x-

SAMBODHI

'

(QUARTERLY)

-"V^.,.

( 3*'-|-?i-\
v
\j"v.-*"7"^.

"

APRIL 1974^**^-*-

VOL. 3

NO.

EDITORS

DALSUKH MALVAN1A
DR. H. C.

L. D.

BHAYANI

INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY

AHMEDABAD 9

CONTENTS
Fabric of Life as conceived
J.

m Jama

Biology

C. Slkdar

Architectural data in the

NirvSnakahka

of Padahptasun

M, A, Dhaky

A
M,

Note on

'

3TT

S?f

'

^ftre

C, Modi

Dhanapala and Some Aspects of

Modern

Fictional

Technique

Kansara

Vivahavallabhamahakavya

Satya Vrata

lost

Jama

Sanskrit

Poem

THE FABRIC OF LIFE AS CONCEIvk^K "JAJNA

"
"

J. C.

Pu

Sikdar

Biology is the science of living substances (jivadravayas) The field of

Jatna Biology differentiates the living from the non-living by using the word
1
juatthlknya (organism) to refer to any living things, plant or animal, just
as

modern Biology

tree 1 , a creeper*

(pudgala)
Biology,

a
t

"it

does.

and

So

it

earth, stones,

more

is

is

relatively easy to see that a

an earthworm 8 are

difficult

etc

living,

whereas

man, 1 a Sola

pieces of

are not so. But according

to decide

whether

such

to

things as

matter

modern
viruses

are alive." 7

Jaina Biology states that the fabric of life of all plants and animals Is
= vital foice) or Prana 9 (life force), in another way, l.e.
(Sakti

]i

parynpW

and animals.

material of
plants
paryapti appears to be the actual living
There are stated to be six kinds of parynpti, viz. nhZraparySpti (vital force
and transform molecules of food parby which beings take, digest, absorb
= molecules of nutrients
tides into khala
products) and rasa (chyle
all

31

(waste
or energy),1 ^ ianraparynpti (vital force by which chyle or molecules of nutrients
= (raabhutatnaharam) are utilized by beings for the release of energy, the
etc ,
indriyaparyttptt*
building of blood, tissue, fat, bone, marrow, semen,
(vital force

suitable for building

by which molecules of nutrients or chyles
and provided to (he proper place so that beings can have

senses are taken in

f

the perceptual knowledge of the desired sense-objects by the sense-organs),"

which particles of respiration are taken In,
ucchvVsaparynptP-* (vital force by
oxidized for energy and left out (as carbon dioxide and water), bfOfaparyaptR*
(vital force

them

of speech, emit
by which beings, having taken proper particles
and manahparynptlV (vital force by which bangs, having

as speech)

taken particles (or dusts)

.

qf

i.e.

mind transform them

of

as

the

mental force,

thought).

a single substance but

It appears that this parynpti (vital force) is not
to organism (i e. one-sensed to five-sensed
Varies considerably from organism
one
the various parts of a single animal or plant, and from
being), among
or plant. There
time to another 1* within a single organ or part of an animal

fundamental physical and chemical

are six parynptts, but they share certain
Yl

characteristics

"

It is stated that there are ten

force), viz
!

five

indrlyapnnas

force of respiration),
(life

forces of

Qupa**

mind, speech

(life
(life

kinds of prana** (living material or life

force of five senses), ucchvusaprOita (life

force of length pf

*nd. b.ody).

life),

J.

C. Sikdar

are almost contained in six paryvptis, e.g

Actually speaking, these ten prnnas
IndriyaparyZpti contains five indriyapnnas,

ianraparyspti - knyaprStta,

bhafSparyapti

anapranaparytlpti=itcchvnsaptana,

= vskpra^o, manahpaTyvpti

only fyuprtna appears to be an addition

Thus

found that most of the paryTiptis and the pr'snas have

is

it

common

names. So tbe question is whether there is any difference between them.

The Gotntnafas'Bra explains the difference in this way that paryapti is attainment of the capacity of developing body, mind, speech, and five senses,
while pnita
It 3s

balas

(life

the activity of those functionaries. 11

is

farther explained that

forces), viz

one-sensed

sense of touch,

speech, three-sensed beings

and smell, respiration, length of

have eight pranas, viz

life,

viz.

or

four prZnas

beings possess

respiration, length of

have seven prfaas,

life,

senses of

body and

touch, taste

body and speech, four-sensed beings

and sight, respiration,

senses of touch, taste, smell

body and speech. In asamjm pance&driyafiws (five-sensed

beings having no physical mind but psychical mind, there are nine prsijas, viz.
senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, respiration, length of
life,

length of

life,

body and speech, while there are ten pr^as

(five-sensed beings having physical

and hearing,

light

mindj,

respiration, length of

in

samjto

viz. senses

life,

pa&cendnya jivas

of touch,

smell

taste,

body, speech and mind."

According to the Cnrvdkas, life (as well as consciousness) is a result of

combination of non-living matter, or the four
elements,

peculiar chemical

fn organic forms, just as the intoxicating

property
result

of spirituous liquor

of the fermentation of unintoxicating rice and molasses

movements and expression of new born babies

the

is

Similarly, the

Instinctive

(sucking, joy, grief.

fear, etc ) take place

mechanically as a result of external stimuli as much

and closing of the lotus and other flowers at different
times
of the day or night," or the movement of iron under the
influence of loadtone." In the same way, the spontaneous
reproduction of living organisms
frequently occurs, e.g. animalcules develop "in moisture or
Infusions,
as the opening

espcially
under tbe influence of gentle warmth
(Svedaja, waja, datiiamaiakvdayato*'
or the maggots or other worms
originate in the
season due

rainy
to
atmospheric moisture in the constitutent particles of curds and the
like
begin to live and move in so short a tiroe.w

Haribhadra
long before the

Smhya

has
in

materialists that this world is

C 8Dd there

?tto

wrW

" D

the

and
'

refuted

BhWacaitanywzda of the Materialists

the following manner
It is the doctrine
pf th<s
formed of only five great elements
.

(mqtabMtas)

eX1SteflCe

f S Ul

i.

theuiwen

ow anywhere

The other Materialists maintain the

view on the
contrary that elements

non-conscious (acetana). Consciousness

Is

not the character of

elements,

The Fabrics of

life as

conceived in

Jama biology

nor the result of elements, while soul fs the name of that tattva (reality)
with which (soul) consciouness Is related (as character or result)* 9
If consciousness

then
the

it

would have been

should have been found in

existence

etc.

(existentiality),

all

elements at

(general

times, just like that

all

character)

(particular character) are found in the elements at

are found. 10

Now

of elements,

character (quality)

the

all

Haribhadra refutes BhTUacaltanyavnda in

and hardness, etc.

tunes in which they

this

way

that conscious-

ness exists in elements as force (iakti), for this reason

it is

not perceptible,
be non-

but consciousness existing in elements as force cannot be said to

1
existing in elements.*

This

and

force (iakti)

consciousness

means from each other

or different by

are non-different, then

this force

different, consciousness should

all

becomes

are

either

means from

non-different by

each other

and

consciousness

be related with something else

if

If

all

they

they are

aa

Again, the point of non-manifestation of cetana (consciousness) does

not seem to be logical, because there is no other entity (vastu), covering
consciousness and

it

Is for this

reason that the number

of realities will go

against the doctrine of the Materialists on Hie admission of the existence of

some such

entity

Haribhadra
&

advances

further

the

refute the

to

argument

contention

this thing is directly proved that the element has

got the nature of these two qualities or characters-hardness and non-living'
consciousness is not of the nature of these two characters
ness and when

of the Materialists that

(i.e.

cannot exist with these two),

then

how can

be accepted that

it

it

,was

born oat of elements.'*

If consciousness does not exist in Individual

then

it

cannot exist

in the

combined elements

(i.e.

just

uncomblned) elements,
cannot

as oil

sand particles. And if consciousness exists in the combined

86
it should exist also in individual eldments and so on.

exist

ill

elements, ttidn
v
>

In conclusion Haribhadra maintains the view, aiter refuting the doctrine

of BhVtacaitanyavada of the Materialists with his cogent arguments that the
and of the unseen force and this
existence of force (iakti), etc. in soul,
'

(adftfa),

Which makes the possibility of iakti, etc in

"uns'een force (adrtfa), which

is

different

kinds and comes into relation with soul

The Suthkhya makes

j,

the following

manner

soul,

from soul,

is

should be accepted
and of many

real

se

the reply to the materialists'

that "the intoxicating

power

view

on cmtanya in
a force, I.e.

in liquor is

a tendency to motion. This force Is the resultant of the subtile motions present in the particles of

the fermented rice,

molasses,

etc.

motion or a

J.C

Sikdar

tendency to motion can In this way be the resultant of several other motions
or tendencies". "But caitainya (consciousness) is not a motion, and cannot
be the resultant of (unconscious) natural forces or motions

Neither can the

consciousness of the self or the organism as a whole be supposed to be the

of innumerable

resultant

an assemblage of consciousness

One

of the body.

particles

simpler and therefore

is

abiding intelligence

constituent

more

central

than

legitimate hypothesis

latent in different

Bhutas or particles." 37

The Satikhya philosophy maintains the view that prana (life) Is not vnyu
(bio-mechamcal force) nor it is mere mechanical motion generated from the
implualonof vayu.

The

3*

five vital forces, viz.

stated to be

karana, ic

Prtna, ApZna, Samana,

Udana and VyamP*

are

way. Prana (life) is in reality a reflex

of the various concurrent activities of the Antah-

in metaphorical

Vayu

activity, a resultant force

"of the senson-motor (Jiutnendrlya-Karmendnyd), the emotive

manafi and the apperceptive reactions of the organism" 40

According

to Vijfianabhikgu, this explains

on the

effect

depressing)

tions

the disturbing

(elevating or

of pleasurable or painful emotions like

vitality

ksmaslove of mind (manas), one of the

internal senses involved

in the reac-

of the living organism.* 1

Thus Pram of

the

Smkhya

inorganic matters (BhVtas), "but

from the

jaiktottti) generated

not a Vnyu nor

is

is

it

is

it

evolved

from the

only a complex reflex activity (SambhZ-

operation of the psyco-physical forces in the

organism.""
In agreement with the
Is

Smkhya

the Vendantists hold the view that

neither a Vayu nor the operation of a

former's view that Prana

a mere

is

reflex

"Prana

But they differ from the

Vayu"
or resultant of concurrent senson-

motor, emotive and apperceptive reactions of the organism. If eleven

birds,
par Jn a cage, concurrently and continually strike against the bars of it in
the

Me

direction,

it

may move on under

But the sensory and motor

the impact of converted action.

cannot in this way produce the vital

activities

activity of the organism,

because the loss of one or more of the senses

does
not result in the loss of life. This is
above all the radical distinction between them There is the sameness of kind

(Samajatiyatva) between the moand the resultant motion of the

cage, but Prana
not explained
by sensations, but it is a separate
principle (or force) just
as the mind and anta^karanas
generally are regarded
the Satikhya It is
tions of the individual birds

'

a sort of subtile

"ether-principle" (adhyaimanyu) pervasive of the

orga'nism
not gross vayu, all the same subtilized
matter like the mind
itself, as everything
other than the soul
(atma), according to the Vedanta, is material
"
(jada)

ww

whkh would

01 '"

8111 *'68

"

putrefy,, fit were not living,

tui originate
subsequently

from the

-'>

and the senses with

fertilized

egg."

their

appera

The Fabrics of

life

as conceived in

Jam

biology

explains Vzyu as the impelling force, the prime-mover, which sets

in motion the organism, the organs (including the senses and the

mind),

arranges the cells and tissues, unfolds or develops the foetal structure out of
the fertilized ovum. According to Caraka and Subuta 1 *, there are five chief

Vzyus with different functions

for the

maintenance of the animal

life,

viz.

Udsna, Samtina, Vyana and Apana as mentioned in the SsAtkhya.

Sulruta" describes Prana as having its course in the mouth and function in
Prana,

deglutition,

hlccpugh, respiration

Udsna

etc.,

and singing,

in articulation

Samsna

as digesting the food substance in the stomach in conjunction with

the animal heat, VySna as causing the flow of blood and sweat, and Apnna
with its seat in the intestinal region as throwing out the unno-gential

secretions

*s

In the mediaeval philosophy 49 there is

which there

are ten

chief Vnyus,

Samsna (5) Udana (6) Naga

and (10) DhanaRjaya M

(7)

viz

mention of

(1)

Kurma,

(8)

Prana

(2)

forty nine

Apnna

Prana has the function in the ideo-motor

verbal

yayus among

Vyana (4)
Devadatta

(3)

Kjkara or Krakow

(9)

mechanism and vocal

apparatus, the

respiratory system, the muscles, in coughing, singing, etc.,

Apana in ejecting the excretions and wastes, the urine, the faeces, the sperm
and germ-cells, etc , Vyana in extension, contraction, and flexion of the muscles, tendons, and ligaments, and stored up energy of the muscles, Udsna
maintaining the erect posture of the body, Jfnga in involuntary retching,
vomiting, KVrma, in the automatic movement of the eyelids, winking, etc,,

Kjkara in the

appetites,

ing, dozing, etc

hunger and

thirst,

Devadatta

m bringing

about yawn,

and Dhananjaya in causing coma, swooning and

The study of
paryspti or prZna

the different views

is neither

result

trance,

on

Prana or Vayu shows that Jaina

of peculiar chemical combinations of

non-living matter as advocated by the Cnrvakas nor a complex reflex activity

of the SnAikhya but a sort of separate principle (adhyntma vsyu) pervasive
of the oiganism as defined by the Vedpnta, an impelling force, the prime-

mover of Caraka and Suiruta. It appears to be the actual living material of

all plants and animals like protoplasm of modern
Biology, Jamaparyapti
and prnna, the two unique forces, not explainable m terms of Physics and
Chemistry, are associated with and control life The concept of these forces
may be called vitalism which contains the view that living and non-living
systems are basically different and obey different laws Many of the phe-

nomena of life that appear to be so mysterious in Jama Biology may be

explained by physical and chemical principles with the discovery of future
research in this field So it is reasonable to suppose that paryapli, a mysterious
life, although not identifiable with protoplasm, comes nearer to the
because of its unique functions
the organism.

aspect of
latter

of

This

and animals

all plants

Slkdar

modern Biology, "protoplasm

According to

is

is

the actual living material

not a single substance but varies consia single

among the various parts of

to organism,
<fcrbly from organism
with a single organ or part
animal or plant, and from one time to another
kinds of protoplasm, but they share
of an animal or plant. There are many
characteristics"
chemical
and
certain fundamental physical

"The protoplasm of

the

human body and

of

all

plants

and animals

exists

There are the microscopic units of structure

an independent, functional umt, and the proco-ordinated functions of Us cells.
cesses of the body are the sum of the
and function. Some of
These cellular units vary considerably in size, shape
animals have bodies made of a single cell, others such as a man

in discrete portions

known

as cells

of the body, each of them

Is

the smallest

or an oak tree are

of countless billions of

made

cells fitted

together.""

found in protoplasm are carbo*

"Some of these are
nucleic acids and stenods
hydrates, protein, Mpids,
others to supply energy for
of
the
structural
the
cell,
integrity
required for
and still others are of prime importance
regulating metaiti

The major

types of organic substances

functioning

bolism within the cell""

"Carbohydrates and fats (lipids) have only a small role in the structure
of protoplasm but are important as sources of fuel, carbohydrates are readily
Wtfiabie fuel, fats are more permanently stored supplies of energy. Nucleie

Kids h*ve a primary role in

are strocturil and functional
ftwj after

storing and transmitting information

Proteins

constituents of protoplasm,

serve as

but

may

The body can convert each of these substances into

deammalion

Xbers to some extent

Protoplasm

is

a colloidal system, with protein mole-

forming the two phases, and many of the properties of

- muscle contraction, ameboid motion, and so on depend on

ales ind water

protoplasm

the rapid change from sol (liquid

ttite

condition)

to gel (solid

nd back."**

References
t

Wafsm/f
Wwjww/j

Satra, 20

Svifa 33

TalHtriha SHr*

II

Bhtfttatt Sutra, 22,

4.

Ibtd.

23 4

665.

2.
I

844, Vttartdhayana Sutra, 36

24.
]

692

693.

Talttlrtha Satra II

J*faw/f

J,

Biology. (Villee)

24

Sitra, J, 70, 118.

16,

ISS-

or

semi-solid)

The Fabrics of
8

Pajjatti

as conceived in Jaina biology

life

-parySpu, Navatattva Prakarana (Dharmavijaya)

./fra/tffjifta,

9. Jfvavlcara,

VV

118-19, Lokaprakasa, Vinayavyaya, pt

42. 43,

Gommatasara, Jfvakan^a,

1,

12

GontmafasSra,
3rd Sarga, VV 15. 66
6,

129.

10

Navatattvaprakarana,

11

nijocitam / PfthakkhalarasatvenSharam pari^atoth

"TatraifShSraparySpur yayfidSya
nayet", Lokaprakasa, Pt I, 3rd Sarga, V 17
YathoCitam taifa rasIbhatamShSran yayfl
VaiknyahSra
aktyH punarbhavl I

12.

6.

RaJfisrgmfimsamedo asthimajjasukrSdidbStatam

nayedyathSsambbavath gS dehapary-

Lokaprakasa, p 65 pt 1, 3rd Sarga

DhStutvena pannatSdShSrfidmdnyocitflt / AdSya pudgalfimstSm

fiptirucyate // (19),

13

dhiya

(20)

tadvi?ayajfiaptau

Isfe

darfatl sarvadariibhib (21), Ibid

pp

yath&thfinath pravi-

JarlravSn parySphh

yayS iaktyS
65 66

sendnyShvCnS

14

According to the Prajfiapan3 Sutra (Indrlyapada), Jivabhlgama fUtra, PravacantuSraddhafacom etc , the power by which the molecules of nutrients or chyles are trans-

15.

YayocchvSsfirhamSdSya, dalsm prmamayya

parrSySptirucyate //22// Ibid , p 66

16

BhSfSrham dalamfidSya glstvam nltvlvalambya ca / yayfl iaktyS tyajetprilnl bbBfSpar

ryflptmtyasau (29) Ibid , p 67,
Dalam IStvS manoyogyarfi tattSm nltvSvalambya ca / yayfi mananaiaktah syanmanah-

formed

17

for building of sense-organs

paryiptiratra sK

18

is

ca

TatUySlambya

is

effected gradually

in the case

66
, p
muEcet aochvSsa-

(30) Ibid

"Pajjattlpatthavabam jugavaih tu kamena hodi mtthavanam

yalcaml, tattiySlavS" 120, Ibid
The gaming of the capacities starts simultaneously,

them)

Vide Ibid

called indnyaparyBpti,

withm

the period of

of each succeeding one Yet

AihtomuhuttakSlenahi-

but the completion (of each of

one

aiitar

muhurta which increases

their total period does not

exceed one antar

muhurta.
19
20.

Ib)d

121

"DaiahS jiy&na panS imdiusasSujogabalaravB / egimdiesu cauro, vigalesu cha

daaa kamena boddhawS (43)
// (42) Asannuannipamcimdiesu nava

tatta

attheva

Jtravlcara

"Pamcavi imdiyapflna manavadkSyesu tinni balaplnfi

homti dasa pSn&" /, QommafasSra, JivakZnfa, 130.
21.

Gommafatara,

22.

JiravicSra,

JivakStitfa,

SnapSnappSnS dugapanena

p 90

43. 43.

prSnah sparsanen^riyocchySsSyunktyabalarflpSfi
"Ekendriye$u-prthivydi?u catvSrah
taihfl
/
dvlndrtyeiu catvfirasta eva vfigbalarasanendriyayutsh jaj prSnS bhavanti
trlndriyeyu sa{ prSnti^ta eva ghrSnendriyBnvitSh sapta bhavanti tathS caturmdriyesu
aaptaiva
aftau

ta

cakiunndnyasahitS as^au prffnS bhavanti /

eva srotrendnyayutE nava prHnS bhavanti,

tathfi

asafljAipaftcendriyefu

tatbfi

lamjflipaficendnyefu

luiva ta eva

23

manoyukta date prSnS bhfivanti /" Ibid,, (Commentary), p 27.

"Madakktivat vJjflSnam / prthivyEdlm bhatSru cattvfiri tattvSni / tebhya eva
dehakoraparinatebhyah madaiaktivat caitanyamupajXyate /", ffyayamaftljarj, Ahnlka
7,

24.

25.

"PadmSdifu prabodhasammilanavat
Gautama's Nytiya Sntra, p 169.

tadvikfirah /" Sntra 19,

Ahnika

I,

p 437

Chapter

ff

III,

"Ayaio yaskantabhigamanavat tadupasarpanam, Ibid Satra 22, p 171

of the Ancient Hindus, Dr B N Seal, p. 239
,

26

Posittvf Sciences

27.

"Var|8iu ca svedSdina" anatidavlyasaiva kileoa dadhySdyavayavS eva calantah pnianSdlupalabhyante /", Nyayqmanlan, Ahnlka 7, Bhuta Calntanyapakfa, p 440

J. C. Sikdar

See the Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p 240

28,

rtttnvyadimahibhatak5ryamStranudam jagat

Na

cfitm6drjjjisadbhava&

Bhaiavidmali", Sattravartusamuccaya, Hanbhadrason,

na

2f)

Acetanfitu bhutSni na taddhatrao

SO

Yadlyam bhtttadharmah

sySt pratyekaih tesu

tvSda>o yattii f/" Ibid

32,

meti rfpare //" Ibid

3)

sa

"SaktirUpena

satvadS

sadSto nopalabhyate

nSnStvam vaiha

Na

sarvaths

"isakticetanayoraifcyarh

33,

AnabhivyaktirapyaiyS nySyato nopapadyatc,

odhauh", Ibid, v. 35

31,

KXthuyJbodharaptiu bhQtSnyadhyaVtaaiddhitSh

S yatah" Ibul

TumSt

evSt-

ca

rUpena

IcnSpi

sS

aikye

satyasatyeva

cetanaweti nfinHtve

v 33

oa

totu

md/ribid,
36

sa

upalabhyeta sattvBdikafbina-

yadanyena

Svjurna

tattvaaaibkhySvir-

CetanS tu na tadrnpH sS katham

V Ibid,, v. 43.

tatpbalobhavct

3$ Pnttyekftmaiail

yasyeyam

33

32,

"nvaiya

ca

manyante

v 30

1st stavak,

Cetanfisti

31

tcju

ctnna tat /I" Ibid

taiphalatn

Uktykduidhafcam

ca

ySd renutailavat

tatl

cedupalabhyeta

bhnuaiQpe<u

44,

tsdltroano

bhmnam

rStmayogi ca

laccitrarti

Arl^tamavagantavyam tasya

//"

Ibid., 106.

37

"Madakktivat
Chapter III,
"Nairn yath

PriVrte tu

daronena

pratyekapar;dpt

'Sifahatjp

tadudbhavah", Samkhya Sfltra 22,

mSdakaiiiaktih pratyekadravyavjitirapi mihtadravye varttate, evam

a\idiU
ccnna
sati
tadudbhavah
pratyekapaTidrjje
sSinliatye

caiuovamapt
tambluvet

cet

prauekapandrjtatwm

prat>rkabhate

nSati

oanu

sutsmacaitanyasaktiranumeyS

samuccite caitonya-

cenna

iti

anckablintesu

taktilcalpanSyam gaiiravena laghavadekasyaiva mtyacitavarupasya kalpa/",

klrano

sajit[yak5ranagunajan>atayS

mblia\t

cf also Bhntagataviecaitanyara vinS dche caitanySsa-

Sn^fJiyaprmacanabliTnya, VijCSnBblnk?u, p

18

|" Ibid

M4dy*madafaktinia giinah nwdySrambhakanam piftagudamadhvadlnSA yat yasya karma

ttikrubhjrSrabdh8mvavakarmavirodhlkarraa yaducyate prabhfiva iti /
CaitanyBditam n krma" GangSdbata' Jalpakalpotaru, 1867, Calcutta
VtJi PJIU/W ?I{CM of thi Ancient Hindus, Dr B.
241

38.

