Introduction

Environmental chemistry is the

scientific study of the chemical and
biochemical phenomena that occur in
natural places. It should not be confused
with green chemistry, which seeks to
reduce potential pollution at its source.
It can be defined as the study of the
sources, reactions, transport, effects,
and fates of chemical species in the air,
soil, and water environments; and the effect of human activity on
these. Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary science that
includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry, as well as heavily
relying on analytical chemistry and being related to environment and
other areas of science.

Environmental chemistry is that branch of one, which deals with the

study of chemical and bi ochemical phenomena that occur in natural
places like air, soil, and water.

Environmental chemistry involves first understanding how the

uncontaminated environment works, which chemicals in what
concentrations are present naturally, and with what effects. Without
this it would be impossible to accurately study the effects humans
have on the environment through the release of chemicals.
 Environment
The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the
environment, is a term that
encompasses all living and non-
living things occurring naturally on
Earth or some region thereof.
The concept of the natural
environment can be distinguished
by components:
• Complete ecological units that
function as natural systems
without massive human
intervention, including all vegetation, animals, microorganisms,
soil, rocks, atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within
their boundaries.

• Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack

clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as
energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating
from human activity.
 Pollution And Pollutants
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an
environment that causes instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to
the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or
living organisms. Pollution can take the
form of chemical substances, or energy,
such as noise, heat, or light.
Pollutants, the elements of
pollution, can be foreign substances or
energies, or naturally occurring; when
naturally occurring, they are considered
contaminants when they exceed natural
levels. A pollutant is a waste material
that pollutes air, water or soil. Three
factors determine the severity of a pollutant: its chemical nature, the
concentration and the persistence
Classification of pollutants
1. Biodegradable pollutants
2. Non-biodegradable pollutants
Biodegradable pollutants are those pollutants which can be
broken down into simpler, harmless substances in nature in due
course of time.
Eg: domestic waste products, urine & faucal matter, sewage
agriculture residue, paper wood, cloth, cattle dung, compost, bones,
etc.

Non- biodegradable pollutants are those pollutants which cannot

be broken down into simpler, harmless substances in nature in due
cause of time.
Eg: DDT, plastics, insecticides & pesticides, lead, arsenic, metal
articles like aluminum cans, radioactive waste, etc.
 Air Pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of
chemicals, particulate matter, or
biological materials that cause harm or
discomfort to humans or other living

organisms, or damages the natural environment, into the atmosphere. The

atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential
to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air
pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well
as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Gaseous Air Pollutants

1. Sulfur oxides (SOx) - especially sulfur dioxide, a chemical

compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes
and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum
often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates
sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence
of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is
one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of
the use of these fuels as power sources.

2. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - especially nitrogen dioxide are

emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the
brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen
dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one
of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a
characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most
prominent air pollutants.

3. Hydrocarbons are composed of hydrogen and carbon duly

and are formed by incomplete combustion of fuel used in
automobiles. Hydrocarbons are carcinogenic, i.e., they cause
cancer.
 4. Oxides of Carbon
i. Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless and tasteless
gas, yet very toxic to humans. It consists of one carbon atom
and one oxygen atom, connected by a covalent double bond
and a dative covalent bond. It is the simplest oxocarbon, and
is an anhydride of formic acid (CH2O2). Carbon monoxide is
produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing
compounds; it forms when there is not enough oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide (CO2), such as when operating a stove
or an internal combustion engine in an enclosed space. Carbon
monoxide burns, with a characteristic blue flame, producing
carbon dioxide. Despite its serious toxicity, coal gas, which
was widely used before the 1960s for domestic lighting,
cooking and heating, produced carbon monoxide as a
byproduct. Some processes in modern technology, such as
iron smelting, still produce carbon monoxide as a byproduct.

Carbon monoxide poisoning

It occurs after enough inhalation of carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon

monoxide is a toxic gas, but, being colorless, odorless, tasteless, and
non-irritating, it is very difficult for people to detect. Carbon monoxide
is a product of combustion of organic matter with insufficient oxygen
supply and is often produced in domestic or industrial settings by
motor vehicles and other gasoline-powered tools, heaters, and cooking
equipment. Exposures at 100 ppm or greater can be dangerous to
human health. Symptoms of mild acute poisoning include headaches,
vertigo, and flu-like effects; larger exposures can lead to significant
toxicity of the central nervous system and heart, and even death.
Following acute poisoning, long-term sequelae often occur. Carbon
monoxide can also have severe effects on the fetus of a pregnant
woman.

