor shaft
Inner magnets on
the impeller shaft
Rotor can
Motor
Long shaft
Water level
Motor
Motor shaft
Hydraulics
Motor cup
Exterior magnets
Inner magnets
Motor cup
Rotor can
Impeller shaft
17
17
18
Fluid
Rotor
Stator
Rotor can
Outlet
Impeller
Inlet
Bearings
Outlet
Inlet
Leak flow
Gap
Impeller seal
18
Primary flow
Secondary flow
The impeller rotation creates two types of flows in the cavities: Primary
flows and secondary flows. Primary flows are vorticies rotating with the
impeller in the cavities above and below the impeller, see figure 1.14.
Secondary flows are substantially weaker than the primary flows.
Primary and secondary flows influence the pressure distribution on the
outside of the impeller hub and shroud affecting the axial thrust. The axial
thrust is the sum of all forces in the axial direction arising due to the pressure condition in the pump. The main force contribution comes from the
rise in pressure caused by the impeller. The impeller eye is affected by the
inlet pressure while the outer surfaces of the hub and shroud are affected
by the outlet pressure, see figure 1.15. The end of the shaft is exposed to the
atmospheric pressure while the other end is affected by the system pressure. The pressure is increasing from the center of the shaft and outwards.
19
19
Atmospheric pressure
Outlet pressure
The impeller must be axially balanced if it is not possible to absorb the entire
axial thrust in the axial bearing. There are several possibilities of reducing
the thrust on the shaft and thereby balance the axial bearing. All axial
balancing methods result in hydraulic losses.
One approach to balance the axial forces is to make small holes in the hub
plate, see figure 1.16. The leak flow through the holes influences the flow
in the cavities above the impeller and thereby reduces the axial force but it
results in leakage.
Axial thrust
Inlet pressure
Impeller seal
Figure 1.17: Axial thrust reduction using impeller seal and balancing holes.
20
20
A fourth method to balance the axial thrust is to mount fins on the pump
housing in the cavity below the impeller, see figure 1.19. In this case, the primary flow velocity in the cavity below the impeller is reduced whereby the
pressure increases on the shroud. This type of axial balancing increases disc
friction and leak loss because of the higher pressure.
Blades
Fins
Diffusion
Small cross-section:
High velocity, low static
pressure, high dynamic pressure
Large cross-section:
Low velocity, high static
pressure, low dynamic
pressure
21
21
The volute casing is designed to convert dynamic pressure to static pressure is achieved while the pressure
losses are minimised. The highest efficiency is obtained
by finding the right balance between changes in velocity
and wall friction. Focus is on the following parameters
when designing the volute casing: The volute diameter,
the cross-section geometry of the volute, design of the
tongue, the throat area and the radial positioning as well
as length, width and curvature of the diffusor.
Outlet flange
Outlet diffusor
Ring diffusor
Throat
Volute
Tongue
Figure 1.21:
The components of the
volute casing.
22
22
Outer
sleeve
Annular
outlet
Chamber
stack
Chamber
In multistage inline pumps the fluid is lead from the top of the chamber
stack to the outlet in the channel formed by the outer part of the chamber
stack and the outer sleeve, see figure 1.22.
When designing a return channel, the same design considerations of impeller and volute casing apply. Contrary to volute casing, a return channel does
not create radial forces on the impeller because it is axis-symmetric.
Impeller
Guide vane
Impeller blade
Return channel
23
23
24
24
Outlet
Hydraulic
Motor
Inlet
Inlet
Outlet
Outlet
Inlet
25
Outlet
Inlet
25
Chamber stack
Inlet
Motor
Motor
Chamber stack
Inlet
Outlet
Outlet
Mounting flange
Outlet channel
Shaft
Pump housing
26
Inlet
26
Motor
Outlet
Inlet
1.4 Summary
In this chapter, we have covered the principle of the centrifugal pump and
its hydraulic components. We have discussed some of the overall aspects
connected to design of the single components. Included in the chapter is
also a short description of some of the Grundfos pumps.
Motor
Inlet
Outlet
27
27
28
28
Chapter 2
Performance
curves
2.1 Standard curves
2.2 Pressure
H
[m]
50
2.4 Head
40
30
20
10
2.13 Summary
0
0
[%]
10
20
30
40
70
60
50
50
P2
[kW]
10
8
6
4
2
0
Power
NPSH
60
70
Q [m3/h]
40
30
20
10
0
NPSH
(m)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2. Performance curves
2. Performance curves
The pump performance is normally described by a set of curves. This chapter
explains how these curves are interpretated and the basis for the curves.
2.1 Standard curves
Performance curves are used by the customer to select pump matching his
requirements for a given application.
The data sheet contains information about the head (H) at different flows
(Q), see figure 2.1. The requirements for head and flow determine the overall
dimensions of the pump.
[%]
H [m]
Head
50
40
70
30
60
Efficiency
50
20
40
30
20
10
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Q [m /h]
Power
10
2
0
30
70
NPSH [m]
P2 [kW]
10
60
NPSH
2
0
30
In addition to head, the power consumption (P) is also to be found in the data
sheet. The power consumption is used for dimensioning of the installations
which must supply the pump with energy. The power consumption is like
the head shown as a function of the flow.
Information about the pump efficiency () and NPSH can also be found in
the data sheet. NPSH is an abbreviation for Net Positive Suction Head. The
NPSH curve shows the need for inlet head, and which requirements the
specific system have to fullfill to avoid cavitation. The efficiency curve is
used for choosing the most efficient pump in the specified operating range.
Figure 2.1 shows an example of performance curves in a data sheet.
During design of a new pump, the desired performance curves are a vital
part of the design specifications. Similar curves for axial and radial thrust are
used for dimensioning the bearing system.
Motor
Controller
The performance curves describe the performance for the complete pump
unit, see figure 2.2. An adequate standard motor can be mounted on the
pump if a pump without motor is chosen. Performance curves can be
recalculated with the motor in question when it is chosen.
Coupling
For pumps sold both with and without a motor, only curves for the hydraulic
components are shown, i.e. without motor and controller. For integrated
products, the pump curves for the complete product are shown.
Hydraulics
31
31
2. Performance curves
2.2 Pressure
Pressure (p) is an expression of force per unit area and is split into static and
dynamic pressure. The sum of the two pressures is the total pressure:
[Pa]
where
1 V[Pa]
2
ptot = Total
[Pa]
pdyn =pressure
2
pstat = Static pressure [Pa]
pdyn = Dynamic
p tot = pressure
pstat + p[Pa]
dyn + p geo
(2.1)
(2.2)
[Pa]
(2.5)
pstat = ispstat,
(2.6)
[aPapressure
]
Static pressure
measured
gauge, and the measurement
of
out pstat,with
in
static pressure must always be done in static fluid or through a pressure tap
2
1 V to2 the
1 flow
mounted
[Pa] see figure 2.3.
(2.7)
pperpendicular
Vdirection,
dyn =
out
in
2
2
pstat
Qsee
1 dynamic
figure
[Pa]
4
p = 1
(2.8)
4
difference
2
measuringdyn
the pressure
total
pressure
and static pressure.
Dbetween
D in
out
4
Such a combined pressure measurement can be performed using a pitot tube.
Dynamic pressure is a function of the fluid velocity. The dynamic pressure can
(2.1)
[Pa]
p tot = pwith
stat + p dynfollowing
be calculated
measured
p geo = z the
g [Pa] formula,where the velocity (V) is (2.9)
and the fluid density () is know:
p V2
[Pa]
pdyn+ = 1 + g Vz 2= Constant
22
m 2
s2
32
Phyd
P1
[ 100 % ]
ptot
pdyn
pstat
ptot
(2.10)
(2.2)
[Pa]
p tot= =p p+statp + p[Pa
(2.5)
dyn] + p geo
where
pabs
(2.3)
rel
bar
V = Velocity [m/s]
pstat = pstat,
(2.6)
pstat, in [Pa]
r = Density
[kg/m
p tot 3] out
(2.4)
[m]
H=
1g
2
2
1
] pressure and vice versa.
(2.7)
ppressure
V be transformed
Vin to[Pa
dyn =
Dynamic
static
Flow
2 can out
2
(2.11)
]
Pa pipe
= Hwhere
g the
Qpipe
= diameter
p tot Q is[W
through hyd
increased converts dynamic pressure
2 The flow through a pipe is called a pipe flow, and
to static pressure,
2.4.
Phydsee figure
Q 1
1
1 where
(2.12)
[ 100
= =pipe
%]diameter is increasing
the
the part
the
is called a diffusor.
hyd
of
pdyn
(2.8)
P22 D 4 D 4 [Pa]
out
in
4
tot =
pstat
ptot
(2.13)
32
[Pa]
(2.1)
pdyn =
(2.8)
4
4
V2
g
z
Constant
+
+
=
(2.10)
2
to the measured
relative
pressure:
2
s
[Pa]
(2.3)
hyd
atmospherich
P2 pressure. This type of pressure gauge is the most
commonly used.
Phyd pressure gauge measures the pressure difference
A differential
[ 100 % ]
(2.13)
tot =
between the two
P1 pressure taps independent of the barometric pressure.
P1 > P2 > Phyd
[W]
33
NPSH A =
(2.14)
[ 100 % ]
( p abs,tot,in pvapour )
g
[m]
(2.15)
(2.16)
33
[Pa]
(2.1)
2. Performance curves
pdyn = 1 V 2 [Pa]
2
(2.2)
p tot
H=
g
[m]
(2.4)
34
30
20
10
0
0
[m]
[m]
or
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Q [m3/h]
H [m]
12
10
8
6
Water at 20oC
998.2 kg /m3
1 bar = 10.2 m
1 bar
(2.11)
Phyd = H g Q = p tot Q [W]
The QH curve
will ideally be exactly the same if the test in figure 2.6 is made with
a fluid having aPdensity different from water. Hence, a QH curve is independent
hyd
(2.12)
[can
]
100be
%explained
hyd = fluid. It
of the pumped
based on the theory in chapter
4 where it
P2
is proven that Q and H depend on the geometry and speed but not on the density
of the pumpedPfluid.
hyd
[ 100 % ]
(2.13)
tot =
P1
The pressure increase across a pump can also be measured in meter water column
(2.14) with
[W] is a pressure unit which must not be confused
> Phydcolumn
1 > P2water
[mWC].PMeter
the head
in [m].
As seen
in the
of physical properties of water,(2.15)
the change
tot
= control
motor
table
hyd [ 100 % ]
in density is significant at higher temperatures. Thus, conversion from pressure
to head is essential.
( p abs,tot,in pvapour )
(2.16)
[m]
NPSH A =
g
50
40
10.2 m
A QH curve or pump curve shows the head (H) as a function of the flow (Q). The
1 V 2 1 V 2 [Pa]
(2.7) stated
flow (Q)ispdyn
the=rate
the pump. The flow is generally
out going through
in
2 of fluid
2
3
in cubic metre per hour [m /h] but at insertion into formulas cubic metre per
second [m3/s] is used. Figure 2.5
2 shows a typical QH curve.
Q 1
1
[Pa]
pdyn = 1
(2.8)
4
4
figure 2.6.
The pump is started and runs with constant speed. Q equals 0 and H reaches
its highest value when the valve is completely closed. The valve is gradually
openedand
decreases.
H is the height of the fluid column
(2.9) in the
]
p geoas=Qincreases
z g H[Pa
open pipe after the pump. The QH curve is a series of coherent values of Q and H
2
represented
m2.5.
p by
V 2the curve shown in figure
+
+ g z = Constant 2
(2.10)
2
s
In most cases the differential pressure across the pump Dptot is measured and
] following formula:
pabs
prel + pbar by[Pa
(2.3)
the head
H is=calculated
the
H [m]
4
2
0
0
1.0
1.5
2.0
Q [m3/h]
(2.17)
(2.17a)
34
[Pa]
(2.5)
(2.8)
4
2.5.2 Static
2
Dout
D in
= stat
p+statpdyn
+ p[Pa
(2.5)
(2.1)
p
dyn]+ p geo
tottot= p
(2.9)
p
p
geo = z g [Pa]
p tot= =prel
p+statpbar
+ p
(2.5)
dyn] + p geo
The dynamic pressure difference
between the inlet and outlet of the pump
2
[Pa
is foundp
by the
following
(2.6)
=tot
p1stat, out pQformula:
1]
1
p
[Pa]
p=stat
[m] stat, in 4
(2.8)
(2.4)
H
dyn =
4
D in
g
Dout
4
(2.7)
pdyn = 1 Vout 2 1 Vin2 [Pa]
(2.11)
Phyd = H2 g Q = 2p tot Q [W]
2
Phyd
] 1
1
[
hyd
p geo= = P1z [ 100
gQ%
Pa
]
pdyn = 2
Dout4
2
D in 4
4
2
2
m
p V Phyd
%]
= Constant
tot+ = + g [ z100
s2
2 P1
35
]]
P
> P+ pbar [W[Pa
p > =P2prel
1abs
p geo = z hyd
g [Pa]
tot = control motor hyd
[Pa]
(2.12)
(2.9)
(2.8)
(2.13)
(2.10)
(2.14)
(2.3)
(2.9)
[ 100 % ]
(2.15)
35
2
[Pa]
pdyn = 1 Vcurves
2. Performance
2
p
= pstatpdyn
+ p[Pa
p
dyn]+ p geo
tottot= pstat +
(2.2)
[Pa]
(2.5)
(2.1)
In practise, the dynamic pressure and the flow velocity before and after the
pstat = pstat, out pstat, in [Pa]
(2.6)
pump are not
measured during test of pumps. Instead, the dynamic pressure
difference
and pipe diameter of the(2.2)
inlet and
pdyncan
= 1be
calculated
V 2 2 [Pa]1if the flow
2
1
2
[
]
(2.7)
p
=
V
Pa
dyn
out
in
outlet of the pump
2 are known:
2
p tot = pstat + pdyn + pgeo [Pa]
(2.5)
2
pdyn =
(2.8)
4
Dout4
2
D in
(2.7)
pdyn = 1 Vout 2 1 Vin2 [Pa]
2
2
The formula shows that the dynamic pressure difference is zero if the pipe
diameters are identical before
2 and after the pump.
Q 1
1
(2.9)
= 1z g [Pa
]
p
pgeo
(2.8)
dyn =
D 4 D 4 [Pa]
2 way:
in the following
s
]]
p p = =prelz+ pbar g[Pa
[Pa
abs
geo
(2.3)
(2.9)
p
m 2
p = V 2 tot [m]
(2.4)
H
+ g+ g z = Constant 2
(2.10)
where
2
s
z is theP difference
invertical
position
between
the gauge connected
(2.11) to the
[W]
=
H
Q
=
Q
hyd
tot
[
]
p
=
p
+
p
Pa
(2.3)
outlet pipe
connected to the inlet pipe.
abs andrelthe gauge
bar
Phyd
(2.12)
[ 100 % ]
=p
hyd
tot
The geodetic
P
(2.4)Hence,
2
[m] difference is only relevant if z is not zero.
H = pressure
the position
of gthe measuring taps on the pipe is of no importance for the
hyd geodetic pressure difference.
calculation
of Pthe
[ 100 % ]
(2.13)
hyd
(2.11)
P
tot = H g Q = p tot Q [W ]
P1
The geodetic pressure
difference is zero when a differential pressure gauge
Phyd
(2.14)
[W]% ]
P1hyd> =
P2 >
Phyd[ 100
(2.12)
is used for
measuring
the
static pressure difference.