"VtyuvU

Bcr

vByavalj

prwiddhah

SeRl,

aamSkaifa ngyaifa niyamah

kramenirca bbavti naikads Jgtuaikarjajya asrafikam adoatvSt

yadindriyavritih

sfiinagrlwrnavadhSne

n*kirmptadtiy8i\L ekadaikavrttyutpadane bsdhakaih naiti", PravactaiabhSsya

'
Sitri, 31. 32, p. 88.

Mwodhwmwya
39

31,

ch

III '

WtnSdeh prtnakfobbatayS
sSmSnySdhikaranycnaiva aucitySt" Ibid.

S*mIoyV*anavntih

prSnfidyS vSyavali

pnca"

Sandchyadar'jana,

Chapter

S^ra

StUthrakittlt!, 29.

"Pffa. brwth,

the ordinary

fcr or vital for

ung

froni eonductiug

Imtb,

lha

uupMtuu and

la tho

&

^dm&on
^ andT

lower parts of

" Mrt to

the

tbe
body^wj?, collect
breath
the body udSna, ween'
, through
puUation. of the ortona.
the upper

*"

he<ld

diffiulon thrmigh the

{UtudtpcU,W*onJ p

downward breath the

equaUy the food, ate

ntal fore* that cau,

expiration, apSna,

IDS)

"^ ***-

aeparace

body are effected" ' 70

The Fabrics of
This

not very

it

mudi with the

the

the

the

ankarScharya,

to be

said

is

enwrapped

'in five

or husk)

pod

"the seatb composed of breath, and the

other vital airs associated with the organs of action" (Indian Wisdom, p 123) Vide
the SSihkhyakarlkS of tswara Kiishna", ed by John Davies, p 46

40

third of these

arteries being under the action of

the loulj, a Vedlc poem as aligned to

soul

Cosse, Ir Gael Coch-al, a

investing sheaths or coverings" (Kosh, cf Fr

The

in the STimkhya Tattvakau-

the great

surface,

Atmabodha (knowledge of

the

In

connected

is

nerve-force by winch seniibihty is given to the ikin

body u probably meant It is also connected with the circu-

along

commentator

great

but as vyaaa,

the subtle

skin,

or outer surface of the

lation of the blood
lldana (71)

as conceived in Jalna biology

life

intelligible,

called

prayamaya,

Positive Science

of the Ancient Hindus, p 241.

"Mftno dhatmasya kSmSdeh / PranaksobhatayS

41

Stifokhya Pravacanabhasva, Chapter II, 3

42

I,

sSmBnySdhikaranyenaiva

aucitySt

38

santah sambhnyaikam pranakhyara vrttiih pratipadyante

(Pratilapsyante), l^ankarabhasya, BrahmasQtra, cha II, pSda 4, iQtra 9

"Karanfini-myatavfttaynh

"SamttnyS karanavrttih prSnSdyS vSyavah pafica /" S&fnkhyakarlka, livaraknva, 29,

lee also SMikhyapravacanabhafya, Chapter II, sntras, 31, 32.
"foa

43.

Its

44

Vsyukriye prthagupadesSt "/

Brahmasiitra,

chapter

II,

4, Sutra

ptda

9 See

BhUfya.

BhSmatt ffka
'SiddhBntastu na samSnendnyavfttih prSnah
also VScaspatl Misra,

Sa hi mihtfinfiih v5 vrttlrbhavet pra-

tyekatn vB/na tSvat militSnim ekadvitricaturindriySbhive tadabhSvapraiangSt/no khahi

cnrnahandrasaibyogajanma, arunaganastayoranyalarfibhSve bhavitumarhati / na ca

sibikodvahanam

bahuviBfisSdhyam
dbySifa

tathfi sati

dvitrivittisSdhyam

s5manyavrttilv5nupapalteli

bhavati

na ca

tvagekasi-

apica yat sambhUyakSrakSni

nispl-

dayanti tat PradhSnavySp8ra*nugunBvantaravy5p3renaiva / YathS vayasSth prfitisviko,

iha tu sravanadyavantaravySparopetS^i pr5n5 na
vySpfifah pifljaracSlanSnugunah /"
'

sambhnya

prfinyunti

prfinanasya

nnah

yuktaih

sekakfilldBrabhya

prflnah

tasya

/",

'

pranah

(SankarabhSfya)

vrttil&bhat

na

pnyeta na sambhavedvfi srotradlnBntu

fibhanna jyesthatvaih

sravan&dibhyah

pramfinabbfivadatyantavyfirtyaivficca

tasm&danyo vayuknyabhySui

mukhyo api

cet

tasya

cf

VayurevSyamadhyltmamfipajyesthafca

prfnah

tuknud-

tadanlm vrttilfibhah sySt sukmm

karnaiaskulySdisthSnavibhaganlfpattau

$HnkarabhSfya, Chapter II

p&da

vrttil*

4, ffitra 9.

Caraka

45

"VSyuh tantrayantradharah,. prfinapSnodanasamanavySnatma pravartakah ceftSnam,

sandhS.
pranetB m&nasah sarvvendriyanBin udyotakah,. sarvasarjradhaiuvyuhakarah,
kfepta baliirmalfinSni,.
nakarah farlrasya.pravartako vScah, harjotsfihayoryomh,
kartfi garbhakrtlnSni /" Caraka, SutrasthMa, Ch. XII
Chapter XII and $ubuta, NldHneathana, Chapter

46.

Caraka

47

Suiruta, NidSnasthttna, Chapter 1

'

Sutrasthilna,

TesSni

apanah

mukhyatamah
/

prBnah

I.

iabdoccSrananihjvSsocdivSsa-ltEsfidikaranain

asya mutrapurl}Sdivisargh karma-klrttitam / vySnah prSnBpanadhrtitySgagrakarma ca / samano, apigovySpya nikhilaifa brlrath vahnmH saha /

hanfidyasya

ItarasSn lamyaganayan dehapustikrt

dvisaptati sahasresu n54irandhr<.su lamcaran bhuktaj
/
tvagSdidhamnfilntyft
dehonnayanotkramanadipraklrttitaiii
karmSsya
/ udanah

pafica nfigSdayah

bhrti

mohBdi

Chapter

I',

sthitah, udgfiradi nimesadi ksutapipasfidikaih

tegSra
vol. I,

edition of the Sanglta-darpana

^

See alio KalyVnok.'STeka ? 3

3.1

kramSt

tandrapra-

60-67,
karma praklrtttHajh /" Sangitaratnakara, SSraiigadeva,
of the summary in RSja Sourindra Mohan Tagore'i

pp 41-42,

J. C. Stkdar

10

Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus,

48.

Vide the

49.

OnapaficSdaiadvSyurudite putrfih

te

p 230
mdrena

sarvve apajfih

devatvaifa prfipitah tarlrfi.

ntanbShyabbdena dafadhB/"
BkSganlaiikiyam SrldharasvSmiit, Vide Sabddkalpadruma, 4th Kanfa, p 342
PrCnlpanau tathft vySnatamSnodSnaiamjfiakSn / NSgarh Knrmarfi ca KjkaraA Deva-

SO

d*uam Dhaoamjayaib //"

Sangitaralnokara, Ch I, v.

59, p, 41, vol. I

"PrlnfipSnau taths vySnajamSnodanaaadijfiakfih / Nfigah Knrmafca KtJcaro Devadattadbanafijau //" v. 40, Saagiladarpanaih of Catura Damodara, chapter I, Sangitara-

tKttam, voL
51.

I.

ch

I,

vv-60-67, pp, 41-42.

"iabdocdranam (vlngnifpattikiranam) mhivSsah ucchvBwh (antarmukhkaJvfisah)

tantrSdlnlm karanwii (tldhanaih) prfinavSyuh,
VinmntraiukradivahatvamapSnafya
karma llraficana-pradranldi vyfinasya karma jfleyaih aatapUSdinfim tainat&nayanadvlrl Jarlraija pojanam tamfioaaya karma /
udaoavSyuli nrdhhvanayanameva asya
k*rn

nlg*dyah nigakarmakflcaradevadttadhanfljayarnph paflcavSyava^i

kwmlni ca yathBkramam udgSronmllanakfudhajananavJrmbhanamohflnipain
Sloka 53-48 cf the extract to Sunk&rabh^ya
"Printhprlgvptirucchvasldikarml / ApSnah svlgvrttirutiargSdlkarma

Sanxttaetarpa*a. Chapter

tyo^ wndban %artamSn*h vlryavatkftrmahetuh

htu$i

UkraSnah

SlnTokaOiifya,
Hindus, p. 230
.

tama& urve|u
chapter

Biology, p, 16

S3.

Ibid.

M.

Biology,

55

Ibid.

56

HAL,

pp

p. 33.

29-2(i

eteffm

/
/'

/,

II

ndtanh

angefu yah annaraifin nayatl

p&ta

4.

Vyflnah

nrdhvavrttih utkrfatBdi
/ iti".

svtra 2, Vide Positive Sciences

of

the Ancient

THE ARCHITECTURAL DATA IN THE NIRVANAKALIKA"

OF PADALIPTA-60RI
M. A. Dhaky
The NirMnakalikn is a Jama pratitfhz-tuntra of some esteem and
1
For some years it has been one of the major sources for the
antiquity.
study of the iconography of Jamas' Yaksas and Yakuts. The authorship
the colophon, goes to Padalipta-San, a disciple of Mandanato
according
who, in turn, was a disciple of SaAgamasimha, "the crest-jewel of
Vidyadhara-vamsa of the ^vetarabra-sect." This Sangaraasimha and
who passed away after fast-untodeath on Mt Satruftjaya m V S 1064/A D 1008 (according to the contemporaneous Pundanka image inscription), are now looked upon as one and
the same person 2 The Nlrvftnakalikz may then have to be dated to the

gani,

the

the Sangamasiddha of Vidyadhara-kula

first

quarter of the eleventh century

work is, m mam, concerned with the installation rites of Jaina

Image and Jaina temple; as a result, it became at same stage unavoidable
on author's part to refer to the architectural members of the temple. The
references, though succinct, are pertinent and to some extent useful also,

The

for

provide

they

but

small

additions

significant

to

our

knowledge on

temple-terminogology.

The

first

of such references is concerning the consecration of the door

The text, m that context, refers to Yakseia (=Kabera)

(dvzra-pratmhz)

and Sri (=Laksmi) above

the door-guardian

part

Mahakala

nkhn-s. 1

jambs or

settled there by

"

the door-sill

Yamuna

with

The

of

respectively

mention

it

his counter-

in the right

and

left

further qualifies that these six divinities be

text

"command

Next does

(udumbara).

Kala together with Gangs, and

(dvnrapnla)

together

Jma"

dvBrapula pojH-Sdikam

(Jintyftayn)

karma

krtvs

dvHrOfignni

kas.5y-5dibb.ib.

nrdhva-udumbara YakjeSa-Snyam ca yo atmano dak;ina-v3ma-&Miay0

Kala-Gange MahSkaJa-Tamune vmyased tti devata $atkam
JiflSjflayg
etc

sannirodhya
Next,

the

in

(hrt-pratlfthv),

antefix

on

the

"

context
text

of the

refers

invocation

to the

Tatab Suhartos ordhvam garbhagrhe

little

dings and

and

sanctuary

settling

of the 'nucleus*

(garbhagfha)

above the

the fronton (Sukanssa).

further, the text

the

describes

superstructure of sacred

..

etc

"

the rites relating to the wall-moulbuilding or prasada.

It

mentions,

MA

12

Dhaky

(kumbhaka), the major frieze (janghz),* the spire (Mkhara),

the neck (kan(ha) and (he myrabolan (ninatasnraka);
in order, the pot

"Tadanu prasvdath gatvg kumbhaka jaftg,hu-bikhara-kan[ha tmalasZraketu

taltvaoi vmyasya pus,paks.atsdibhib mala-

brihma-pancakam ptthivyadmt ca
mtntrena prS'Sdamadhivssayet.''

The

text further refers to

members of

the crowning

the temple, namely,

banner

the

the pitcher flnml (kalafa),

the peak (culaka),

(dhvaja)

and

the

sacred wheel (dbaimacakra) in order of the sequence in placement.

"TartS ciirujaktim calak sdbare ratnapaflcakam cVlakarh kalaiaOi dhvojath

1
'
dharnittcakarm ca jathakramam sthspayet.

The banner

(implied to DC over the

has to be

details.

It

frrfoWi

ndl

{kanaka-ghanttka-ghargharlk
ttak
};

and

been described in some

spire) has

of silk, (pa^m'suka), bearing the cognizance of bull

further ornamented with golden bell and rattle

and

cihnlie)

and with varied

opatobhitath)
It

nlankfte).

after the

be

to

is

ceremonies

the banner holder with chant-utterance

borne

on

floral

ribbings

staff

(daqde

over, to be raised and placed in

are

fd/ivflf/adAare

sah

itt$ta& mula-manlreita mvesayet.)

The

has to be new (nutanark), and

with peel intact

staff

munutilated

made

of

bamboo

(sa-ryacaA), straight or unbent

daw/a*), hailing from a good locale (iubha-dej^aA), with Internodes in odd
number (pravardhamana-parvaA), and, its proportion has to be according
(myafigath),

to tie dimensions of the building (prasada-mBnena

pramsijath

The

proportion of

relative

8ig-tff from

for the temple having

the

stiff,

the

would

bj

to

four

further

currwponding
nie of every cubit added
ca

basal diameter

cubits,

at

As

height.

mdih from one

ric in the height

"Tac

temple's

the basis of the letter's

of the

parikalpayet

and

that

the text goes

on

of

nine cubits (hastas), the height

staff

rise

the

to say,

of

of building's height, the

would be two (inches

at

the

?j"

hasigt prabhrti

nava-hasta-paryantes.u
pratlms prHsadesu
caui|-kr5d awbhya dvivjddhya danda-pramsnam
avaseyam' .
The length of ihe banner is said to be half that of
the JaAghH
(?) or
upto the complete jaaghn or equal to tbe
(length) of the staff .7
"Dbvajam ca ayamato jarigh-srdha-lambi-jangh-antam
danda-pramact kartavyam.
1

tcn '

ta*
,
(atgdti) "VKUras tu dasa-dvidasa-sodas-angula
helS ht-re
fi

fioltl

for

and the banner has

iwtance

keeps

two

been

mat, tha, the

cb,

suggested

he, g ht of

the builder

ft* of

twelve or
iiti",>

'at>onsh,p

between the pitcher-

by clever muendos.

the flag
a cubit
staying
"
pestilence

and

above, causes increase in

children; that

The

text

above the

common
a
wh.ch stays three

The Architectural Data

In the

NlrvVnakallka of Padlipto-farl

13

leads to

the increase in wealth and

food; that which goes
above by four, causes increase in the royal treasury; and that which sours
cubits

above,

in green times just as

five cubits, sets

high by

it

results in the

augmenta-

tion of nation's possessions

"Mukte hastocchnte

kala&t

karta rogatanka-varjitah syat / Dvihastocchnte bahu-prajo bhavati / Tri-hastocchnte dhana-dhanyair vardhate

Catur hast occhnte nrpa.vrddhih / Pafica-hastocchntc subhikiam

vrddbi

ra?tra-

"

& ceti

The NirMnakallkz
reference

on

dwells

and

several other vastu rites

associated

in which it bnetly bints to architectural

terms, but no other
so significant as those cited and briefly discussed in the fore,

ceremonies
is

going pages.

References

B Jhaven, Bombay

Editor Mohanlal

Cf,

Umakant Premanand Shah, "Madhyakslma

(Guj

),

Sri Jalna-Satyaprakata,

original article appeared in

The

who

Pfidahpta-SUn

mgly acceptB the

SShitya-no
places

51

around the

it

rite,

The

Era

Hindi

been

flourished

17,

No

GujarStl ka|S-n5fl
1.

Ahmedatwd IS

in Jfianodaya, Kail, year 3,

somewhere

date.

So does
Gujarati,

to be

held

traditionally

Itlhasa,

early

Safnsksipta

Chriitian

of

has

NlrvaneJtallkS

1926.

year

in

the

p 22

Silpo"

The

work by the

earlier

The

Mem-

the early centimes

Mohanlal

Bombay

Dalicband

Desai

1933, p. 104.)

editor

Cf

Jatoa

Mimi Kalyaavijaya

century of Vikrama Era or raughly in the fourth century

(Cf $rt Kalyena Kalika Paricaya, Gujarati, Ahmedabad 1956. p
fifth

content, the language, the advanced stage hinted

and

medieval elegance

the

kefalSnka
10.51,

No

finesse

indicate the times not earlier than the end

and some of
of the

by

the

elaborations

the architectural terms used

tenth

or

the

beginning

of the

next century.
'

name of Nandi

The

ttstu&titnu

Kfila

and MahSkSla are brahmanical

give

the

instead of KSla

In any case Nandi or

divinities figuring as door-guardians of the

pretence in a Jama work 19 rather mlngumg. The doorguardians specified for the Jama temple in Western Indian VSsluieitral are quite
different and pertain to the Indras of different lokas in general. The fluviatile

Sivaite

temples.

goddesses

The

Its

Ganga and Yamun5 are of course featured among the door-divinities.

kumbhaka which u one of the five mouldings of the
There is no reference to pi[ha or socle
lower part of the wall

text mentions only

bandha

or

Vedt-

The

somewhat summary, or it may have implication m terms of

style,
In any <.ae the
a temple in the late Pratlhfira idiom perhaps
terminology is
purely Northern, or more precisely the one that prevailed in Central and Western
India from at least the tenth century onwards
treatment here

5.

The Culaka

is

etc.,

by Inference, could have come above the SmalasSraka The cVlaka

member with rounded top as on the Gop temple
the Sun temple at fcri-nagara (Ca. 7th
century), and

could be the conical hat-like

(Ca

Late 6th Century),

V.

14
late ai (be

Nandeivara group of

A.

Dhaky

templet (Ca. early 10th century),

The Maba-Gurjara and Mfiru-Gurjara templet

1 he

placement

'mstrai that

of

dharmacakra leeou

in

all in

Saurasjra

ihow candrlka (moon-cap) instead

accord with the injunction of the V3stu

ayudha or weapon of the divinity be placed above

the

kala'sa

as

the

6.

Since Jina poisesses no weapon,

of the particular divinity
dharmacakra Kenu to be the sudsbtute thought proper in the context of his temple.
The text is not clear on thu point.

The

emblem or cognizance

pretence of the qualifying term

tation a little dubious ai Ft

(flag)

Lambt

instead of

Babubhai Shah

equal to the length of the

tells

me

lamblnafo makes the

The

vaatu's3tsraj

interpre-

make pat Ska

A NOTE ON
M.
We,

Bhaysni and myself came across

interpretation.

The

Modi

C.

Nemmaha-Cariu

the editors of

text, for

an Apabhramja Carita-Ksvya, Dr
expression which intrigued us in

this

the reference, I give below

its

(i)
etc.,

[Nemlnsha-Carlu p.
In the above text the printed text

12. St.

43]

corrected to

be

wrara-^ftra should

jf

(h)

Tar*

513

^(fir-ill ft

vn %ft

[Nenunaha-Cariu p.

62. St. 242]

had a discussion about this knotty expression wilh my friends Ft.

Amrtbhai Bhojak and Pt. Rapendrakumar Pagaria. They pointed out the
I

following references to settle the meaning.

The

references are as under

(a)

linea]
'

(b)

P 33.

line

(c)

mt ft^RBWf ft*
The above references settled the meaning of tbe expression as 'wealth
which would last upto seven degrees of the descent of female offsprings.'
I

have Interpreted 'female offsprings' because ^fa'

connected with a mald-servant or

the current idiom

wealth as

come

Wo

much

in

Gujarati

in all

courtesan. 'Seven'

'grs ^ft =*!&

%33

is

the

'

WfflY

as would last upto seven degrees of descent

vogue because of

qfqtwjrf

in

i$w&,

references

is

mentioned because

eligible \o

He eanwd

'

giet-W
share

the

ha

Jftf

Modi

C.

offered at the time of vt\$ for the dead

some MS

me8r.

[gfomm 3 mfo

$&

who

ftfrn^

seven degrees has been extended to |fa also

nce

to (be degrees of descent

be extended

The

jfrfy

for

fsjtaft

u the

If

Ufa

but %foj

Probably ^ft

nd

the meaning

'^fa'

'a braid'

courtesans,

may

metaphorically
if

no

reference

is

The analogy of
found with

meaning

will

refere-

have to

applied to 'stream
is

in the

are

sense of

only the obstacle in excluding

source of |ftr 'degree*. If other references

the expression

Wfttdi

is

some the whole and

It,

ug^ffr]

metaphorically

example

That

degree in the tine of descent*.

sk

of male offsprings, the

references to

Hoe" ilso is there in

shares

e
'a

found to elucidate

further be extended

and

cleared.

be applied to 'female offsprings' of

otherwise

to the extension of the

meaning be found.

Rtftftnett
1.

Hwtblwdra

2.

G*cwdi's Mahivw

3.

BfeojMJevii

Sflti,

Nemintha Carro
3ariya

Srngin manjan

L.D. Series Volume

Dvchiid
Kaihfi

I,

No

25,

Ahmedabad.

Lalbhai PustakoddhSra Granthfinka

75, 'surat.

Smghi Senw Bhartiya Vidya-Bhavan Bombay

34.

Amradttra'i

Xkh>*nka Mani

KoU

PrSkrto-Teict

Socwty Senes, Ahmedabad

DHANAPSLA AND SOME ASPECTS OF

MODERN FICTIONAL TECHNIQUE*

N
I

M. Kansara

CRITICAL BACKGROUND

As with

European Romances written in Middle Ages,1 so In

the Romances like Dana's Kadambari and Dhanapsla's Tilaka-

Sanskrit,

tbe

which the imagination is

works of fiction
are, in general,
unrestricted In form they were long, resembling works of poetry
rhymed
or alliterative prose occasionally interper^ed with a verse or two. They con.
centrate on story rather than on character, and the story concerns unreal
mafijari

people engaged in strange, often supernatural, adventures. Their wide

The remarks of Mr. W. P, KM*,
appeal Is as a literature of escape
though meant for the medieval European authors of twelfth century Romances,
strangely
apply to Sanskrit Prose-romances variety of incident,
in the world, had been
all the incredible things
Mere furniture counts for a good deal
are
full
of
and
romances,
descriptions of riches and
they

of scene, and

remoteness

at the disposal of medieval authors.

the

best

In such passages of ornamental description tbe name of strange

people and of foreign kings ha\e the same kind cf value as tbe names of
stones, and sometimes they are introduced on their account.

splendours

precious

and allusion has been overdone.

be discovered in some writers u preference for classic subjects In
One
digressions, or for tbe graceful forms of allegory

Sometimes
There
their

this fashion of rich description

may

ornamental

is
to make an immediate literary profit out of all
books of learning. U w as a quick-witted age and knew how to
Much of its art is bestowed in making

of romance

function
accessible

quotations and allusions

pedantry look attractive.
turn

DESCRIPTION, SCENE AND RETROSPECT

II

When

a novelist

says Phyllis Bentley,

he moves
term

it

type
by the

summarised
can be called

The
distinct

Sambodhi

of

his

tells

integrated

'retrospect*

tells

us what he sees,

that type of narrative as 'description';

or 'summary*.

description, the scene

3.1

and

us single specific .actions

narrative a 'scene*

account of his

parts to

moving world

when
we have learned to
when he rolls his fictitious world
campaign, the some total of a character, a
gradual conversion to a new course of life, It

we term

slovJy and

that

rapidly

halts

and the

play in fict|on

The

summary have
scene gives

quite distinct uses,

the reader feeling of

N, M. Kansara

18

and

participating in the action very intensely,

therefore used for intense

is

The
The

moments, such as the crisis, the climax and a sequence of actions.

summary is most frequently used to convey rapidly a sketch of past.
the right mingling, of scene,

proper use,
art

of

narrative

fictitious

summary

appear as scene

The

later novelists,

and thus

guise of one character's reflections

characters

(A)

description

rob

it

too,

of

its

and summary

Is

the

employ devices to make

tedium, casting

In the

it

upon another, dialogue between the twg

and so on.'

