Practical Aspects of

Sampling
An Overview

Why Sample?

Why Sample?
Samples

are taken to obtain

information about populations.

Sample

estimators are computed to

estimate parameters of the the
population from which the sample was
drawn.

Advantages
Complete

enumeration of all
sample units in the
entire universe is
often unnecessary
to obtain reasonably
accurate results.

Advantages
An

examination of the
entire population is
often too costly, too
time-consuming, and
impractical (.if not
impossible).

Advantages
In

the case of
destructive testing, the
sample elements or
units must be destroyed
or must be consumed to
obtain necessary
measurements.

Precision
The

standard error [se] is a measure of

precision. A smaller se, other things
remaining the same, means more
precision
.....that is, less variance in the sampling.

Sample Size
for a mean
n = z2 2 / e2
where:
e, the sampling error, is the difference
between sample mean and population mean

[e is expressed in units]

Sample Size
for a proportion n = [z2 p (1 p)] / e2
where:
e, the sampling error, is the difference
between sample proportion and population
proportion

[ e is expressed in percentage points]

Sample Size

Errors
Sampling

(internal) Error

The fact that a sample was taken, the

sample statistic is expected to deviate
from the population parameter.

Errors
Non-Sampling

(external) Error

Practical considerations in taking a sample.

recording errors
coding errors
processing errors

Errors
Bias

Most insidious to detect ....

poorly defined universe
inadequate sampling design
improperly worded questions
distorted answers
convenience sampling

Errors
The

sampling error refers to the extent

to which the sample values on some
variable of importance to the research
differ from those of the population
from which it was drawn.

Types of Random
Samples

Simple Random
with

replacement
without replacement
must be able to identify the target population
and ensure each item has an equal likelihood of
being selected
.use table of random numbers or computer
generate a series of random numbers

Stratified
When

the population
is heterogeneous
overall, but within it
there are
homogeneous
populations (strata)
the population is
stratified.

Systematic
Selecting

a random
sample, as opposed
to the simple random
selection technique.
Select the K-th item.
Draw every I-th item.

Cluster
Another

modified
random sample design
-- requires that the
sample unites be
grouped in clusters in
the universe.
Not grouped by
homogeneous strata in
the population.

Multistage
The

selection procedure takes place in

a hierarchy of stages.

first
second
third
.....
last

primary sample unit

second sample unit
tertiary sample unit

final (or ultimate) sample unit

Multistage - An Example
The president of Supermarkets, Inc.
decided to sample purchases at 150
stores in the US.
The first stage is to select, on the basis of
clustering (save travel time), 15 of the
150 stores.

Multistage - An Example
The researcher recommends that cash register
files be randomly selected at each of the
150 stores. [second stage]
Then select every 20th purchase in a file using
a random start. [final stage]

Comparison of Survey
Sampling Designs

Simple Random

How to Select
assign numbers to
elements using
random numbers
table

Strengths/Weaknesses
basic, simple, often
costly
must assign a number
to each element in
target population

Stratified

How to Select
divide population
into groups that are
similar within and
different between
variable of interest

Strengths/Weaknesses
with proper strata, can
produce very accurate
estimates.
less costly than
simple random
sampling
must stratify target
population correctly

Stratified

One of the main reasons for using a

stratified sample is that stratifying has the
effect of reducing sampling error for a given
sample size to a level lower than that of a
simple random sample of the same size.

Stratified
This is so because of a very simple
principle: the more homogeneous a
population is on the variables being studied,
the smaller the sample size needed to
represent it accurately.
Stratifying makes each sub-sample more
homogeneous by eliminating the variation
on the variable that is used for stratifying.

Systematic

How to Select
select every K-th
element are from a
list after a random
start

Strengths/Weaknesses
produces very accurate
estimates when
elements in population
exhibit order
used when pop. size
not known
simplifies selection
process

Cluster

How to Select
randomly choose
clusters and sample
all elements within
each cluster

Strengths/Weaknesses
with proper clusters,
can produce accurate
estimates
useful when sample
frame not available or
travel costs high
must cluster target
population correctly

Convenience

in Dining Commons at
dinner
in Student Union
between classes
in classes in which you
are enrolled
data available on the
www
friend knows somebody
who...

Mini-Cases
Working as a team
determine best sampling technique
and explain decision

Scenario 1

You have been hired by the County of

Sacramento to estimate the percentage of
registered voters that favor issuing a bond in
order to finance the construction of a new
bike trail along the Sacramento River. You
want no more than a 4 percentage point
error margin, at the 95% confidence level.
How would you conduct such a survey
using a simple random sample?

Scenario 1

(continued)

When

going over your sampling design

with the county Parks Director, you are
asked whether you think a stratified sample
would be appropriate? What is your reply?
Why?

What

about a systematic sample?

Travel Vouchers

Fly the Friendly Skis

Scenario #2
o

The State of California has hired you to

estimate the number of travel vouchers for
legislators that have been filed incorrectly.
The vouchers have been filed as they are
processed.

Which sampling technique would you

recommend and why?

Light Rail

Scenario #3

Light Rail has hired you to determine

whether passengers like the convenience of
using the light rail system.

Which sampling technique would you

recommend and why?

Other concerns that might be investigated?

Trucks

Scenario #4
Marketers,

Inc., has hired you to determine

why so many young drivers, both male and
female, prefer owning a pickup truck as
compared to an automobile.

Which

sampling technique would you

recommend and why?

Merit Pay

Scenario #5
You

have been hired to determine how

faculty at a local university feel about the
following statement: the union is
seeking to obtain a moratorium on merit
pay.

Which

sampling technique would you

recommend and why?

Questions?

References
Levine,

David, et al. Statistics for

Managers, Second Edition. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1999.

Monette,

Duane R., et al. Applied Social

Research New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1986.