P2
(2.15)
tot = control motor hyd [ 100 % ]
Phyd
[ 100 % ]
(2.13)
tot =
P1 ( p abs,tot,in pvapour )
(2.16)
[m]
NPSH A =
g
(2.14)
P1 > P2 > Phyd [W ]
36
NPSH
NPSH R = NPSH
0.5 % ][m] or
tot = A >
hyd3% [ +100
control motor
[m]
NPSH A > NPSH R = NPSH3% . SA
( p abs,tot,in pvapour )
[m]
NPSH =
(2.17)
(2.15)
(2.17a)
(2.16)
36
[Pa]
(2.7)
Q 1
1
pdyn = 1
(2.8)
D 4 D 4 [Pa]
4
The energy equation for an ideal flow describes that the sum of pressure
energy, velocity energy and potential energy is constant. Named after
the Swiss physicist Daniel Bernoulli, the equation is known as Bernoullis
(2.9)
p geo = z g [Pa]
equation:
p V2
+
+ g z = Constant
2
pabs = prel + pbar
m 2
s2
(2.10)
[Pa]
(2.3)
NPSH A =
( p abs,tot,in pvapour )
g
[m]
37
(2.16)
[m]
[m]
or
(2.17)
(2.17a)
NPSH A =
NPSH A =
3500 Pa
7375 Pa
101300 Pa
3m
992.2kg m3 9.81m s 2
992.2kg m3 9.81m s 2 992.2kg m3 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 6.3m
(2.18)
37
2. Performance curves
2.7 Power
The power curves show the
flow, see
p tot = pstat + pdyn [Pa]energy transfer rate as a function of(2.1)
figure 2.7. The power is given in Watt [W]. Distinction is made between
three kinds of power, see figure 2.8:
Supplied power
from external electricity source to the motor and
(2.2)
pdyn = 1 V 2 [Pa]
2
controller (P1)
Shaft power transferred from the motor to the shaft (P2)
p tot = pstat + pdyn + pgeo [Pa]
(2.5)
Hydraulic power transferred from the impeller to the fluid (Phyd)
[Pa]
4 for4integrated
pdynsheet,
=
In the data
products, (2.8)
while P2 is
2 P1 isnormally
Dstated
D in
out
4
2
s
2.8 Hydraulic
pabs = ppower
(2.3)
rel + pbar [Pa]
The hydraulic power Phyd is the power transferred from the pump to the
fluid. As seen
pfrom the following formula, the hydraulic power is calculated
(2.4)
[m]
H =flow, tot
based on
ghead and density:
Phyd = H g Q = p tot Q
[W]
P [W]
P1
P2
Q [m3/h]
P1
P2
Phyd
(2.11)
Phyd
An independent
curve
for %
the
(2.12)in data
[ 100
] hydraulic power is usually not shown
hyd =
P
2
sheets but is part of the calculation of the pump efficiency.
tot =
Phyd
P1
[ 100 % ]
(2.13)
[W]
(2.14)
[ 100 % ]
(2.15)
38
p geo
geo = z g [Pa
2]
Q 1
1
pdyn =22 1
Dout4 m 22Din 4
p + V +2 g z =Constant
4
s 22
(2.9)
(2.9)
[Pa]
(2.8)
(2.10)
2.9 Efficiency
[Pa]
pabs = prel
+ pbar
(2.3)
(2.3)
rel
The totalabsefficiency
(bartot) is the ratio between hydraulic power and supplied
[Paefficiency
]
p geo =2.9
z shows
g the
power. Figure
curves for the pump (hyd(2.9)
) and for a
p tot
tot
(2.4)
(2.4)
[
]
H
=
m
complete pump unit with motor and controller (tot).
g
m 2
p V2
+
+ g z = Constant 2
(2.10)
(2.11)
Phyd
g refers
Q = to
p tot
Q s [W
The hydraulic
efficiency
P2 , whereas
(2.11) to P1:
hyd = 2H
tot
] the total efficiency refers
pabs = pPrel
hyd + pbar [Pa]
hyd
[ 100 % ]
hyd
hyd =
P22
p
H = Ptot [m]
hyd
g [ 100 % ]
hyd
tot
tot =
P11
Phyd = H g Q = p tot Q [W]
[W]
P11 > P22 > Phyd
hyd
Phyd
= control [100
% ] hyd [ 100 % ]
hyd
tot = control
motor hyd
tot
motor
P
2
[%]
hyd
tot
Q[m3/h]
(2.3)
(2.12)
(2.12)
(2.4)
(2.13)
(2.13)
(2.11)
(2.14)
(2.14)
(2.12)
(2.15)
(2.15)
The efficiency is always below 100% since the supplied power is always
Phyd
( p abs,tot,in
) to losses in controller, motor and pump
abs,tot,in power
vapour
larger than
the
hydraulic
due
[ 100 %p]vapour
(2.13)
(2.16)
tot =
[m]
NPSH
(2.16)
A =
A
P1 total efficiency
g
components. The
for the entire pump unit (controller, motor
and hydraulics) is the product of the individual efficiencies:
(2.17)
(2.14)
P1 > PA2 >
> NPSH
Phyd R[W
(2.17)
NPSH
=]NPSH3% + 0.5 [m] or
A
R
3%
(2.17a)
. S
(2.17a)
NPSH RR = NPSH
NPSH
(2.15)
tot = AA >
hyd3%
3% [ 100
A % ][m]
control motor
A
+ g Hgeo
) pvapour
p loss
where NPSH = ((p
pbar
loss ,, suction
suction pipe
pipe
bar
vapour [m]
geo )
abs,tot,in pvapour
(2.18)
(2.18)
A =
A
(2.16)
[
]
NPSH
m
. g
A
hcontrol = Controller
efficiency
g [ 100%]
hmotor = Motor efficiency [ . 100%]
7375 Pa
Pa + 0.5 3m
[m] or 35003 Pa (2.17)2
NPSH
NPSHAAA => NPSH 101300
R = NPSH
3%
3
2
3
2
3 9.81m s 2
992.2kg
m
9.81m
s
992.2kg
m
992.2kg
m33 9.81m s 22
(2.17a)
The flow
where> the
pump
has the highest
efficiency
is called the
optimum
. S
[
]
NPSH
=
NPSH
m
NPSH
R
A
3%
A
point orNPSH
the best
efficiency point (QBEP).
A = 6.3m
A
g
g
3500 Pa
7375 Pa
101300 Pa
=
3m
992.2kg m3 9.81m s 2
992.2kg m3 9.81m s 2 992.2kg m3 9.81m s 2
47400 Pa
-27900 Pa + 101000 Pa + 500 Pa
= 6.3m
+ 3m 1m
3
2
3
2
3
2
=
973 kg m 9.81m s
973 kg m3 9.81m s 2
NPSH A =
NPSH AA
NPSH A
NPSH AA
NPSH
A
39
NPSH AA = 4.7m
pvapour
p
+ p + 0.5 . . V12
[m]
+ H geo H loss, pipe
NPSH A = stat,in bar
(2.19)
39
2
2
Q
2. Performance
curves
p = 1
2
dyn
1
1
D 4 D 4
in
out
[Pa]
(2.8)
p isVthe
g
z
Constant
+
+
=
(2.10)
locally drops
The extent of cavitation
depends
2
Cavitation first
p totoccurs at the point in the pump where the pressure is
(2.4)
[m]
H=
lowest, which
is most often at the blade edge at the impeller inlet, see
g
figure 2.10.
(2.11)
Phyd = H g Q = p tot Q [W]
The NPSH value
Phydis absolute and always positive. NPSH is stated in meter [m]
[ 1002.11.
% ]Hence, it is not necessary to take the(2.12)
like thehead,
density of
hyd = see figure
P2
different fluids into account because NPSH is stated in meters [m].
Phyd
[between
100 % ]
(2.13)
tot =
Distinction is made
two different NPSH values: NPSHR and NPSHA.
P
NPSH [m]
(2.14)
[Available
P1 > P2 for
> PNPSH
W]
NPSHA stands
and is an expression of how close
the fluid
hyd
in the suction pipe is to vapourisation. NPSHA is defined as:
(2.15)
tot = control motor hyd [ 100 % ]
NPSH A =
( p abs,tot,in pvapour )
g
[m]
(2.16)
Q[m3/h]
where
(2.17)
NPSH A > NPSH R = NPSH3% + 0.5 [m] or
pvapour = The vapour pressure of the fluid at the present temperature
[Pa].
(2.17a)
[
m]
NPSH A > NPSH R = NPSH3% . SA
The vapour pressure is found in the table Physical properties of
water in the back of the book.
(p + g Hgeo p loss , suction pipe ) pvapour
= bar pressure
pabs,tot,in NPSH
= TheAabsolute
at the inlet flange [Pa]. [m] (2.18)
g
NPSH A =
3500 Pa
7375 Pa
101300 Pa
3m
3
2
3
2
992.2kg m 9.81m s
992.2kg m 9.81m s 992.2kg m3 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 6.3m
40
NPSH =
+H
pvapour
[m]
(2.19)
40
+ g z = Constant
(2.10)
s2
[Pa]
(2.3)
p tot
(2.4)
[m]
H=
g NPSH Required and is an expression of the lowest NPSH
NPSHR stands for
value required
operating
conditions. The absolute
pressure
(2.11)
Phyd = H for
g acceptable
Q = p
tot Q [W ]
pabs,tot,in can be calculated from a given value of NPSHR and the fluid vapour
Phyd
pressure by inserting
NPSH in the formula (2.16) instead of NPSHA.
(2.12)
[ 100 %R ]
hyd =
P2
To determine if a pump can safely be installed in the system, NPSHA and
Phyd
NPSHR
should
be found
within the
[ 100for
% ]the largest flow and temperature(2.13)
tot =
P
operating range.
1
(2.14)
P1 > P2 > Phyd [W ]
A minimum
safety margin of 0.5 m is recommended. Depending on the
application,
higher
safety
level
may%be
(2.15) noise
tot = a control
motor
hyd
] required. For example,
[ 100
sensitive applications or in high energy pumps like boiler feed pumps,
European Association
of Pump
Manufacturers
indicate a safety factor SA of
( p abs,tot,in
)
pvapour
(2.16)
[
]
=
NPSH
m
A
1.2-2.0 times the NPSH3%
. g
[m]
[m]
or
(2.17)
(2.17a)
g Hgeo can
(pbar +insystems
pbe
pprevented
loss , reduced
suction pipe ) or
vapour
The riskNPSH
of cavitation
[m] by:(2.18)
A =
g
Lowering the pump compared to the water level - open systems.
Increasing the system pressure - closed systems.
3500 Pa
7375 Pa
101300 Pa
Shortening
to reduce the
3m friction loss. 3
NPSH A =the suction line
3
2
2
992.2kg
m
9.81m
s
992.2kg
m
s
992.2kg
m3 9.81m s 2
9.81m
Increasing the suction lines cross-section area to reduce the fluid
velocity
thereby reduce friction.
NPSHand
A = 6.3m
Avoiding pressure drops coming from bends and other obstacles in
the suction line.
pvapour
p
+ pbar + 0.5 . . V12
Lowering
temperature
to reduce
[m] (2.19)
+ vapour
H geo Hpressure.
NPSH Afluid
= stat,in
loss, pipe
g
g
The two following examples show how NPSH is calculated.
47400 Pa
-27900 Pa + 101000 Pa + 500 Pa
NPSH A =
+ 3m 1m
3
2
973 kg m 9.81m s
973 kg m3 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 4.7m
41
41
[Pa]
]
pPerformance
Pa]curves
H =z g [[m
geo =
2.
g
(2.3)
(2.9)
(2.4)
2
2
p VP
Q = pmtot Q [W]
hyd
+
+ g= Hz =gConstant
(2.10) (2.11)
Reference plane
H<0
pbar
s
992.2kg
m3 9.81m s 2
9.81m
either be above or below the pump and is stated in meter [m]. The water
. S
[the
m] pump. Thus, H (2.17a)
NPSHin
> NPSH
R = NPSH
A NPSH
level
this
system
is placed
below
is negative, Hgeo =
3%
A
geo
A = 6.3m
-3m.
(p + g Hgeo p loss , suction pipe ) pvapour
[m] (2.18)
NPSH A = bar
pvapour
pstat,in
+ pis:
g0.5 . . V12
bar+
The system
NPSH
value
[m] (2.19)
+ H geo H loss, pipe
NPSH A = A
g
g
3500 Pa
7375 Pa
101300 Pa
NPSH A =
3m
3
2
3
2
2
992.2kg-27900
m 9.81m
s
m3 9.81m
+ 500 Pa m 9.81m s 992.2kg 47400
Pa s
Pa + 101000
Pa992.2kg
3
m
1
m
NPSH A =
+
973 kg m3 9.81m s 2
973 kg m3 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 6.3m
NPSH A = 4.7m
The pump chosen for the system2 in question must have a NPSHR value lower
pvapour
pstat,in + pbar + 0.5 . . V1
] (2.19)
+ H geo
H loss,
NPSH6.3
than
of 0.5
m.pipe
Hence,
the[m
pump
must have a
A =m minus the safety margin
g
g
NPSHR value lower than 6.3-0.5 = 5.8 m at the present flow.
NPSH A =
42
47400 Pa
-27900 Pa + 101000 Pa + 500 Pa
+ 3m 1m
973 kg m3 9.81m s 2
973 kg m3 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 4.7m
42
tot
(2.4)
[m]
H=
p tot g
(2.4)
[m]
H=
g
(2.11)
Phyd = H g Q = p tot Q [W]
(2.11)
Phyd = H g Q = p tot Q [W]
Phyd
(2.12)
[ 100 % ]
hyd =
Phyd
2
Example
in
(2.12)
[ P100
%a] closed system
hyd = 2.2 Pump
P2
Phyd
System
[there
] free water surface to refer to. This
100 is
% no
(2.13)
=
tot system,
In a closed
example
Phyd
P1
[ 100
% ] sensors placement above the reference
(2.13)
tot = how the
pstat, in
shows
pressure
plane can
P1
be usedPto
find the absolute
2.13.
(2.14)
[W] pressure in the suction line, see figure
1 > P2 > Phyd
(2.14)
P1 > P2 > Phyd [W ]
Hgeo>0
(2.15)
tot = control motor hyd [ 100 % ]
The relative
static pressure on the suction side is measured to be pstat,in =
(2.15)
tot = control motor hyd [ 100 % ]
Reference plane
-27.9
kPa2. Hence, there is negative pressure in the system at the pressure
( p abs,tot,in pvapour )
gauge. NPSH
The pressure
gauge is placed
in
(2.16)
[m] above the pump. The difference
A =
(
)
p
p
g
abs,tot,in
vapour
Figure 2.13: Sketch of a closed system.
height
the pressure[m
gauge
and the impeller eye(2.16)
Hgeo is therefore a
]
=
NPSH Abetween
g
positive value of +3m. The velocity in the tube where the measurement
of
(2.17)
NPSH A > NPSH R = NPSH3% + 0.5 [m] or
pressure is made results in a dynamic pressure contribution
of 500 Pa.
(2.17) (2.17a)
NPSH ANPSH
> NPSH>RNPSH
= NPSH
+ 0.5 . [m
[m]
NPSH
SA] or
R =3%
A
3%
(2.17a)
.
[m]
NPSH A > NPSH
R = NPSH
Barometric
pressure
= 1013%kPa SA
+ g Hgeo point
(pbarmeasurement
p loss , suction
pvapour
pipe)) and
Pipe loss
between
(pstat,in
pump
to
[mis
] calculated
NPSH
(2.18)
A =
g
+
(
)
p
p
H
loss
,
suction
pipe
bar
vapour
geo
HNPSH
= 1m.
[m] (2.18)
loss,pipeA =
g
System temperature = 80C
3500 Pa
7375 Pa
101300 Pa
VapourNPSH
pressure
pvapour = 47.4
kPa and2 density
3m is = 973 3kg/m3, values
are
A =
3
2
3500 Pa m 9.81m s 992.2kg
7375 Pa m3 9.81m s 2
101300
992.2kgPam 9.81m s
992.2kg
found
properties
NPSH Ain=the table Physical
3m of water. 3
3
2
2
992.2kg
m 9.81m s
992.2kg m 9.81m s 992.2kg m3 9.81m s 2
NPSH
= 6.3m
A
For
thisA system,
NPSH
= 6.3m formula 2.16 expresses the NPSHA as follows:
pvapour
p
+ p + 0.5 . . V12
[m] (2.19)
+ H geo H loss, pipe
NPSH A = stat,in bar
pvapour g
pstat,in + pbar + 0.5 . .gV12
[m] (2.19)
+ H geo H loss, pipe
NPSH A =
g
g
Inserting the values gives:
47400 Pa
-27900 Pa + 101000 Pa + 500 Pa
NPSH A =
+ 3m 1m
500 Pa s 2
47400
-27900 Pa +973
101000
Pa3 +
kg m
973
kg Pam3 9.81m s 2
9.81m
NPSH A =
+ 3m 1m
973 kg m3 9.81m s 2
973 kg m3 9.81m s 2
NPSH A = 4.7m
NPSH A = 4.7m
Despite the negative system pressure, a NPSHA value of more than 4m is
available at the present flow.
43
43
2. Performance curves
2.11 Axial thrust
Axial thrust is the sum of forces acting on the shaft in axial direction,
see figure 2.14. Axial thrust is mainly caused by forces from the pressure
difference between the impellers hub plate and shroud plate, see section
1.2.5.
The size and direction of the axial thrust can be used to specify the size of
the bearings and the design of the motor. Pumps with up-thrust require
locked bearings. In addition to the axial thrust, consideration must be taken
to forces from the system pressure acting on the shaft. Figure 2.15 shows an
example of an axial thrust curve.
The axial thrust is related to the head and therefore it scales with the speed
ratio squared, see sections 3.4.4 and 4.5.
Force [N]
500
400
300
200
100
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Q [m3/h]
100
80
60
40
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Q [m3/h]
44
44
2.13 Summary
Chapter 2 explains the terms used to describe a pumps performance
and shows curves for head, power, efficiency, NPSH and thrust impacts.
Furthermore, the two terms head and NPSH are clarified with calculation
examples.
45
45
Chapter 3
Buffer tank
Qoperation
48
48
Boiler
Valve
Hoperation
Qoperation
Hz
Buffer tank
Heat Exchanger
Hoperation
Qoperation
Hmax
Hmax
Hoperation
Hoperation
Hloss,friktion
Hloss,friktion
Hz
Qoperation
49
Qoperation
49
H
Hmax
Hoperation, a= Hoperation, b
Qoperation, a = Qoperation, b
Qmax Q
Hoperation, a
Qoperation, a
Qsystem
Qoperation, b
Pumps connected in parallel are e.g. used in pressure booster systems, for water supply and for water supply in larger buildings.
Major operational advantages can be achieved in a pressure booster system
by connecting two or more pumps in parallel instead of installing one big
pump. The total pump output is usually only necessarry in a limited period.
A single large pump will in this case typically operate at lower efficiency.
Hoperation, b
By letting a number of smaller pumps take care of the operation, the system
can be controlled to minimize the number of pumps operating and these
pumps will operate at the best efficiency point. To operate at the most
optimal point, one of the parallel-connected pumps must have variable
speed control.
50
50
Hoperation, b
Hmax,total
Hmax,a
Hoperation,tot= Hoperation,a+Hoperation,b
Hoperation, a
Qoperation,a= Qoperation,b
Qmax
Hoperation,b
Qoperation, a= Qoperation, b
Hoperation,a
There are also a number of other regulation methods e.g. control of preswirl rotation, adjustment of blades, trimming the impeller and cavitation
control which are not introduced further in this book.