DESCRIPTIONS.
in

Descriptions

the

Ttlakamanjan

(TM)

may

roughly

be classified

into those of. (i) places and things;

(h) persons, (lii) actions of individuals
and animals, (tv) groups in action,
(v) seasons, situations and etc.; and
(vi) moods and affections. The following enumeration of each
type of descriptions in the TM would illustrate the wealth of the
artistic
poet's

variety

of subjects covered, thereby revealing his

genius.

the descriptions of
places and things, the following
are noteworthy : the city of
Ayodhys (pp. 7-9); the temple of the Goddess

Among

(i)

Sri {pp. 33-34); the celestial

river

Nandana garden (pp 56-57), the bank of the

Sarayu (pp. 105-106); the shower-house (pp.
106-107), the assemblythe
outskirts
of
the city of Kafici
115);
(pp. 116-148); the ocean

hall (p.

(pp.

120-122),

military

camp

Ratnaknta (p. 137 and pp

chief

(pp, 145-146),

the

(p. 120), Lanka (pp. 134-135); the island

147-148); a boat bemg commanded by sailorinner apartment of
prince Harivahana's palace

(p. 174); the

Kamarapa region (p. 182); the Vindhya forest

Incorporating
the word-picture of a tribal
village of Sabaras (pp
199-200), the
ake

(202-205),

?" lJf
SL
^
between the

Jam temple (pp

Adr*tapara

the adytum of the

temple and
'to 216- 217; a Plantain bower
a dagSer (pl
5
a
wood-l aad (P -234); the forest
244)I
2
lymg
Vaitadhya mountain and Mount
Ek^nga (pp.

R** bha

214.216),

IDStaI ' ed therein

ofil7L?

259 260):

p'

of Lord Mahsvlra

(p. 275);

233-235)

"* ***
the

pavilion

Aioka

tree,

(pp

a*

a***

the temple of
Cupid

C2

and the

DhanapSla and some aspects of modern

Gandharvaka
on a bed of

(pp. 164-165)

lotus leaves (pp. 229-230}

of Hanvshana

creeper-bower
forest (p

230)

Samaraketu

sailing

Vmdhya

journey through the

long

seen by

boat as

in a

his arrival at the

on

Samaraketu

after his

19

fictional technique

seated with Tilakamanjarl lying

Hartvahana

Malayasondan

citizens of Ksfici
(p 260), Samara(p 276), Tilakamanjan (pp 246-247),
ketu as described by Malayasundan lying in his lap (pp. 310-312) ;

Queen Patralekha (pp. 340-341) , love-lorn Tilakamafijan

Hanvahana seated on the throne (p. 403) unconscious
Tilakamafljari (pp 415-416), and the Goddess Sri as seen by Priyaagusun-

Vidysdhara

368-369)

(pp.

dan

(pp. 408-409).

Among the descriptions of

(ill)

17-18),

humdrum

(p. 67);

of joyful inmates

the birth of Prince

camp due

to

and animals

Hanvahana

(p 76)

of King
,

in

Meghavshana's harem after

soldiers in a military

commotion of

a night-attack (p 84) a pair of fast-riding messengers (p. 85)

Vajrayudha and Samaraketu (p 89) worship of the
a
ways and means of
ship (p. 131)
, Samarketu boarding
;

between

arrowfight

ocean (p

individuals

love-sports of King Meghavahana

following are interesting
the birds drinking water from the drains of household wells

the

action,
(pp.

123)

teasing the animals (p 183) , an enraged mad elephant and efforts of the
elephant-trainers to pacify it (p 185) , the acquatic birds heading towards
water (p 204) , the leader of a herd of hogs (p. 208) , a group of horses
(p.

226)

the Holy-Bath

Ceremony of Lord Mahsvira

(p

269)

attempt at

305-306) a parrot greeting the king (p. 375)

Mahodara brandishing a bunyan branch in anger (p. 381), a young wife
not
to
die (p 397); and Harivshana propitiating the
husband
her
urging
suicide

by hanging

(pp

mystic Vidyss (pp. 399-400).

(w) The notable descriptions

of groups

in action are

King

an army out for nightattack (pp

85-86) a marching procession of Samarketu (pp. 115-116) ;
cows let free for grazing (p 117) ; the tired crew of a naval force (p. 138),
hullabaloo of an army landing on the sea-shore (p. 139-140) , a naval
retinue in procession (pp. 65-66)

Meghavshana's

camptp. 140)

a group of

mad

sing a running

flying

elephant

Vidysdharas (pp

(p.

187)

Emperor Harivahana (p. 233); a fair (p. 323) and

harem (p 423).
The following seasons, situations and
(v)
in the

TM

298)

early

break

(pp

152-153); soldiers chaof the Vidyadhara

procession

the festivities in a royal

etc,,

have been described

Rainy Season (pp 179-180) ; the Spring Season (pp. 297morning in rural mountainous area (pp. 123-124) the day150-152 and 357-358), the Dawn (pp, 237-238) ; the Sunsit
the

the ceremony before setting out on an expedition (pp 115(pp. 350-351),

a dust-storm raised by the figh116) ; earth as seen from the sky (p. 242),
ting

forces

boiling butter

(p.

87)

a battle

(p.

88)

and churning of curds (p

the shower of arrows (p. 90

117).

);

and

N
(vi)

A/.

Kansam

Of the moods affections and the

like depicted

by Dhanapgla

mental agony of King Meghavahaoa due to

noteworthy
mut of a son (pp. 20-21), the devotion to Lord Rsabha Jina (pp. 39-40);
the effect of calamity on different types of persons (p. 41); the grandeur
the following are

of the Goddess Sri (pp

sad the inimical

Stnuraketu

(p.

57-58), the effect of the divine ring

forces

(pp

91-92)

133); the effect of

(he

music on

the

the intensity of feeling of the soldiers pursuing

dejected and tired soidien (pp

soldiers (p. 192), the effect

of youth on different persons

when he found
love At first sight

when he

sees

188-189), the effect of an unexpected

good
news and change
of
military camp (p 193), experience
Harivshana
on the fl>ing mad elephant (p. 212), the effect of the advent

news on the dejected

of atmosphere in a
during his ride

on Vajrayudha

of new environment on
mad elephant (p, 187);
the mad elephant (p.
187);

effect

herself

(p. 264),

of bad

mental condition of Malayasundari

brought to a strange place

on Malayasundan

Matayasundan

(p. 265), the effect of

(pp. 277-278); the effect on Samaraketu

(pp. 278-279j, the treatment of a

person saved
feeling of a lover's touch to a beloved
of Gaadharvadatts on hearing the account of
her dtughter being kidnapped and returned
by the Vidyadharas (p 327);
the effect of poison on a person
(p 335), the hindrances in the path of
and
penance (pp. 399-400),
haste and

from

the gallows (p. 311); the

(pp. 312-313); the

It it

reactions

curiosity (pp 423-424).

a measure -of Dhanapala's sense of
propriety that he has taken
fuliy harmonize the descriptions of natural

Htmost cate to

phenomena

the euoM, the day-break, the Sunset and the

like,
wood of the character m the context; the Nature in

like

with the psychological

this

process invariably
*-'
gets personified and shares the joys and sorrows of the
character.
(B)

SCENES:

Tie prominently
noteworthy scenes m the
may be enumerated
King Meghavahana's meeting with the
Vidyadhara Muni

TM

hwe. They are

25-31); hit

jpp.

meetmgwuhgodJvalanaprabhafpp 38-45), which Includes

a picture of a sacked
Vidyadhara city and its royal palace
(pp. 40-ttv
encounter with the Vetsla
{pp . 46-52), and ^th the Goddess
:
ni8ht- 8ttack and tne
consequent fierce battle ending
"",

* kings

inrt.

fn,,

.64 ,7,,

L.

Ji F

"

h " as
""""as "Itb Oandh-

21

Dhanapsla and some aspects oj modern fictional technique

ard r raying to the image of the Jma (pp 216-219), his

meeting with Gandharvaka (pp. 222-223), Hanvshana's view of the world
as seen from atop the Vaitsdhya mountain (pp. 239-240), Hanvshana's
Lord Rsabha

view of the regions passing below as he

his

(pp 242-243)

flying elephant

the assembly of the Vidysdhara

is being carried in the sky by the

meeting with Malayasundan (pp 256-259),
Emperor Vicitravirya In the temple of Lord

Mahavira (pp. 266-267); Samara ketu

dan's attempt at suicide by

sailing in a boat (p

hanging

276), Malayasunand Bandhusundarj's attempt

herself

at rescuing her (pp. 301-309),

Taranagalekhs scolding Malayasundan (pp.

meeting with Tilakamafljarj at the temple of Lord

335-336), Hanvahana's

R$abha
cursing

360-366); Mahodara stopping Gandharvaka's aeroplane and

381-383), the Vidyadhara couple competing for committby falling first from a precipice (pp 397-398), the goblins trying
Hanvahana as he sat steadily propitiating the mystic VidySs

(pp.

him (pp

ing suicide
to hinder

and

(pp. 399-400),

ence (pp

(C)

Maharsi imparting

the

religious instruction to

an audi-

406-413)

RESTROSPECT

or

Dhanapala has employed

NUMMARY
of retrospect on a number of

the technique

occasions with various intentions, such as keeping the audience abreast of

the story related upto a point, drawing their attention to the skill displa-

yed by him in or the purpose served by a particular device or description,

and to enhance the curiosity by posing new questions relating to the
missing links in the story and thereby setting their imagination to work
instances

'the following

are

particularly in the light of the

worth noticing

technique of retrospect
(1)

to

The whole passage comprising the questions posed by Samaraketu

Gandharvaka (pp 223,

20ff.)

reminds the audience about the past events

regarding the promise of Gandharvaka to return to Ayodhya

mission of delivering the message of Cltralekha to Vicitravirya.

and

his

The incidents about Malayasundan being stealthily kidnapped

(2)
by the Vidysdharas, her talk with Vicitravirya, her love at first sight with
Samarakrtu, and her attempt at drowning herself in the ocean, are recapitulated by way of retrospect in the course of the narration of silent thinking
of Malayasundan (p
(3)

missing

Malayasundan

310, 4ff
link

is

are pictured briefly by

events of that occasion by

when Samaraketu's
(p

314, Sff

repetition of the

same words

of

as the lever

by him

The

efforts at saving

means of a passing reference to past

Bandhusundari

Taraka are meant to serve

(4)
fay

supplied

Malayasundan (p. 320, 20ff )

to goad Samaraketu to
of Malayasundan's
neck and conveying

while reminding him of the incident

jo to Ksfici, and,
acceptance of his love by throwing the garland in bis

22

M.

Kansara

buy but

her message apparently addressed to the temple-priest

Taraka and Samarakctu (p

for

events

The

(5)

reflective brief

taken place in the

life

of Prince

uff by the flving elephant (346

While consoling

and capture
of the

of

of,

audience of the turn of events that have

Hanvghaiu consequent
8ff

to his being carried

Malayasundan about the well-being of

Hanvahana recounts

kttu,

meant

while emphasizing

monologue of Hanvghena,

the moral indirectly, reminds the

(6;

slyly

indicates (he future course

it

288, 20ff),

the narrative

in passing the

Samara-

incidents of the night-attack by,

Samaraketu, his dejection on listening to the interpretation

unidentified

love-letter,

ched through Gandharvaka (p

and

his

message to Mdlayasundari despat-

317, Iff).

The words of Harivahana, retorting Tilakamafljari (p 363,

(7)
3S.) are
meant to recount the incidents connected with his first encounter with her

Cardamon bower.

in the

The

(8)

report of

links while linking in

to

sage

about

Malayasundan's
at

attempt

and

supplies the missing

about his carrying the mes-

178-384)

transportation

to

letter

despatched through him,

a remste hermitage and her

poisonous

fruit there,

about Hanvahana

the
flying
elephant, about the incidents of the
attempts at suicide by Samaraketu and Malayasundan

a\\ay by

about

pjrrot,

(pp

Samaraketu's

suicide by eating the

carried

bsing

Gandharvaka

passing the past events

about

Viciiwvirya,

the

and about the latter finding herself

rescue,
suddenly in
aeroplane floating in the waters of the Adr?i3para lake.
their

In (be course of
revealing the past

(9)

nes, the

poet

summarizes,

through

the

of the heroes tha heroithe medium of Mahari

4Uff
births

(pp.

the past events about the

meeting of King Meghavshana with god 'ivalanaprabhB and about Sumali's dalliance with Svayamprabha.

COMINGLING OF THE DISCRETIONS, AND ETC.

(D)

Over and above the

forgoing discussion and enumeration of the Instances
of descriptions, scenes and
summaries, It is necessary to point out to some
aspects of the technique of comingling them In the
course of the narrative

by Dhanapsla.
There are

a son

instances

situation

psychological

instance

in (he

Here
Jtae

J
it
jects. he

when

or a

depiction of

the

Dhanapala conjures
th* IkSV5kUS> thC

,l,

fulfil

he describes a

up a scene wherein

^'-'f-Fortune,

youthful age and the

urge tte king to

poet, while

particular

mood, seeks to create a scenic effect as for

King Meghavshana's anxietj due to want of

Vedic

hi, obligations to

Dharrna,

all

the Devars's

the

the Earth, t^e sub

of them

simultaneously

them by procunng a son n

ord

bhanapvla and some aspects of modern

23

fictional technique

to, respectively, preserve the ancestral scholarly tradition, to ensure uninterrupted oblations, to provide a guide, to supply a resort, to offer a

to give

substratum,

to bid

protection,

farewell with regrets,

and

to scold

The overall picture that emerges is that of a man surrounded by a

number of grumbling persons goading or gheraoing him repeatedly to fulfil
Here is a specimen of a description assuming the garb of
demands
their

him

a scene,

There are, on the other hand, instances where the scene takes up the
form of a description in the TM, as for instances, in the description of
the regions beyond the outskirts of the city of Ksaci up to the^ea-shore

Dhanapsla here pictures the rows of villagers standing in

118-122)
wait for the approaching royal procession of Samaraketu when he starts on
The successive series of scenes here consists of the
a naval expedition

(pp.

waiting villagers, with their peculiar dresses, thinking habits, peculiar responses to the members of the procession, their, eagerness, the disadvantage

absence

taken of their
their

exploitation

these are

two pages,

about

actually

by

in their fields

it

and

form of a

cast

single

their

compound

The commencement of Dhanapala's TM can be

and then
formula" of 'Once upon a time...
.

after' 8,

which

neatly escapsulates the

detached perspective;
ted

phrase, running for

the garb of descriptive narration, though

on various aspects of village life.

in

a constantly moving focus

is

NARRATIVE CONVENTION

III

officials and robbers,

houses and so on; all

by government

money-lenders,

village

depicted in the

it exists in

But the narrative

is

classed as "the fairy-tale

they lived happily ever

placing it in a

action of the story,

an ordered sequence,

irrelevancies elimina-

not quite as straightforward as

involve the listener directly

in the

story,

Dhanapsla

that.

In order to

frequently adopts the

convention of pretending that things are happening here and now; imagery
and dialogue are made to work before our eyes, though he actually utilizes
the past tense in his narration. One advantage of this is that he is free to
call upon bis characters to appear when he needs them. Since he knows
the outcome of bis story he is in a position to pick the salient points of
its

development and show the character In action at those points only.'

IV

Some

POINT OF VIEW
times

several

narrators

exist

in

the

same

novel,

so that one

Chinese boxesj this is Emily

In DhanapHla's TM, too, the
'Wuthering Heights'
from the author himself to Samaraketu
role of the narrator is transferred
to Harlvahana, the latter's narrative incorporating in itself the narrative of
Malayasundari, Gandharvaka and etc., much in the same manner of the

narrative

fits

inside

another

like a set of

Bronte's technique in

above mentioned set of Chinese boxes.*

14

ff.

M. Kansata

V: TIME
No

narrative

novel

every

One

10

history'

organization

of the functions of the

same time, mindful of past

the

of the

not create some kind of time scheme;

of events in time' and 'a piece of

that does

exists

both 'an

In the narrative

time can be brought to focus on the Immediate

the "novelist's clock"

is

made

to tell different

we demand

the simplest level,

is to

story-teller

be everywhere

history, conscious of the present

of the future

possibilities

all

event,

or expected
and in the process

times simultaneously. 11

that a novel offer

at

and aware

known

On

an 'authentic* version of

reality

seems to be rather particular with his time scheme. The

one vear before the birth of Prince Hanvahana, The

Dhanapala

narrative begins about

king met with the Vidyadhara

boon from the Goddess

the

of Hanvahana by

Queen
Hanvahana

to enable Prince

and

various arts

the

city

Jvalanaprabha and obtained

within three months prior to the conception

to

come

Sixteen years are allowed to elapse

of age and properly be educated in

crafts so is to

equip

him

attack

on Ksflci

Vajrsyudha launched
in

Muni and god

ri

Madiravati.

arad

his

season

for his role of

and

a hero. 18

laid the siege of the

of Harivahana's sixteenth

>ear

It

was on

Madana-trayodasi day, i e on the thirteenth day of the bright half probably of the month of Caitra" that Vajrnyudha demanded the hand of
Malayasundari as a price of peace On the same night Malayasundari tried
to commit suicide in the Kusumskara
garden at Ksfici*" and was saved
by Samaraketu who had a brief meeting with her for an hour or so in the
presence of Bandhusuadari, before he launched his
surprise
night-attack

against

These events seem to have taken

place roughly between
10-30 p ra. Early next
morning Malayasnndari was

Vajrsyudbn

about 8-30

m.

to

to

seat

the remote hermitage of

away
Kulapati SBmatapa
Meanwhile at
about mid-night Samaraketu launched his
night-attack" and was captured
And
a few days he arrived at the court of

alive

King Meghavahana

in

Ayodbya roughly
lasted for

month of Vaifttkha

the

about six months or

Interestingly

Samaraketu's

enough,

surprise

It

was

on the same

night-attack at Kanpi

Madana-trayodasi day of

that Mafljjraka

temple
,
garden at

Ayodhya

about a year, or somewhat

due

In

th

Samoa
,

reMon

l ess

to

at

Thus, the siege of Kafici

so.

n.

He seems

to have

and forgotten

some polQt

ln the

, Harirebana's

Maltlkoll|a

it,

kept

but, he

poetlc

came across'
Cupid

in the

with him for

it

seems

to

be

Dhanapzla and some aspects of modem

fictional technique

the love-tetter before the former for interpretation,

to relate his story.

25

and Samaraketu began

Now,

prior to his night-attack against Vajrsyudha on Madana-trayoSamaraketu arrived and stayed at Ksnci for five or six days." Prior
saw Malayasundari at the temple on the Ratnaka\a island on
the day next to that of the Kaumudi-mahotsava, i.e the full-moon day of
the month of Ksrttika,*1 the same day on which the Holy-Bath Ceremony
of Lord Mahsvlra was performed by the Vidygd haras at mid-night. At that
dagi,

to this, he

time Malayasundari was

sixteen,

12

and Samaraketu had already completed

his eighteenth year. 83 Thus,

Malayasundari was of the same age as that of

Harlvahana, and Samaraketu was elder to the prince by two years
It,
thus, follows that 'Malayasundari was first seen by Samaraketu about six
1

months prior to

his night-attack.

Oandharvaka

started with Citralekha's errand

and met Harivsbaaa on

the same day on which the latter went to the Mattakoklla garden at Ayodhys. The letter of Samaraketu despatched through Gandharvaka on that
day reached Malayasnndari the very next day when she was about to drown

" On the same day, but before the message

was found by Malayasundari, Gandharvaka incurred the curse of Mahodaca
a
into
and was transformed
parroM*
herself in the Adj-^apara lake

Malayasundan was born

year after the

latter's

to

Gandharvadatts

in

the third or fosrth

marriage with King Kusumagefchara of Kaflci," The

message sent by Citralekhs, through Gandharvaka, to Vicitravirya show

that the identity of Gandharvadatts was well-established when Gandbarvaka
first met Hanvahana. When Gandharvadatts was kidnapped and separated
kins, she was about ten years of age and she was most probably
married in her sixteenth year. Thus, her identity was established roughly
in her thirty-sixth year ! It was roughly before as many years that King

from her

Meghavshana was busy enjoying

lessly

so far as a male

issue

love-sports

with his queens, though

was concerned

And

it

was

fruit-

roughly in his

that he was enlightened by the Vldysdhara Muni. (This was

early
roughly the age at which Dhanapala himself was enlightened by Mahendrasari,
through his disciple Sobhana Muni, the younger brother of Dhanafifties

psla

I)

After the departure of Gandharvaka from Ayodhys,

passed the Grisma and the Var$5 seasons ; he set out on a
domains at the start of the Sarad season."

In the

meantime,"

after

Gandharvaka

carried

Harfvghana
visit

unconscious

of his

Malaya-

sundan In the aeroplane and, having incurred the curse of Mahodara,

became a parrot, Citramsya waited for about six months to execute the
advke of Gandhryaka,^ qqd then, assuming the form of Hatjva;ha.iM's.
3.1

gg

vxh*na
fall

wilted

for

M. Kansara

him

carried

fcrourfte elephant,

the

to

Gandharvaka

for

domains for about two months, before

mad

Ekairnga

Thus,

region.*

Han-

about four months,* and travelled In

he

earned

was

away by the

elephant.

After the disappearance of Harivshana, Samaraketu travelled to the north

at the
mountain, and passed through the Vindhya forest and,

of Uuhitya
end of six months,

arrived at Mount Ekasrnga and met Harivshana again.

11
Harivshana
of Margasaha passed when he was on his way,

The month

was

and

ceremoniously entered the Vidygdhara city of Gaganavallabha

coronated as the Emperor of the Vidysdharas on the same day on which
M And prior to
Stmaraketu arrived and met him on Mount Ekas"rnga
tint,

HarivBbana

roughly

and

flying elephant

Harfvshana's

the

with

mystic Vidyss for six months. This

time just after his being kidnapped by the

the

propitiated

coincides

his arrival at

penance,

During the six months of

was waiting for the expiry of the

Bkairnga

Tilakamaujan

period of six months stipulated

by her father

for searching out the prince!

wean Hanvshana met THakamaftjan the very next

by her on the second day, returned to Ayodhya on the

ft

to VtftSdbya

on the

fifth

day, and started his

was

day,

invited

third day, returned

penance and propitiation of

on the sixth day after his arrival to the region for the
About a week may be assumed to have been probably spent by
Samnaketn during this very period in waiting for the new& about
Harivihua, getting a message from him, and setting out in search of him.
the mystic Vidyss

But

The

ttoae.

move

events

in such

a quick succession.

met Malayasundan for the first time at the

temple on Mount Eka&nga, she was about eighteen years. Thus, about
two yetrs seem to have elapsed between the periods when Samaraketu and

By

the time Harivshana

IJtrtntbtna
ft it,

authentic'

saw her

thus

for the first

very

version of

dear

that

reality

times respectively.

our

offered

an

by compressing the actual action of the

TM

novelist-poet

skillfully

period of roughly two years, though by constantly moving

back and forth from past to present, he created an illusion

in

the

focus

of covering
an expanse of three births of both the sets of the heroes and the heroines,
fine on we claim that Dhanapala has succeeded in
the
maintaining
AiWotellta 'unity of time,' and with the help of the
supernatural the
tmlty of place- too, though the places of action are situated
at, and
teptrated by, thousands of miles from one another.

CAUSE AND CONTINGENCY

Toe

novel, in

its

dealings with

human

affairs,

Implicitly

acknowledges

the place of drcumstandal, though not

causal, evidence,
Questions of
refcwnce are consequently very ambiguous what is
'relevant' tp a narrative
j

Dhannpdla and some aspects of modern

includes both (he causal and the

contingent.