. Carbon dioxide (CO2) - a greenhouse gas emitted from

combustion but is also a gas vital to living organisms. It is a
natural gas in the atmosphere.
 Global Warming
Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of
the Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century
and its projected continuation. Global surface temperature increased
0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F)
during the last century. Most of
the observed temperature
increase since the middle of the
20th century was caused by
increasing concentrations of
greenhouse gases resulting from
human activity such as fossil fuel
burning and deforestation.
An increase in global temperature
will cause sea levels to rise and
will change the amount and
pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical
deserts.[7] The continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice is
expected, with warming being strongest in the Arctic. Other likely
effects include increases in the intensity of extreme weather events,
species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. Human activity
since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative
forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous
oxide.

Effects of Global Warming

It is predicted that over most land

areas, the frequency of warm
spells/heat waves will very likely
increase. It is likely that:

• Increased areas will be affected by

drought
• There will be increased intense
tropical cyclone activity
 • There will be increased incidences of extreme high sea level
(excluding tsunamis)

Feedback of Global Warming

1. Water vapor feedback

If the atmosphere is warmed, the saturation vapor pressure
increases, and the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere will
tend to increase. Since water vapor is a greenhouse gas, the
increase in water vapor content makes the atmosphere warm
further; this warming causes the atmosphere to hold still more
water vapor (a positive feedback), and so on until other
processes stop the feedback loop. The result is a much larger
greenhouse effect than that due to CO2 alone. Although this
feedback process causes an increase in the absolute moisture
content of the air, the relative humidity stays nearly constant or even
decreases slightly because the air is warmer.
2. Cloud feedback
Warming is expected to change the distribution and type of
clouds. Seen from below, clouds emit infrared radiation back to
the surface, and so exert a warming effect; seen from above,
clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space, and
so exert a cooling effect. Whether the net effect is warming or
cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the
cloud. These details were poorly observed before the advent of
satellite data and are difficult to represent in climate models.

3. Lapse rate
The atmosphere's temperature decreases with height in the
troposphere. Since emission of infrared radiation varies with
temperature, longwave radiation escaping to space from the
relatively cold upper atmosphere is less than that emitted toward
the ground from the lower atmosphere. Thus, the strength of the
greenhouse effect depends on the atmosphere's rate of
temperature decrease with height. Both theory and climate
models indicate that global warming will reduce the rate of
temperature decrease with height, producing a negative lapse
rate feedback that weakens the greenhouse effect.
Measurements of the rate of temperature change with height are
very sensitive to small errors in observations, making it difficult
to establish whether the models agree with observations.
 Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the
extent of global warming. This is in distinction to adaptation to global
warming which involves taking action to minimize the effects of global
warming. Mitigation is effective at avoiding warming, but not at rapidly
reversing it. Scientific consensus on global warming, together with the
precautionary principle and the fear of abrupt climate change is
leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences
and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming.
 Acid Rain

Acid rain is rain or any other form of

precipitation that is unusually acidic, i.e. elevated
levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It has harmful
effects on plants, aquatic animals, and
infrastructure. Acid rain is mostly caused by
emissions of compounds of sulfur, nitrogen, and
carbon which react with the water molecules in
the atmosphere to produce acids.

However, it can also be caused naturally by the splitting of nitrogen

compounds by the energy produced by lightning strikes, or the release of
sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere by phenomena of volcano eruptions.

Chemical Processes of Acid Rain

Combustion of fuels creates sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. They are
converted into sulfuric acid and nitric acid.

Gas phase chemistry

In the gas phase sulfur dioxide is oxidized by reaction with the hydroxyl
radical via an intermolecular reaction [4]:

SO2 + OH— → HOSO2—

which is followed by:

HOSO2— + O2 → HO2— + SO3

In the presence of water, sulfur trioxide (SO3) is converted rapidly to

sulfuric acid:

SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (l)

Nitrogen dioxide reacts with OH to form nitric acid:

NO2 + OH— → HNO3

Chemistry in cloud droplets

When clouds are present, the loss rate of SO2 is faster than can be
explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the
liquid water droplets.