51
51
Valve
Hloss, throttling
Hloss,system
System Bypass
flow
flow
Q
P
P1 P
2
Pa
52
System
a
Pb
Q
a
Hloss,system
Pb P
a
P
b
Q-Qbypass
Q
Bypass
flow
b
Pb
Q bypass
System
flow
Bypass valve
Q
P
Pa
System
b
a
52
n
n BB
(3.3)
(3.3)
P
(3.3)
= P
PBBB =
PAAA n B 3
n BAAA
(3.3)
PB = PA
2
nA
2
n 2
(3.4)
NPSH BB = NPSH AA n BBB 2
(3.4)
(3.4)
NPSH B = NPSH A n
n BAA
(3.4)
NPSH B = NPSH A A
nA
Index A in the equations describes the initial values, and index B describes the
PL,avg
= 0.06 P100%
+ 0.15 P75%
+ 0.35 P50%
+ 0.44 P25%
(3.5)
(3.5)
75%
50%
25%
PL,avg
= 0.06 P100%
(3.5)
modified
values.
L,avg
100% + 0.15 P75% + 0.35 P50% + 0.44 P25%
PL,avg = 0.06 P100% + 0.15 P75% + 0.35 P50% + 0.44 P25%
(3.5)
P
The equationsPL,avg
provide coherent points on an affinity parabola in the QH
L,avg
[[]] is shown in figure 3.11.
EEI = L,avg
(3.6)
(3.6)
= P parabola
EEI affinity
(3.6)
graph. The
Ref
PPL,avg
Ref
Ref
[]
EEI =
(3.6)
PRef
Different regulation curves can be created based on the relation between
the pump curve and the speed. The most common regulation methods are
proportional-pressure control and constant-pressure control.
53
H
n = 100%
n = 80%
Coherent
points
Affinity
parabola
n = 50%
53
54
54
P2
P2
55
55
H
H max
max { Q . H } ~ P hyd,max
Q
P1
P100%
n
HB = operating
H A B point is the point on the pump curve where the
(3.2)product
The nominal
nA
of Q and H is the highest. The same flow point also refers to P100%, see figure
3
3.14. Figure 3.15 shows
n B the time distribution for each flow point.
(3.3)
PB = PA
nA
The representative power consumption is found by reading the power
2
consumption at the different
n B operating points and multiplying this with
(3.4)
NPSH B = NPSH
A
the time expressed
in percent.
n A
EEI =
PL,avg
PRef
[]
Phyd,max
(3.5)
(3.6)
Q100%
Flow %
Time %
100
75
15
50
35
P100%
25
44
H
H max
P75%
3.15: Load profile.
PFigure
50%
P25%
Q25%
Q50%
Q75%
Q100%
Q100%
Q75%
Q50%
Q25%
56
56
nB
(3.1)
nA
3.6 Energy efficiency index (EEI)
2
In 2003 a study of anmajor
part of the circulation pumps on the market was
H
H
=
(3.2)
B TheA purpose
conducted.
n was to create a frame of reference for a representa A
tive power consumption for a specific pump. The result is the curve shown
3
in figure 3.16. Based
n on
the study the magnitude of a representative power
(3.3)
PB = PA B
consumption of an
pump at a given Phyd,max can be read from the
A
n average
curve.
2
n
(3.4)
NPSH B = NPSH A B
The energy index is defined
n A as
the relation between the representative
power (PL,avg) for the pump and the reference curve. The energy index can
be interpreted as an expression of how much energy a specific pump uses
PL,avg = 0.06 P100% + 0.15 P75% + 0.35 P50% + 0.44 P25%
(3.5)
compared
to average pumps on the market in 2003.
QB = Q A
EEI =
PL,avg
PRef
[]
(3.6)
If the pump index is no more than 0.40, it can be labelled energy class A. If the
pump has an index between 0.40 and 0.60, it is labelled energy class B. The
scale continues to class G, see figure 3.17.
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1
10
100
1000
10000
Klasse
A
EEI
B 0.40 < EEI
C 0.60 < EEI
D 0.80 < EEI
E 1.00 < EEI
F 1.20 < EEI
G 1.40 < EEI
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
Hmax
Q 0% ,
H100%
2
Q100% , H100%
n25%
n50%
n75%
n100%
57
58
58
Chapter 4
Pump theory
4.1 Velocity triangles
4.2 Eulers pump equation
4.3 Blade form and pump curve
C2
C2m
U2
C2u
4.7 Slip
W1
W2
C1m
U1
r1
r2
4. Pump theory
4. Pump theory
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the theoretical foundation of energy conversion in a centrifugal pump. Despite advanced calculation methods which have seen the light of day in the last couple of years, there is still
much to be learned by evaluating the pumps performance based on fundamental and simple models.
When the pump operates, energy is added to the shaft in the form of mechanical energy. In the impeller it is converted to internal (static pressure)
and kinetic energy (velocity). The process is described through Eulers pump
equation which is covered in this chapter. By means of velocity triangles for
the flow in the impeller in- and outlet, the pump equation can be interpreted
and a theoretical loss-free head and power consumption can be calculated.
Velocity triangles can also be used for prediction of the pumps performance
in connection with changes of e.g. speed, impeller diameter and width.
4.1 Velocity triangles
For fluid flowing through an impeller it is possible to determine the absolute
velocity (C) as the sum of the relative velocity (W) with respect to the impeller, i.e. the tangential velocity of the impeller (U). These velocity vectors
are added through vector addition, forming velocity triangles at the in- and
outlet of the impeller. The relative and absolute velocity are the same in the
stationary part of the pump.
The flow in the impeller can be described by means of velocity triangles,
which state the direction and magnitude of the flow. The flow is three-dimensional and in order to describe it completely, it is necessary to make two
plane illustrations. The first one is the meridional plane which is an axial
cut through the pumps centre axis, where the blade edge is mapped into
the plane, as shown in figure 4.1. Here index 1 represents the inlet and index
2 represents the outlet. As the tangential velocity is perpendicular to this
plane, only absolute velocities are present in the figure. The plane shown in
figure 4.1 contains the meridional velocity, Cm, which runs along the channel
and is the vector sum of the axial velocity, Ca, and the radial velocity, Cr.
60
Cm
Cr
1
Ca
60
C2
W2
C2m
U2
U2
2
2
C1m
W2
C2
C2U
C2m
U2
W1
C2
C2m
W2
C2U
C2U
W1
U1
W1 1
r1
r2
U1
C1m
C1m
Figure
4.2b: Velocity triangles
U1
The second plane is defined by the meridional velocity and the tangential
velocity.
An example of velocity triangles is shown in figure 4.2. Here U describes the
impellers tangential velocity while the absolute velocity C is the fluids velocity
compared to the surroundings. The relative velocity W is the fluid velocity compared to the rotating impeller. The angles and describe the fluids relative
and absolute flow angles respectively compared to the tangential direction.
Velocity triangles can be illustrated in two different ways and both ways are
shown in figure 4.2a and b. As seen from the figure the same vectors are repeated. Figure 4.2a shows the vectors compared to the blade, whereas figure
4.2b shows the vectors forming a triangle.
W1
W1
U1
U1
C1
C1m
C1
C1m C1U
C1U
By drawing the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet, the performance curves
of the pump can be calculated by means of Eulers pump equation which
will be described in section 4.2.
61
61
4. Pump theory
4.1.1 Inlet
Usually it is assumed that the flow at the impeller inlet is non-rotational.
This means that 1=90. The triangle is drawn as shown in figure 4.2 position
1, and C1m is calculated from the flow and the ring area in the inlet.
The ring area can be calculated in different ways depending on impeller type
(radial impeller or semi-axial impeller), see figure 4.3. For a radial impeller
this is:
A1 = 2 r1 b1 [m2]
(4.1)
where
r1 , hub + r1 , shroud
b1 inlet
(4.2)
[m2edge
] [m]
r1 = TheAradial
of the impellers
1 = 2 position
2
62
b2
Blade
r2
(4.2)
[
]
m
A1 = 2
b
1
A1 = 2 Cr1 b1 [m22]
(4.1)
1m
[ ]
(4.5)
tan 1 =
Q impeller
Umust
m
1 r
r
+
The entire
flow
pass
through
this
ring
area.
C
is
then
calculated
2
1
,
hub
1
,
shroud
C
(4.3)
1m
A111 m==2 rA1 b1 [[ms ]]
(4.1)
b1
(4.2)
[m2]
1
from:
2
(4.6)
A2 = 2 r2 b2 [m2]
r1n, hub + r1 , shroud m
2
U
22Q
r1 [ sb1]
r1
=m
(4.4)
(4.2)
[
]
m
A
impeller
11 =
60 [ ]
C 1m =
(4.3)
A1 r2 , hub + rs22 , shroud
(4.7)
b2 [m2]
A 2 = 2 QC1 m
[[m
(4.5)
tan 1 = impeller
2 ]]
m
n
=
C
(4.3)
U
U11 m= 2 velocity
r1 U= sequals
r1 the
A
[ sproduct
]
The tangential
of radius and angular(4.4)
frequency:
1 60 1
Q impeller m 2
(4.8)
C22m=
(4.6)
A
= =2 =CA
s[m]r1]]
U
rr1221m bn2 [ [=
(4.4)
[ms ]
(4.5)
tan
1 2
1
60
U
2
1
A1 = 2 r1 b1 n [m ]
(4.1)
where U = 2 C1rm r
+ r rshroud
[m
]
(4.9)
2
s
2 =
2 2 , hub[ =22,]
2
(4.5)
tan
(4.7)
A
(4.6)
= Angular
[s
A22 ==221frequency
Ur21 rb160
[
m
+-12]r1], shroud b2 [m ] 2
2, hub
b1
(4.2)
[
m]
A1 = 2
-1
n = RotationalCspeed [min2 ]
m
2m
2
W
(4.10)
[ [s+m]r2,]shroud b [m2]
(4.6)
A22==2 Q impeller
r2 rb
2 , hub
(4.7)
A
Qimpeller
2 2 [m
]
(4.8)
C22m==2sin
2
s[m
]
=
C
A
2s has been drawn, see figure 4.4, based(4.3)
1 mvelocity
2 triangle
When the
on 1, C1m
A1 r
+ r2 , shroud m
2 , hub
2
C
n
m
and U1,A
angle
Without inlet
rotation
2m
(4.7)
[m calculated.
]
b2 ] be
= 2relative
flow
(4.11)
C
U
Uthe
r [ ]1 [can
(4.9)
22 ==2 Q
2 r2 n m=
[=s2 ]2r1 2s [mss ]
(4.8)
C)212U
= =2 becomes:
impeller
r1tan
60
(4.4)
(C1 = C1mU
this
m
A 2 60
Q
C2(impeller
C
n[m
m
TC
r21rmC
r[1 =] C]r1U) [Nm
(4.12)
(4.8)
=21 =
W
(4.10)
(4.5)
[ms ]
tan
2 U
U22=2m==m
(4.9)
U2212 60 s 2
sin A
n
m
= 22C
r2 C
b2 mm=2 r2 m
[s]
U2 =
(4.9)
2mrT
(4.6)
A
[
]
m
60
[
W
(4.13)
=
2 P=
2
2
(4.11)
C
[
]
U
W
(4.10)
[
]
2U
2
22
s
s
sin 2 tan
= m . . (2r2 . C2U r1 . C1U )
C r2 , hubm+ r2 , shroud
W22 ==2= 2m m
(4.10)
. [ .sr2]. C2U
(4.7)
[.Nm
A
b. [m2]
T = =msin
(r2C2CU(2m
r1 C1U[)m
(4.12)
(4.11)
C
] r1 2 C]1U )
U
b1
r1
b2
W2
r2, shroud
C2
b2
1
r1, shroud
Blade
C2m
U2
r2, hub
2
r1, hubC2U
W1
1
C1m
U1
Figure 4.4: Velocity triangle at inlet.
W1
C1
62
63
r1 , hub + r1 , shroud
b1
(4.2)
[m2]
(4.1)
A1 = 2 r1 b1 [m2]
2
+ r21 , shroud
A1 =
= 2 Qimpeller
r1 br11, hub[m
(4.1)
b1
(4.2)
[m2]
A
1 =2
[ms2]]
C
(4.3)
1m
A1
r
r
+
1 , hub 1 , shroud
m
(4.2)
[m2]
A = 2 Q impeller
b1
n m
[
C111 m= =
(4.3)
2]
U
2
r
r
(4.4)
[
]
2
s
1
1]
s
A
=
2
b
[
m
(4.1)
A1 1 60
1
1
4.1.2 Outlet
Q Cimpeller
m
As withCthe
inlet,1 mthe
velocity
triangle at the outlet is drawn as(4.3)
shown in
1 m =
[[+srr121]], shroud
(4.5)
tan
U
212=
r1 r1n, hub=
A
[m
1=
s]
(4.2)
[m2] area is calculated(4.4)
A
1
A11 position
= 2 Ur112.b60
]
(4.1)
b1
figure 4.2
a2radial
impeller,
outlet
as:
1For[m
m
n
C
U
rr122] [ s ]
rr11mbr =
(4.4)
(4.5)
tan
=Q
+m
A11 ==22
[m
(4.1)
11, hub[
1 , shroud
(4.6)
A
2 [m ]
Ur211 b60
]
=12 impeller
C
(4.3)
b1
(4.2)
[m2]
A21 m==2
s
2
1
CA
1m
r
r
+
1 , hub[
1 , shroud
(4.5)
tan
(4.2)
[m2]
+ r22,]]shroud m
A1 ==212=Q Ur rb
b1
2n
, hub[
2
(4.6)
A
m
2 semi
21 impeller
2 =m
impeller
(4.7)
[
]
m
A
2
b
2
2
r
r
=
(4.4)
[
]
and forU
a
axial
it
is:
2
2
[
C11 m =
(4.3)
1
1]
s
s
A1 60 2
2
Q
m
+mr ]
(4.6)
A
r12m rb
, 2hub[
2
=2= Cimpeller
C 21 m==2
(4.3)
(4.7)
[bm
2n
[ sr2,]shroud
A
A
(4.5)
tan
2= 2
2 ] [m ]
1Q
m
impeller
U
r
(4.4)
1
1
1
1
(4.8)
C2 m = U 1 60[ s ]2
s
A 2 r2n
r
+
, hub
2 , shroud
m
2
(4.7)
[b2sfor
U
r
C in
= r12 way
(4.4)
] [m ]
A12 ==22Q
C2m is calculated
same
nm
m ] the inlet:
(4.5)
tan
(4.6)
A
r121rm the
b60
2 ]r as
2 [ [m
]
(4.8)
C
[
==221 =impeller
=
U222m=
(4.9)
s
U
s
2
2
CA121m 60
[ ]
(4.5)
tan 1 Q
= impellerr m
2 , hub
n[ [s+m]r22,]shroud m [m2]
Ur 1 b
(4.8)
C
(4.6)
(4.7)
A
b
[
]
U222m===22C
r
r
(4.9)
2
2
2
m
s
2
2
W 2 = 2 mA 2 60
(4.10)
[ s ]2
(4.6)
A2 = 2sin
r22 rb2n [+mr2]
[ms ] [m2]
r2 2 , hub =2 , rshroud
U2 = 2 Q
(4.9)
2
C
(4.7)
2
m 60m
A
2
b
impeller
2
2
C2 m[ sU]2is calculated
W
The tangential
from the following:
(4.10)
(4.8)
C2 2m== velocity
m
(4.11)
C2U = sin
[ s ]
U 2A22 r2 , hub + r2 , shroud
2
(4.7)
b2 [m ]
A 2 = 2 C 2m tan m2
n[ m
W
=2 Q
(4.10)
]2 r m
[m ]
C
2=
s
impeller
U
r
(4.9)
s
2
2
2
2
m
[s] [s]
(4.8)
C2 m ==sin
(4.11)
C
U 2 60
[Nm]
T 2U= mQ (2rA2 2Ctan
(4.12)
2U r21 C1U )
m
[ sdesign
] mphase,
(4.8) value
C2 m = C impeller
Cthe
In the beginning
same
2n
mm
A
22m
C
[ms ]2 is assumed to have the(4.11)
=2 U
of
=] r2 [
U2U
(4.9)
2r2 [
2=
s ] [Nm
W
=
(4.10)
2
60
s
] can then be calculated from:
T = msin
(r2 Ctan
(4.12)
as the blade
angle.
The
21 C1U ) velocity
2U rrelative
2
n
m
W]r [ ]
(4.13)
U2 P=2 2 = Tr2 [=
(4.9)
s
2
60
C
.
.
.
.
m
2
m
(rr12] CC12UU)m
r1[Nm
C1U])
T =2 =m= (r2m
C2CU2 m
(4.12)
W
(4.10)
[
(4.11)
C2UP= sin
U 2T s[W] [ s ]
(4.13)
. ( . 2r2 . C2U . r1 . C1U )
2 tan
2 =
=
C2 m m
m
W 2 = = m . [. (sr ]. C r . C )
(4.10)
. ( U2 . 2C2U 2Um
= m
U11 . C11UU)
2T C
and C2UCas:P= sin
2 m [W]
(4.13)
=
(4.11)
[
]
U
2
T 2U= m= (2r2m
C2. U(.
.rr12..CC12UU)s [.Nm
(4.12)
. ]
= Q .tan
(U
2 .C2U U1.r.1C1CU1)U )
.
.
= m .C2 m (.r2 C2Um
r1 . C1U )
(4.11)
C2U = =U 2 m ( U2 C2U
[ U]1 C1U )
. ( . 2r2 . C2U s
. r1 . C1U )
tan
=
m
[
]
Nm
. C]]12UU ) U1 . C1U )
T =P m
(4.12)
=
Ur2[1[W
2Q
2Q
U. (
(4.14)
P
p(rtot
W
(4.13)
T C.
hyd2= =
= m . ( U2 . C2U U1 . C1U )
.
.
.
.
HerebyTthe
velocity
triangle
at
the
outlet
has
been
determined
and
=
m
(
r
C
r
C
)
]
= m (r2 C. 2U. r12. C12UU) 1[Nm
(4.12)can now
=
Q Q ( U2[WC]2U U1 . C11UU )
p
tot
(4.14)
P
=
p
be drawn,
figure
tot
. C]2U . r1 . C1U )
m
Hhyd=
(4.15)
(4.5.