38

2?

fictional technique

Graham

makes a
novel includes more of

Hough

obvious, though often ignored, point the

1*
merely contingent, the accidental, than any other literary kind.

tellingly

Dhanapala has made profuse use of the

The following few
causal behind it

the

contingent,

and

later

on revealed

would

specimens

suffice

to

confirm this point

(1)

The

accidental

night- attack

surprise

81
by Samaraketu , which apparently looks

no connection whatsoever with

having

the

current

story

of

Meghavshana and Harivghana, is found later on to be causally connected

with Malayasundan's love for Samaraketu who resorts to that out-of-theway measure in order to uphold the honour of both her father and himself
and win her on the strength of his own character rather than elope with
her and betray the trust pot by her, as also by his own, father in him.14
(2)

The

attention

music from the unknown

strange

and

of,

on know that it was

the Holy-Bath Ceremony of Lord Mahavira.**
(3)

The

island" which attracts the

impels, Samaraketu to trace the source of

But we

contingent

later

sudden

the invocation of

88

looks quite

of

of a parrot on the scene in response to

appearance

Kamalagupta

it

the music of the festival

looks

strangely accidental and mysterious

but the mystery turns into a natural causal consequence

when we find that the parrot is none else but Gandharvaka, cursed by

at the point

Mahodara*
to

and

that

he carried the message in keeping with

his

promise

HarlvBhana."

VII

CHARACTER AND SYMBOLISM

Just as dialogue and manners can be used by

his characters socially

the

to

writer

and

create

culturally, so

moral or

the

novelist

to

'place*

a fabric of symbolism may enable

framework for the action of

intellectual

Symbolism allows an author to link the limited world'- of 'Ms

one of the greatest systems of values, so that we are made

his novel.

characters to
to

compare the happening

behaviour,
is

seen

actions

Specific

parallels.

in

and the

in the novel with their mythological or .historical

in

the

story

illustrate

private character acquires a

usually depends

on

the

existence of

general

patterns

new importance

the light of his symbolic counterpart.

commonly

of

when be

system of symbolism
known body of ideas

beliefs. In Western literature three basic systems recur most frequently ;

the symbolism of Christianity, of classical mythology and of Romanticism.
J
Christian morality is of course ingrained into the history of the novel,"

and

TM

has its own system of symbolism

Dhanapala's
keep in mind the extreme respect and love he had for his
tyke

Muflja and Bhoja, the characters

like

When

once

we

royal patrons
Meghavahana, Harivahana and

)T.

M, Kaiuara

And
them many of the traits of their personality."
it is bat natural that
view of the environment in which the poet lived,
Itt
and
morality
and Jaina mythology
the symboHsm of classical Hindu
of the character.
invariably enter into the working
reveal In

Stmaafato

The

attitude
typical Jaintstlc

of pilgrimage to Jaina

fervour in

temples, the religious

to hunting, the

of Hanvsnana

holy places,

the

merit

worshipping

importance

earned by building Jalna,

the images of the Tnthaft -

as the Saviours from the interminable

katu, the implicit faith in them
the path of
ocean of transmigratory existence, as the Supreme Guides on
In their teaching
Eternal Blisi, the necessity of putting unflinching faith
the
TM.
The
of
In
the
whole
unending
body
11 tbete values permeate
forest

Vfodbya

the "Adrstapsrasymbolizes the common world of pleasures,

the Adr^apara lake Is the symbol of the essence of

ittassra" of the

TM

Jalnlsm ; the heavenly enjoyments are symbolized by the

religion,
and the state of Final Emancipation
garden encompassing the Jalna temple ;
Is
symbolized by the Jaina temple with an Image of the Tirthankaras
here

installed therein.

Again, the characters also symbolize particular rellgous attftutes.

Thus, Harivshana represents in essence a perfectly devont Jalna householder ; Samaraketa a man engrossed in worldly pleasures and non-Jalna
nay of life ; the flying elephant symbolizes the divine assistance available
to the devout followers

Viewed

from

this

symbolical angle the

TM

affords a glimpse of the

fourth dimension,

710 CHARACTER AND LOCATION

The sense of the

&

be

WMle

at

writer's

awareness

of

and landscape
element in cinema.

character

striking a feature of fiction as a necessary

the twentieth-century development

* -modern

Interaction -between

visual

movies

has

of the technique, effective

landscape

is

sharpened the
not essentially a

device. 1 *

Dhanapala, and for that matter all the writers like

Subandhu, Bsna,
others, of classical Sanskrit
Prose-Romances, are very' much
elaborate pictures of the
cities, the
palaces, and of the
gardens, the temples, the nver-banks, the lying-in chambers and etc
where
the action of ibe novel takes
place. Dhanapala's descriptions of
Ayodhys
nd Kfffiw, the royal
palaces of Meghavahana and
Tilakamaftjan. the
Mittafcoklla garden, the
Admapsra lake and the sandy shore thereof the
Jala* temples, the Ratnakufc
Islana, the Vindbya
forest, the Asoka tree in

DtndJn and

fond of giving

?"??

*ard"1

appropriate background

for,

* tbCM

and

8C

-location'

as
of,

a luxariously beautiful and

various actions in the

TM

Dhanapsla and some aspects of modern

IX

It

fifty

is

invention

or

*29

fictional technique

CHARACTER AND SUBMERGED FORM

of

character

the

novel that

it is

a constant process of

a particular type of story gains currency, lasts for twenty-five

in the case of Sanskrit novels of medieval ages, for a century

years

or two

then fades. Over the same period new categories will have come
and each will probably have only a limited span. The

Into the existence

history of the novel

with the husk of such temporary forms. The

the romance, the Victorian adventure

is littered

eighteenth century picturesque novel,

story

and improving moral

of their

own

time.

tale

all

Sooner or

these were appropriate to the conditions

later they

became

over-worked, and

for

time were dropped altogether as useful structures

But the writers of every
period have returned to these apparently burnt-out types, adopting them
for an ironic or satiric purpose."

we

Though

cannot

narration developed by

we

are sure that

narrative.

BSaa's novels

claim

Bsna

he adopted

that

it

to

"revived"

Dhanapala

in order to adopt
his

it

for

own purpose

the 'form

of

some satiric purpose,

of a subtly allegorical

subtle satirical point of view with reference to the structure of

may

possibly be found in the remarks where he calls the Katbss

based on the story from Gunsdhya's Brhatkatha as ''veritable cloak sewed

to an important
from rags". 16 Moreover, a reference In the
incident

TM

from

Bsoa's Ksdambarr,

viz.,

the

one concerning the curse Incurred by

Vatiampayana and his transformation into a

remarks about the Incredibility of this motif
rational basis,*8 and the passing reference to the

parrot,'?
if

Gandharvajca's

handled without proper

of the knowledge of

lack

'
dramaturgy marring the peculiarity of the literary form, 4 if viewed In
proper perspective of literary history and of Dhanapsla'-s .performance,

would

definitely

reveal

the subtle

satirical vein in his

master piece with

reference to handling of this form by his predecessors.

X CONCLUSION
The

above

discussion,

with reference

to the technique of fiction as

found In the modern Western fiction, illustrates how the techniques which
are deemed to be modern by modern critics of both the occidental and
oriental literatures, were In fact not quite unknown to the .medieval
Sanskrit

writers

of

Prose-Romances, and herein

and appeal of Sanskrit Prose-Romance

1.

Being ths revised verrion of a part of Chap. XVI of ray

of the i4 S Umvenlty, Baroda, approved in 1972
Yelland, /

Hand Book

lies the universal

value

as medieval Indian novel.

of Literary Terms, p. 174.

tluuig

for

Fli

degree

N. M. Kansara

30
2

P Ker

EM.

4.

ibid

5.

References

to

are

the

page

(1938) ai corrected by

the work,

7.

pp 328-340.

Forster, Aspects of the Novel, pp. 7-26.

Bombay
6.

Epic and Romance,

numbers

me

Critical Edition of the

9.

11.

ibid.,

p 35.

Raban, op
ibid , p 57

TM (NJ,

14. ibid.,
.

56.

at.,

p. 79, 2

82,

ff.

ff.

298, 6.

Ibid,, p.

ff

17. ibid., p. 83, 19

ff.

16. ibid., p. 302,

18. ibid,,

108, 14

105

ibid.,pp

20. ibid., p. 95,

ff.

ff

ff.

21. ibd., p. 271, 12 ff

, 344, 1 ff

22. ibid., p. 164, 14.

23. ibid., p. 276, 19

Md.,

p. 173,

25. ibid.,

p 341,

16

ff.

26. ibid., p. 343, 16

ff.

24.

ff. ,

27.

Had.,

28

ibid., p.

380, 21-23

29.

Wd.,

242

pp

p.

338-339} 384, 9

179-181.

p 387.

30. fad., p. 223, 21

31. Ibid,, p. 202,

32.

Wd.,

33.

Rtban,

&8

p. 236, 19 ff

op.

dt

p. 69.

34. ibid.

35.

36

TM(N), PP
ibid., p.

83*4.

326.

37. ibid., p.

Ml.

38. ibM., p.

269

39. ibid., pp. 194-195.

40. ibid., pp. 381 334

41. ibid., p. 173. I ff
42.

with CommentarlM,

Chap. VIII of

12. ibid., p. 59.

13.

of the Nirnaya SSgara Press (2nd) Edition,

the light of about ten

TM,

original manuscripts of
is

ready.

Jobnathan Raban, The Technique of Modern Fiction, London, 1968, pp. 23

Raban, op. cit , p. 32.

8. This aspect Is fully elaborated in

10

in

Baban, op. at

384, 7-11.

p. 101.

*45.

Raban, op dt,

46.

TM

(N), Intro,

47. ibid., p. 215, 14

48. ttid., p. 224-20

p.

122

w.

21.

ff.

p. 370, 19.

my

thesis.

ff.

VIVAHAVALLABHAMAHAKXVYA
A lost Jama Sanskrit poem
Satya Vrat

While the Jama church occupied Uself in the enrichment of literature,

the laity took meticulous care to preserve it through various devices such
as

multiplication

of Mss

and establishment of

libraries In different parts

of the country. It is a tribute to their catholicity and sagacity that some

of the rarest works of different sects are found in Jaina Bhaydnras
only.

However, despite
ction by

foreign

all

safeguards natural factors coupled with wanton destruhordes have resulted in the loss of a sizable

marauding

mass of literature. VivahavallabhamohakSvya (VM) is one such work which

seems to have been irretnvably lost. It is known only through its 17th
canto, the

full

text of

which

is

happily preserved in a

Ms

in the collection

of Agarchand Nshats, the noted Jaina savant and antiquarian of fiikaner.

The Ms itself is defective Seven of its folios are lost. The remaining
seventeen (8-24) contain, besides the extant canto of VM, ten shorter works
or parts thereof. The Ms is not dated, but, on paleographic grounds, can
be assigned to the ISth century

VM

As the colophon would indicate, the

had for its theme the lifeaccount of Tirthankara Nemlnstha, with particular stress on his proposed
marriage with Rajimati, the charming daughter of Ugrasena. The present
canto sets forth, in charming language, Rsjimati's admonition to Nemi and
her realisation of the knowledge of self. In view of the sequence of events
of Nemi's life as described
HarivmhSapurBna of Jinasena I, the admoni-

tion

could

have
of

acceptance

been occasioned by her rebuttal through Nemi's sudden

in preference to the joys of marital
The
life.

monkhood

young Nemi had countenanced his marriage but was so repelled by the
proposed mass animal-killings that he abandoned It right in the midst
of Its execution. This left poor Rsjimati agha&t
But instead of dissipating herself in mundane pursuits she follows in the footsteps of her Lord.
In this philosophical canto she makes a fervent appeal to the Lord to bless
her with spiritual illumination
Following this she feels with the poet that
knowledge of self alone is real. All else is illussion. It is a gateway to
salvation. (3)
This is also quintessence of the teachings of the master (30).
It sets at

ment of

naught the physical and mental

to concentrate

on deeper problems of

life.

and leads to the fulfillmind which enables the person

afflictions

desires. Self-realisation stabilises the

(24, 27).

Nemi's

life

has been the

two Sanskrit MafakOvyas to. Jaina literature, Vagbhata's NeminlrKutiraja's Neminnthamahnkavya are so well known. Considering
events as set forth therein, it can be safely
assumed that the

subject of

vana and
the

must

VM

have

penapce

a.nd

contained

sermon and

at least

three

his attainment

more

cantos, describing the Lord's

of knowledge (Kafralya and

salvation.)

Satya Vrat

32

Thus

must have been an

it

loss is to

The
or a part

thereof

Of

poem

written in %di

cantos.

As such

yamaka, the

last

its

word

proceeding verse forming the beginning of each

with other figures of speech like Upamz,
Virodha which demonstrate the author's penchant for

of the

&

embellishment

of

his

towards the end; the

consonance

with

the

injunction

(Anutfup) preponderates here which however

last two verses
being in Sikhannl and

fardvlavikndita.

The poet wields a

chaste

with

Sanskrit

In

poem.

poeticians one metre

the

is

interspersed

SSpafca, Anuprasa

changes

poem of twenty

be lamented.

extant canto of the

following verse,

the

interesting

The language of the poem

facile pen.

few errors, which are

is

obviously the result of scribal

negligence

The canto

is

edited here for the

to correct the text,

first

time.

but gaps therein have been

An

attempt has been

left to

themselves.

w:

IMI

3,

made

Vivahavallabhamah&kHvya

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BhSmaha Da^din, Rudrata, Anandava

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kavya should also possess the five segments like a drama,

For the composition of these five segments in a drama or a

Mabaksvya, Ihe careful planning of the principal (Adhiksrika)

and subsidiary (PrSsangika) plot, five Arthaprakrtis, five
Karyavasthas and some of the
ssary.

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we

the

get

segments

is

many Sanknt MahakSvyas,

has very beautifully arranged five

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isup3lavadha In the

Magha

segments and

presant

an attempt
of the plot),

is

made
five

to

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ksrySvasthas

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all

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five

article,

five

Arthaprakrtis (Elements
and
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iupa1avadha

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as

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Mahakavya

is

inclusion of

Elements of the plot

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Seed (Bija)-

(u) Vital
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Drop (Bindu)-

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Canto

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m_xlv

Episodical Incident (Prakarl)-

(iv)
(v)

Action

(i)

Beginning (Arambha)-

(Ksrya)Stages of the

X vi
Xx

Action (Karyavasthas)

6isupSlavadha

Canto

(d) Effort

(Yatna)(m) Possibility of Attainment

H-U1
xlv-xlx

,,

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(iv)

xlx-xx

,,

(Niyatapti)
-

Attainment of the object

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xx

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(li)

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Development

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(v)

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35.
groups." 'Fundamentals of Sociology' \\,

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association, they are the wheels
the

on which

any

human

machinery through which society carries on

its

permanent

human

society marches on
activities"

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also unique in
thought, which is not only ancient but
the
relation of

man

considering

"

to all life

Sociology in India cannot be

entirely

has to contain a

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bit

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SAMBODHI
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VOL. 3

NO. 2-3

EDITORS

DALSUKH MALVANIA
DR. H. C. BHAYANI

.,

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INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD 9

CONTENTS
The Absolute

as

Pure Consciousness

Kalidas Bhattacharya

of Apabhrams'a
Phonological Sketch
of the llth Century A.
"^

W,

5* Karunatllleke

The Andhau

Inscription of

Rasesh Jamindar

ntar

'

Rudrasimha

(X

it a

\/

w
'i

'

,.

v
"A,,;'
J:

r-.4'

A MODERN UNDERSTANDING OF ADVAITA VEDANTA

1.

1HE ABSOLUTE AS PURE CONSCIOUSNESS

Kalidas Bhattacharya

Essence and accident taken togethei, the peison called 'I*

an individual unit consisting of a body, a mind and what

will be shown as its essential presupposition
pure subjectivity,

is

called also pure consciousness

Not

the particular body

that

and mind and that pure consciousness remain

side

clear distinction, nor as even half distinct from

by side in
one another,

from the beginning. It is given as almost a homogeneous

unity, fiom out of which the Ihree, with all the sub stages
involved, are only progressively distinguished out through a
sort

of deepening of

reflection,

much

as

what happens when

form<> are distinguished from out of a given situation In a

given situation, at the unreflective level, neither forms nor

the residuary matter stand distinguished, even so much as

half distinguished,
and when subtler forms progressively
unfold themselves in their respective autonomy
autonomy

implying that

the

forms discovered at

each

stage

can be

imagined and tackled by themselves every lower stage is, from the
point of view of this distinguishing, understood as one where
the form had stood undistmguishedly fused, and the residuary
matter = the-fused-state-w/rtws-the-form~distingmshed appears
as never realizable in its autonomy but only as indefinite,
as what
speakable only in terms of the form distinguished
its positivity (not denied) being only spoken
the form is not
of as a dark indefinite positive base which that form had some-

how been dragged

into

and fused with

phenomenologically, matter

as such

is

In

other

words,

but the self-negation.

BhaUacharya

Kalldas

and

of foim,

unreflectne

whatevet positivity

has

it

which

siluation

grven

just

is

that of the

only

urv

positne.

Here

why it was so The elation between

hod\ ?nd the world, between mind and body and between
mind has to be understood in the
and
consciousness
purs

being no question as

same manner Tins

is

is

wheic when

ing

lo

unlike any ordinary case of distinguishdistinguished out the remainder is under

-tood as a cleai positive definite

mum X

situation

thus of a

now

is

details

This

of which, however,

The given
things

deformed

What

first

from

is

up

so

among

things

as

saying

as

the given

of

ajfiana

later

it,

as

more

of

subjec-

one's

body Body which is

of the world called Nature

is

far,

by

the ordinal y world

distinguished out of

tive and, thetefoie, free

otherwise a thing

positively

be taken

will

that is started
is

itself

the Advaita principle

is

the given

by an inscrutable

had earhei,

dissociated

of self-negation,

that was started from

to

of freedom,

can be best repiesented

diffeient sort,

what

that
act

equivalent

Dissociation of the stages

or world of objects (jada)

is yet
a way not in it Somehow
If the world is an
enjoys a pnvtledged position
object of
a
to
that
experience
subject
experiences it, body as the medium
of this experience finds a distinct position for itself which is

it

as

much

in that

world of objects

object finds itself to be a

transcends the woild and feels

uses

as

not

medium (means), to

it.

When

an

that extent

drawn toward the subject

it

that

means

As a raiUer of fact, in that aspect it is

felt as /,
which is never ths lot of any other
physical thing
of the world Other things of the woild can at most be
mine,
never felt as 7 Being in the
the
world,
body equally transcends it

too.

that

it

as a

This relative
subjectivity of body is evident in other ways
The absolute distance and direction of
for

everything and,

veiy

reason, their

to

one anothei

to

my body; and
my body is not

that

aie

distances

and directions in

relation

due

ultimately to the reference of each

add to this the more

intuguing phenomenon

a mere

point

and,

what

is

still

more

directions

to

that

reference

even

that

intriguing,

Modern understanding
different

its

relatively to one anotherand what it all points

when this body is considered as the centie of all
as other than a spatial
it is somehow understood

object, though theie is no denial at the same time

in the space of the world It follows that space
itself

finds

and

parts have distances

reference to the

anything that

body

that

called

is

be

to

itself

is

is

'this'

understood

in

of

being

its

m which body
some necessary
Not rrerely that;

so far non-spatial
is so only in relation to

my body,

and as this body too is often called 'this' there is no escape

from the phenomenological conclusion that it is subjective
The so called objective
relatively to every thing of the world
this is only another name of the self-identity of the thing
miscalled that viay and falling considerably short of the full
meaning of the term, the full meaning being present before
'

Body, in short, is as much in the space we perceive as

not in it Phenomenologically, this is more evident when it is
a question of body as felt from within a

me',

Mental status

(vrttis,

better, antafrkarana-vrttiv') coine

next

distinguished in their freedom from this bodily subjectivity They are the states of cognition, feeling and will*
somehow dissociate from the
that are not only felt as
to be

corresponding objects
also
7

known

that

at a

distance

introspect

but

There

so-called objective space with fixed positions, distances and

directions of objects in a conceptual construction, a logical device

Vide

K.

Publishers
for

Bhattacharvya,

all

Chapter

Calcutta

III,

Studies in

ed

Indeed

Philosophy,

Vol

If,

'Subject

Gopmath

Bhattacharyya, Progressive
to K. C. Bhattacharyya I am indebted

the central ideas developed in these chapters

Unconscious traces

we keep
4

somehow standing
when we

explicitly

The

as Freedom',

way

(samsksras)

as never intuitively

distinguishable

apait

where the mental and

Except, of course, in the case of perception
To introspection into perception there is no
the physical coalesce
percept as a presentation other than the object perceived Something
is detected
like a mental percept is distinguished when an illusion

Kalldas Bhattacharya

may

oider of relative

be an

each of these

subjectivity

may have phases

relatively

among them,

and

moie toward
we may ignoie

the

for
But these questions
the piesent The main point here is that the mental is more
have a sort of
subjective than the bodily That mental states

subject than otheis

subjectivity

which

sally recognised

demm,

them

let

is

freer than that

If the

note,

is almost univerand others of then" kin

of body

behaviourists

first,

that

body

itself is

mine or

eithei

yours or his, and often even felt as /, you, 01 he, which is

not necessarily the stoiy of other things of the world, and,
secondly, that though many statements of peculiar mental
occun eiices and behaviours can be reduced to ones that need

not mean these, this does not affect other simpler statements
which are not so reducible Whether these simpler statements
not to existent mental states as qualitatively diffe
jiom physical ones depends entirely on the theory of
meaning one upholds Like most Indian thinkers, the Advaiun
point ot
lent

upholds

whatever
in

the
is

commonsense theory of meaning which

spoken of in a way

exists exactly that

particular specific cases there are

is that

way, unless

reasons to the contrary

These states are mental, but

they are objects at the same
time

Felt, in themselves,

as relatively

more subjective

than

either

body or physical things, they are yet experienced as

objects to, and discovered too that
way by,

intiospection
(amivyavasaya)* or mental perception (m&naw-pratyaksa), as
the same way as things of the world
may be, quite

the case

as

an

illusion

dissociated
it

is

Yet

the illusory

from the space

indeed no longer

detected as illusory

which other things are

to be in that
space

is

it

asserted as the resident of the

ordinary world-and yet,
us to be in that
to be a resident
space,
of the

not wholly denied either

5

not wholly

As

assertable

corrected,

cannot be
even

then,

ordinary world-is

This is what is called

introspection ,n ordinary ps>chological literature.
Verv soon we shall be
speaking of quite another sort of introspection
which, 'as distinct from

psychology! introspection,

spiritual introspect-on

will be called

A
in

re experienced

as discovered that

Modern Understanding

and one may add, though unnecessary,

the primary

way by'

first

order cognition

states which are primary cognitions are said to be

objects to wtiospection, and other states which are non cogni
are objects for mental
tive
feelings and wills, for example
perception There is, of course, a difference of opinion among

Mental

the Advaitins regarding whether mental perception

vtself

is

case of introspection or not

Mental
at the

states are

pnmary

objects

Yet,

not only as experienced

stage but even discoveied

uniefleclive

by

in-

trospection, they evince relative freedom, forming a class a part

from other things of the woild and also Horn body When I

am

mtiospectively awaie of my cognition of X, where that

too appears befoie
a thing of the world, no doubt that
the introspection, but that it does only ds loosely attached to

is

that cognition, tending

being focussed

what

all this

all

the while to slip from

means

is

a sort of freedom but has actually half attained

feel

it,

attention

the cognition side than on it; and

that the mental side not only demands

more on

moie assured of

this

it

We may

we

distinguish this act of intro

kind where, instead of being aware

if

spection from another of its

of the cogmtion-of-an-object,

we

are

aware

rather of the

object-as-cognised The object in this latter case stands more

in the focus and cognition hangs on to it adjectivally in order
of reflection chaiacters of the
just to bring to the focus
object that weie not noticed before
If this latter type of reflection

as

it

has been by some,

it

is

also called 'introspection'

would be introspection of a new

It is either meiely a better, though secondfirst level, with some

cognition of the very object of the
in which case
of its features now revealed foi the tirsttime
stand by
it is widely different from what we normally undei
so far
the term introspection' being similar to that only
the
as it is reflective, or it would mean mere abstraction of

kind altogether.
level,

knownness of the object that was known, asserting that known-

Kalidas Bhattncharva

ness us only a propeity of the object

In the formei case the

\cry u^e of the teun 'introspection' might be questioned, but

IP the btter case the use is not illegitimate because, after all,
iliis

jw.ueness

is

one of knovvnness But, then, the object of

knownness of the object of primary cogni-

tins i-'vaieue'.s, the

tion,

as

subjective

in

othet

not revealed

js

object, rot icvealed,

relatively to

words, as

that

hvmgly

earhei

dissociated

fiom that object The only intiospection that reveals its object
>et relatnely subjective that way is the awareness oi my

1-

PI

wheie the distinctive object

unary cognition of an object,

of the introspection

wlh

eistwhile

its

is

that cognition (not that object),

obiect

This sense of the object

slipping

though
both hanging on and
of the primary cognition

somehow

somehow both hanging on and slipping is precisely what we

mean when we sav that the cognition is being hvmgly disfrom

sociated

u'latively to

object and so fai standing as subjective

The introspection that does not reveal this
of the primary cognition may be called

that

it

iclative subjectivity

ps\chological introspection (amtvyavasaya),

we

spection

find

spoken of in

The type of

introspection

that relative

subjectivity

which,

psychological literature
o n the other hand, reveals

of the cognition

in contrast, be called
spiritual introspection

be noted
(not

of

in

its

the type of intro-

common

mtiospected may,
(saksin)

It

may

passing that the reflective awareness

cognition)

of an object
apparently introspection of the first

need not always refer to that

object through the interknownness or primary cognition

type

vention of an intermediary like

though

(sakstn)
is

it

may

When

there

reflective,

primary level.
awareness is,

The

in reality,

refer straight to the

object of the
such straight reference, reflective
introspection of the spuitual type
is

illusory snake, for

known

example, detected as illusory,

straight, though reflectively. Reflective

knowledge
of snake as
llliuofy snake, which is the same
thing as the
retrospective account of what it is in the
original experience,

Vidt

K C

Bhattacharyya,

as Freedom',
Chapters I

and

Studies
II

Philosophy. Vol

I!