Hydrolysis
Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide,
hydrolyses in a series of equilibrium reactions:

SO2 (g) + H2O SO2—H2O

SO2—H2O H+ + HSO3−

HSO3- H+ + SO32−

Oxidation
There are a large number of aqueous reactions that oxidize sulfur from
S(IV) to S(VI), leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most
important oxidation reactions are with ozone, hydrogen peroxide and
oxygen (reactions with oxygen are catalyzed by iron and manganese
in the cloud droplets).

Harmful Effects of Acid Rain

1. Both the lower pH and higher aluminum concentrations in surface

water that occur as a result of acid rain can cause damage to fish
and other aquatic animals. As lakes and rivers become more
acidic biodiversity is reduced.
2. Soil biology can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some
microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pHs and are
killed.
3. Fine particles, a large fraction of which are formed from the same
gases as acid rain (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide), have
been shown to cause illness and premature deaths such as
cancer and other diseases.
4. Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and
historical monuments. This results when the sulfuric acid in the
rain chemically reacts with the calcium compounds in the stones
(limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum.
 Ozone Layer Depletion
When chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) reach the stratosphere, they
are dissociated by ultraviolet light to release chlorine atoms. The
chlorine atoms act as a catalyst, and each can break down tens of
thousands of ozone molecules before being removed from the
stratosphere. Given the longevity of CFC molecules, recovery times
are measured in decades. It is calculated that a CFC molecule takes an
average of 15 years to go from the ground level up to the upper
atmosphere, and it can stay there for about a century, destroying up
to one hundred thousand ozone molecules during that time.

Effects of Depletion of Ozone Layer

Since the ozone layer prevents most

harmful UVB wavelength s
(270-315 nm) of
ultraviolet light
(UV light) from
passing
through the
Earth's
atmosphere,
observed and
projected
decreases in ozone have generated
worldwide concern leading to adoption
of the Montreal Protocol t hat bans the
production of CFCs and ha lons as well
as related ozone depletin g chemicals
such as carbon tetrac hloride and
trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological
consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts,[3] damage to
plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic
zone may result from the increased UV exposure due to ozone
depletion.
 Water Pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies such as

lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater. All water pollution affects
organisms and plants that live in these water bodies and in almost all
cases the effect is damaging either to individual species and
populations but also to the natural biological communities. It occurs
when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies
without adequate treatment to remove harmful constituents.
 Water Pollution Categories

1. Point source pollution refers to contaminants that enter a

waterway through a discrete conveyance, such as a pipe or ditch.
Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a
sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain. The U.S.
Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory
enforcement purposes.[8] The CWA definition of point source was
amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as
well as industrial stormwater, such as from construction sites.
2. Non-point source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse
contamination that does not originate from a single discrete
source. NPS pollution is often accumulative effect of small
amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. The
leaching out of nitrogen compounds from agricultural land which has
been fertilized is a typical example. Nutrient runoff in
stormwater from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest are
also cited as examples of NPS pollution.

Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and

highways, called urban runoff, is sometimes included under the
category of NPS pollution. However, this runoff is typically
channeled into storm drain systems and discharged through
pipes to local surface waters, and is a point source. However
where such water is not channeled and drains directly to ground it is
a non point source.

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 Eutrophication

Eutrophication is an increase in
the concentration of chemical nutrients in
an ecosystem to an extent that increases
in the primary productivity of the
ecosystem. Depending on the degree of
eutrophication, subsequent negative
environmental effects such as anoxia and
severe reductions in water quality, fish,
and other animal populations may occur.

Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals
or other alteration in the natural soil environment. This type of
contamination typically arises from the rupture of underground
storage tanks, application of pesticides, percolation of c ontaminated
surface water to subsurface
strata, oil and fu el dumping,
leaching of wa stes from
landfills or direct discharge of
industrial wastes to the soil.
The most commo n chemicals
involved are petroleum
hydrocarbons, solvents,
pesticides, lead and other
heavy metals. This occurrence
of this pheno menon is
correlated with the degree of industrializations and intensities of
chemical usage.
Harmful Effects of Soil Pollution

1. The solid waste like garbage destroys the natural beauty and
become a breeding ground for flies which spread diseases.
2. Soil pollution caused by acid rain reduces the fertility of soil
leading to reduction in crop yields. This is because acidic soil is
toxic for plant growth.