]. r[2W
(4.13)
P2see
T .[
= g m
. (U.2(.r2C.2CU 2U Ur11 . CC11UU))
=
(4.14)
PhydP2=p
tot
p totm
W]]
(4.13)
=
TQ
[[W
H
=
(4.15)
.
.
.
..[m
.
.
.
.
(]U
C
U
C
)
(4.16)
Phyd ==Q g Q
H .
g
=
m
g
m
(
r
r
C
)
[
]
W
1 1U)1U
= m . (2r22 . C222UUU r11. C
1U
p
. 1.U )
tot m .. ( U2. . C
1 .C
[m
H= =
(4.15)
( ] r2 . 2CU2UU
r C )
=
pgPm
(4.16)
=
Q
H
g
=
m
H
.g1C 1[)UW]
[
]
W
(4.14)
Phyd
Q
(4.17)
=
P
.
.
.
Q
(
U
C
U
hyd hyd = tot
2
2
2
U
1
1
U
= m . ( U2 . C2U U1 . C1U )
(U2 C2U U. 1 C1U )
m H g =. m
=Qtot Q
. ( Ug2 .=
Cm HU gC [)W]
(4.16)
P P =p
(4.17)
=pP2H [Qm
hyd
]
H
=
[W]2U 1 1U
(4.14)
(4.15)
Phyd
=
hyd (U
2tot C2U U1 C1U )
g
H=
m H g = mg (U2 C2U U1 C1U )
W2
2
U2
C2
C2m
C2U
W1
63
r1 , hub + r1 , shroud
b1
(4.2)
[m2]
A1 = 2
2
2
A1 = 2 r1 b1 [m ]
(4.1)
Q impeller
m
4. Pump
C 1 m =theory
(4.3)
r1 , hub[+sr1], shroud
b1
(4.2)
[m2]
A1 = 2 A 1
22
A1 ==22rr1 b1n =
[mr ] [ms ]
(4.1)
U
(4.4)
1
1
Q impeller
60 m1
4.2 Eulers
pump
equation
[
]
C 1m =
(4.3)
r1 , shroud
r1 , hubis+sthe
2 equation in connection with
CA
1
Eulers tan
pump
equation
most
important
1 m
(4.2)
[
]
m
A
2
b
[ 2]
(4.5)
1 1 =
1
U 1equation
n
derived
m
pump design.
The
can
be
in
many
different
ways.
The metU1 = 2 r1
= r1
(4.4)
[
]
s
60
Q
m
hod described
includes a control volume which limits the impeller,
the
impeller
= here
C 1 m= 2
(4.3)
(4.6)
A
CrA2 b2 [[ms2]]
2
moment
of
momentum
equation
which
describes
flow
forces
and
velocity
1m
1
[ ]
(4.5)
tan 1 =
triangles at inletUand
outlet.
1
m
n
U1 = 2 r1r2 , hub=+ r21, shroud
[s] 2
(4.4)
(4.7)
b2 [m ]
A 2 = 2 60
2
A2 =
2 Cr2 is
ban
m2 ]
limited volume which is used (4.6)
2 [
A control
volume
imaginary
for setting
[ ]The equilibrium equation can be set (4.5)
tan 1 = 1 m
up equilibrium
equations.
up for torU1
Q impeller
m
+ ]r2 , shroud
r2 , hub
[
(4.8)
=
C
2
m
2
s
ques, energy
which
b2 [m
] are of interest. The(4.7)moment
A 2 = 2 and
A 2other flow quantities
22one
equilibrium equation, linking(4.6)
A2 = 2 equation
r2 b2 [m
]
of momentum
is
such
mass flow
n
m]
[
=
U
2
r
r
(4.9)
s
2
2
2
and velocitiesQwith
impeller
60m diameter. A control volume between 1 and 2, as
[ s+ ]r2, shroud
(4.8)
= impeller
C2 mfigure
r2is, hub
shown in
4.6,
used for
(4.7)
m2]
A 2 = 2 A 2 often
b2 an[impeller.
2
C
W 2 = 2 m n[m
(4.10)
s =] r [m ]
2 r2 we are
U2 = 2sin
s in is a torque balance. The(4.9)
2
The balance
which
torque (T)
60m interested
Q impeller
(4.8)
[
]
=
C
m
2
s
from the drive shaft
to the torque originating from the fluids
A 2 C2corresponds
m]
m
(4.11)
C2U = CU
[
m
22mimpeller
flow through
the
with
mass
flow m=rQ:
s
W2 =
(4.10)
tann[s2 ]
m
2 r2
= r2 [ s ]
U2 = 2sin
(4.9)
60
64
2
= m . ( . r2 . C2U . r1 . C1U )
W]
(4.13)
P2 =
T .( U .[C
C1U ])
T = m= (r2m
C2U 2r1 C2U1U) U1 [.Nm
(4.12)
.
.
.
.
=
m.
. ( U(2r2. CC22UUUr11 .CC11UU))
= Q
= m . ( . r2 . C2U . r1 . C1U )
W] U . C )
(4.13)
P = m
T [C
(4.14)
2]U
1
1U
Phyd2= =
p tot .Q( U2 [. W
.
.
.
.
=
m
(
r
C
r
C
)
= Q . . ( U22. C22UU U11 . C11UU )
p
=tot m . ( . r2 . C2U . r1 . C1U )
[m] equation, the hydraulic power added (4.15)
H =to the
According
to the fluid
= g menergy
C2]U U1 . C1U )
(4.14)
Phyd = p tot .Q( U2 [. W
can be written as the increase in pressure ptot across the impeller multi= Q . . ( U2 . C2U U1 . C1U )
plied byPhyd
the=flow
(4.16)
pQtot HQ: g = m H g [W]
[
m]
H=
(4.15)
g
(4.14)
Phyd = p tot Q [W]
(4.17)
Phyd = P2
(4.16)
Phydm= pH
Q gH= m
(gU= m
g
[
]
W
C U1 C1U )
tot
[
m] 2 2U
H=
(4.15)
(Ug C U C )
2
2U
1
1U
Hhyd= = P2
(4.17)
P
g
r1
1
U1 = r1
2
r2
U2 = r2
2
64
U2 =2 2 =
r
(4.9)
s.
2 . (. r =
2
.
.
60
2 C2U r1 C1U )
.
.
.
.
= m (r2 C2U r1 C1U )
= m . ( U2 . C2U U1 . C1U )
. C . r1 . C1U )
C m
(4.13)
P2 =
T .( . r[2W
. ]2U
.
W 2 = = 2 mQ . . ([Um
(4.10)
2 ]C2U U1 C1U )
s
.
.
.
.
.
= m
(
U
C
U
C
)
sin
2(r2 2CU 2U r11 C11UU )
2
. (.
Q.
( U. .. C U . . C. )
(4.14)
Phyd = =
p totm C
Q2 m r2[2W]22UU m1 r1 1CU1U )
The head
as:
(4.11)
C2Uis=defined
[ sU] . C )
U
. ( U2 . C2U
= 2 mtan
1
1U
2
(4.14)
Phyd =p
p tot . Q. [W
. ]
.
H = =tot Q [m(]U2 C2U U1 C1U )
(4.15)
T = m (gr2 C2U r1 C1U ) [Nm]
(4.12)
ptot
H
(4.15)
(4.14)
Phyd= = pgtot [Qm] [W]
and thePhyd
expression
(4.16) to:
= Q H for
hydraulic
g = m H power
g [Wcan
] therefore be transcribed
(4.13)
P2 p
= T [W]
[
]
m
H
(4.16)
(4.15)
Phyd= ==Qtot
g
=
m
g
[
]
W
(4.17)
Phyd =gP2m . . (r2 . C2U r1 . C1U )
. 2CU
. C1U ))
= gm=. m
( .(rU
2 C
.Ur1free,
If the flowm
is H
to
loss
the hydraulic and(4.17)
mechanical
2 be2 U
1 C1Uthen
=assumed
(4.16)
PhydPhyd
= =Q
P2m
H . (U g. C= mUH .Cg )[W]
2
2
U
1
1
U
U C U1 C1U )
power can be (equated:
H = =H 2gQ=. 2Um
(U. 2C C2U U
U. 1C C)1U )
m
. (gU
2
2U
1
1U
(4.17)
Phyd =
P
(U22 C2U U1 C1U )
H=
g
2 C 2)
HpUtot
g22 =Q
m
(4.14)
Phydm=
U12 ([UW2 ] C2U WU
C22 C12
1 1 W12U
[m] (4.18)
H =
+
+
2g
2g
(U2 22C2gU 2 U1 C1U )
=p U U
H
W 2 W22
C22Dynamic
C12 head
head2as consequence
[m] (4.15)
(4.18)
H == Statictot
+ Static 1head as consequence
+
[
m1g]
of the velocity
of
the centrifugal
g 2 g force
2 g change
2g
the impeller
This is the equation known asthrough
Eulers
equation, and it expresses the impel2
2
2
Static head
as consequence
Static head2as consequence
U
U
W
W
C 2Dynamic
C 2 head outlet.
2
1
1
2
lers head
at
tangential
and
absolute
velocities
of
the
velocity
change
[m] (4.16)
(4.18)
Hhyd= of= the
+ in2inlet1 and
P
Qcentrifugal
H force
g = +m through
H gthe impeller
[
]
W
2 g are applied2 to
g the velocity
2 gtriangles, Eulers pump
If the cosine relations
headof
as consequence
Dynamic head
Staticbe
head
as consequence
equation can
written
as theStatic
sum
the three contributions:
of the velocity change
of the
force
(4.17)
=centrifugal
Phyd
P2
through the impeller
Uthe
m H g = m (U2 C2U of
1 Ccentrifugal
1U )
Static head as consequence
force
(
)
U
C
U
C
2 consequence
2U
1
1U of the velocity change through the impeller
Static head
H = as
g
Dynamic head
U22 U12
2g
H =
W12 W22
2g
C22 C12
2g
[m]
(4.18)
Dynamic head
H0 =
65
U 22
g
[m]
(4.19)
65
4. Pump theory
When designing a pump, it is often assumed that there is no inlet rotation
meaning that C1U equeals zero.
H =
U 2 C 2U
g
[m]
(4.20)
v
[N]
F =m
4.3 Blade shape and pump curve
v = A v 2 [N]
I = m
2
[N]
I = F
2
1
(4.22)
2
2
1
2
2
U
U2
Q
H=
g
D2 b2 g tan( 2 )
2>90 o
(4.21)
2>90 o2>90 o
[m]
2
1
U2 2
U 2 (4.23)
(4.21)
b
Q [m]
H = 2 D
Q B = Q A g B2 BD2 b2 g tan( 2 )
DA bA
2
D Geometric
HB= HA B
scaling
Figure 4.7 and 4.8
the connection
between the theoretical pump
DAillustrate
(4.22)
nB
=
Q
Q
4
curve and the
B blade
AD nshape
b indicated at 2.
PB = PA B4 AB
DAn bA2 Scaling of
Real pumpHcurves
are,B however, curved due to different losses, slip, inlet
=
H
rotational speed
A
B
rotation, etc., This is
A
nfurther
discussed in chapter 5.
3
nB
UPBB =CPm,B
C
(4.24)
A n
=
= Au,B
UA C m,A Cu,A
66
2
1
(4.21)
U 2 C 2U
(4.20)
H =shapes
[m]on outlet
Figure 4.7: Blade
depending
angle
(4.22)
g nB
QB = QA
nA
that
If it is assumed
of Eul(4.21)
[N2 ] is no inlet rotation (C1U =0), a combination
F =m
v nthere
B Scaling of
ers pumpHequation
and
equation
(4.6),
(4.8)
and
(4.11)
show
that
the
B = HA (4.17)
nA rotational speed
2
head varies
linearly
I =
m v =with
3 Athe
v flow,
(4.22)outlet
[Nand
] that the slope depends on the
angle 2: PB = PA nB
(4.23)
I = F [Nn]A
(4.23)
DB2 bB
2
QU
B Q AnB D2,B
B=
= D b
UA nA DA2,A 2 A
D Geometric
HB= HA B
(4.23)
2 < 90o
H
0
es
>9
blad
r b2
ept
H fo
w
s
d
war
For
H for b2 = 90
H fo
rb
< 90
d-sw
ept
b
Back
war
lade
s
Q
(4.25)
66
W2
C2m
C2
2
H=
1
U2 C2U
g
This can be used for making qualitative estimates of the effect of changing
impeller geometry or rotational speed.
67
67
4. Pump theory
In the following, the effect of reducing the outlet width b2 on the velocity
triangles is discussed. From e.g. (4.6) and (4.8), the velocity C2m can be seen
to be inversely proportional to b2. The size of C2m therefore increases when b2
decreases. U2 in equation (4.9) is seen to be independent of b2 and remains
constant. The blade angle b2 does not change when changing b2.
W2
C2
C2m
The velocity triangle can be plotted in the new situation, as shown in figure
C decrease and that
4.10. The figure shows that the velocities C2U and CU
will
H = 2 2 2U
[m]
W2 will increase. The head will then decrease according
g to equation (4.21).
The power which is proportional to the flow multiplied by the head will
see
decrease correspondingly. The head at zero Fflow,
[N] (4.20), is
=m
v formula
2
proportional to U2 and is therefore not changed in this case. Figure 4.11
the
shows a sketch of the pump curves before andafter
I =m
vchange.
= A v 2 [N]
68
(4.20)
(4.21)
(4.22)
(4.23)
D 2 b
Q B = Q A B2 B
DA bA
2
DB Geometric
HB= HA
DA scaling
D 4 b
PB = PA B4 B
DA bA
(4.23)
[m]
(4.21)
W
Q
Cm
CU
CB
WB
WA
2
UB
UB C m,B Cu,B
=
=
UA C m,A Cu,A
C2U,B
[N]
I = Fis changed,
Similar analysis can be made when the blade form
see section
U 2 C 2U
2
4.3, and
4.5.(4.20)
H by
= scaling of both
[m] speed and geometry, seeUsection
U2
Q
H= 2
g
g
D2 b2 g tan( 2 )
4.5 Affinity rules
v
(4.21) changes
[N] affinity rules, the consequences of certain
F =m
By means
of the so-called
in the pump geometry and speed can be predicted with much
precision.
(4.22)
n
v = A v 2 [N]
I = are
m
B (4.22)
Q B =the
Q Avelocity
The rules
all derived under the condition that
triangles
are
nA
geometrically
before and after the change. In the formulas
below,
2 (4.23)
N]
I = F [similar
Scaling of
nB and
derived in section 4.5.1, index A refers to the original
geometry
index
to
=
H
H
A
B
2
nA rotationalB speed
U
U
2
2
the scaled
(4.21)
Q [m]
H = geometry.
3
U
g
D2 b2 g tan( 2 )
nB
PB = PA
nA
(4.23)
D 2 b
Q B = Q A B2 B
DA bA
2
DB Geometric
C2m,B
C2U
(4.22)
n
QB = QA B
nA
2
n Scaling of
HB = HA B
nA rotational speed
3
n
PB = PA B
nA
C2,B
W2,B
UA
Cm,B
Cm,A
CU,B
CA
CU,A
(4.24)
68
Figure 4.12 shows an example of the changed head and power curves for a
pump where the impeller diameter is machined to different radii in order to
match different motor sizes at the same speed. The curves are shown based
on formula (4.26).
[%]
H [m]
260 mm
247 mm
20
234 mm
221 mm
16
80
70
12
60
50
40
30
20
10
4
12
16
20
24 28
32
36
40 Q (m 3/h)
P2 [kW]
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
69
69
2,B
=UQ2 A
U2
B
(4.21)
Q [m]
HQ=
n
g AD2 b2 g tan( 2 )
2
nB Scaling of W
C2
=
H
H
2
A
4. PumpBtheory
nA rotational speed
C2m
C2m,B
3
(4.22) 2
nB
PBB = Q
PAA
Q
C2U,B
C2U
U
nA
D
b
3
A
A
ty rules can also be nused
when wanting to change outlet width and outlet
PB =scaling).