'Subject

A Modern
is

taken as of the

Understanding

natuie of spiritual

mtiospectio

known as illusory or having been illusory, it is

known icttospectwely as having been an object

because
not so far
i

like

othlr

and so fai, one

may say, though not
having been subjective though its erstwhile

independent objects
as

conectly,

is not also
explicitly denied The retioawareness of the illusory snake as
having
to be called spnitual
for another

experienced objectivity
speclive

reflective

been illusoiy is
intiospection
like the pnmaiy cognition which is normally
reason
mtiospected spiritually, the object here that illusory st.ake is
to
the
revealed
saksm duect, not through the intenention
of any vftti

is

is

That cognition as a mental state is nearei introspection

cleai fiom another consideration also. Jt is that one finds
extiernely

difficult

to distinguish

between

this

cognition

and introspection so far as their stuff is concerned a thing

we seldom experience m oui primary cognition of vtoildly
objects where between that cognition and the objects there is
a cleai distinction in stuff. Not that there is no stuff-distinction whatsoever between cognition and introspection What
is that there is a bit too much of simibetween the two The Advaitm holds that cognition as
a mental state is made, at least piedominantly, of satt\a which
not only makes it phosphorescent but also works as a bi idge-

we emphasize heie
larity

way from

all

that

is

object to subjectivity propei

If feelings

far

and willmgs aie also phosphorescent, they too are so

to
made of sattva, but they do not claim as much nearness
While cognition, when mtiointrospection as cognition does
shows itself as dissociate from worldly objects
spected into,
and from relevant

bodily

states

and proves that way us

show them

and willmgs nevei

(greater) subjectivity, feelings
if there is
selves as dissociate to that degree

any question

is oblique of a sort
of dissociation from worldly objects it
and genei if
and from bodily states like organic sensations

Kalidfls

Bhattacharya

appear to be as much free as not, perTheir stuff

petually alternating between freedom and fusion
contains some dominant duller elements, called rajas and

coanaesthesia

they

lamas
Phosphorescence of cognition, or, for the matter of that,
of any mental state, is entirely an objective property belonging
to it A cognition that is icvealed to introspection as an
object

is

revealed ipso facto as phosphorescent

Introspective
thus widely different from its phosrela
introspection stands apart as subjective

awaieness of cognition

phorescence
tion

phosphorescent cognition as an object The

may indeed be subjective relatively to

that

to

is

cognition in question
the thing that

is

cognised, but, assuredly,

an object

is

it

vis-

a-vis intiospection

There

is,

however, a basic distinction, here

psychological and spiritual

between

too,

As awaieness,

both
indeed aie subjective vis-a-vis their objects
But because the
of
object
psychological introspection is only know/mess which
is

in

no sense

subjective, this type

of being awareness and, so

an object

too,

like

it

reveals

of introspection,

in spite

far, subjective, is logically as

the

any cognition at

Spiritual introspection,

respect to

intiospection

on the other hand,

pumary

dissimilar

any primary cognition, in so fai as what

as subjective, cannot itself be an
object

it

much
level

thia

reveals

again to

another ulterior awareness.

Psychological introspection is on
far, with ordinary cognitions, and one
may not un
reasonably claim that its existence has,
to be

a par, so

therefore,

by another cognition which,' now on

introspection (because

would

II

known

with spiritual

par

object is awareness as subjective)

to be revealed
by still another cognition.

refuse

Spiritual introspection

introspection

its

is

is

self-revealing, logically,

psychological

not so

often appeals

that

the Advaitin has taken all mtros

pection to be self- reveal ing. If this is
so, it is because he has.

not recognised
any psychological introspection

Anuvyavasaya^

A
with him,
the

is

two being

because of some defect, anuvyavasaya is

because of tbe absence of that

that,

affair

defect, saksi-jnana

whereas,
is,

at least

abiding

relatively,

'

introspection

may

More of

now on we

Unless otherwise specified, from

this later.

mean by

Understanding...

basically saksi-jfiana, the only difference between

a temporaiy

It

Modern

shall

the spiritual type only

be noted that even

in the absence

we are aware of every primary

of introspection
Assu-

cognition unreflectively

this unreflective awareness is more than mere phosphorescence of that cognition. For while many phosphorescent
things may go unnoticed there is no case of a cognition that
not noticed immediately as it occurs even though no
is
mtiospection has intervened. The whole thing may, however, be

redly,

understood as follows

not

that it is
Jntiospection not to intervene does not mean
no other than its
there
Introspection to intervene is

from
itsel 1
proper form, viz., as standing apart
the cognition as ever subjective and holding that cogmtfon as
said interan object, which,
turn, implies that before the
vention it was there in an improper form, le as undistin

showing

It s
guishedly fused with the phosphorescent cognition
from another angle,
undistinguished presence, called,

thi;

ef lection (pratibtmba)

on

that

it

which makes the

cognition,

note

as

an

to
psendo-conscious. Introspection
a
itself to be dissociated as
only another name for
of disthe
point of view
freei stage of subjectivity. From
be underis to
sociate introspection the primary cognition

cognition
is

object

It

it

is

introspection (anu
because ot that very defect that p 9 ycholog.cal
through a primary cognition
fails to reveal anything except

rrawujw)

as its
(vrni) wh,ch stands directly
do
jmna), on the other hand, can

object. Spintutl introspect.on

this

aj**M,

vention of further rttu. As for

of
what may equally be called the object

as

c.l introbpection too reveals

it

is

JM

d.rect,

identical with spiritual introspection

(n*.

nut merely pr.inaryoogn.Uoos

without the interit.

by
but Ulutory objects too are revealed diitcUy

th

* * acutely

a,wf.
IB

because

If

the

same

psy holog,-

m that

aspect

Kalidas Bhatracharya

10
stood as

self-negation, as a symbolic icpresentation (nama-

its

as

rupa) of that pure subjectivity

While mental
states

states

it

is

from

object

never an

object

this is so
it

Were

to

to

we have

is

its

abhasa as some Advattins

more

subjective

is

more subjective

still

than

bodily
is

fusion with those states

subjectivity itaelf, for,

never an

about

are

and other objects, what

introspection as freed
sense,

its

have held

unlike mental

states,

this

In a
it is

any further subjectivity Introspection

another higher-order introspection

is

Why

seen in Section

A What moie

can be

said

as follows

introspection

an object

to

another

intiospection

would be an unending series of introspection behind

introspection, but no one feels that way And if we have to
there

stop anywhere,

can

it

why not stop with the first of them ? 9 Nor

and the same introspection folds it
one looking upon the other as an
object, for
introspection as looking would be felt as more

be said that one

self into two,

even then the

of its real nature than the one looked

at, so that the latter
would only be a false double Introspection as
spoken of is
also no genuine object At the most it
symbolizes itself as an
object,

its

so-called objectivity being either felt as

self-nullifyonly in the context of a past

ing or understood

objective
Future objective situation need
not be taken into account
separately, because it would heie be
only a projection of the past
situation, as in retrospection

Genuine

subjectivity of introspection can be

yet another waj
The ultimate court of
appeal for
to prove its existence is
direct

my

S
9

The theory known

It is

as

aacchedavada

cognition of

will be

examined

in

it

in

anything
or of any

another section

the cose of ps
only
y <?holog.cal introspection
shown, some m,ght claim that the first

shown

that,

as

already

introspection is known as an
object by a second introspection and that
only this second mtrospct.on
is
wholly subjective
i

A Modern
of

invariable associates

its

tion

not

Understanding

itself

be

forwaid

put

to

enough

say

For no

diiectly cognised
self ceitified

But

What

is it,

its

own

its

associate

existence''

till

then, which ceitifies that

But what

It

itself 9

It

will

any object

ceitificate is acceptable

at all ?

intiospection

jj

can cogni-

certificate

foi

been a cognition
this

what

that

viz

introspection

..

is

it is

it

there has

must be some other

if

one asks

Postulation

cognition,
for a certificate fot

of a third cognition
would there be no

would here be

self-defeating, for not only

reason

should not be a fourth, a fifth and so an

theie would be the furthei
difficulty that what

there

why

ad mdcfimtum,

sought to be certified fails of that, and, despairingly enough,

10
Unless a certificate is
just because of the indefinite regress.
itself ceitified, either by itself or by another, it fails to
is

certify.

The only way out

is

to hold that the

second cognition,

viz

mtiospection, is self-ceitifymg, self-certification meaning that

it is not cognised as an
object by another cognition

There may, of course, be other alternative solutions One

of these we have stated in footnote 9, p 10 Some, again,
have held that when in answer to the question Why X ?
one replies Because Y' there is in that context no immediate
'

'

'

?
In that context, therefore, Y stands
question like Why
accepted as a sufficient answer, though it may be questioned
(

'

again in another context which has nothing logically to do

with the present one. What it all points to is that, contexts
differing, one may go on admitting introspection after introsad indefimtum As regards the first alternative, the
Advaitm would only point out that he is concerned with

pection

intiospection only, not with the psychological one,

the second alternative he would reply that for the
sake of discovering the ultimate truth one should be as much

spiritual

and

to

questioning as one could,

Still

others

have held that

10

if

only to avoid

the Buddhists of almost

pitfalls.

all

denominations-

as primary cognitions themselves are self reveal-

Muhcchedlkn

anavasthn

Kalidas Bhattacharya

12

not postulate a highei stage,

we need

ing

call

it

spiritual or

The Advaitms, however, would

as we have seen, between the

intiospection

psychological

here fust draw a distinction,

phosphoiescence of a mental

and

state

the reflective aware-

(though in that awareness it may be

known as subjective too, to whatever extent) and then another
distinction between that phosphorescence and the unref/ective

ness of

notice
tion

an object

as

it

of

and, consequently, a third distincnotice on the one hand and

the mental state

between

unieflective

this

that reflective

awareness on

the other

These points

will be

thoroughly discussed in the pages to follow.

Still

others hold that as there

existence of introspection

is

difficulty in

proving

the

be understood as

should better

it

outside the question of existence and non-existence altogether.

It should,
other woids, be understood, in the Kantian or

semi-Buddhist

not

exist.

as

fashion,

The Advaita rejoinder,

simple Advaita would

jectivity

a logical

only

is

or

readily

quite

agree that mtrospection=subfrom all the first-order

different

qualitatively

primary cognition but would add that

the

difference

not

is

import altogether.

proving the existence of introspection could

only it were recognised as self-certifying. Besides

difficulty in

be avoided
in

nor does

would be

however,

so catastrophic as to forfeit its

ontological

The

transcendental

as the pure I think that neither exists

piesupposition

if

introspection,

subjectivity

enced as existent,
lation of
I am
'

as a matter

is,

at least, in the
'

'

into

1=1

'

is

form
not

'

of

am

merely

expen

fact,

'

The

forced,

transit

is

gratuitous too

Not

that

there

never an

is

experience of subjectivity
definitely one such

An

as an

experience

is

autonomy,

in so far as

So
it

is

far

it

is

already

it

is

The

states

always a feature

though experienced along with that of which

overtone, is yet understood as dissociable,
other words some sort of
an
least possible

like '1=1'

overtone of mental

overtone

as demanding
autonomy that is

semi-autonomous,

not experienced as
actually

is

which,

an adjectival

m
at

though,

autonomous,

it

A Modern

Understanding

13

..

not also expenenced as an independent existent It is exas an adjective but undei stood at the same time as
perienced
that of which it is an adjective This
capable of transcending

is

exactly

is

not 'I

'

what Kant meant by

transcendental

',

as

'

1=1'

am'

But this is not the whole story of subjectivity, nor is '!=['

the finale of the story of dissociation The subjectivity which
is just noticed, not known reflectively
only of the foim '1=1'
Notice is unreflective awareness, and not even of the form

is

of X', as though that X is other than the notice The

of subjectivity is but subiectivity as self -revealing, even
Even the trans
though the whole thing" is unreflective yet.
uncendental-ity of this subjectivity is at this stage noticed

'notice
notice

reflectively, this

mere

fying us in calling

it

notice of tianscendentality

however,

This very notice,

the
that

situation

form.

situation as

nomous

be

alone jusli

an overtone.

explicitly,

poses a fuither demand that

reflectively,

apprehended in

How, otheiwise, could we at all describe the

we have done above ? When we have the auto-

subjectivity

are introspecting

really dissociate, as
of the mental states

apprehended
pure

icflectively

we

are

experiencing

substantively

itself,

that way,

we

subjectivity

as

as standing aside

of which it had so long been experienced

Like the sub
as only an overtone. This is pure subjectivity
while
it too is self-revealing, only,
lectivity that is just noticed,
in question was revealed
in the former case the subjectivity

by

itself

and that was

revealed by itself to

the whole

revealed to introspects

no

explicitly distinguished

important-when

story, in introspection

it

is

not

is
just noticed subjectivity
there was
at the un reflective stage

itself.

The

inspection,

introspection

intervenes

^-wl
the

is

more

ed
just noti

been identical with it.

is found to have
^introfai as
n so
as introspection itself
spection undistinguished,
semi-autonomous as
and
yet
states
mental
with
it was fused

subjectivity

an overtone.

Kahdas Bhattacharya

of subjectivity, introspec
Unlike mere unrefJective notice
as distinct in itself and
is pure subjectivity experienced
of its own, not as
status, with a being
with an

tion

ontological

the form
mere transcendental presupposition of

/ experienced in
pure subjectivity,
It

its

still

the

pine consciousness, though

The Advaitm calls it fivasaksin

is

vidual I

at its pviest

This

is

dissociation

self-revealing

indi-

In a later section ii
not consciousness

that even this subjectivity is

shown

will be

'1=1'

maximum

form

For the time being, however, we stop with

introspection

But mtiospection as the puiest

form of subjectivity

is

still

only one of the elements of the individual person, called 7. Why

should it be, as it has been taken by the Advaitm, the sole reality

every mental state,

being all faked ? The
Advaitm has even gone furthei and held that this puie consciousness is the sole reality of the whole world, the only ultimate
of the individual person,

every thing else

the body and whatever else is

being, the only reality

If

from

What

bodily

does he

mean by

all these ?

mtiospection were of the psychological type (as distinct

spuitual), mental states as us objects, however
from physical things, would be different equally from

the

different

that introspection

Like physical things, they, though qualita-

from them, would be over there, to be just

picked up and known. There would be no question of reducing
them to, undeistandmg them m teiras of,
These
tively different

introspection

states,

called

howevei short-lived, and, therefoie, then whole field,

mind (antahkarana), would then have to be understood

as constituting the individual

introspection

and bodily

states too,
including
-

dnya-vrttis}

person But
ded,

is

person

and coordmately with

they

it

quite as

So

is

sensations

much

as

that

the case with body

and percepts

(HI

would equally constitue the individual

piopei, as we have aheady deci-

if introspection

taken as of the spiritual

type,

it is

just

what

discovers

A Modern

Understanding.

15

mental states to have been dissociated, to whateve,

from then objects and, as subjective so far, educed,
the

extent,
to that

extent, to introspection itself

Mental states are subjective,
not because they aie phosphoiescent foi there are
many phoswhich
aie
not
things
phorescent
subjective but because they

found to be subjective by (spnitual) mtiospection Not

not expenenced as objective. What is demanded

are

that they are

when introspection discovers

that just in

so far as they aie

mental they are subjective, is that this objectivity is precisely

what has to be got rid of. The objectivity is no doubt e\p>
nenced, but it is at the same time an experience of a demand

from

for dissociation

One

could,

could say that

to

be got rid

it.

of course, aigue the

other

way about, One

rather the detected subjectivity \\hichhas

of. But that would be from a new stand-point
it

is

the standpoint of pan-objectivism from which

altogether
even the subjectivity of mtrospection=pure consciousness ought
to have been denied
As a matter of fact, pan-objectivists

have persisted in denying it either through an altogether new

interpretation of consciousness or through its simple wholesale
Short of that pan-objectivist attitude, then, mental
which are experienced as dissociated from the objects
have to be understood as demanding dissociation
even from their own objectivity and demanding, in that conrejection.
states

they refer to

text, to be identical, in the long run, with mtiospection itself

which constitutes ultimate freedom fiora all that is object

This

is

also

what

mental

the

tects

introspection itself testifies to when it destates as themselves to whate\er extent

subjective

The Advaitm

is

not

for

pan-objectivism

His

is

pro-

philosophy, treating man somehow as the

focal point for all consideration of the world and not treating
hitn as an item along with other items of the world Even

fessedly

those

human

who understand man

items have to consider

him

as such

an item along with other

an evolute of a higher

as after all

Kalidas Bhattacharja

|6

him

order and the central distinctive feature that places

that

is

freedomhis

his

exactly

Nature and knowing

aside

standing
also

order

higher

of rearranging

items into

its

from outside,

it

new

in

capability of
if

man

set ups,

not

being

considered in either case as, so fai.a centie of subjectivity as

Pan objecti
objects
the distinctive feature

of
against the whole world as a system

Msm

could justify

man

of

least

of

itself

his subjectivity=freedom

subjectivity

sort ot

to be

unit)

could be denied

is

and

question of getting

also no conceivable possibility

subjectivity pioper,

called

Few

it

no

rejected, there is

There

understood as

subjectivity,

if,

have denied

the Advaitins

all,

Pan objectivism

nd of

and only

if,

of

forming any

the individual person,

with any

object understood explicitly as object For, subjectivity under

stood as subjectivity is at least its dissociation from, its not

being one with, object. The only alternative left is, then, for
the way we have been
object to be reduced to subjectivity
suggesting Here, in ourpiesent case, the apparent objectivity

of the mental

states has to be

new

transcended, the

This

jectivity

transcended

is

at

its

understood as what has to be

states to be realized

means, in

effect,

that

being that

the

of sub

objectivity

best only a symbolic construction.

to be

1 l

For the pan objectivist, objects are independent

things
(padanhas) For man-centric philosophers, on the other hand,
is necessarily what is
perceived or imagined to
be perceived They need not deny that there are
the
things
minimum they intend is that object, at the lowest level, ic
in perception, coalesces with the
thing For them, in non-

object (visaya)

perceptual knowledge object is what is only

perceived, a mental presentation somehow
1

This

is,

ledge

of course, from the point of

If,

as

imagined to

be

midway between

view of subjectivity as know-

by some philosophers,

it is understood as
(transcendental)
and, therefore, everything that is at any
level-have to be understood as created
The Advaiun
by that will
has not understood it as will. At the
transcendent level ha reJuces
will to knowledge

will, the

mental states

low

A Modern

17

understanding..

and cognition, somehow dissociate

memory and idea or meaning as m thou lit

the thing

is

found half dissociate

illusion

in

the

Only, there the percept,

the world

of

somehow

is

things,

of

case

image as in
Even a percept

like

illusion

detected as

not asserted to be there in

also not denied to be theie

The

illusory snake is felt as half dissociate from the real

rope
Thus, from the man-centric point of view object evei where
y
is necessarily to the knower, though in the case of
perception
it coalesces also with the
thing, and while in illusion, detected
as illusion, it is only possibly dissociate

half explicitly to the

knowing subject and

it is
it

is

half not in all non perceptual

cognition
actually dissociate. In none of the cases, however,
each case, from illusion detected
peifectly dissociate

felt as

as illusion to
is

the highest form of non-perceptual cognition,

imagined to be perceived and,

as coalescent with the thing

the object is the

therefore,
viz

is

the thing

It is

Whatever

its
is

only

full

true

as distinguished

from

In none of these cases,

independent being
from

there full freedom

subjectivity in

it

therefore, imagined, so far,

The thing

what

is

non

subjective,

introspection that one experiences

perfect freedom.

of mental

states

and percepts

is

true

mutatis mutandis of body and bodily states.

In every case, then, object as other than the thing has to

be understood from the subjective point of view. As so understood

the

attitude, its apparent objectivity is

is only symbolized spoken of, as an object.
continuous dissociation, i e continuous lack

subjective

only symbolic
As, now, there

it

is

of commitment to the thing and relatively also to objects at

lower levels, and as it is introspection alone which represents
complete and perfect dissociation, one may say that from the
there is not only no
point of view of this purest subjectivity
genuine thing but no object too, the thing being completely
understood as only symreplaced by object and object being

bolic representation of subjectivity that

Thus, starting with the idea

that

way

man = individual

self is

Kalidas Bhattacharya

lg

novel entity involving, quite unlike other things of the world

a novel feature, called freedom or dissociation from all that
i

and understanding everything that

object,

only a

as

objecti\e

symbolic

representation

is

appaiently

of subjectivity

Advaitm concludes that pure subjectivity = pure

that way, the

consciousness

is not merely the final essence of

the genuine
abiding entity behind all that is mental and bodily,
equally the truth of everything of the world.

reality, the
it

is

D
That introspection = pure subjectivity is the final essence of
that is mental and bodily is evident from another
simpler

all

consideiation. Extra-bodily things can at

most be mine, none

of them, singly or together, are ever felt as 7

Body and its
states, on the other hand, and whatevei more dissociate than
these are called mental

mum

as also felt as

ness

subjective

the

mind and

felt

is

/.

(and

thng
I

much

related to

is

its states)

ence for

are as

to be

related to their I-ness

exactly as

bodily

its states

Of

these two, again

mmeness and Imore genuine than mmeness from the
the mmeness of body and mind is
point of view

I-ness

its

of an extraAs between body

the m-itself-ness

nuneness

and mind, again, there is

undisputed preferof mind
somehow the mental is

ness in the case

experienced as more of the nature of / than the

bodily. As
for / itself, it is never
experienced as mine but only as I
ihe expression
'myself being understood exactly in the
way
the expression
its
is understood where
identity
the identity
not djfferent from the 'it'
'
<
except verbally Of mine
and
'

I
now, the latter is more original and the
former denved
fiom it-anyflung is mine
only ,n so far as it is related to /
It follows that
where something ,s
spoken of as both
and
m'ne, IMS more 7 than mine As
,

extra bodily things are

they are not of the nature of 7,
though
to 7 they
may well be m,ne So far
are in-

nevei spoken of as
as

related
nt

sS AsA
states.