3. Soil pollution caused by excessive use of fertilizers also reduces

the fertility of the soil and crop yield by making the soil either
highly acidic or highly alkaline.
4. Soil pollution caused by the use of insecticides and herbicides in
agriculture is very dangerous because these chemicals can enter
our food chain and damage health.
 Waste Management
Waste management is the
collection, transport, processing,
recycling or disposal, and monitoring of
waste materials. The term usually relates
to materials produced by human activity,
and is generally undertaken to reduce
their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste
management is also carried out to recover resources from it. Waste
management can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive
substances, with different methods and fields of expertise for each.

Disposal Methods

1
.
Landfill: Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the
waste, and this remains a common practice in most countries.
Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused quarries,
mining voids or borrow pits. A properly-designed and well-
managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive
method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly-designed or
poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse
environmental impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of
vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common
byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and
carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down
anaerobically. This gas can create odor problems, kill surface
vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.
 2. Incineration: Incineration is a disposal
method that involves combustion of waste
material. Incineration and other high
temperature waste treatment systems are
sometimes described as "thermal
treatment". Incinerators convert waste
materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.
Incineration is carried out both on a small
scale by individuals and on a large scale
by industry. It is used to dispose of solid,
liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized
as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste
materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a
controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as
emission of gaseous pollutants.

Recycling Methods

1. Biological Reprocessing: Waste materials that are organic in

nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products,
can be recycled using biological
composting and digestion processes to
decompose the organic matter. The
resulting organic material is then recycled
as mulch or compost for agricultural or
landscaping purposes. In addition, waste
gas from the process (such as methane)
can be captured and used for generating
electricity. The intention of biological
processing in waste management is to
control and accelerate the natural process
of decomposition of organic matter.
 Green Chemistry
Green chemistry , also called sustainable chemistry, is a
chemical philosophy encouraging the design of products and processes
that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous
substances.[1] Whereas environmental chemistry is the chemistry of

the natural environment, and of pollutant chemicals in nature, green

chemistry seeks to reduce and prevent pollution at its source. In 1990
the Pollution Prevention Act was passed in the United States. This act
helped create a modus operandi for dealing with pollution in an
original and innovative way. It aims to avoid problems before they
happen.

Techniques Used

Green chemistry doesn’t employ toxic reagents or solvents and

severe conditions but use mild and environmental friendly reagents,
such as sunlight, microwaves, sound waves and enzymes. Each of
these is briefly described below.

1. Use of sunlight & Microwaves

The uses of sunlight and UV light have given birth to
photochemistry. During the past 40yrs, a number of
photochemical reactions have been studied and their conditions
standardized. One major advantage of these reactions is that
sometime the product of photochemical are such that they
cannot be attained by usual chemical methods.

2. Use of Sound Waves

Instead of microwaves, sound waves have also been used to
carry out certain known chemical reactions with encouraging
results. This branch of chemistry is called sono chemistry. Here
again efforts are needed to develop conditions to achieve the
desired goals.
 3. Use of Enzymes
One of the most thoroughly investigated environmental friendly
reagents is enzymes. These work in aquous solutions and at
ambient temperatures. Using these enzymes, many biochemical
methods have been developed to prepare precursors and
intermediate of certain medicines and antibiotics.
For eg : semi-synthetic penicillin such as amphicillin and
amoxicillin has been prepared using this technique.

Green Chemistry in Day To Day Life

1. Dry cleaning of clothes

Tetrachloroethene (Cl2C=CCl2) was used as solvent for dry
cleaning. This compound is suspected to be carcinogenic and
contaminate the ground water. Its use has been replaced by
liquefied CO2 along with a suitable detergent which is less
harmful. H2O2 is used for the purpose of bleaching clothes in the
process of laundry.

2. Bleaching of paper
Chlorine gas was used for bleaching paper which is highly toxic
chemical. Its use has been replaced by hydrogen peroxide along with
a suitable catalyst.

3. Synthesis of chemicals
Ethanal (CH3CHO) is now commercially prepared by one step
oxidation of ethane in the presence of ionic catalyst in aquous
medium with a yield of 90%.
CH2=CH2 + ( )/
) CH3CHO (90%)
( )(

O2
From the above discussion, it is
evident that if concerted efforts are
made to develop green chemical
products, it will certainly help us to keep
our environment pollution free.