PA D
2B
diameter (2D
B n A Geometric
HB= HA
DA scaling
2
When the velocity
are(4.23)
similar, then the relation between the
DBB4 triangles
bB
Q
Q
P
P
B
A
2
B
A
4
corresponding sides
inthe velocity triangles is the same before and after
DAA bA
a change of all components,
see figure 4.13. The velocities hereby relate to
2
DB Geometric
=
H
H
each other
scaling
B as:
A
DA
UB C m,B
(4.24)
D4 C
bu,B
=B4 C B
PBU= P=A C
m,AD bu,A
A
A A
UB nB D2,B
(4.25)
= velocity is expressed by the speed n and the impellers outer
The tangential
U nA D2,A
C expression
C
(4.24)
diameterUDAB 2. The
above for the relation between components
= m,B = u,B
m
UA after
C m,AtheCchange
before and
of the impeller diameter can be inserted:
u,A
UB
UA
nB D2,B
(4.25)
nA D2,A
CU
Q = A 2 C2m= D2 b2 C2m
(4.26)
2
=
=
(4.26)
2
70
Q U D C2bU,A
D2,B b2,B nB D2,B D2,B b2,B nB
C
2,B
H B== 2,A 2,B
2m,B =
=
(4.27)
g
Q A D2,A b2,A C2m,A D2,A b2,A nA D2,A D2,ACB b2,A nA
2
2
HB U2,B C2U,B g U2,B C2U,BWB nB D2,BW
nB D2,B D2,B nB C
A
A
=
=
=
=
m,B
HA U2,A C2U,A g U2,A C2U,A nA D2,AnA DC2,A
D2,ACm,A
nA
2
U C
UB
UA
CU,B
CU,A
H = 2,A g 2U,A
(4.27)
(4.28)
P = Q U 2 C2 U
2
2
HB U2,B C2U,B g U2,B C2U,B nB D2,B nB D2,B D2,B nB
4
=
=
=
=
3
U nC D nQ D H D D nbA2,B nB
CU22,B
H
g2U,BU2,AQ CB 2U,A
PBA QUB2,A
U,A C
=
=
2,B A 2U,B2,A= A B 2,A B = 2,A2,B
PA QA U2,A C2U,A Q A U2,A C2U,A Q A HA D2,A b2,A nA
70
UB
UB =
U
A=
UA
C m,B
DA
=
C
m,B
C m,A
=
C m,A
bu,B
C
A
C
u,B
Cu,A
Cu,A
(4.24)
(4.24)
UB n
D2,BCu,B
CBm,B
(4.24)
(4.25)
UB == nB D=2,B
(4.25)
UA = n
CAm,A
D2,ACu,A
UA nA D2,A
Neglecting inlet rotation, the changes in flow, head and power consumption
UB nB D2,B
(4.25)
can be expressed
as follows:
=
UA nA D2,A
Flow:
Q = A 2 C2m= D2 b2 C2m
(4.26)
Q = A 2 C2m= D2 b2 C2m
(4.26)
2
Q B D2,B b2,B C2m,B D2,B b2,B nB D2,B D2,B 2 b2,B nB
Q = D2,B b2,B C2m,B = D2,B b2,B nB D2,B = D2,B b2,B nB
D2,A b2,A C2m,A = D2,A b2,A nA D2,A = D2,A b2,A nA
Q BA =
DC2 b2 C2m
Q
2m=
D2,A b2,A nA D2,A D2,A b2,A (4.26)
nA
Q A= A2DC2,A
b2,A
2m,A
2
Q B D2,B b2,B C2m,B D2,B b2,B nB D2,B D2,B b2,B nB
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(4.28)
C2 U
P = Q U22U,A
Power consumption:
4
3
PB QB U2,B C2U,B Q B U2,B C2U,B Q B HB D2,B 4 b2,B nB 3
= Q H = D b n
QB
U2,B C
C2U,B = Q
PB = Q
B U 2,B C2U,B
B
B
UU
nBA
2,A
2U,A = Q A U 2,A C2U,A = Q A HA =
2,A
2,A
A== Q A
D2,B
b2,B
(4.28)
PP
C
PA QA U22,A 2CU2U,A Q A U2,A C2U,A Q A HA D2,A b2,A nA
4
3
1
PB QB Q U
Q B U2,B C2U,B Q B HB D2,B b2,B nB
2 C2U,B
d12,B
=
=
nq = nd Q d3 2
(4.29)
Q A U2,A C2U,A Q A HA D2,A b2,A
4 C2U,A
2,A
nPAq = nQdA H U
(4.29)nA
d3
4
Hd
nq = nd
71
Qd
Hd
(4.29)
71
U1
4. Pump theory
4.6 Inlet rotation
Inlet rotation means that the fluid is rotating before it enters the impeller.
The fluid can rotate in two ways: either the same way as the impeller
(co-rotation) or against the impeller (counter-rotation). Inlet rotation occurs
as a consequence of a number of different factors, and a differentation
between desired and undesired inlet rotation is made. In some cases inlet
rotation can be used for correction of head and power consumption.
In multi-stage pumps the fluid still rotates when it flows out of the
guide vanes in the previous stage. The impeller itself can create an inlet
rotation because the fluid transfers the impellers rotation back into the inlet
through viscous effects. In practise, you can try to avoid that the impeller
itself creates inlet rotation by placing blades in the inlet. Figure 4.14 shows
how inlet rotation affects the velocity triangle in the pump inlet.
According to Eulers pump equation, inlet rotation corresponds to C1U being
different from zero, see figure 4.14. A change of C1U and then also a change
in inlet rotation results in a change in head and hydraulic power. Co-rotation
results in smaller head and counter-rotation results in a larger head. It is
important to notice that this is not a loss mechanism.
72
W1
C1
W1
C1
W1
b1
U1
b1
b1
C1
a1
a1
a1
C1U
C1U
No inlet rotation
Counter rotation
Co-rotation
Figure 4.14: Inlet velocity triangle at constant
flow and different inlet rotation situations.
72
4.7 Slip
In the derivation of Eulers pump equation it is assumed that the flow follows the blade. In reality this is, however, not the case because the flow
angle usually is smaller than the blade angle. This condition is called slip.
Nevertheless, there is close connection between the flow angle and blade
angle. An impeller has an endless number of blades which are extremely
thin, then the flow lines will have the same shape as the blades. When the
flow angle and blade angle are identical, then the flow is blade congruent,
see figure 4.15.
The flow will not follow the shape of the blades completely in a real impeller with a limited number of blades with finite thickness. The tangential
velocity out of the impeller as well as the head is reduced due to this.
Suction side
C2
Pressure side
C'2
U2
Figure 4.15:
When designing impellers, you have to include the difference between flow
angle and blade angle. This is done by including empirical slip factors in the
calculation of the velocity triangles, see figure 4.16. Empirical slip factors
are not further discussed in this book.
It is important to emphasize that slip is not a loss mechanism but just an
expression of the flow not following the blade.
C2
C'2
C2m
W2
W'2
'2 2
U2
W'2
W2
'2
C2
C'2
U2
73
Figure 4.16: Velocity triangles where indicates the velocity with slip.
73
Q A D2,A b2,A
C2m,A
D2,A
b2,A
nA
4. Pump theory
H=
U2,A C 2U,A
g
(4.27)
2
2
4.8 Specific
a pump
HB speed
U2,B of
C2U,B
g U2,B C2U,B nB D2,B nB D2,B D2,B nB
A model number,
(n2,Bq), is
classify
n
b2,B pumps.
C2therefore
U2,Bspecific
C2U,B speed
Q B used
HB toD2,B
PB QB the
Q U
U,B
= is given
= B units.
=Europe
the
= following
B is
Specific speed
in
different
In
form
PA QA U2,A C2U,A Q A U2,A C2U,A Q A HA D2,A b2,A nA
commonly used:
nq = nd
Qd
Hd
(4.29)
Where
nd = rotational speed in the design point [min-1]
Qd = Flow at the design point [m3/s]
Hd = Head at the design point [m]
The expression for nq can be derived from equation (4.22) and (4.23) as the
speed which yields a head of 1 m at a flow of 1 m3/s.
The impeller and the shape of the pump curves can be predicted based on the
specific speed, see figur 4.17.
Pumps with low specific speed, so-called low nq pumps, have a radial outlet with large outlet diameter compared to inlet diameter. The head curves
are relatively flat, and the power curve has a positive slope in the entire flow
area.
On the contrary, pumps with high specific speed, so-called high nq pumps,
have an increasingly axial outlet, with small outlet diameter compared to the
width. Head curves are typically descending and have a tendency to create
saddle points. Performance curves decreases when flow increases. Different
pump sizes and pump types have different maximum efficiency.
74
74
Impeller shape
nq
Outlet velocity
triangle
15
d1
d2
30
U2
50
W2
d1
C2
U2
C2U
100
H %
Hd
Pd
C2
C2U
100
Pd
C2
W2
110
U2
W2
C2U
C2
U2
C2U
100 P
%
70 Pd
60
0
d2
155 Q/Qd
100
H %
Hd
U2
100 P
%
80 Pd
d1
165 Q/Qd
55
d2
90
110 P
%
100 Pd
Pd
100
W2
170 Q/Qd
70
C2U
d2
d1 = d2
100
100
C2
H %
Hd
d1
100 Pd
80
C2U
W2
130 P
Pd
100
C2
U2
d1
H %
Hd
d2
W2
Performance curves
100
H %
Hd
100
Pd
H
140 Q/Qd
100 P
%
65 Pd
45
0
4.9 Summary
In this chapter we have described the basic physical conditions which are the
basis of any pump design. Eulers pump equation has been desribed, and we
have shown examples of how the pump equation can be used to predict a
pumps performance. Furthermore, we have derived the affinity equations
and shown how the affinity rules can be used for scaling pump performance.
Finally, we have introduced the concept of specific speed and shown how
different pumps can be differentiated on the basis of this.
75
75
Chapter 5
Pump losses
5.1 Loss types
5.2 Mechanical losses
5.3 Hydraulic losses
5.4 Loss distribution as function of specific speed
5.5 Summary
5. Pump losses
5. Pump losses
As described in chapter 4, Eulers pump equation provides a simple, lossfree description of the impeller performance. In reality, because of a number
of mechanical and hydraulic losses in impeller and pump casing, the pump
performance is lower than predicted by the Euler pump equation. The losses
cause smaller head than the theoretical and higher power consumption, see
figures 5.1 and 5.2. The result is a reduction in efficiency. In this chapter we
describe the different types of losses and introduce some simple models for
calculating the magnitude of the losses. The models can also be used for
analysis of the test results, see appendix B.
Euler head
Recirculation losses
Leakage
Flow friction
Incidence
Pump curve
Q
Figure 5.1: Reduction of theoretical Euler
head due to losses.
Shaft power P2
Mechanical losses
Disk friction
Hydraulic losses
Hydraulic power Phyd
P
Loss
Mechanical
losses
Hydraulic
losses
Smaller
flow (Q)
Higher power
consumption (P2)
Bearing
Shaft seal
Flow friction
Mixing
Recirculation
Incidence
Disk friction
Leakage
Q
X
Q
Figure 5.2: Increase in power consumption
due to losses.
Pump performance curves can be predicted by means of theoretical or empirical calculation models for each single type of loss. Accordance with the
actual performance curves depends on the models degree of detail and to
what extent they describe the actual pump type.
78
78
Figure 5.3 shows the components in the pump which cause mechanical and
hydraulic losses. It involves bearings, shaft seal, front and rear cavity seal, inlet, impeller and volute casing or return channel. Throughout the rest of the
chapter this figure is used for illustrating where each type of loss occurs.
Volute
Diffuser
Inner impeller surface
Outer impeller surface
Front cavity seal
Inlet
Bearings and shaft seal
79
79
5. Pump losses
5.2 Mechanical losses
The pump coupling or drive consists of bearings, shaft seals, gear, depending
on pump type. These components all cause mechanical friction loss. The
following deals with losses in the bearings and shaft seals.
(5.1)
where
V2
= H dyn, inpower
= demand because of mechanical (5.2)
H loss, friktion
Ploss, mechanical
= Increased
loss [W]
2g
Ploss, bearing = Power lost in bearings [W]
LV 2lost in shaft seal [W]
Ploss, shaftH
= Power
seal
(5.3)
loss, pipe = f
Dh 2 g
(5.4)
Dh = 4 A
5.3 Hydraulic O
losses
VD harise on the fluid path through the pump. The losses occur
Hydraulic
(5.5)
Re losses
=
because of friction
or because the fluid must change direction and velocity
64 the pump. This is due to cross-section changes and the
on its path
(5.6)
flaminarthrough
=
passage throughRethe rotating impeller. The following sections describe the
individual hydraulic losses depending on how they arise.
Q
(10/3600) m3 s
Mean velocity: V =
=
= 3.45 m s
A
0.032 2 m2
4
Reynolds number: Re =
80
3.45m s 0.032m
VD h
= 110500
=
1 10 6 m 2 s
0.15mm
= 0.0047
80
V2
2g
(5.2)
2
where H loss, pipe = f LV
(5.3)
Dh 2 g
= Dimensionless
loss coefficient [-]
4A
Hdyn, in D= =Dynamic
head into the component [m]
(5.4)
h
O
V
= Flow velocity into the component [m/s]
VD h
(5.5)
Re =
64
(5.6) 5.4.
flaminar
= thus grows quadratically with the flow velocity, see figure
The friction
loss
Re
A
2
0.032 2 m
can typically be modelled with a 4constant
loss coefficient. Impeller, volute
housing and return channel will on the contrary typically have a variable loss
3.45m
s 0.032m
VD hin the
coefficient.
When
the flow
impeller
is calculated,
the relative
= 110500
Reynolds
number:
Refriction
=
=
2
6
10
m
s
velocity must be used in equation (5.2).
LV 2
Hloss,friktion
V
Figure 5.4: Friction loss as function of
the flow velocity.
0.15mm
= 0.0047
32mm
2m ( 3.45 m s) 2
81
5. Pump losses
Friction loss in pipes
Pipe friction is the loss of energy which occurs in a pipe with flowing fluid. At
the wall, the fluid velocity is zero whereas it attains a maximum value at the
pipe center. Due to these velocity differences across the pipe, see figure 5.5,
the fluid molecules rub against each other. This transforms kinetic energy to
heat energy which can be considered as lost.
(5.1)
Ploss, mechanical = Ploss, bearing + Ploss, shaft seal = constant
The loss in the pipe depends on the fluid velocity, the hydraulic diameter
of the pipe, lenght and inner surface
V 2 roughness. The head loss is calculated
H loss, friktion = H dyn, in =
(5.2)
2g
as:
H loss, pipe = f
LV 2
Dh 2 g
(5.3)
where
(5.4)
Dh = 4 A
O loss [m]
Hloss, pipe = Head
VD h coefficient [-]
f
= Friction
(5.5)
Re
=
L
= Pipelength [m]
64 velocity in the pipe [m/s]
V
=
Average
(5.1)
= Ploss, bearing + Ploss, shaft seal = constant
(5.6)
fPlaminar
=
loss, mechanical
Re diameter [m]
Dh
= Hydraulic
V2
= H dyn,
of the cross-sectional
H loss, friktion
(5.2)wetted
inQ =ratio
The hydraulic
diameter
is the
area to the
(10/3600)
m3 s
2g
Mean velocity: V =
=
= 3.45 m s
(5.4)
Dh =
1 10 6 m 2 s
O
VD h
0.15mm
where Relative
(5.5)
Re =
roughness: k/Dh =
= 0.0047
32mm
A = The cross-section area of the pipe
[m2]
64
O = Thef wetted
circumference
of the pipe [m]
(5.6)
laminar =
2
Re
2m ( 3.45 m s) 2
LV
= 0.031
= 1.2 m
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe = f
2
D h 2g
0.032m 2 9.81 m s
Q
(10/3600) m3 s
=
= 3.45 m s
2 2 2
A
0.032 m
V
= H
= 4 1
(5.7)
Mean velocity: V =
82
(5.8)
82
Equation (5.4) applies in general for all cross-sectional shapes. In cases where
(5.1) to the
= Ploss,
= constant
mechanical
bearing + Ploss, shaft
the pipePloss,
has
a circular
cross-section,
thesealhydraulic
diameter is equal
pipe diameter. The circular pipe is 2the cross-section type which has the
smallest
possible
interior surface V
compared to the cross-section(5.2)
area and
H loss,
friktion = H dyn, in =
2g
therefore the smallest flow resistance.
LV 2
H loss, pipe = f
(5.3)
Dh 2 is
g not constant but depends on whether the flow is
The friction coefficient
laminar or turbulent.
This is described by the Reynolds number, Re:
(5.4)
Dh = 4 A
O
VD h
(5.5)
Re =
64
(5.6)
flaminar =
Re
where
83
H2300
H
(5.2)
<
Re
<
500
:
Transition
zone
loss, friktion
dyn, in
2g
Re > 5000
: Turbulent
flow.
2
2m ( 3.45 m s) 2
2
= f LV = 0.031
= 1.2 m
Pipe loss: H loss,
LVpipe
2
D h 2g
H loss, pipe = f
0.032m 2 9.81 m s (5.3)
D
2
g
h
Laminar flow only occurs
at relatively low velocities and describes a calm,
well-ordered4flow
without
eddies. The friction coefficient for laminar flow is
(5.4)
Dh = A
O the surface roughness
V2
independent of
Reynolds
= H dyn,1 = 1 and is only a function of the(5.8)
H loss, expansion
VD
2 g with circular cross-section:(5.5)
h
number.ReThe
following
applies
for
pipes
=
2
A
= 1 641
(5.9)
(5.6)
flaminar = A2
Re
2
A
V2
(5.10)
H loss, contraction = 1 0 0
AQ2 (10/3600)
2g
m3 s
Mean velocity: V =
=
= 3.45 m s
A
2
2
0.032
m
2
4V
H loss, contraction = H dyn,2 = 2
(5.11)
2g
3.45m s 0.032m
VD h
= 110500
Reynolds number: Re =
=
2
w 1 w 1, kanal
1 10 6 m 2 s
ws2
=
H loss, incidence =
(5.12)
(5.7)
83
5. Pump losses
Turbulent flow is an unstable flow with strong mixing. Due to eddy motion
most pipe flows are in practise turbulent. The friction coefficient for turbulent flow depends on the Reynolds number and the pipe roughness.
Figure 5.6 shows a Moody chart which shows the friction coefficient f as
function of Reynolds number and surface roughness for laminar and turbulent flows.
Figure 5.6: Moody chart:
Friction coefficient for laminar (circular
cross-section) and turbulent flow (arbitrary
cross-section). The red line refers to the
values in example 5.1.
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.05
inar
0.06
Lam
0.07
0.04
0.03
0.015
0.04
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.03
0.004
0.025
0.002
n zo
sitio
0.02
0.02
64
Re
Tran
Friction coefficient
(f)
0.05
ne
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
Sm
oo
th
0.015
0.0004
pip
0.0002
0.0001
Turbulent
0.00005
0.01
0.009
0.000001
0.008
10
84
10
10
10
10
0.000005
7
0.00001
10
84
Table 5.2 shows the roughness for different materials. The friction increases
in old pipes because of corrosion and sediments.