BU D0t
BUt
K
both mine and

S
7,

ne

'

they
b dyand mind aQd

their

they are oiiginally of the nature

A Modern
of

/,

e,

puiely

subject,

Understanding

only

Jt>

symbolically

spoken of as

That extia bodily things, just m so far as they are

mine and not I, are independent need not, however, mean that
they aie as independent as a pan objectivist would have them

objects,

From

the humanistic point of view they too are symbolic

icpresentations of pure subjectivity Only, the mental ard the
bodily constitute one type of symbolic representation and the

independent thing aroiher

soon turn

To

this distinction

we

shall

very

Most people

get upset uhen their bank balance, veiy

eveiyone of them, fails Put some people there
always are who, not necessanly of defective constitution, beai
the loss quietly To beai the loss that way means they can

definitely

mine

to

stand aside, they can dissociate themselves, fiom the things

they call mine The same is true of physical injury and menMost people identify themselves with their
tal unhappmess
bodies and minds, so
these

aie

threatened.

much
But

so that they get puiturbed when

are some, again, who can

there

calmly bear physical pain and some mental discomfort too They
are not necessai ily of defective sensibility : it is nof true that

do not have these pains and discomforts. They do have

and yet they can stand aside, i. e dissociate themselves
from these To have these pains and discomforts means that
so far they identify themselves with them, and to bear them

they

these

calmly means that they so far dissociate themselves from them

Simultaneous presence of identification and dissociation is no
anomaly here The relation is precisely like one between distinguished form and the given complex from out of which the form
when the form is
d'stinguished We have already seen that
a distinct matter.
distinguished out what remains over is not

is

What lemains over is the same old homogeneous fusion that

was stalled with Similarly, when these people distinguish themdo indeed realize themselves
selves, say, from mental states, they
as centres of pure subjectivity, and yet, at the same time, what
remain over are the same old mental states exactly as they were
before the dissociation If there was no contradicexperienced

Kthdas Bhattacharya

20

form being dissociated and the o'd situation

continuing exactly as it was before, there is none such between
tion between the

the subjectivity dissociated and the mental states continuing as

the case of dissociation
they were experienced Just, again, as

from the point of view of this form,

to be understood as somehow a function of the form, as the
foim itself in an undistinguished fused state that state of fusion
being a function of the form itself so is the case with mental
states from the point of view of the subjectivity dissociated The

of form the old situation

is,

transcended mental states have now to be understood as only its

funcnons either symbolic constructions as the Advaitm would
have them or transcendental will-creations as other transcendentahsts claim
vity to the

What

mental

is

is

true of the relation

true mutatis mutandis

of

of pure subjectiits

elation to the

bodily As for the i elation between the mental and the bodily,
it too is to be understood in the
language of the relation between
the subjective

of this

and the non

subjective, as a

shadow, so to

say,

latter relation.

Granting all this, however, one may yet ask : Wherefrom

could the actual detailed objects actual details of mental and
bodily states and of percepts come 9 Functions of

subjectivity,

whether as symbolic constructions or will-creations, could at most

apriorities, not certainly the empirical variety one
actually experiences Transcendentahsts
India, except probably

be certain

the Buddhists,

all hold, however, that there are more

apriorities
than the merely formal ones their Western coutei
parts have recog
aised Space and time are
certainly there, space standm? for one
aspect of body and time as of both the bodily and the
mental,
and there are of course
logical apriorities as aspect of ideas or

meanings in thought (in which, however, the [ndian transcsndentahsts are not generally
interested). In addition, however, they
rtcogmse qualitative apriorities
of course m general

like colour, taste, smell, etc

only (tanmatras)

inextticably associated with space

12

and also

varieties

(Mahabhutas)

each

of each

According

Some, of course, do not hold that mahsbhutas as

ma/abhutas cumprise each a group of varieties a
prior!.

Modern Understanding

21

other words, subjectivity is symbohzable a

pnon
a graded order, as mental (with
and
appropriate a pnon
varieties), bodily ( with space, time and qualitative varieties
),
to them,

and extra-bodily

(as mahabhutas only 3) Much of the so-called

variety thus stands covered by Indian apnonties

empmcal

There is still, howevei, a snag Whatever variety is a toil

pi
only a type, none a definite actual paiticulai If that be so,
our actual experience of the actual world,
including the bodily
is

and the mental,

is

still left

unaccounted for

How

can pure

subjectivity as the only genuine reality account for tins actual

variety

The simple icply to this question is that it is not r problem

for transcendentalism only. It is a pioblem
equally for pan
objectivism. The pan-objectivist too cannot answer the question .

Why the

actual variety in the actual world

with rich details as

after

all given',

He

too has to start

he can at most connect

them logically through types, showing that some of these types

can be understood in terms of others in the ideal form of
explanation

all

the types

terms of one

that

is

considered

The

transcendentalisl has proceeded the same way Both

types and both are for reduction as far as possible.

basic

of
For both, again, what common people take as actual is what
ultimately to be perceived, and for both there is no concei

talk

is

vable explanation as to

why something is perceived as it is

perceived is by both taken as what is just given, the
Should anyone
given being the datum for all explanation
still insist on an explanation of the variety, it would only be

What

is

from a new angle of vision and in a new dimension altogether the explanation would be in terms of the law of karma
and the theory of re birlh with which we are not for the pre
sent concerned
13

Body at one stage, which is nearer subjectivity, comprises tamrttras

and sensations and temporality only, space not being denied, though
not explicitly asserted

therefore,

mahsbkUtas and temporality.

and at

a grosser stage

comprises

LaJidas BbaKacharya

22

for the a priori typet of

terms of sjmbolic construction or
those
of transcendental creation Symbolic construction is only the
of
whatever
emerges
translation, in a forward-looking language,

The tianscendentalists account

objects either in

in the piocess

of

graded

dissociation,

and that

is

why

it is

or ajtiana as positive is only the obverse

side ot the process of dissociation. Unreflective ajfiana is not
ineicly non-knowledge of truth, it, at the same time, is positive

Maya

called sxnibohc

content

knowledge of a

false

known

Knowledge of

as false

which, though nob

the

till

false as false is

then,

is

reflective

effectively experienced as ajnana, which is as

ttjtiami, ajTtumi
much a knowledge of the false as false here, as symbolically
presented as an object as knowledge of the truth, which latter
i

is

ultimately knowledge of pure subjectivity

For the transcendentalists who regard the world of objects,

including the mental and the bodily, as will-construction, maya
is the \vill-po\ver, the will
aspect, of pure subjectivity. More of
these two concepts of maya later.

A PHONOLOGICAL SKETCH OF APABHRAMSA

OF THE llth CENTURY A.D.

S. Karunatilleke

O. Introduction

The puipose of
tive analysis

paper is to present a brief descripphonology of Apabhramsa of the llth

this

of the

century A.D.

The

earliest

references to the

term

"

Apabhiamsa

"

in

*
go as far back as the 2nd century B C
when it was used not in the sense of any dialect but to refer
It was only aiound the 3id
to any deviation from Sanskrit
"
"
assumed the
Apabhiamsa
century A.D. that the term

Indian

literature

sense of a

"

dialect" as distinct

from Sanskrit

Consequently

came

to be used as a generic term referring to all the later

Middle Indo-Aryan dialects Apabhramsa attained the status

it

AD

of a literary dialect from around the 6th century

Regionwise literary Apabhramsa dialects fall into three mam divisions
(a)

(b)

and

(c)

Western Apabhrams"a, the literary documents of which

A D.
range from 6th Cent. A D to 12th Cent.
Southern Apabhrams"a, the literary documents of which
range from 10th Cent A.D to llth Cent
Eastern Apabhramsa, the hteiary documents of which
range from 7th Cent A.D to 12th Cent

AD,

AD*

The data for this papet derive primarily from the

text entitled Karakamda Canu composed by a poet called
Muni Kanakamara K Karakamda Canu ( henceforth to be
O.I

abbreviated as

Kch

is

a verse-text written about the life-story

of a king called Karakamda The text runs to ten chapters

each of which, is referred to as a 'Sandhi' Mum Kanakamara,
the author of this text, was a monk pf the Digambara

W.

24

S. Kanraatilleke

have been composed

sect. This work is considered to
aiound the middle of the llth century A.D. As the New
10th century A.D ',
the
Indo Aryan vernaculars had arisen by
it must be assumed that the type of Apabhram^a represented

Jama

our

text is

described in this paper

Digambara

variety that had gone out of

Thus the variety of Apabhramsa

a purely literary

colloquial usage at the time.

is

Jama Apabhramsa of the

DJA ), which belongs

literary

be abbreviated as

sect (to

to the southern group region-wise

Phonemic Inventory

Only the segmental phonemes and their distribution with-

word are discussed here

in Ihe

The followicg segmental phonemes can be posited for DJA.

Vowels

The vowels of

DJA

**

ai e

considered here under two sub

systems
(a)

and quantity

vowels that contrast both for quality

short

high

central

front

low

back
u'

i.

a:

(b) vowels that contrast only for quality

front

back

mid

long

back

central

front

Consonants
labial

Voice-r UQas P irate

dental

P
p

Stops

unaspirate b
h
n

b
Nasals

d
h
h

lateral

h
h

velar

h
h
j

v,
h

trill

spirants

Voiced!

palatal

less

refrofiex

Phonological Sketch of Apabhramia

25

Vowel length

1.1

In the phonemic
inventory the short and the conespond
ing long vowels have been given separately, and thus
long vowels
have been treated as unit phonemes rather than
vowel sequences
An interpretation of the long vowels as
sequences of the
corresponding short vowels is objectionable in view
w UJ
of ine
the
following facts
1.11

long vowel is structurally parallel to the

(a)
conespondm*
short vowel in that, like the
corresponding short vowel a long
vowel constitutes a single syllabic peak, whereas a
vowel sequ
ence constitutes several syllabic peaks
on
depending

the

number

of vowels constituting the sequence,

eg. tha
taa

'to place'

monosyllabic

'penance'

disyllabic,

(b) as each vowel constitutes a single syllabic peak, the

interpretation of a long vowel as a sequence of the
correspo-

nding short vowels goes counter

ed in the metric composition,

to the syllabic
principle involv-

(c) the orthography used in the text makes a distinction

between a Jong vowel and a sequence of the corresponding short

vowels, representationally

Vowels /e/ and /o/

1.12

In the representation of these vowels, four different ortho

10 which can be transliterated as
graphic symbols are used
[e],
[

and

], [

respectively Their distribution

is

as follows

In the non-1 mal position of words,

[

[e']

e.g

and [ o
and [o

occur only in a closed

occur only in an open

syllable,

'

[e] 'mid- front -short vowel-' [meccha]

'

[e

mid-front - long vowel

'

khe.yara

whereas

syllable,

uncivilized'

'wandering

the sky
[

'mid-back - short vowel

'

kokka

'

ivi

having
i

summoned
'

mid-back - long vowel

'

'
:

saro-ya

'

lotus

'

26

word

In the

S. Karunafilleke

final position,

fa) in a closed syllable only [e]

eg

Examples for

o] occur;

in this position are rare

the four segments fe], [e ]; and

However the occunence of [e] and [o]
a contraction of [ e- ] to
this position can be explained as
and fo ] to [o] respectively foi purposes of metre No
(b) in

[o], [o

and

[addheN] 'by half

[e]

open

syllables.all

are found

[e],

For example,

effected

is

phonemic contrast

1.87) "having got up

[e

to

contracted

is

by

in the line,
f

this

shortening

utthiya e patthiva su

and reported

[e] only to

Kch.

king",

metnc

the

require-

Samanika, which

this verse is called

ments. The metre of

to the

the

suit

is

11
defined as containing the metric quantities
ra

As
would
it

the pronounciation of
yield

this

and

this

position
pattern),

metric

rules

e/

e:

here
/

in

position

Based on the

distributional

statements given above

and /o/ having the allophones [o]

Even

in case

of the

phonemicized

and [o

non mid-vowels

length, the length-contiasts are restricted

1.14

apply to the shortening of

four segments [e], [e ], and [o], [o ] are

the allophones [ e ] and [e* ],
/ e / having

1 13

in

an extia-mora (thus violating the metric

has been contracted to

Similar

la

ga

ja

the
as

ia
].

that contrast for

only to opsn syllables.

Vowel-contrasts

Examples for the qualitative and quantitative vowel con

found mostly in the initial syllable of words Examples

trasts are

for these contrasts

are very limited in the word media and

pDsmons Some examples for these contrasts are given
below. The symbol 4= has been used here to mean 'contrasts with.'
final

27

28

S. Karunatilleke

1.15 Distribution of vowels

Vowels can occur either singly or as sequences

Examples
single-occunences of vowels were given earlier (Cf
under 1.14)
for the

1.15

Vowel sequences

There are two types of vowel sequences

those that consist of three
(a) Sequences of

The vowels
tical as to either

aa

11

uo

Vx

V9

members.

two vowels
these

constituting

identical as to quality

two members and

those that consist of

sequences
Vt 4 Vt

and quantity

quantity or quality or both

can be either
or non-iden-

),

V^ +

sequences

paa

'foot'

unnna

'crossed'

suutti

'good saying*

sequences

'Goddess Sarasvatf'
bad'
'

'

noble

'

'

instruction
'

cloud

'

passion
'

having called*
'

they'(f )
filled with desire

'

instruction
'

'

this
'

done

'

'

having killed
'.chief
'

separation
'led'

'law

'

of Brahmins
'

'

Vs )

Phonological Sketch of Apabbramia

iu

samiu

>

ti.eN

ua

ua:

ui.

ua

'vicnily'
with her

'

cua

hu

u:i:

i.

kahei

deu

toa

avaloia

ou.

'

'

'messenger'
was (feminine)

ei

ou

two
dream

'

eu
oa

'heavier'
'

ea

01

fallen

'

na

dura

'

'

'

garua.ra
dui
sui

29

vea

'

speed
'

'

says

'god'
'

'

goura
kou.hala

(b) Sequences of three vowels

water

'

looked

'

'gate'
'curiosity'
:

Very frequently the vowel a and u, u seem to enter into

construction with most of the above given two vowel sequences
to yield sequences of three vowels Mostly these seem to occur
within

at

morpheme-boundary though
following instances ware found

same word

the

am

aiuccia

'

aea

balaea

'

'

very high
a name
'

>

aeu

paumaeu

aaa

saNcha aa

'

shaded

aia
aiu

dhaia

caused to run

ma

hiaa

'

loa

vioa

uia

oia

gha

iu

The

>
j
'

'

na

'

'

having killed
heart

'

'

separation
'

'

uia

'

joia

risen

seen

'

1,15 2. Usually in vowel sequences with either a or o as

'

the last member, a phonetic glide

y
in the orthography. This y

marked

'

'

'

is

develops and this

of no phonemic

is

signi

W.

30

ficance as

it

S. Karunatilleke

does not contrast with

'foot' is

paa

its

absence.

Thus

phonetically [paya]

saroa

'lotus

fsaroya],

hiaa

'heart'

[htyaya],

vioa

'separation'

[viyoya]

and so on.

Consonants

Of

the consonant segments the following

need comment.

Nasals

1.21

Theie are three orthographic symbols used in Kch. to

present nasals. Their transliterations are as follows

'bilabial nasal'
'

'retroflex nasal

'velar nasal'

Their distribution

m,

re-

is

ascertained as follows

occurs word-initially, mtervocally, in

a labial stop and before

gemmation, before

/h/,

n,

occurs word-initially, intervocally,

before

N,

occurs

gemination,

and

/h/,

word-finally and before /v/, /s/ and /h/; it is

as a cover symbol to represent the homor-

also used

ganic nasal occurring before the corresponding

Examples for

their distribution are

given

word-initial position-

maa

'rut'

naa

'new'

mtervocal position
ja

ma

u ntil'

ja na

gemmate position

'know*
:

dummana

'sad'

donni

'two'

before homorganiq
stop

thambha

'pillar'

below

stop;

Phonological Sketch of Apabhram;a

31

before stop
'addicted'

laNpada
vidaNbia

'cheated'

daNti pura

'a city'

maNda

'little'

saNcalha

'moved'

saNcha'aa

'shaded'

saNjama

'restraint'

saNjha

'evening'

saNthia

'established'

abandoned

panchaNdia

'an

saNkia

'suspected'

saNkheva

'brevity'

phuliNga
saNgha'u

'spark'

before

/v/

and

'collected'
/s/,

saNvara

'restraint'

daNsana

'sight'

before

woman'

/h/

tumha-nsa

'like

genha

'take'

siNha

'lion'

you'

word-final position;

hauN

tuhuN

'you'

Observations

Before a non-labial stop, the horaorganic nasal is always

as N, while before a labial stop the homorganic

written
nasal

written

is

instance

varying

with

N,

Consider the

following

thambha
khaNbha

'pillar'
'pillar'

This writing thus indicates that there was no phonemic coa

trast between the nasals before a homorganic stop, and hence
was used as a cover symbol to represent the homorganic

W. S

32

nasal

two

such instances.

articulations,

syllable to be

Karunatilleke

heavy and a lax articulation

syllable

be

position

a tense articulaiion which marked the

light

(transliteiated here as

had
final

marked by

vowel which marked

nasalization of the preceding

to

word-final

In the

the

the final

Orthography uses a separate symbol

">) to

mark

this lax articulation

of

the

However, the syllabic-quantitative contrast relax articulation of the wordsulting fiora the tense verses
final N was metrically conditioned and no phonemic contrast
*
we find the same item
Thus
ensued
between N and

woid-final N.

written both ways depending

The

these

whereas

on the

specific

metric

situation

m, n and N are contrastive Of

and n contrast both word-initially and mtervocally,
nasal segments

thiec

all

the three segments

m, n and

contrast only

the environment of -h Their allophomc assignment is as follows

/m/ "has the allophone

bilabial nasal in

[m]

all

of

its

occurrences;
has two allophones,

/n/

a dental nasal and

a retroflex nasal

[n]

a palatal nasal
and a velar nasal

is

[N]

orthographically

its

is

meaning

'ya'

occurence

'and'

the

and there
initial

which

fore considered as
forming
intervocalic

represented

mtervocally singly,

shows

glide,

before palatal stops,

elsewhere

[n]

'y'

occurs

its

and

has two allophanes,

/N/

1.22

before dental stops,

elsewhere;

[n]

occurrence

is

generally
that

The form concerned

and can be there-

position

an

It

enclitic

part of the

preceding word. In
can be treated as a phonetic-

having no phonemic relevance

our phonemic transcription

1 23 Consonant Contrasts

Kch

only one form

is

'y'

will

(cf.

152)

18
.

Hence,

123,1 Examples for consonant

contrasts are given below.
ever, instances for the
single occurrences

other than the retroflex are

rare.

never be written.

of stops

How-

mtervocally

Phonological Sketch of Apathramsa

pavara

'noble'

pasara 'expanse'

33

pahara 'stroke

54

Kaninatilleke

kh, N,
1.232 All consonants othei then
short vowel)
us geminate intei vocally (after
their

r,

and h

ccur

contrasting with

non-gemmate counterparts

An

aspirate slop

is

genunaled

vuth

the

corresponding

unaspirate

are given
Examples for these contrasts

-p

-ph

^
<

-pp-

-pph-

aipaura

'veiy noble'

panphuna

'throbbing'

below

panppawa na
appha ha

'limit'

'beat'

no

Phonological Sketch of Apabhra

m$a

35

As

for the stops, only the voiced retroflex

stop*, show
limitation as to frequency of occurence as
single versus

1.2321

geminate mtervocaHy
All other stopt, aic highly

hrnittd in their

occurence as

single in intervocalic position. The only clear cases of contrast in this position foi single versus geminates are found

only for /bh/, /th/, /t/ and /g/ (See above for examples) Even
here the single occurrences are found only in one or two

words

in

each case.

In other cases, a single stop

is

found to occui intervocally

only following a morpheme-boundary, although within

same-word-struclure. Thus, a form like

the

aipaura 'very noble' may be wntten as

where - marks the

morpheme boundary,

ai-paura,

However, even

in this position theieare several instances

that establish a contrast between single versus geminate stop,

e g.

pan-pa 1m
pan-ppama-na

This contrast
cable
,

'protected'
'limit'

also supported by the metric rules applithese cases, in that 'i' followed by single 'p' is treatis

ed as constituting a

light

syllable

one mora

),

whereas

followed by geminate 'pp' is treated as constituting a heavy

syllable (two morae), and hence the orthographic representation -p- versus -pp- cannot be considered non-contrastive.

Consider the following

(a) /joana saa sahasa

panppama

ne/

(Kch 1,32) which

is

phonetically,

[joyana saya sahasa parippamame]

hundred thousand yojanas',

'limited b>

(b) /panpa:hu puttu bhanantia.iN/ (Kch.

which

is

2, 6, 6)

phonetically,
'

[panpatliu puttu bhanantiya

i]

she kept

him

him addressing

as son'.

W.

j6

Both
Pajjliaiil
last

these

which

a'

syllable

is

built

by the

same metre called

moiae with the

defined 35 consisting of 16

To

light

S. Karunatillcke

are

lines

satisfy

raetuc

this

requirement the

in (6) must be considered conwriting of 'pp' in (a) veisus 'p'

versus geminate
ttasttve Therefore the contrast between single

has been considered phonemic also

for

the stops other than

for this contrast are very

voiced-retroflex, although instances

much

limited

1,24

Distribution of the consonants

Single occurence

1.241

Word-finally only /N/ occurs

e

'by the action'

g kajjeN

hauN
kiN

'what'

paiN

'your'

Word

initially

cosonants except /N/ can occur. Howof the retroflex stops and /jh/ is highly

all

the occurrence

ever,

icstncted in this position.

Intervocally the occurrence of all
/N/,

/b/

1.242

and /kh/ has been

consonants other than

attested.

Consonant sequences

Consonant sequences occur both

word-initial and
vocalic positions. Only two member
consonant-sequences
been found in either position.

Consonant sequences can be either

geminate

only intervocally) or clusters Examples for

given earlier (Cf. 1 232 above). Examples for
sters are given

nhlh-

vv-

nhana

Ihikkivi

vva

(occurmg

consonant

have

gemmates were

below

word-initial position

inter-

'bath'

'having hidden'
'hke'

clu-

A
word-medial

Phonological Sketch of Apabhramia

position

woid-medial consonant

clusters are classifiable

follows

n
nasal + [ homorgan.c stop
L spirant
J

and 2

Examples

4 h

37

38

W.

1.243 The distubutionnl

abstracted as follows

S. Kfthmaflllefce

structure

of the consonants can he

word

final

- marks non

Phonological Sketch of ApabhramSa

occurence

Segments given

39

within

are of very limited occurence

2.

parenthesis

Syllabic Structure

Always a vowel

constitutes a

syllabic nucleus

All con-

sonants other than /N/, and all the word

initial clusters
given
above (cf under 1 242) occur as onsets
Only /N/ occurs as
coda word finally Medially all consonants
other then /N/ can
occur as onsets of the
following syllable In case of medjal
consonant sequences, a syllabic cut is
possible after the first

consonant which would then be treated as

the coda of the

preceding syllable, the second consonant being treated as the
onset of the following
syllable Stops other then voiced retroflex aie of very
low-frequency medially as onsets A sequence
of syllabic nuclei can occui without
any onsets (or codas)

Examples

2.1

(/

marks

syllable

boundary)

duha

'sorrow'

du/ha

duva.ra

'door'

du/va:/ra

dha/n/a

dharia

'earth'

hauN

ekkahiN

'on one'

ek/ka/hiN

Syllable types

The following

syllable types are found

Syllable type

( )

marks

Example

\\. S. Karunalillckc

A word

2,11

follow

can range from

ApabhramM

in

to pemasjn.'u, in term* of

,-,!Libic

stiucture

monosyllabic

Some

examples

monosyllabic

be
a

*oh

kaa

'done'

khainbha

'pillar

disyllabic

'you'

'various

sinva

t,iraighl

forwardness'

trisyllabic

'mutual

antiiMiiu

to see

dekkluiuN
a iu

uu

kiNt 'tumai

3.

quadrisyllable

golden'

'pentasyllable

and pcnta-syllabic words are always poly-rnorphemic.

Quadn

'summoned'

Remarks
Inter* Gctlic single occiurence of stops

3.1

Tiut

miei vocalic single occurrence of stops other than

ts highly limited especially in
ummorphemic

voiced ietrofle\

word

structure's

relative
historical

\v,is

absence

stated

of the

earlier (cf

stops in

this

see

under 1.231)

The

due

to a

position

is

dung,; ttut yielded the following results

Old In do- Ar) an

Unaspaate stops other

than labial and
tetroflex

-v-

>

-d-

rt

Aspirate stops other than

retroflex

Apabhramsa

-h-

A
This historical

Phonological Sketch of

Apabh n ,ia

4l

also accounts for the

high
of the voiced retroflex stops
mtervocally

process

frequency

The resultant distributional pattern of the

stop consonants
has been partly disturbed due to loan-words
from Old Indo
Aryan and other Middle Indo-Aryan dialects that contained
intei vocalic stops.
few examples for these
changes follow
Old Indo-Aryan
Apabhramsa (D J A

pati

'lord'

nadi:

'river'

nai

sakuna

'bird'

sauna

a-gata

vacana

pai

came'

a-aa

'word'

vaana

saroja

'lotus*

saroa

tapas

'penance*

tava

drum'

pa^aha

'a

patha

'road

padaha

paha

pradha.na

'chief

paha.na

mukha

'mouth'

muha

laghu

'light'

prabhu

'lord

lahu

3.2

pahu

only a phonetic glide (cf. 1.22) and has no phonemic

value in Apabhrams*a (DJA). It's loss in Apabhramsa (DJA)
due to the following change :
'y' is

is

Old Indo-Aryan

Apabhramsa DJA)

/word

initial

position

/inter vocal position

W.

42

S, Ktraaatirteke

Examples:
Apabhramsa (DJA)

Old Ink- Aryan

lana

'people'

yfina

'vehicle'

raja

'king*

Toot Notes

eG
1
1

4
15

I", Historical

Crammer of Apabhramsa, Poona,

1948,

pp

1-21,

Ihd
Ibid

tad
Tiic fallowing editions have been used

'Kir- KjjutUtariJ of Muni Kanakgmara* edited by Hiralal Jam, 1934,

Karartja Jama Publication Society, Karanja, Berar, India

Kara Kxm<laGmu of Muni Kanakamara' edited by Hiralal

Jain, 1964,

Bharatiya Jnina Pf^ha Prakasan

Kjmda

1934 edition by Hirlal Jain, p. 37

'Kara

Cfuiueji S

Supplementary data and grammatical information have been taken from

ibc follow ing works
l,

Cariu*,

K.

In-Jo-Aryan and Hindi, Calcutta, 1960, pp

Cbmparative

Grammar of

102-105.

the Prakrit languages,

trans-

by Subhadra Jha,
Ami^lano* (Prayah Gajarati ane Apabhramsa Vi?ayak

lated into English

C,

'

adbyayana lekhono samgraha) in Gujarati,

*Vj akaraoa' of which the portions relevant for Apabhramsa
have bscn edited and translated into Hindi by &aligram
Upadbyaya, under the

title

'Apabhramla Vyakarana'

Pjebel. alw gives V* (> * vocalic 'r") as belonging to the vowel system
He remarks "r* was retained just dialectally only in

of Apabhramsa

Apabhttmsi
s,

". (cf

p 51

47)
tpju

Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit LanExamples for

given by him are,

Pischel,

'grass'
'takes'

Phonological Sketch of Apribfaramsa

has np, corresponding length. The exact phonemic status of

however remains questionable. The text that has provided the data for our
analysis never shows an occurrence of y. Hence for DM.
is consi-

dered irrelevant

10

Cf Kara Ka m da Canu,

11

In metric scansion, a syllable

abbreviation

for heavy

1964 edition by Hiralal Jam

is

is

'ga'

The

defined either as heavy or light

and

light is Ma*

groups each of which

classified into 8

is

Metric quantities are

trisyllabic, based on the mini-

Each such
mally contrastive distribution of 'heaviness' and 'lightness'
group is called a 'gafla' (literally meaning 'group* or 'set') and is referred to by an abbreviatory symbol
'

ya

'

',

'

ja

'

ra

',

',

sa

'

'

and

ta

These symbols are "ma

1
.,

'na*, 'bha',

Their metric quantity assignment

'.

is.

85 follows

____

ma

ta

ra

bba

ya

~
w

1st syllable

2nd

syllable

3rd syllable

where - marks 'heavy' and

The binanty
noting

Any two

one feature

number of

The

marks

^.w~
--*,,.
ja

*,

'light'.

this metric formulation

worth

is

principle underlying
consecutive metric groups given in this set differ only

Any

given metre

is

defined

as consist/ng

of a

specific

these metric groups plus an optional heavy or light syllabic

depending on the
12

>-

na
w

sa

specific

metre

general vowel pattern

throughout

seems to be a 5 way quality contrast

case of the non-raid vowels). Thus
u
i

the Middle Indo-Aryan

period

a 2 way quantity contrast

(in

r
a;

In case of mid-vowels, some dialects had long versus short as allophomc

Thus
/e/

in

Pah

having

in closed syllable

[e]

and

[e]

in

/o/ having

[o]

in closed syllable,

[o

in

and

open
open

syllable,

syllable,

of Maharupasiddhi, under 5 5
'kvaci
instances,

when

samyogapubba
( i-e

ekarokara rassa iva vuccante*

within word

),

"

and o are pronounced as

followed by a conjunct consonant"

In

some

if short,

44

W.

S. Karunatllleke

Certaio other dialects maintained

same environments Thus

let

to/

cf.

!3

has

ff]

a qualitative distinction

and

[e]

in open syllable,

has

[u]

in closed syllable,

and

[oj

in open syllable,

Ghatage, A. M., 'Introduction to Ardha

Tagare. G. V., 'Historical

Colophon

in the

Ardha Magadhl,

closed syllable,

Magadhf p
,

Grammar of ApabhramSa',

10 7

p. 76

52

The author

is

grateful to Professor

Gair and Mr. R.

Dave

of the Division of Modern Languages of Cornell University (Ithaca, New

York), USA. and to Dr. S Susecndirarajah of the Department of Lingi istKs, University of Ceylon,

comments on an

Colombo

earlier version

of

this

Campus
paper

for their very helpful

THE ANDHAU INSCRIPTION OF RUDRASIMHA

Rasesh Jamindar

(23.46 N.,69 53 E ), a small village

south-east of Khavcjfi in

Andhau

desert, is situated

of Kachchh District in Gujarat

state

m the heart of the

Khavda TalukS

Though

possessing

no

present either political or commercial or economic or cultural, this small deserted village is historically
1
very important as it had offered no less than six inscriptions

significance at

belonging to the reign of Western Kshatrapas Out of these

six

Western Kshatrapa inscriptions, five have already been published 2 while one, under review, so far remains unpublished.
This fragmentary stone-inscription is now preserved in the
the head quarter of the Kachchh district.
Partially mutilated this stone-inscription is broken into

Kachchh Museum, Bhuj,

piece contains the most of the

entire text, while the lower one has only two lines incised on it.

two pieces of which the upper

Engraved

in

BrahmT

characters of the Western Kshatrapa

lines' at present. The lanPrakrit and

guage of the inscription is Sanskrit influenced by
the whole text is in prose. The incisions of letters are shallow
the bad state of preservation, it is significant that
Though
to
the main historical content of this epigraph is preserved
us to make out the date of issue and
which

variety, this

epigraph consists of ten

satisfaction,

know

the

name of

helps
the king during, whpse reiga the erection

of a memorial pillar was

laid

down.

This epigraph has suffered most at thejjpper right portion

Thus the
and to some extent at the upper left portion too
line damaging
main text has lost both the ends of almost every
at one end. But
either on both the sides or

some

letters

Rasesh Jimlndtr

4*

could easily be made up. Nevertheless, fortumissing

lines of this epigraph offer us the
nately indeed first five
information, though the opening few
letter*

historic-genealogical

words of the record

Many

are missing

of the

letters

last

and damaged too The spacing between

of the last
the tost three lines and the inconsistent arrangement
two lines as well as the incision of letters of the last line
its bonafides
result in
raising doubts about

four lines are

illegible

controversy

Text

mi

srcroN

mm

fofRr]

-SIR

igfc

faw]

The object of the epigraph

is

to record the

memory of

somebody, whose name is lost in illegibility, by setting up of

a yasp as a funeral monument. The donee of the epigraph
may be one Abhlr whose name is also difficult to spell out,
This record was

issued in the year

the king Mah&kshatrapa

As

regards

14

durmg

the reign of

Swami Rudrasirhha.

orthography

it

may

be.

mentioned

here that

epigraph are not marked by a horizontal

bead-line. The letters here have rounder, -shapes and are not
the

letters

of

this

angular except for the letter

ma

in

mu

line five

Elsewhere

the letter ma has circular shape at the base and its two ends
have been extended further like crescent shape The medial u
is

marked by

a, curved line

open

to the, left/

The Afldhan

Inscription of

Rtdrashnha

4T

This epigraph throws some light on the genealogy of the

Western Kshatrapa dynasty and the royal titles used by them
Titles of Raja, Swfimi and Mahakshatrapa have been used both
for Rudradama and Rudrasimha, while for Jayadama only
Raja and Kshatrapa titles are used. Swami is omitted here, Juna8
gadh Rock-inscription of Rudradama, Gunda inscription of
6
Rudrasimha, Junagadh inscnption of JayadSmS's grandson 7
and Gadha inscription of Rudrasena 8 mention Jayadama as

*RT sgsw

again

siflfJr.

Therefore, the epigraph under discussion once

the belief that Jayadama died during his

confirms

ksbatrap-ship without becoming Mahakshatrapa in the

time of his father Cha^an 9

life-

So far we have known only two inscriptions of Rudra10

I
and (2) Mevasa inscription."
(1) Gunda inscription
Now we have two more mscrsptions of this king one is from
Vandha 18 and another from 'Andhau which is under review
here. So far Rudrasimha is concerned, this epigraph throws
no more -light excepting offering us the year 114 which date
we have already known from his coins. Rudradama, the son of
JayadamS and the father of Rudrasiriiha, has been also mentioned as Mahakshatrapa here. The first two letters..^ of
the first line of this record suggest that some words before
them might have been engraved on the broken part of the
stone which might have mentioned the name of Chatan, the
simha

father of Jayadama.

As mentioned

earlier,

from Andhau we have had four

rulers, namely Chfisfan and

other inscriptions of the same

Rudradama, dated SakaEra 52

(i.e.

130 A.D.).

Recently,

we

dated
inscription of the time of ChSsjan
1B The
89
inscription under discussion

came across another

Saka Era 11 (ic

AD)
dated 114 of the Saka Era

is

ficant

from

*ed a good

(i.e.

192

D.).

It

seems

sipi-

Indhau might have had enjoymore

during Kshatrapa period for

this therefore, that

political status

Era 11 to U4=\D' 89 to 192).

(i.e. from Saka
bat we may also infer hsre from these record*
been a district headquarter
findspot that Andhau might have

than a century

Not only

this

Ruesh Jamindtr

But the irony

then or a similar status of whatsoever nature

of the

fate is that at present this

of any kind

it

has no

importance
had enjoyed nearly 2000 years before
village

This unique spot of 6 Western Kshatrapa inscriptions helps

arriving at the conclusion that the Kshatrapa kings might
have come to Gujarat directly from Central Asia or Iran and

us

had

settled

down

first

in

Kachchh

ference does collaborate the thesis

If this

is

so,

than this

in-

advocated by this author

regarding the independent political status of Western Kshatrapa

14 It seems to me
kings.
very necessary that large-scale
is needed in and
around the present village of
Andhau, which I hope, may probably shed much light on the
Western Kshatrapas in every respect 1 B

excavation

References

Five sione-iascnplions from Xndhau in Kachchh district were found

in the last decade of nmteenth
and were taken care
Century A.
,
of by the Diwan Bahadur Ranchhodbhai
Udayaram, the then Diwan

of the Kachchh

state

After

Shn D, R. Bhandarkar,

that

the then
Assistant Superintendent of the Western Circle of the
Archaeological
Survey of India, again took notice of these inscriptions
January
1906 Ottt of these, four were
published in the Epigraphica Indica. Tte
fifth one of these, which
lay unpublished since
is under review

then,

here

Recently discovered Xftdhau inscription of the

year 11

and published by Mrs Shobhana Gokhale

Indian History, Vol.2, p. 104.

m the

was

edit'

Journal of Ancient

For 4 inscriptions of the

year 52 see Epigraphica Indica; Vol. XVI,
pp. 23 ff., and of the year 11 see Journal of Ancient Indian
History
Vol. 11, Nos. 1-2,
pp. 104 ff Calcutta, 1969

IBIS

4 This
5

may be
ft

teems doubtful. Probably

Epignpatca
Ibitf,

read as

Indica, Vol. VIIJ, pp.

Vol. XVJ, pp. 233

ff.

Ibd, Vol. XVI, pp. 241

ff

Ibid, Vol. XVI, pp. 238

ff.

it

may be

42

ff,

The Xndhau
9

In

Khavda

Inscription of

inscription of the

Rudrasimha

49-

time of king Rudrasimha 1st

JayadSma

mentioned as Rvjn and Swnnn without using the Kshatrapa title as

(See Journal of Oriental Institute, Vol XI, No 3, March 1962,
p 238) But no importance is to be attached for omission of the
Kshatrapa title as Mahakshatrapa title is also uMi^piciimisly omitted in
is

usual

case of

Rudradgma

in this record

10

See above footnote

11

See Watson

12

This has been edited by

nal
the next issue

This

is

an exception

6.

Museum

Report, Rajkot, 1923-24

this

author

&

pp

12

will he published in

this Jonr-

13

See above footnote 2

14

See

15

Umesh Mishra Commemoration

Volume, pp 703

ff,

Allahabad, 1970

With the kind consent of Shn M H Raval, the then curator of the
Museum, I was able to read this inscription m 1962 He also supplied
me with a photo of this inscription I am grateful to him for his
cooperation

*"*

<TR
1

fosft

4t

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sft

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1

sf

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nft

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ft

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10

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It

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88

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118
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23

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Mi
n.

W</J^ (Vol. XV, No.

Treatment of
August 1971)it "The Architectural
Temple at Taranga" <a<f * ^i'
f4

^rt

Cl

u"/

1,

the Ajitanatha

SlHH'fl

ftt

"HI

M.

^RH^l

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Hi-iHl
i^l

RlJH%*llHfMl

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8.
Sl>Hliaj

Burgess

Desai

^P-l^rt

^l

i4l

and Cousens

M D

'
,

SIH S iWl'aR'l

'

-i

Ml*ft

Architectural

aSIM

Antiquities

Northern Gujarat*
Jain Sahitya no Samskipta Itihasa

Epigraphia Indica, Volume 11 [*&]

Jainatlrtha Sarva Samgraha ', Volmue
<

P. 27 M^ clMd -tw

1,

Amritlal P Shah

s
pt. l"

t*
t'-ft)

Sompura, p

of

ifocHi.1

^H

UHI -d*!

* Burgess-Cousens

M*

Wfl, WMIMHI qif^i 4^1^^ ,(,,,

1v ^ g
James Burgess and
Henty Cou.ens, AichUKtwd

ATV//J,
J pp

CVIK-CIX
2

,vn M

-ft

J.

Kirste,

"

lw//i
15-16, Pits

Inscriptions from Northern Gujarat

II, Calcatta, 1894

"

Lpn>u

phia Indica, Vol

3

Sarabhai Manjlal

Nawab Jama
,

7>///s

/Ww j//</ tlwir

Atchitecture.Ahmebsibad, 1944, pp 47-48 and hgs. 165-17]

5

D. Sankalu,

The Archaeology of

Kathiawar, Bombay, 1942, pp

112-113

Saraswati

Bombay Sec
9

shad, No.

10

MfcuiH

"

Dhaky,

of Gujarat,

"

3,

Mfofc, Slii^i

The Chronology of

l<S:\so 5

WWK
H. Mf-M^s

ples of Taranga-A study

ii

Vol l\

the Solanki

Temples

Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihas Pan1961, pp. 58-60

*& *R*

*l*l

BVB

The Struggle for Empire,

ed. 1966, p. 597.

3 i-

oJ i

*>*0.

"SMPMW

A
"

^pfi-irti"

^ r

(^i

SM'i'i

by

K.

Shah tw*

"

Jaina

Tcm-

ra

"

"The temple dedicated to Ajitanatha at Taianga is said

of the Solanki king
to have been built during the reign
KumZrapMa (A.D 1143-1172) Though temple seems to
it has retainhave been restoied and extended several times,
ed the original form and to a great extent the sculptural
walls and internally in Gudha-

wealth over ihe external

mandtipa etc as well

From the account given in the

'

Kumarapala-prati
seems that Kumarapala ordered his
minister ( Dandanayaka) Abhaya, the son of Ya^odeva, to
5<
'Prabhavaka Canta\ (V S. 1334)
construct (his temple

bodha' (VS. 1241)

it

'

about ihe construction of this temple by

also narrates

Kumarapala

S8

Te [sic] arched-pillar (kirtistambha) erected it small cell

foitified entrance on
(devakuliha) on the left of the
the east, contains an epigraphical reference, dated V S 1230
of
the
demise
two
aftei
king Kumarapala),
years
( only

mam

wherein the

who was

name of

the aforementioned minister Abhaya,

trusted by the king with the construction

the Ajitanatha temple [occurs]

a,

\^o

Though no
given here,

it

.ft*

qjpro

work of

reads like this

q%q

'

Jr

ar*ra(^)5t

of the temple is
commemorates the name of Abhaya.

details as to

definitely

It

construction

under whose direction the temple was erected and probably

the date of completion of the work, in memory of which
he caused lo erect this kirtistambha (memorial pillar)

'

57

Somaprabhasan, 'Kumarpsla-Pratibodha',
Aryakhaputacharya
Katha p 453, M. D Desai, 'Jam Sahityano Samksipta Itihasa',
Para
Para
392
374, p 275,
p. 264,

58

Prabhacandra San, 'Prabhavakacacita', Shn Heraachandrasun

Prabandha, vv. 720-724, JSF, p 415, para 599,

<l.

SlHWl

ii&l
31

Ibid

p. 26

wtt^lM

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38

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80

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i-

31

"9

ApaiZjitapjcchnofBhuvanadevncZrya, Ed Popatbhai
bhankar Mankad,
CXV, Baroda, 1950, 183/3-8

31re

Amba*

COS,

SI
l

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proper'
.

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8.

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Sompura, p

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&

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a^-rflil

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x^ Mil

5.

Sompura, p 4

41

on the east supported

in [sic] ten free

standmg piltas

porch mea8 ur.ng lOb'-S m (33.5^18*)

be
cons tl tut in g M(fi Th,s n&f may also
<>

Sompura, p

^vW

caJled

B *

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M******

61
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Ibid,

pp

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p 8

24-25).

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41

M. A. Dhaky, "Kiradu
1967, fig

n
18

3
of

HHI

and the

Mta-Ourjam

hof
>I

15

"I'll

7rf/rf, fig,

73
66

Temple
'

il&tt

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so

ell

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'

i-swsliw

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M<SJ

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n^

Balcony

vs

ta

*'ii<l

V)

19

20

See Navab,

(fell

&

21

HiHi

figs J66-lfr7.

iifl^ SH^

sii

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13

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13

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.

..

JUH'I

y x Y

=s

x y

ss

1 $

=Hi

22

23

Sompura pp. 6-7

Hi

..

333

The other member which

Vt

adorns the spire

in

known

is

as Tilaka (a rectangular

box-like

adoined with

flat-tiered, stepped-out pyraEach course of the bhadra, Pratiratha, Nandi

and ktirnn (wd is adorned with this member
There are 40
/j/j/Ads on bhudrot 96 on Piatiratha, 64 on nandis and 48 on
A'.T,A fv/(], thus the total number of Tilaka [tic] here comes

fwi] shape,

midal top -knot)

248

to

*i

'

J-

^ ^ "*#

S4

3 1 Pi-is
Mi-it

f'>

vS

a^
WH

-tut

M-'M'Kl

v
,IT^

1M

3V451I

Sil Tt

lH ^t^'il^'tl

iflft

Vi

"

motif,

AH

of the

M.P

rllt

Mi

URt^t

<n^

H^

nfl '^Kly ...

%&L)lR[*lSU M^

33
*l5J

>ifl Hi SUl^lHl

rtKJIWI

ti

>l'fsMl

the facets of the

mulamanjari [sic]

i.e. principal
carried out, vertically,
design, the genesis of caitya-arch
receding order.a^ The original facet le nmlarekha

sanctum

is

known Jalaka

anJar
8

^m

^ni^ Bi itRH'l (a>i\

spire raised over the

pouplarly

V"{l y
^IH

Si

PsJMi

9r^tl

iii

14

A*l

M' JJ

' Pt'HS

^'Ml
I

tH*l

[sic]

composed of eleven caltya-vKh

25

Ibid, 16.

motifs,

surmounting each

other, with amalaka quoins at the upper

end, alternating vertically till the apex is attained The other
facets vertically take off-shoot like series of arched motif i e

Jalaka in the nature of

intrtcatic [sic] curves within curves.

[

(dense)

Infra 27.

Here Pig 3

A
The

faces

of the

mulasftiga (principal or ultimate spire) are ornamented with;3/

design, borne as the latter is fiom the interlacing eaitya-dormzr
motifs The karnarekha 01 mnlareklia (principal or angle salt
1 1 & ;/lm/-segments demarcated by karnan,t'Aas(angle-amalakas), the laminal intervening between such amalaktus are filled with minor itdgama patterns. In between the
opposite angle-salients come other five, bearing the ;5/i proThe central one
per. These are termed latas in the vastuiawas.
of these is a full salient with parabolic curve, to which on

ent) consists of

either side a pair of subsidiary or half-salient runs parallel

fil

*
l

26

Rwrtl ^i MA

will

Vrtl

VtVll

./--

4l

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1

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'l

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6 (f*M W, '13).

SVtl. *'Hlt 33 tUl

<^'ft

vs.

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rtl-'-i^

131

"I

"HHcll"
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-trill

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tl

27

28

^
V)

tt

Pt^lw^Wl "HI*

el

awytui SrasftinDH fiaiw *t'I^wi Sw.

flMl

2<Wl MlS

PpWWSt

('Hl^)'Hl

si*

*i

"The Madhjalata on all directions has prominent Ghannkz (sic.) motifs

""
and the uppermost two layers have similar motifs on corners as well.
(S(*mpura p 17).
*
The Sambarana (Sic ) is supnmposted with ( ) a heary cogged wheel
and pitcher i,c, smatadlii and kalasa" (Ibid)
'

<
1

aHti*u*i

J,

md

Nanavati and M. A. Dhaky

the Temples of Gujarat", Bulletin,

Picture Gellery, vol XVI-XVII, Baroda 1963

"The

ceilings

Museum
la

w<i.

el'Hl

The total height of these pillars 5.7m. is (18'-9J") [Sorapura

means The total height of these pillars is 57 (le. 18'-9S ')]
3

"Conventionalized brackets" *g 8 ^l M6' ( nw, lwi )

ci5lMi oHcawtW
8
'tirt'ii
?!R^I "Semi-circular arches
adorned with cusped tips alternated by circular arubesqul
3
ornament decked with minute figures" ail
*Vdt

fit.

*l

StMil5l ifek R>W'-n dq'H itf

9.

ill?

>lfl

31

Sompura

p. 25.

32

Sorapura

figs.

17

&

19.

'W'H

9.

WHHI,
HI

itw

rifl

HM

-l0.

?l

ft.