Materials
PVC
Ploss, mechanical
= Ploss, bearing + Ploss, shaft seal = constant
Pipe in aluminium, copper og brass
Roughness k [mm]
0.01-0.05
(5.1)
0-0.003
0.01-0.05
V2
(5.2)
2g
Welded steel pipe, new
0.03-0.15
Ploss, mechanical
= Ploss, bearing
+ Ploss, shaft seal = constant 0.15-0.30 (5.1)
Welded
steel
deposition
LV 2 pipe with
H loss, pipe = f
(5.3)
Galvanised
0.1-0.2
Dh 2steel
g pipe, new
2
V
Galvanised
with
0.5-1.0
= pipe
H dyn,
=
HAloss, friktionsteel
(5.2)
in deposition
4
2
g
(5.4)
Dh =
O
LV 2 of pipe loss
VD
Example
5.1:
Calculation
h
(5.5) (5.3)
pipe = f
Re = H loss,
Dh 2 in
g a 2 meter pipe with the diameter d=32 mm and a
Calculate
the pipe loss
64 m3/h. The pipe is made of galvanized steel with a roughness of
flow of Q=10
(5.6) (5.4)
flaminar =Dh = 4 A
Re Othe fluid is water at 20C.
0.15 mm, and
VD h
(5.5)
Re =
Q
(10/3600) m3 s
Mean velocity: V64=
=
= 3.45 m s
A
(5.6)
flaminar =
0.032 2 m2
Re
4
Steel pipe
3.45m s 0.032m
VD h
= 110500
Q = (10/3600) 6m3 s2
1 10 m s= 3.45 m s
Mean velocity: V =
=
A
0.032 2 m2
4
0.15mm
Relative roughness: k/Dh =
= 0.0047
32mm
3.45m s 0.032m
VD h
= 110500
Reynolds number: Re =
=
1 10 6 m 2 2s
2
2m ( 3.45 m s)
(5.7)
f LVthe= 0.031
= 1.2when
m
Pipe loss:
From
the H
Moody
friction
coefficent (f) is 0.031
Re =
loss, pipe =chart,
2
0.15mm
D h 2g
0.032m
2
9.81
m
s
Relative
roughness:
k/D
=
=
0.0047
h
110500 and the relative roughness
k/D
=0.0047. By inserting the values in
h
32mm
the equation (5.3), the pipe loss can be calculated to:
V 12 2
2m ( 3.45 m s(5.8)
)2
H
H loss, expansion
H dyn,1 = = f LV
= 0.031
= 1.2 m
Pipe =loss:
loss, pipe
2
g
2
D h 2g
0.032m 2 9.81 m s
2
A
= 1 1
(5.9)
A2
V 12
(5.8)
H loss, expansion = H
2 dyn,1 2=
2g
A
V
(5.10)
H loss, contraction = 1 0 0
2
2g
A A 2
= 1 1
(5.9)
Reynolds number: Re =
85
(5.7)
85
5. Pump losses
(5.1)
V2
5.3.2 Mixing loss at cross-section expansion
H loss, friktion = H dyn, in =
(5.2)
2g pressure energy at cross-section exVelocity energy is transformed to static
2
pansions in the pump,
the energy equation in formula (2.10). The converLVsee
H loss, pipe = f
(5.3)
sion is associated with
Dh 2agmixing loss.
4A
(5.4)
Dh = is
The reason
O that velocity differences occur when the cross-section exVD h 5.7. The figure shows a diffuser with a sudden expansion
pands, see figure
(5.5)
Re =
beacuse all water
particles no longer move at the same speed, friction occurs
64
between the molecules
in the fluid which results in a diskharge head loss.
(5.6)
flaminar =
Even though theRe
velocity profile after the cross-section expansion gradually
is evened out, see figure 5.7, a part of the velocity energy is turned into heat
Q
energy instead of static pressure
energy. m3 s
(10/3600)
Mean velocity: V =
=
= 3.45 m s
A
0.032 2 m2
4 in the pump: At the outlet of the imMixing loss occurs at different places
peller where the fluid flows intoVD
the volute
casing
or return channel as well
3.45m
s 0.032m
h
= 110500
Reynolds
number: Re =
=
as in the
diffuser.
6
1 10 m 2 s
A2
A1
A2
A1
V 12
2g
A2
A1
V2
V1
(5.7)
(5.8)
A
where
= 1 1
A2into
V1 = Fluid velocity
(5.9)
A
V2
The pressure
loss coefficient
the com(5.10)
H loss, contraction
= 1 0 depends
0 on the area relation between
g evenly the area expansion happens.
2 as2
asAwell
ponents inlet and outlet
how
ws2
V 22
2g
w 1 w 1, kanal
(5.11)
2
86
2m ( 3.45 m s) 2
LV 2 = 0.031
= 1.2 m
2
D h 2g
0.032m 2 9.81 m s
(5.7)
V 12
(5.8)
=
H
H
loss, expansion
For a sudden
expansion, as dyn,1
shown in figure
2 g 5.7, the following expression is used:
A
= 1 1
A
2
(5.9)
2
where
A
V2
(5.10)
H loss, contraction = 1 0 2 0
A1= Cross-section areaat inlet
A 2 [m ]2 g
A2= Cross-section area at outlet [m2]
V 22
=
H
H
(5.11)
dyn,2
loss,
contraction
The model gives a good estimate of2 gthe head loss at large expansion
ratios
(A1/A2 close to zero). In this case the loss coefficient
is
=
1
in
equation
(5.9)
2
2
w
w
w
1
1, kanal
which means
that= almost
is
H loss, incidence
s the
= entire dynamic head into the component
(5.12)
2 g
2g
lost in a sharp-edged diffuser.
(5.13) with
For small
well
H loss,expansion
(Q Qas
)2 +as
k 2 for other diffuser geometries
incidence = k 1 ratios
design
smooth area expansions, the loss coefficient is found by table lookup
(MacDonalds)
Ploss, disk or
= by
k measurements.
U 32 D2 ( D2 + 5e )
k = 7.3 10
2 10 6
U 2 D2
(5.14)
(n3D52 )A
5.3.3 Mixing
loss
contraction
(Ploss, disk
)A =at( Pcross-section
)
(5.15)
loss, disk B
(n3D52 )B
Head loss at cross-section contraction occurs as a consequence of eddies being
created Q
inimpeller
the flow
it comes close to the geometry edges, see
figure 5.8.
(5.16)
= Q when
+ Q leakage
It is said that the flow separates. The
for this is that the flow because
2 reason
2
2 ( D2 Dgap )
H stat, pressure
gap = H stat,
impeller
fl longer adheres in parallel to the(5.17)
of the local
gradients
no
surface but
8g
instead will follow curved streamlines. This means that the effective cross2
V 2flow
L V 2 + 1.0 isVreduced.
section H
area
which the
It is said that a(5.18)
contraction
+ fexperiences
stat, gap = 0.5
2g
s 2g
2g
is made. The contraction with the area A0 is marked on figure 5.8. The contraction
accelerates the flow and it must therefore subsequently decelerate again to
(5.19)
fill the cross-section.
occurs in this process. Head loss as a
2gH stat, gapA mixing loss
V=
consequence off Lcross-section
contraction
occurs typically at inlet to a pipe
s + 1.5
and at the impeller eye. The magnitude of the loss can be considerably reduced
= inlet
Q leakagethe
VA gapedges and thereby suppress separation. If the inlet is
by rounding
adequately rounded off, the loss is insignificant. Losses related to cross-section
contraction is typically of minor importance.
87
Contraction
A1
A0
V1
A2
V0
V2
87
32mm
= 0.0047
Q
(10/3600) m3 s
2
Mean
velocity:
V
=
=
= 3.45
2m
( 3.45mmss) 2
5. Pump
0.0312 m2
= 1.2 m
Pipe losses
loss: H loss, pipe = Af LV =0.032
2
D h 2 g4
0.032m 2 9.81 m s
3.45m s 0.032m
VD h
= 110500
Model Reynolds number: Re = =2
1 10 6 m 2 s
V1
(5.8)from V
= that the acceleration of the fluid
H loss,
H dyn,1
Based on
experience,
assumed
expansion = it is
1
2g
0.15mm
to V0 is Relative
loss-free,
whereas
the
subsequent
mixing
loss
depends
on
the
area
roughness:
k/Dh =
= 0.0047
2
32mm
A1 to the contraction
ratio now
A0 as well as the dynamic head in the
1
=compared
(5.9)
A2
contraction:
2
2m ( 3.45 m s)
2LV 2
= 1.2 m
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe
=Af0
V =2 0.031
2
H loss, contraction = 1 D h 2 g 0
0.032m 2 9.81 m s (5.10)
2g
A2
(5.7)
(5.7)
where
V0
A0/A2
VV22 2
=
H
H
(5.11)
dyn,2
loss,
contraction
(5.8)
= H
= 2 g1 [m/s]
H=loss,
expansion
Fluid
velocity
indyn,1
contraction
2g
= Area ratio 2[-] 2
2
w 1 w 1, kanal
A1 w s
loss,
= incidence
H
(5.12)
(5.9)
1 = 2 g =
A2
2g
The disadvantage
of this model is that it assumes knowledge of A0 which is
2
not directly measureable.
is therefore
The
following
AQ
V2 2 alternative formulation (5.13)
0
H loss,
=
k
(
Q
(5.10)
) 0+ k 2
design
loss, incidence
contraction =1 1
often used:
A
2
g
2
(5.14)
k = 7.3 10
2
where
U22D2 w w
w
1
1, kanal
= outs of=the
component [m]
H loss, incidencehead
(5.12)
Hdyn,2 = Dynamic
2 g (n3D52 )A 2 g
(Ploss,
( Ploss,of
)B component
(5.15)
V2 = Fluid
velocity
[m/s]
disk )A = out
diskthe
(n3D52 )B
2
(5.13)
H loss, incidence = k 1 (Q Q design ) + k 2
(5.16)
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage
Figure 5.9 compares loss
coefficients at sudden cross-section expansions
Ploss, disk == H
k U 32 D2 (D2+2 5(eD)22 D2gap )
(5.17)
H
stat, gap
stat, impeller
fl the area ratio A /A between the
and contractions
as
functionmof
inlet and
1
2
8g
6
2
10
4
outlet. As
and thereby also the head
loss, is in
2loss coefficient,
(5.14)
k =shown,
7.3 10 the
2
U2 D2LV 2than in expansions.
V
V
generalHsmaller
at
contractions
This
applies
in
particular
0.5
+f
+ 1.0
(5.18)
stat, gap =
2g
s 2g
2g
at large area ratios.
3 5
(n D2 )A
(Ploss, disk )A = ( Ploss, disk )B
(5.15)
(n3D52(5.19)
)B
The head loss
coefficient
for geometries with smooth area changes can be
2gH
stat, gap
V=
Q impeller
=L Q+ 1.5
+ QAs
found by
table flookup.
mentioned earlier, the pressure loss in (5.16)
a cross-secleakage
s
2
2
tion contraction can be reduced2 to
zero by rounding off the edges.
( Dalmost
2 Dgap )
(5.17)
H
Qstat,
gap = H
stat,gap
impeller fl
VA
leakage
3
2
A1
A2
A1
AR = A2 /A1
1,0
A2
AR = A1 /A2
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
Area ratio
Hloss,contraction = . Hdyn,2
Hloss,expansion = . Hdyn,1
Figure 5.9: Head loss coefficents at sudden
cross-section contractions and expansions.
8g
2
2
2
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V
2g
s 2g
2g
88
(5.19)
(5.18)
88
Recirculation zones
Model
There are no simple models to describe if recirculation zones occur and if so to
which extent. Only by means of advanced laser based velocity measurements
or time consuming computer simulations, it is possible to map the recirculation
zones in details. Recirculation is therefore generally only identified indirectly
through a performance measurement which shows lower head and/or higher
power consumption at partial load than predicted.
When designing pumps, the starting point is usually the nominal operating
point. Normally reciculation does not occur here and the pump performance
can therefore be predicted fairly precisely. In cases where the flow is below
the nominal operating point, one often has to use rule of thumb to predict the
pump curves.
89
89
Dh 2 g
Dh = 4 A
O
5. Pump losses
VD h
Re =
64
flaminar =
Re
(5.4)
(5.5)
(5.6)
Q
(10/3600) m3 s
Mean velocity:
= 3.45 m s
5.3.5 Incidence
loss V = A =
0.032 2 m2
4 a difference between the flow angle and
Incidence loss occurs when there is
blade angle at the impeller or guide
leading
edges. This is typically the
3.45m
s 0.032m
VD h vane
= 110500
=
=exists.
6
case at Reynolds
part loadnumber:
or when Re
prerotation
1 10 m 2 s
0.15mm
A recirculation
occurs on
side
of the=blade
when there is difference
Relativezone
roughness:
k/Done
0.0047
h =
32mm
between the flow angle and the blade angle, see figure 5.11. The recirculation
zone causes a flow contraction after the blade leading edge.2 The flow must
2
2m ( 3.45 m s)
LVcontraction
once again
after
= f the
= 0.031 to fill the entire blade
= channel
1.2 m
Pipedecelerate
loss: H loss, pipe
2
D h 2g
0.032m 2 9.81 m s
and mixing loss occurs.
2 occur at the volute tongue. The deAt off-design flow, incidence losses V
also
(5.8)
H loss, expansion = H dyn,1 = 1
signer must therefore make sure that
2 gflow angles and blade angles match
each other so the incidence
loss is minimised. Rounding blade edges and vo2
A1
1
A2
A
V2
Model
(5.10)
H loss, contraction = 1 0 0
The magnitude of the incidence
A 2 loss
2 gdepends on the difference between relative velocities before and after the blade leading edge and is calculated using
V 22
the following
model=(Pfleiderer
1990, p 224):
H dyn,2 =og
Petermann,
H loss, contraction
(5.11)
2g
W1
90
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage
(n3D52 )A
(n3D52 )B
(5.12)
na
,ka
w 1 w 1, kanal
w2
H loss, incidence = s =
2 g
2g
1
W
(5.15)
(5.16)
90
A
V2
H loss, contraction = 1 0 0
2g
A2
(5.10)
V 22
(5.11)
2g
Incidence loss is alternatively modelled as a parabola
with minimum at the
2
2
w 1 w 1, kanal
w
s
best efficiency
point.
loss increases quadratically with
= The incidence
=
H loss, incidence
(5.12)the dif2 g flow and 2the
g actual flow, see figure 5.13.
ference between the design
H loss, contraction = H dyn,2 =
P=loss,Design
U 32[m
D23/s]
( D 2 + 5e )
disk = k
flow
m
5 6
10
= Constant [s22/m
]
k = 7.3 10 4
= Constant [m]
U 2 D2
(Ploss, disk )A = ( Ploss, disk )B
(n3D52 )A
(n3D52 )B
(5.13)
k2
Qdesign
(5.14)
(5.15)
(5.16)
Q
= Q + Q leakage
5.3.6 Diskimpeller
friction
2
2
2 ( Dconsumption
2 Dgap )
Disk friction
is the
power
which occurs on(5.17)
the shroud
H stat, gap
= Hincreased
stat, impeller fl
8g
and hub of the impeller because it rotates in a fluid-filled pump casing. The
2
2
fluid in the cavity between
impeller
and 2pump casing starts to rotate and
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V
(5.18)
2
g
s
2
g
2 g The rotation velocity equals the
creates a primary vortex, see section 1.2.5.
impellers at the surface of the impeller, while it is zero at the surface of
the pump casing. The average velocity
(5.19) of the primary vortex is therefore as2gH stat, gap
V =be equal to one half of the rotational velocity.
sumed to
f Ls + 1.5
The centrifugal
Q leakage =force
VA gapcreates a secondary vortex movement because of the
difference in rotation velocity between the fluid at the surfaces of the impeller and the fluid at the pump casing, see figure 5.14. The secondary vortex increases the disk friction because it transfers energy from the impeller surface
to the surface of the pump casing.
The size of the disk friction depends primarily on the speed, the impeller diameter as well as the dimensions of the pump housing in particular the distance between impeller and pump casing. The impeller and pump housing
surface roughness has, furthermore, a decisive importance for the size of the
disk friction. The disk friction is also increased if there are rises or dents on
the outer surface of the impeller e.g. balancing blocks or balancing holes.
91
Hloss, incidence
e
Secondary
vortex
91
0.15mm
Relative roughness: k/Dh = 2
= 0.0047
V 232mm
H loss, contraction = H dyn,2 =
2g
5. Pump losses
(5.11)
2
2 2m ( 3.45 m s )
LV 2w =0.031
w 1, kanal
= 1.2 m
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe
w s=2 f D 2 g
1
2
= h
H loss, incidence =
0.032m 2 9.81 m s (5.12)
2 g
2g
(5.7)
Model
Pfleiderer
Petermann (1990, p.
2 322) use the following model to deter(5.13)
H loss,and
incidence = k 1 ( Q Q design ) +
V 1k2 2
mine the
increased
power
consumption
caused by disk friction: (5.8)
=
H loss,
H
expansion
dyn,1
2g
3
2 2 D 2 ( D 2 + 5e )
Ploss, disk = k U
A
m
= 1 1
(5.9)
2 10 6
A
(5.14)
k = 7.3 102 4
U2 D2 2
A0
V0 2
(5.10)
H
1
=
A 2 (n3D52 )2Ag
2g
k = Emperical value 2 g
2
2
V
L
V2
V
Hstat, gap = equals
0.5
+ ffor smooth
+2 1.0surfaces
m = Exponent
1/6
and between 1/7(5.18)
to 1/9
2g ) + k 2 2 g
(5.13)
H loss, incidence = k21 g (Q Qs design
for rough surfaces
(5.19)
Ploss,are
=
k U 2 Dthe
disk
2 ( Ddesign
2 + 5e ) of the impeller, calculated disk friction
2gH
stat, gapto
If changes
made
V=
m
6
L + 41.5
2to estimate
Ploss,disk,A can be fscaled
the disk friction Ploss,disk,B at another impel10
s
(5.14)
k = 7.3 10
ler diameter or speed:
U 2 D2
Q leakage = VA gap
(n3D52 )A
(Ploss, disk )A = ( Ploss, disk )B
(5.15)
(n3D52 )B
3
The scaling
(5.16)
Q equation
= Q + can
Q only be used for relative small design changes.
impeller
leakage
( D22 D2gap )
8g
(5.17)
2
2
2
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V
(5.18)
2g
s 2g
2g
5.3.7 Leakage
Leakage loss occurs because of smaller
(5.19) circulation through gaps between
2gH stat, gap
V = and fixed parts of the pump. Leakage loss results in a loss in efthe rotating
+ 1.5flow in the impeller is increased compared to the flow
f Lsthe
ficiency because
throughQthe
entire pump:
leakage = VA gap
92
92
2 10 6
(5.14)
k = 7.3 10 4
U DQ (10/3600) m3 s
Mean velocity: V =2 2 =
= 3.45 m s
A 3 5 0.032 2 m2
(n D24)A
(Ploss, disk )A = ( Ploss, disk )B
(5.15)
(n3D52 )B
3.45m s 0.032m
VD h
= 110500
Reynolds number: Re =
=
1 10 6 m 2 s
(5.16)
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage
( D22 D2gap )
(5.17)
H stat, gap =roughness:
H stat, impeller k/D
h2fl = 0.15mm
= 0.0047
where Relative
8g
32mm
Qimpeller = Flow through impeller [m3/s], Q = Flow through pump [m3/s] , Qleakage
V 2 + f L V 2 2+ 1.0 V 2
= Leakage
[m3/s]
Hstat,flow
gap = 0.5
2m ( 3.45 m s) 2 (5.18)
s 2LV
g = 0.031
2g
f
=
= 1.2 m
Pipe loss: H loss,2 g
pipe
2
D h 2g
0.032m 2 9.81 m s
Leakage occurs many different places in the pump and depends on the pump
(5.19)
type. Figure 5.15
shows
where leakage
typically occurs. The pressure differ2gH stat,
gap
V=
2
V
L
ences in the pump
which
drives
the
leakage
flow as shown in figure 5.16.
1
f s +=1.5
(5.8)
H dyn,1 =
H loss, expansion
2g
= VA 2gap the impeller and the casing at impeller eye and
Q leakagebetween
The leakage
A
= 1 relief
1 are typically of the same size. The leakage flow
(5.9)
throughaxial
between
A
2
A
V
Q
leakage,1
0
0
pressure
difference =and1
gap area are smaller.
(5.10)
H loss,
contraction
A
2
g
2
6
4 2 10
k
7
.
3
10
In the following an example
and pump
U D of
2 2
housing is shown. First the difference in head across the gap generated by
5 Qleakage,2
(n3D
the impeller is calculated. The
head
2 )A difference across the gap depends on
(Ploss, disk )A = ( Ploss, disk )B
(5.15)
3 5
the static head above the impeller
(n D2 )B and of the flow behaviour in the cavity
Qleakage,1impeller and pump casing:
between
Qleakage,1
(5.16)
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage
( D22 D2gap )
8g
2
2
2
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V
2g
s 2g
2g
93
(5.19)
(5.17)
(5.7)
Qleakage,1
Qleakage,2
Qleakage,1
Qleakage,3
Qleakage,4
Qleakage,3
Qleakage,1
(5.18)
93
2 2g
2m ( 3.45 m s) 2
= 1.2 m
Pipe loss: H loss, pipe = f LV = 0.031
2
D h 2g
2
0.032m
2 9.81 m s
2
w
w
w
1
1, kanal
= s =
H loss, incidence
(5.12)
5. Pump
losses
2 g
2g
V2
= )2 + 1k
H
H dyn,1
expansion==k ( Q
Hloss,
Q
loss, incidence
1
design
2 g2
(5.7)
(5.8)
(5.13)
where
2
A1 3 velocity of the fluid in the cavity between impeller
fl P ==1
Rotational
(5.9)
= k U 2 D2 ( D2 + 5e )
loss, disk
A2pump
and
casing
m [rad/s]
6
2 10 2
2
Dgap k = =
[m]
A 0 of the
(5.14)
10 4diameter
7. 3 Inner
V0gap
U
D
(5.10)
H
1
=
2 2 head
static
Hstat, impellerloss,
=contraction
Impeller
rise
[m]
2g
A2
(n3D52 )A
2
(
)
(
)
(5.15)
P
=
P
disk A
loss,
disk B the gap
The headloss,
difference
across
5 Vcan also be calculated as the head loss of
n3D
2 )B 2
H loss, contraction = H dyn,2 (=
(5.11)
the flow through the gap, see figure2 g
5.17. The head loss is the sum of the fol(5.16)
= Q of
+Q
lowing Q
three
losses:
contraction when
the fluid
impellertypes
leakage Loss due to sudden
2
2
w 12 w21, kanal
w
s
runs into
the gap,=friction
loss
loss due
H loss,
= between
( D D fluid
) and wall, and mixing
(5.12)
(5.17)
H incidence
2 g 2fl 2 2 gap
g
gap = H stat, impeller
to suddenstat,expansion
of the outlet
of8the
g gap.
2 )2 + k
2
H loss, incidence = kV1 2 (Q QL design
Hstat, gap = 0.5
+ f V + 1.0 2 V
2g
s 2g
2g
3
where Ploss, disk = k U 2 D2 ( D2 + 5e )
m
(5.19)
f = Friction coefficient
2gH stat, 4gap 2[-]
10 6
V
=
k
7
.
3
10
L = Gap length [m]
f Ls + 1.5
U 2 D2
s = Gap width [m]
(n3D52 )A
Q velocity
gap [m/s]
leakage = VA
V = Fluid
in
gap
(Ploss,
)
(
)
=
P
disk A
loss, disk B
5
(n3D
[m2 )2B]
Agap = Cross-section area of gap
Low pressure
High pressure
(5.13)
(5.18)
(5.14)
(5.15)
(5.16)
Q impeller = Q + Q leakage
The friction coefficient can be set to 0.025 or alternatively be found more
( D22 5.6.
D2gap )
precisely
in gap
a Moody
see 2figure
(5.17)
H stat,
= H stat,chart,
impeller fl
8g
2
2 equation
2 (5.18) and inserting H
By isolating the velocity
V in the
from
stat,gap
Hstat, gap = 0.5 V + f L V + 1.0 V
(5.18)
2
g
s
2
g
2
g
equation (5.17), the leakage can be calculated:
V=
(5.19)
s
Q leakage = VA gap
Dspalte
D2
94
94
Mechanical loss
Leakage loss
Disk friction
100
95
90
85
Hydraulic efficiency
80
75
70
65
60
55
10
15
20
30
40
50
60 70 80 90
nq [min -1]
5.5 Summary
In this chapter we have described the individual mechanical and hydraulic
loss types which can occur in a pump and how these
losses affect flow, head
95
95
Chapter 6
Pump tests
6.1 Test types
6.2 Measuring pump performance
6.3 Measurement of the pumps NPSH
Hloss,friction,2
U22
2.g
U'22
2.g
z'M2
Hloss,friction,1
U'12
2.g
pM2
U12
2.g
p'2
r.g
p2
r.g
pM1
p'1
r.g
z'M1 p1
r.g
H1
H2
H'2
H'1
z'2
z'1
z1
z2
S'1
S1
S2
S'2
6. Pump tests
6. Pump tests
This chapter describes the types of tests Grundfos continuosly performs on
pumps and their hydraulic components. The tests are made on prototypes in
development projects and for maintenance and final inspection of produced
pumps.
6.1 Test types
For characterisation of a pump or one of its hydraulic parts, flow, head, power consumption, NPSH and force impact are measured. When testing a complete pump, i.e. motor and hydraulic parts together, the motor characteristic
must be available to be able to compute the performance of the hydraulic
part of the pump. For comparison of tests, it is important that the tests are
done identically. Even small differences in mounting of the pump in the test
bench can result in significant differences in the measured values and there
is a risk of drawing wrong conclusions from the test comparison.
Flow, head, power consumption, NPSH and forces are all integral performance parameters. For validation of computer models and failure finding,
detailed flow field measurements are needed. Here the velocities and pressures are measured in a number of discrete points inside the pump using
e.g. LDA (Laser Doppler Anemometry) and PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry)
for velocity, see figure 6.1 and for pressure, pitot tubes and pressures transducers that can measure fast fluctuations.
The following describes how to measure the integral performance parameters, i.e. flow, head, power consumption, NSPH and forces. For characterisation of motors see the Motor compendium (Motor Engineering, R&T). For
flow field measurements consult the specialist literature, e.g. (Albrecht,
2002).
98
98
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
P2
8
4
0
Maintenance tests and final inspection tests are made as in house inspection tests or as certificate tests to provide the customer with documentation
of the pump performance. Here 2 - 5 predefined operating points are usally
sufficient. The flow is set and the corresponding head, electrical power consumption and possibly rotational speed are measured. The electrical power
consumption is measured because the complete product performance is
wanted.
99
99
6. Pump tests
Grundfos builds test benches according to in-house standards where
GS241A0540 is the most significant. The test itself is in accordance with the
international standard ISO 9906.
6.2.1 Flow
To measure the flow, Grundfos uses magnetic inductive flowmeters. These
are integrated in the test bench according to the in-house standard. Other
flow measuring techniques based on orifice, vortex meters, and turbine
wheels exist.
6.2.2 Pressure
Grundfos states pump performance in head and not pressure since head is independent of the pumped fluid, see section 2.4. Head is calculated from total
pressure measured up and down stream of the pump and density of the fluid.
Valve
Pipe contraction
Pipe expansion
Pipe bend
4 x D
2 x D
2 x D 2 x D
The total pressure is the sum of the static and dynamic pressure. The static
pressure is measured with a pressure transducer, and the dynamic pressure
is calculated from pipe diameters at the pressure outlets and flow. If the
pressure transducers up and down stream of the pump are not located at
the same height above ground, the geodetic pressure enters the expression
for total pressure.
To achieve a good pressure measurement, the velocity profile must be uniform and non-rotating. The pump, pipe bends and valves affect the flow
causing a nonuniform and rotating velocity profile in the pipe. The pressure
taps must therefore be placed at a minimum distance to pump, pipe bends
and other components in the pipe system, see figure 6.3.
The pressure taps before the pump must be placed two pipe diameters upstream the pump, and at least four pipe diameters downstream pipe bends
and valves, see figure 6.3. The pressure tap after the pump must be placed
two pipe diameters after the pump, and at least two pipe diameters before
any flow disturbances such as bends and valves.
100
100
The pressure taps are designed so that the velocity in the pipe affects the
static pressure measurement the least possible. To balance a possible bias in
the velocity profile, each pressure tab has four measuring holes so that the
measured pressure will be an average, see figure 6.4.
Pressure gauge
Venting
Dz
The measuring holes are drilled perpendicular in the pipe wall making them
perpendicular to the flow. The measuring holes are small and have sharp
edges to minimise the creation of vorticies in and around the holes, see
figure 6.5.
It is important that the pressure taps and the connection to the pressure
transducer are completely vented before the pressure measurement is
made. Air in the tube between the pressure tap and transducer causes errors in the pressure measurement.
The pressure transducer measures the pressure at the end of the pressure
tube. The measurements are corrected for difference in height z between
the center of the pressure tap and the transducer to know the pressure at
the pressure tap itself, see figure 6.4. Corrections for difference in height are
also made between the pressure taps on the pumps inlet and outlet side.
If the pump is mounted in a well with free surface, the difference in height
between fluid surface and the pressure tap on the pumps outlet side must
be corrected, see section 6.2.4.
6.2.3 Temperature
The temperature of the fluid must be known to determine its density. The
density is used for conversion between pressure and head and is found by
table look up, see the chart Physical properties of water at the back of the
book.
101
101
6. Pump tests
Figure 6.6: Draft of pump test on
a piping.
H2
H loss,friction, 2
H 2'
H
H'
1
H loss,friction,1
H1
S1'
H = H2 H1
(6.1)
(6.2)
H = ( H2' + H loss, friction,2 ) ( H '1 Hloss, friction,1 )
Figure 6.6 shows where the measurements are made.
The pressure outlets and the matching heads are marked
p p1 are
U 2 U12 found in the powith a (H ).=The
(6.3)
z2 pressure
z1 + 2outlets
+ 2 thus
g
2 g for the total head
sitions S1Geodetic
and S
and the
expression
pressure
2
H = H 2 H 1 Static pressure Dynamic pressure
(6.1)
is therefore:
S1
S2
S'
2
where Hloss,friction,1 and Hloss,friction,2 are the pipe friction losses between pressure outlet and pump flanges.
The size of the friction loss depends on the flow velocity,
the pipe diameter, the distance from the pump flange to
the pressure outlet and the pipes surface roughness. Calculation of pipe friction loss is described in section 5.3.1.
If the pipe friction loss between the pressure outlets and
the flanges is smaller than 0.5% of the pump head, it is
normally not necesarry to take this into consideration in
the calculations. See ISO 9906 section 8.2.4 for further
explanation.
(6.2)
p' p p UU
'2 2 U 2
H = zz2'2+z1 M+2g + 2z 'M 2 1+ + 2 2 + H1 loss, friction, 2 (6.3)
g 2 g2 g
pressure
Geodetic
Static pressure
102
z 1'
Dynamic pressure
p'
U '2
+ M1 + z'M1 + 1 H loss, friction,1 (6.4)
g
2g
102
S'
1
S1
Total head
S1
S2
H'
1
U 12
2.g
p1
r.g
p'
2
r.g
p2
r.g
H1
2
U'
2
2.g
H2
H'
2
z'
2
H = H2 H1
S'
1
S'
2
z'
2
Because the manometer only measures the static
pressure, the dynamic pressure must also be taken into acz'
1
count. The dynamic pressure depends on the pipe diamz1
eter and can be different on eachz2side of the pump.
S'
S1
S'
1 illustrates
2
2 a pump test in
Figure 6.8
the basic Sversion
of
a pipe. The total head which is defined by the pressures
p1 and p2 and the velocities U1 and U2 in the inlet and
outlet flanges S1 and S2 can be calculated by means of
the following equation:
103
z'
M2
z1
z'
M1
pM2
z'
1
z2
z1
U
2.g
2
2
H'
1
z'
2
S'
1
pM1
p1'
r.g
z'
1
H loss,friction,1
2
1
Static head U'
2.g
z'
M1
S'
2
H loss,friction,2
z'
M2
S2
z2
S1
S2
(6.1)
S'
2
H
H2' + H
friction,2 ) ( H '1 Hloss, friction,1 )
H == (H
Hloss,
2
1
(6.2)
(6.1)
2
H = ( H2' + H loss, friction,2
p )p1 ( H 'U
loss,
U12friction,1 )
1H
H = z 2 z1 + 2
+ 2
g
2g
Geodetic pressure
(6.2)
(6.3)
H = z 2 z1 +
Geodetic pressure
2
pressure
p p Dynamic
U2 U
1
+ 2
g
2g
Static pressure
2
1
Static pressure
(6.3)
Dynamic pressure
p'total head
is:
U '2
H = z 2' + M 2 + z 'M 2 + 2 + H loss, friction, 2
g
g
2
p'M 2
U2'2
H = z 2' + p' + z 'M 2 + U '2 + H loss, friction, 2
g
2g
z 1' + M1g + z'M1 + 1 H loss, friction,1 (6.4)
2g
p'M1
U1'2
z 1' + g + z'M1 + 2 g H loss, friction,1 (6.4)
NPSH A =
pva
pstat,in + pbar + 0 .5 V12
+ z geo H loss, friction,
g
NPSH A =
pva
pstat,in + pbar + 0 .5 V12
+ z geo H loss, friction,103
6. Pump tests
6.2.6 Power consumption
Distinction is made between measurement of the shaft power P2 and added
electric power P1. The shaft power can best be determined as the product of
measured angular velocity w and the torque on the shaft which is measured
by means of a torque measuring device. The shaft power can alternatively
be measured on the basis of P1. However, this implies that the motor characteristic is known. In this case, it is important to be aware that the motor
characteristic changes over time because of bearing wear and due to changes in temperature and voltage.
The power consumption depends on the fluid density. The measured power
consumption is therefore usually corrected so that it applies to a standard
fluid with a density of 1000 kg/m3 which corresponds to water at 4C. Head
and flow are independent of the density of the pumped fluid.
6.2.7 Rotational speed
The rotational speed is typically measured by using an optic counter or magnetically with a coil around the motor. The rotational speed can alternatively be measured by means of the motor characteristic and measured P1. This
method is, however, more uncertain because it is indirect and because the
motor characteristic, as mentioned above, changes over time.
The pump performance is often given for a constant rotational speed. By
means of affinity equations, described in section 4.5, the performance can
be converted to another speed. The flow, head and power consumption are
hereby changed but the efficiency is not changed considerably if the scaling
of the speed is smaller than 20 %.
104
104
105
105
6. Pump tests
6.3.1 NPSH3% test by lowering the inlet pressure
When the NPSH3% curve is flat, this type of NPSH3% test is the best suited.
The NPSH3% test is made by keeping the flow fixed while the inlet pressure
pstat,in and thereby NPSHA is gradually lowered until the head is reduced with
more than 3%. The resulting NPSHA value for the last measuring point before
the head drops below the 3% curve then states a value for NPSH3% at the
given flow.
The NPSH3% curve is made by repeating the measurement for a number of
different flows. Figure 6.9 shows the measuring data for an NPSH3% test
where the inlet pressure is gradually lowered and the flow is kept fixed. It is
these NPSH values which are stated as the pumps NPSH curve.
Procedure for an NPSH3% test where the inlet pressure is gradually lowered:
1. A QH test is made and used as reference curve
2. The 3% curve is calculated so that the head is 3% lower than the
reference curve.
3. Selection of 5-10 flow points
4. The test stand is set for the seleted flow point starting with the
largest flow
5. The valve which regulates the counter-pressure is kept fixed
6. The inlet pressure is gradually lowered and flow, head
and inlet pressure are measured
7. The measurements continue until the head drops below the 3% curve
8. Point 4 to 7 is repeated for each flow point
Measured head
106
106
The NPSH3% test is made by keeping a constant inlet pressure, constant water level or constant setting of the regulation valve before the pump. Then
the flow can be increased from shutoff until the head can be measured below the 3% curve, see figure 6.10. The NPSH3% curve is made by repeating the
measurements for different inlet pressures.
Procedure for NPSH3% test where the flow is gradually increased
1. A QH test is made and used as reference curve
2. The 3% curve is calculated so that the head is 3% lower than the
reference curve.
3. Selection of 5-10 inlet pressures
4. The test stand is set for the wanted inlet pressure
5. The flow is increased from the shutoff and flow, head and inlet
pressure are measured
6. The measurements continue until the head is below the 3% curve
7. Point 4-6 is repeated for each flow point
Measured head
Vacuum pump
Shower
Flow valve
Flow meter
Baffle plate
Heating/
cooling coil
Test pump
Throttle valve
Pressure
control
pump
107
107
6. Pump tests
In an open test bed, see figure 6.12, it is possible to adjust the inlet pressure
in two ways: Either the water level in the well can be changed, or a valve can
be inserted before the pump. The flow can be controlled by changing the
pumps counter-pressure by means of a valve mounted after the pump.
Pump
Throttle valve
Reference plan
108
108
p'
U '2
H = z 2' + M 2 + z 'M 2 + 2 + H loss, friction, 2
g
g
2
p'M1
U1'2
NPSH A =
pvapour
pstat,in + pbar + 0 .5 V12
+ z geo H loss, friction,
(6.5)
g
g
Referencekurve
3% kurve
Reference curve
Mlt lftehjde
3% curve
NPSH 3%
Measured head
NPSH A
NPSH3%
NPSHA
109
109
6. Pump tests
6.4.1 Measuring system
The force measurement is made by absorbing the forces on the rotating system
(impeller and shaft) through a measuring system.
Dynamometer
Axial bearing
The axial force can e.g. be measured by moving the axial bearing outside the motor and mount it on a dynamometer, see figure 6.15. The axial forces occuring
during operation are absorbed in the bearing and can thereby be measured with a
dynamometer.
Axial and radial forces can also be measured by mounting the shaft in a magnetic
bearing where it is fixed with magnetic forces. The shaft is fixed magnetical both in
the axial and radial direction. The mounting force is measured, and the magnetic
bearing provides information about both radial and axial forces, see figure 6.16.
Radial and axial force measurements with magnetic bearing are very fast, and
both the static and the dynamic forces can therefore be measured.
By measurement in the magnetic bearing, the pump hydraulic is mounted directly
on the magnetic bearing. It is important that the fixing flange geometry is a precise reflection in the pump geometry because small changes in the flow conditions in the cavities can cause considerable differences in the forces affecting on
the impeller.
Axial sensor
Support
bearing
Radial sensor
Axial sensor
Support bearing
Figure 6.16: Radial and axial force measurement with magnetic bearing.
110
110
111
111
112
112
Appendix
Appendix A. Units
Appendix B. Check of test results
A. Units
A. Units
Some of the SI systems units
Basic
Basicunits
units
Unit for
Name
Unit
Length
meter
Mass
kilogram kg
Time
second
Temperature
Kelvin
Unit for
Name
Unit
Definition
Angle
radian
rad
Unit for
Name
Unit
Definition
Force
Newton
N = kg m / s2
Pressure
Pascal
Pa
Pa = N/m2 = kg /(m s2 )
Energy, work
Joule
J = Nm = W s
W = J/ s = N m/ s = Kg m2/s3
Additional units
Derived units
Power
114
Watt
Impulse
kg m/ s
Torque
Nm
Conversion of units
Length
in (inches)
ft (feet)
39.37
3.28
0.0254
0.0833
min
h (hour)
16.6667 . 10-3
0.277778 . 10-3
60
16.6667 . 10-3
3600
60
m3/h
l/s
gpm (US)
3600
1000
15852
0.277778 . 10
0.277778
4.4
10
3.6
15.852
0.2271
0.063
Time
m3/s
1
-3
-3
0.000063
Mass flow
Speed
kg/s
kg/h
kg/s
kg/h
ft/s
3600
3600
3.28
0.277778 . 10-3
0.9119
0.3048
1.097
0.277778 . 10-3
115
A. Units
Rotational speed
s-1
rad/s
16.67 . 10-3
0.105
60
6.28
9.55
0.1592
kPa
bar
mVs
0.01
0.102
100
10.197
9.807
98.07 . 10-3
Pressure
Work, energy
Temperature
K
1
kWh
t(oC) = T - 273.15K
0.277778 . 10-6
3.6 . 106
T(Kelvin) = 273.15 C + t 1
o
Kinematic viscosity
116
Dynamic viscosity
m /s
cSt
Pa . s
cP
106
103
10-6
10-3
The test shows that the efficiency is below the catalogue curve.
Possible cause
What to examine
117
118
Possible cause
What to examine
Table 2: The test shows that the power consumption and head lies below
the catalogue curve.
Possible cause
What to examine
Curve 1
Impellere D2/D1: 99/100=0.99 Curve 1
Impellere D2/D1: 100/99=1.01010101010101 Curve 1
H[m]
100
83.3333
66.6667
50
33.3333
16.6667
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Q [m/h]
Curve 1
Impellere D2/D1: 99/100=0.99 Kurve 1
Impellere D2/D1: 100/99=1.01010101010101 Curve 1
P1 [kW]
34,2857
28,5714
22,8571
17,1429
11,4286
5,71429
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Q [m/h]
119
120
Possible cause
What to examine
Examine the information about pipe Repeat the calculation of the head.
diameter and the location of the
pressure transducers. Examine
whether the correct density has been
used for calculation of the head.
Cavitation
Table 3 (continued)
Possible cause
What to examine
10
15
20
25
30
35
Q [m ^3/h]
15
20
25
30
35
Q [m ^3/h]
0-series
Pump with leakage
H [m ]
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
500
0
10
121
Bibliography
European Association of Pump Manufacturers (1999), NPSH for rotordynamic pumps: a reference guide, 1st edition.
R. Fox and A. McDonald (1998), Introduction to Fluid Mechanics.
5. edition, John Wiley & Sons.
J. Gulich (2004), Kreiselpumpen. Handbuch fr Entwicklung, Anlagenplanung
und Betrieb. 2nd edition, Springer Verlag.
C. Pfleiderer and H. Petermann (1990), Strmungsmachinen.
6. edition, Springer Verlag, Berlin.
A. Stepanoff (1957), Centrifugal and axial flow pumps: theory, design and
application. 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons.
H. Albrecht and others (2002), Laser Doppler and Phase Doppler Measurement Techniques. Springer Verlag, Berlin.
H. Hansen and others (1997), Danvak. Varme- og klimateknik. Grundbog.
2nd edition.
Pumpestbi (2000). 3rd edition, Ingeniren A/S.
Motor compendium. Department of Motor Engineering, R&T, Grundfos.
G. Ludwig, S. Meschkat and B. Stoffel (2002). Design Factors Affecting
Pump Efficiency, 3rd International Conference on Energy Efficiency in Motor
Driven Systems, Treviso, Italy, September 18-20.
122
Standards
ISO 9906 Rotodynamic pumps Hydraulic performance acceptance testGrades 1 and 2. The standard deals with hydraulic tests and contains
instructions of data treatment and making of test equipment.
ISO2548 has been replaced by ISO9906
ISO3555 has been replaced by ISO9906
ISO 5198 Pumps Centrifugal-, mixed flow and axial pumps Hydraulic
function test Precision class
GS 241A0540 Test benches and test equipment. Grundfos standards for
contruction and rebuilding of test benches and data loggers.
123
Index
A
Absolute flow angle............................................................................. 61
Absolute pressure. .................................................................................33
Absolute pressure sensor..................................................................33
Absolute temperature.........................................................................33
Absolute velocity . .................................................................................60
Affinity .......................................................................................................... 70
Affinity equations . .........................................................53, 104
Affinity laws . .............................................................................. 68
Air content................................................................................................ 108
Angular frequency . .............................................................................. 62
Angular velocity............................................................................. 64, 104
Annual energy consumption ........................................................ 56
Area relation . ........................................................................................... 86
Auxiliary pump ....................................................................................... 50
Axial bearing............................................................................................. 20
Axial forces.........................................................................................44, 110
Axial impeller. .......................................................................................... 16
Axial thrust. .........................................................................................19, 20
Axial thrust reduction........................................................................ 20
Axial velocity.............................................................................................60
124
Cavity. ............................................................................................................ 19
Centrifugal force ....................................................................................12
Centrifugal pump principle ............................................................12
Chamber. ......................................................................................................23
Circulation pumps .......................................................................... 24, 25
Closed system . ........................................................................................ 49
Constant-pressure control ..............................................................54
Contraction.................................................................................................87
Control. ......................................................................................................... 39
Control volume . ..................................................................................... 64
Corrosion .................................................................................................... 85
Cross section contraction. ................................................................87
Cross section expansion. .................................................................. 86
Cross section shape.............................................................................. 83
Cutting system ........................................................................................27
B
Balancing holes ...................................................................................... 20
Barometric pressure . ..................................................................33, 109
Bearing losses ..........................................................................................80
Bernoullis equation. ............................................................................37
Best point.................................................................................................... 39
Blade angle. .........................................................................................73, 90
Blade shape. ..............................................................................................66
Bypass regulation...................................................................52
D
Data sheet . ................................................................................................ 30
Degasification ....................................................................................... 108
Density........................................................................................................ 108
Detail measurements ........................................................................98
Differential pressure . ................................................................... 34, 35
Differential pressure sensor ...........................................................33
Diffusor...................................................................................................21, 86
Disc friction................................................................................................ 91
Double pump............................................................................................ 50
Double suction pump .........................................................................14
Down thrust ............................................................................................. 44
Dryrunner pump. .................................................................................... 17
Dynamic pressure...................................................................................32
Dynamic pressure difference .........................................................35
C
Cavitation .......................................................................................... 40, 105
E
Eddies..............................................................................................................87
Efficiency...................................................................................................... 39
Electrical motor........................................................................................17
Electrical power. ................................................................................... 104
End-suction pump..................................................................................14
Energy class. ...............................................................................................57
Energy efficiency index (EEI). ..........................................................57
Energy equation. .....................................................................................37
Energy labeling........................................................................................ 56
Equilibrium equations. ...................................................................... 64
Eulers turbomachinery equation........................................64, 65
F
Final inspection test . ..........................................................................99
Flow angle . ................................................................................... 61, 73, 90
Flow forces . ............................................................................................... 64
Flow friction . .............................................................................................81
Flow meters ............................................................................................100
Fluid column. ............................................................................................ 34
Force measurements........................................................... 110
Friction.......................................................................................................... 19
Friction coefficient ............................................................................... 82
Friction loss..........................................................................................49, 81
G
Geodetic pressure difference ................................................. 35, 36
Grinder pump ...........................................................................................27
Guide vanes ...............................................................................................23
H
Head ........................................................................................31, 34, 100, 102
Head loss calculation........................................................... 85
High specific speed pumps .............................................................74
Hydraulic diameter. ............................................................................. 82
Hydraulic losses................................................................................78, 80
125
Index
Moody chart.............................................................................................. 84
Motor. .............................................................................................................17
Motor characteristics..........................................................................98
N
Non-return valve.....................................................................................51
NPSH . ..................................................................................... 31, 40, 105, 109
NPSH3%-test................................................................................ 105
NPSHA (Available)....................................................................40
NPSHR (Required)......................................................................41
O
Open impeller. ......................................................................................... 16
Open system............................................................................................. 49
Operating point............................................................................... 48, 49
Optical counter. .................................................................................... 104
Outlet............................................................................................................. 63
Outlet diameter...................................................................................... 70
Outlet diffusor..........................................................................................22
Outlet flange..............................................................................................14
P
Parasitic losses.........................................................................................80
Pipe diameter........................................................................................... 36
Pipe friction. .............................................................................................. 82
Pipe friction losses.............................................................................. 102
Potential energy......................................................................................37
Power consumption. ...................................................................31, 104
Power curves............................................................................................. 38
Prerotation.......................................................................................... 62, 72
Pressure.........................................................................................................32
Pressure loss coefficient..............................................................81, 88
Pressure measurement. ....................................................................98
126
Return channel.........................................................................................23
Reynolds number. ................................................................................ 83
Ring area...................................................................................................... 62
Ring diffusor...............................................................................................22
Rotational speed.................................................................................... 91
Rotor can.......................................................................................................18
Roughness......................................................................................81, 82, 85
S
Seal ..................................................................................................................18
Secondary eddy....................................................................................... 91
Secondary flow........................................................................................ 19
Self-priming................................................................................................25
Semi axial impeller............................................................................... 16
Separation. ..................................................................................................87
Sewage pumps........................................................................................ 24
Shaft bearing lossses . ........................................................................80
Shaft power............................................................................................. 104
Shaft seal......................................................................................................17
Shaft seal loss...........................................................................................80
Single channel pumpe. ............................................................... 16, 27
Slip factor.....................................................................................................73
Specific number............................................................................... 74, 95
Speed control.......................................................................................51, 53
Stage ...............................................................................................................23
Standard fluid. ......................................................................................... 38
Standby pump. ........................................................................................ 50
Start/stop regulation ....................................................................51, 53
Static pressure..........................................................................................32
Static pressure difference.................................................................35
Submersible pump. ...............................................................................14
Suction pipe...............................................................................................40
Surface roughness. ............................................................................... 91
127
Index
Velocity triangles.............................................................................60, 75
Volute. ............................................................................................................22
Volute casing.............................................................................................21
Vortex pump............................................................................................. 16
W
Water quality. ........................................................................................ 108
Water supply pumps........................................................................... 24
Wetrunner pump....................................................................................17
128
List of Symbols
Symbol
Definition
FLOW
Q
Flow, volume flow
Design flow
Qdesign
Flow through the impeller
Qimpeller
Leak flow
Qleak
m
Mass flow
Unit
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[m3/s]
[kg/s]
HEAD
H
Head
[m]
Hloss,{loss type}
[m]
NPSH
[m]
NPSHA
NPSH Available
(Net Positive Suction Head available
in system)
[m]
NPSHR, NPSH3%
NPSH Required
(The pumps net positive suction
head system demands)
[m]
GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONS
A
Cross-section area [m2]
b
Blade height [m]
b
Blade angle [o]
b
Flow angle [o]
s
Gap width [m]
D, d
Diameter [m]
Hydraulic diameter [m]
Dh
k
Roughness [m]
L
Length (gap length, length of pipe) [m]
O
Perimeter [m]
r
Radius [m]
z
Height [m]
Dz
Difference in height [m]
PRESSURE
p
Pressure
p
Differential pressure
The fluid vapour pressure
psteam
Barometric pressure
pbar
Positive or negative pressure
pbeho
compared to pbar if the fluid is in a
closed container.
Pressure loss in {loss type}
Ploss,{loss type}
EFFICIENCIES
hhyd
hcontrol
hmotor
htot
Hydraulic efficiency
Control efficiency
Motor efficency
Total efficiency for control,
motor and hydraulics
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]
Symbol
Definition
POWER
P
Power
Power added from the electricity
P1
supply network
Power added from motor
P2
Hydraulic power transferred to
Phyd
the fluid
Power loss in {loss type}
Ploss,{loss type}
SPEED
w
f
n
Angular frequency
Frequency
Speed
VELOCITIES
V
U
C
W
Unit
[W]
[W]
[W]
[W]
[W]
[1/s]
[Hz]
[1/min]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
SPECIFIC NUMBERS
Re
Reynolds number
Specific speed
n q
[-]
FLUID CHARACTERISTICS
[kg/m3]
r
The fluid density
n
Kinematic viscosity of the fluid
[m2/s]
MISCELLANEOUS
f
Coefficient of friction
[-]
g
Gravitational acceleration
[m/s2]
z
Dimensionless pressure loss coefficient [-]
General indices
Index
Definition
Examples
1, in
2, out
m
r
U
a
stat
dyn
geo
tot
abs
rel
Operation
A1, Cin
A2, Cout
Cm
Wr
C1U
Ca
pstat
pdyn, Hdyn,in
pgeo
ptot
pstat,abs, ptot,abs,in
pstat,rel
Qoperation
Affinity rules
pvapour
[105 Pa]
r
[kg/m3]
n
[10-6 m2/s]
0.00611
1000.0
1.792
0.00813
1000.0
1.568
1.307
10
0.01227
999.7
20
0.02337
998.2
1.004
25
0.03166
997.1
0.893
30
0.04241
995.7
0.801
40
0.07375
992.3
0.658
0.12335
988.1
0.554
60
0.19920
983.2
0.475
70
0.31162
977.8
0.413
80
0.47360
971.7
0.365
90
0.70109
965.2
0.326
100
1.01325
958.2
0.294
110
1.43266
950.8
0.268
120
1.98543
943.0
0.246
130
2.70132
934.7
0.228
140
3.61379
926.0
0.212
150
4.75997
916.9
0.199
160
6.18065
907.4
0.188
50
n
QB = Q A B
nA
2
nB Scaling of
HB = HA
nA rotational speed
3
nB
PB = PA
nA
Geometric
scaling
4
D b
PB = PA B4 B
DA bA
D 2 b
Q B = Q A B2 B
DA bA
2
DB
HB = HA
DA
Pictograms
Pump
Valve
Stop valve
Pressure gauge
Heat exchanger
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