The Baliyasakha on [sic] opening of the door, is

carved with an under-cut creeper In the arrangement,
is
from Hie wall side of the door, rapasakha [sic}
flanked by a pair of patrasakha

on

either side,

then

comes Rupastambha [sic] immediately followed by patra,

2nd Rupasakha (sic], and BahyaSakha, falling on the
88
opening of the door."

OMW^dl
Hi

^W

H'A^l

"HI

"W&I

't^fl,

Hq

8^*^

ttl^ft^l

&PIU*I Ml^

^ RMH

M^l,

ill fl'l

McH<y UMLSJ

31

" The extent of restorations carried

temple in the
33

See Navab,

34

Sc e

figs.

35

Sompura

p.

14

century

out in this
needs some investigation.

202-203

Dhaky.

^rchttecture."
Ind'cn Art, lig

Ifith

"Renaissance and the late Maru-Gurjara Temple

of the Indian society of oriental Art, Western

Journal

19, also cf

Varkana temple

ceiling, Ibid., fig. 21,

"

The spire or Sikhara is of the usual

Burgess thinks
style of the Gujarat temples and might readily be taken
" lir

belonging to the sixteenth or a later century

"
Dr, Sankalia also remarks, The sikhara does not seem
to be old." 180 Commenting OD the plates of this temple
'

as

published

by Burgess he remarks

that

they do

not

show the chaitya window ornament (jafaka) cleailv

and that mere shape is not a suie guide ial S K
"
feels that the (emple
seems to
retained its original form and design to a very
" laa
is
S 1C. Saraswati
fully justified in his
great extent
comment, for the renovations earned out to this temple
Saraswati, however,

have

are

not of such nature

as to alter fundamentally the

and appsaranci of this temple, The sculptures

on the jangha were retouched after their mutilation by
the iconoclasts The gaibhagrha was reinforced, so

structure

much so that fiee-standmg pillars

are now embedded in the extensions
loss

the

of space

m the passage.

garbhagrha

is

also

The

of the ambulatory
with a consequent

original appearance of

marked and marred. Voussoir

lintels at
arches were introduced for strengthening the
was plastered and
places. Externally, the whole temple

whitewashed Otherwise, the whole structure is original,

does
even the hkhara upto its fimal The Sikhaia
12th century type
show the lalaka work of the usual
" 8B
and its form js also of that age
119

121

Ibid

AN.O,, P

116

foot note 6

p. 113,

120

Archaeology of Gujarat,

122

597.
Struggle for Erapifc, p.

"

Whdt could have been a grand masterpiece of work

its size
This is due to
several defects, some architectural and others decorative,
inherent in this temple that seems to have been planned
looks sick and unimpressive for

and completed rather perfunctorily.

lack of complete set of mouldings
(/) The
basement

results

in

mappropnateness

the

its

height
which in turn affects adversely the proportions of the
elevation whsn viewed from the ground level

The kumbha of the vedlbandha

the niches on the jangha

(//)

nately

is

disproportioare rather flat

tall,

and not properly integrated with

The bharani

is

the

mancika

below

square and lacks in relief.

The vedika of the balconies has been carried upto

and thus looks unpleasantly high
(M The Wwrf/vr- balconies themselves are too btoad,

(ill)

the level of kapotali,

and while the

grills

shut

that

carved, their insertion results

the light in the ambulatory

is

them are beautifully

m a double

disadvantage

considerably

dimmed, and

when viewed from

outside, the beauty otherwise created

by the void

balcony

(v)

in the

is

annihilated

Thekapila connecting ths sanctum and the closed

and almost domineers the senses.

hall is too long

(vl\ While the mulamatyarl is fine and beautifully

shaped, the use of karmas as minor turrets produces
effect that is far from
happy

an

(VH)

The

pillars

of the porches and

the

gudha-

maqdapa are

plain to the point of harshness They are

in fact too tall to look
nice, especially those that support
the central ceiling are about 22 ft
to
These

high
ought
have been only 16 ft.
order 10 maintain the ratio
of 1:15 between the
height of the pillar and the diameter of the ceiling.

(w) The
Shows that are

samvaratid. roofing is made

up of
tantahzingly small for its size The use
of progression
(pratikrama) introduced in the size of
urafi-ghamasis unparalleled" aridTafTrom
satisfactory
from aesthetic point of view."

MMl
oftf

&

71

lid

left

lJr

<0

37
&.
It ,8

"The

represented

figure

of Indra

[tote'j

very

m a very peculiar forceful 0) manaer

(3)

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"What dost tbou fear, O mighty king 1

For sure a king thou art
!

Why

should tby bosom anguish wrmg ?

No crime was in thine heart
!

"No

curses,

Not

Lo

no

that

bear no grudge,
has split,

my blood

here before the unseen Judge,

I absolve from guilt

Thee

'The

Iron, red-hot as

it

burns,

Burns thouse that touch

Not such my nature

Thank God, the
"Because

Ah

for

it

it

like to do.

suffer should

give

Thee king, a needless pain

no I die but mayest thou
!

And

too,

spurns,

Jive

cleansed from every stain

<U

illl

Mti (H^WW^l,

l*Q.

^l-i"ft

11^6 Irt's

rtg 6,

tq

Rlti

M'-t

"Our

Now

earth no

Come

more we

welcome death and

And

"We do

tbou

King

not curse

But to

The

^^HHKl Si

hearts are broken

On

future

Thou

V*

my
is

farewell

farewel!

tbee,

dear wife,

dwell;

God

life,

'

forbid,

inner eye

no longer

too shall

hid,

like us die.

"Dje-for a son's untimely

loss!

Die-with a broken heart

Now

of moss,
help us to our bed
M
And let us both depart.

"Ancient Balleds

P.

**

132ff-140ff)

&

Toru Dim,
Legends of Hindustan by

3 l e ll'i

sli

5ft.

The

KusalopadeSakosa, as its name suggests^ is a small

collection of beneficial wise sayings embodied in 77
Sanskrit
verses. It contains practical suggestions for the
success in
social
and
political,
religious careen ft is fntughr vmh
pnhy
sentences expressing practical sagacity,

The style is simple. It is neither elaborate nor obscure One

hardly finds any literary embellishment The work seems to be
the first composition of Padmasuodara, the author.
Padmasundara was honoured by Emperor Akbara He was
a great scholar and prolific writer. He wrote Akabara3)JtiSftig&ta~
darpaqa (a work on poetics, published in Gang* Oriental
**nes),

Hayanasundara (a work on Astrology), PramSijasundara

on

Logic, included in

Jama

(a

work

Philosophical Tracts published

in

-L. D. Series), Sundaraprak8a-$abd8rnava(ak\\ccm). Yadusun

.daramahakavya,
mahaktivya, etc

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Parsvariaihamahakfaya,

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written in
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IRII

iltfii

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lftPT^R[

5*51

mw* fa?ni*rawvRi

oil

fir

urg

^sft^ra*

?f

5nrfH

^ Rfa nk^nf r

g-qj

5015

n?ii

w^tire

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TO

mogr
n?r

3ft

am
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Tfwg^t fTRTII

^5 II

n\son

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SAMBODHI
(QUARTERLY)

VOL. 3

JANUARY 1975

NO, 4

EDITORS

DALSUKH MALVANIA
DR. H. C. BHAYAN1

ll

L. D.

INSTITUTE OF INDOUOGY

AHMEDABAP

CONTENTS

The

Absolute as Pure Consciousness (Contd)

Kalidas Bhattacharya

Some

Garifications

(Vedanta)

Kalidas Bhattacharya

Some Important Episodes in the

Vasudevahindl and the reconstruction
of the Brhatkatha
J.

C. Jain

Danflin's Indebtedness to

Maan

Subandhu

Singh

Bappa Bha..i and

his

Taragana

A. N* Upadhye

Two More

Inscriptions of

Western Kshatrapas

Rasesh Jamindar

The SolanMes of Toda

Ram-Vallabh Somani

The

'

Primitive

Qanesh Thite

'

in the Kautilya's Arthas'astra

A MODERN UNDERSTANDING OF ADVALTA VEDANTA

THE ABSOLUTE AS PURE CONSCIOUSNESS

(Contd.)

Kalidas Bhattacarya

Introspection, we have held till now, is pure subjectvity,

is
something wrong about it,
subjectivity proper Bnt there
even as distinguished It is still introspection of a mental stace.
It is still

object,

compelled, as

and so

it

were, to refer to a slate that

far, therefore, as

not

fully

is

an

dissociate or free.

reason, also Introspection,

even

not fully free for another

affair and, howtype, is after all a temporary
work-aever prolonged, relapses every tune into unreflective
an individual, as completdy
day life. The final essence of
on the other hand,
dissociate from all that is accident, should,

It is

of the spiritual

be a never-lapsing introspection
to refer to a mental state

that

is

under no compulsion

as much as one liked

Introspection could be prolonged,
state of mind, usually
through concentration on a. particular
into unreflectrve
a cognitive one, and the chances of lapse

culture of detach-

could be eliminated through continuous

etc. which all tend to parament, love of truth and freedom,
be made
But though introspection could
lyse distracting factors
of
that way it would still remain introspection

life

permanent

mental

on

state,

How

can

of the
it

get

state, viz

which has been

of
away from the need

concentrated
referring

and

as subjectivity untarnished
realize its pure essential being

The whole

question,

however,

is

ma

way

illegitimate.

One

introspection as only
asks this question has understood
does not concentrate on
psychological Spiritual introspection
**

who

a men^l

state as

an

rather is intent
object, It

on

Kalidas Bhattacarya

2
from

Even

it

is

whatsoever)

on a

positive concentration

not possible

till

state (or anything

from its surwithdraws from the

from what is leftover.
presentedness, from it as

one

withdraws

Spiritual introspection not only

roundings

seeks to withdraw even

surroundings, it
Withdrawal here

from the

is

an object, and the

iatter's

liquidation into subjectivity,

3
and
subjective act of withdrawal itself
pjri paint the understanding of it as symbolic construction
In spiritual introspection, the so called reference TO ihe mental
result is its

reduction to the

its

nullifying the content, dialectiNot that

enough, as soon as it is said to be held to
there is no reference, but the reference is ever vanishing As

state is thus self liquidating,

cally

ever vanishing,
tion, really

it

claims to be,

no reference

vanishing, a sort of free

kind of compulsive
the object

that,

of perfecperiod of

at the ideal stage

and

resisting,

IB

as

Its free

it

is

the

during

is,

reference,

entanglement
mental states

here to

withdrawal from

at all

the

it

does, any

reference to

same thing as

its

only symbolically interpreted in a forwardis never compelled to

looking language. Spiritual introspection

refer to

any object.

The alternative is
is, of course, an alternative here
mere withdraw!, bare transcendence, without any positing of
There

positive subjectivity, such transcendence being neither positive

nor negative. Not positive beciuse no subjectivity

and not negative for the following reason.

Though

it

is

tjvity

of mental

here

is

only

said

objectivity

intended

is

not so

is

negated,

genuineness,

not that

that the presentedness,

states,

the

as

the

after all

what

ultimacy,

there,

much negation

This is a new characteristic feature

touched before

is

so

as viewing

is

le

posited,

the objec

negated
of objectivity,
really

that

from

what

is

outside.

of spiritual mtrospe:tion not

In PStaajala Yoga it is called mrodlia,

taking place at a higher level
of citta than where ekagra takes place The conscious samadhi at this
higher level H wholly negative,
called asomprajnata,
as
distinct
from the samprajtota at the ekzgro level Nlrodha has,
by some, been
called asparSa-yogo, Some,
agan?, call' it aprantdftana-yoga.

A Moder* UBdttstanatns <rf,

Another name of
which

is

an

this

viewing from outside

is

transcendence

entirely indeterminate affair, neither positive

negative nor

-one may add -both

neither-positive-nor-negative

commitment

at

any sticking

to,

all.

It is

because

nor
and negative or
involves no sort of

positive
it

merely viewing from outside withouc

any commitment to, that outside This is the

of tunyaia. Or -a third alteinative-, the

Madhyamika concept

withdrawal or transcendence, even as so indeterminate, may beunderstood as after all a form of consciousness, but
consciousness which, in spite of its purity,
indeterminate This is the Yogacara concept of

Neither of these alternatives, bower,

is

is

still

wholly

vijfiaptimatrata

acceptable to the Advaiim

Withdrawal, according to him, is negative attention, and all negation, he holds, presupposes, and posits also as a result, a positive
as the ground. That positive ground, according to him, is pure
subjectivity

the

process

Implicitly operating as the ground all through of

of dissociation, from the extra-bodily world,

through body and mind,

to

the

this last stage

successive

acts

The

stage

of introspection,

it

pure positive autonomy at

Advaitm does not deny thai lured by the

evidences itself reflectively in

its

one

of withdrawal,

might

ttuok

that this

withdrawal alone, whether as sunyata or as vijnaptimatrata,

is not misled
the ultimate stand It is just in order that one
realization and
that way that between what he would call final

is

for training,
that transcendence he introduces another item
truth is

a warning statement (mahavakya) that the final

the withdrawal no f even the
pure subjectivity, not merely
It is this warning statement
withdrawing self qua withdrawing
withdrawal the direct
that occasions at the stage of final
the implicit ground
awareness of pure subjectivity It revives
aside under the
that has so long been continuously pushed

viz

activity

The

final

of evergrowing withdrawing
to the Adis not, according
withdrawal, called trancendence.

pressure

the form or a possible 0000*.

mdec.sion will ultimately be removed

rill

Ncither-pos.t.ve-nor-negattve
that
ment, only demanding
'at a higher levtt'

th

Kalldas Bhattacarya

final truth, for,

t'i3

vaitm,

process has again to be

different
subjectivity, being

There

is

but pure

it is

the final withdrawal as a

withdrawn from,

nondiffeient

absolutely

being

substantively,

first,

and, secondly,

positive subjectivity,

this last

from that

withdrawal

substantive

pure

only in name.

somthing novel about the warning statement too.

knowledge we have through a statement is

Ordinarily, whatever

conceptional, not direct

occasions

direct

But the warning statement in question

of subjectivity. This is possible

awareness

because, like statements

which point to things bodily present

before us, this earning statement points to the ground which

has all along bsen present This is the Advaita theory known
as sabdaparoksavada.

The Advaitin, however, would not object

means for reviving the awareness of pure subjectivity

order to correct the
The warning statement is requisitioned
MahaySna infatuation with bare transcendence
to other

Spiritual introspection

we have shown, not

is,

as

to.

Either this reference

is

subjectivity

the mental states

tied to

pseudo or even as

it

refers

reference

it

free.

Even
|

as self-revealing pure

is all

if

one understands

the

introspection

deration as psychological, even then

states intiospected
states to their

may

its

under

not be as compulsive as that of these

Even psychological introspection can

objects

conceivably get away from the need of referring and

pure being as subjectivity untarnished if it

concentrate on one particular mental state, viz
its

ctiou (reached through systematic

every mental state and,

objective substratum
as undistmguishedly
free

subjectivity.

concentrates

a demand
object

is

consi-

reference to the mental

analysis) that

from mind

therefore,

introspection,

fused there,

This

is

is

realize

made

to

the convi

from out of
itself

as their

which had stood so long

to

get dissociated

its

demand on which introspection now

undoubtedly an objective mental state, but as'

realization of subjectivity proper it is an

for the

that

continuously dissipates

itself,

making room

for

A
subjectivity

that

In so

of...

The demand,

to get dissociated.

for the

words, is just
objectivity

Modern Understanding

objective mental
then,

far,

state
to forgo
its
as introspection has for its ob-

a mental state that goes on liquidating itself,

ject
be said to be bound by that state. In plain language,
so far

compelled

So

so far.

other

in

Whatever reference

to refer

far, again, as the reference

of introspection

is

free,

it

cannot
is

it

there

is

is

not
free

so far the sub-

not jeopardized. Whatever of nonfreedom appears to linger is evidently in the process of selfdissolution. It follows inevitably that the ultimate freedom of
jectivity

man
is

lies

wholly

is

m purest non-referrmg subjectivity -subjectivity which

m itself
B

All

difficulties

are not over yet.

that there is another

even of the

Introspection,
jectivity

or he.

conscious of

My

hurdle

introspection,

form,

spiritual

itself as

The Advaitm

and a big one

an

is

after all a

individual, as

whether

insists

at that-to cross

7,

sub-

not as >0

spiritual or psychological,

or his What I introintrospection, not yours

is a particular group of
spect, spiritually or psychologically,
mental states which are mine only I do not introspect your

is

after all

my

truth is
or his states, nor you or he mine. If, then, the final
to be pure subiectivity, it cannot be /"-consciousness only,

however reflective and

such centres

dissociate that

may be There

are

many

to be
of subjectivity each of which may claim

Advaita thesis
ultimate truth. Obviously, this is not the
follows that even the sense of mdividuality-7-consciousness
to be
-has to be transcended. How is this transcendence
the
ft

suborder that one may land in some impersonal

form of
is so much of the
Normally, subjectivity
it
T that if there be any that could transcend this limitation
A more noncommifel
should better be given another name.
mdiHow, now, to pass from pure

effected in
jectivity

name

is

'consciousness'.

ridual subjectivity

(AwwWyto)

to

impenottl consciousness?

Kalidas Bhattacarya

It

me

said that

cannot be

much

quite as

as other

you and he are only objects to

objects and may be withdrawn

from in the way they are, This cannot be said if only for the
reason that
my awarness of he I am aware of him as a

body and mind, can

do The only difference is
while in claiming myself as a person I understand myessentially as 7 the pure subjectivity that is free of body

possible

as

person,

one who,

with his

claim himself as an / exactly as

that
self

(and mind),

understand him as a person only so far

necessarily so) as
in other

and

understand him through a body - identified,

means of that body and, therefore,

words, solely by

I am not directly
whatever way, though partially, with it
him as a centre of pure consciousness even implicitly

in

a\\are of

as

am

his

/.

with,

my own

in

case explicitly

am

aware of him

As

for you,

it

however, this

is

- or one of the 'he's as

you -I feel
addressing vou

my

as

only as he would claim it as

only a he selected for my addressing,
important distinguishing feature that in

of pure consciousness

centre

somehow

your 'I', you as a centre of pure consciousness,

You and he are as much independent subjects
directly
as I am and should not, therefore, be understood in terms
of the / that constitutes me as pure subjectivity The theory
confronting

known

as ekajivavada* is unacceptable
How, now, to transcend the individuality that lingers in introspection ?
Some hold that this individuality derives ultimately from

the

individuality

of the mind

and body, called mine, and

would, therefore, lapse automatically as these latter are, withTheir idea is that pure subjectivity as such,
foiming the final essence of the individual, is impersonal,
though misunderstood as personal, i e individual, because of

drawn from

its

mind and body, called mine,

from these completed
m itself, as free of all indivi-

undistinguished fusion with the

so that with the process of dissociation

it

comes

duality.

to

be realized as

At the

first

it is

stage, indeed,

of introspection there
but as that reference

still

some

have here touched only the central

point of ekaflvovada.

reference to mental states,

is
is.

of...

necessarily

in

the Process of

need be done

*e only hoM on

if

process of

intrinsic

iquidation
to it

self liqtrtdaiion

will

The

01 liScJF

But
falls

account

this

with

is

based on

As soon

that

more

noth.ng

reference

eveaiualJy

the

disappear

ekajmwla and

as you and

stands or
he are
recognised as

independent subjects cooidinate with me, dajtm>Mt

collapses
It cannot be said that the
apparent individuality of each of
these

is

subjects

eventually

that of the

corresponding

and body, only wrongly attributed to them For

even
assume that, what it would all come to is that in

each

mmd
we
caw

if

including the case of 7, there is a non-individual pure con

sciousness as a final truth, and that, in
would
that there are

many

such

being no other

criterion of

these so-called

many

to

turn,

mean

pare consciousnesses

True, (here

individuality at this state, logically

non-individual pure consciousnesses have

be taken as one and the same

final

say;

judgment comes from

it

either

contrary

But with the Advaitm, no

Logic has no independent
(chiefly by way of refuting

logic.

only strengthens
what one has already experienced or

possibilities)

proposes what one

is

to experience, their being in ejrher case

concrete living experience that supersedes

to

experience

is

It is

proved

logic.

What one

fs

not, again, in Advaita, just what is logically

the minimum, what others (in the Advatta

have already experienced (and what as so experienced

have been recorded in the Scriptures), what, in other words,

fold)

suggested in one's own experience and therefore

are livmgly

demand to be hvmgly
discipline

mmd.

of

there

pection
to how the

experience

is

experienced,

though

after

requisite

In the living experience known as intros-

no

living

suggestion, no

living

demand, as

pure consciousness that I am to

mdentical with what he or you are to

non-individual

should be

experience

Rather, he and you being from the beginning

experienced

as distinct subjects

<x>ming,

either distinct in themselves

from me and contrary

the demand is that when

r distinct

living suggestions not forth-

the individualities

of mind-

Kalidas Bhattacarya

body complexes are transcended the pure

arrived at are

still

In the absence of

even

as puie

consciousnesses

each individual.

any contrary suggestion,

7,

you and

each so far individual,

subjectivity, are

fte

even,

though the individuality of the mind-body complex has

in each case been transcended
Indian transcendentalists are
mostly at one in this thesis

Only the Buddhists and

ekaflvq.-

vadins have disagreed. Even the bahujT\avadi Advaitins admit

the plurality of jivasaksms
Some of these transcedentalists
who believe in the plurality of pure selves we mean the

Sarhkhya-Yoga philosophers, the Vai^navas and some aivas

have stopped with this plurality, never attempting their merger
in a Great

one; and some, like the bahuj'ivavadi Advaitins

and most of the &uvas, have advocated the merger Though
the plurality of Jiva-saksins

the bahujivavadi Advaitins admit

they hold yet

that thjs

plurality

of other things If plurality

of symbolic representation

is

as

namarupa, so

Even jivasaksm-and,

therefore,

transcendable as that

other cases

its

is

was only a mode

the case here too.

plurality -is

a symbolic re-

presentation of one undifferenced absolute pure consciousness,,

and the jivasaksin, by
transcending its individuality, may pass
on to that But how exactly ?

In religious attitude

man

does, as a matter

of

fact,

with-

draw, or at least seeks to

withdraw, from his individuality.

Through whatever degree of self-abnegation he comes to be
in communion with a
supreme over-personal 8 self called God.
This over personal self is
understood, in the minimum, as
the most perfect ideal without
any blemish or limitation any5

Over-personal in the sense that God transcends the individual

I,
yov
and he who are normally called
persons Otherwise, however, the
of religion is himself a
person in the sense of being a unit of consciousness, though even as a untt it is
limitless, freely, i e symbolically
or creatively,
granting umthood to mdmdual
or somehow
subjects
comprehending them.

God

A
where.

An

ideal

Modern Understanding

everywhere

is

at in the line of progress one

in our present
from whatever

is

continuously achieving Here,

case, the line of progress

objective

is

tically representable

of...

the final point to be arrived

is

that oTdissociation

from whatever

better,

as construction

cur k oV

ji

from the potnt of

vrw

of subjectivity Hence its maximum is the ideally perfect

blemishless subject, called God, from vhose point of \uw
even the individuality of the individual subject is a jmbo!ic
of creative representation. To whatever extent, ihen,
relithe

gion

individual

mmunion

with

point to note
and the same

them

all to

that all

is

be

subject

negates

himself

this over-personal subject,

individual

over-personal ideal

communion

and

The

with

t!i?

m
m

is

co-

nT>pa:ta

agree that

subjects

subject

be

to

the

one

ideal

for

for different

ideal

people in the same attitude cannot differ from individual to

individual, quite in the same way as the same physical wor'd
for

common men

does not The ideal everywhere

ed existence, not what is immediately there m

It is a regulative principle, and as such it is felt
to be,

what has

to be realized,

actual through will or by

tially constituted

by

it,

tithe'-

Two

other

The

distinctive

first is

that

actuality.

as what ought
it

oneself as essen-

in the latter case the experience

in question is either one of identity

some very close relation.

noted.

a demand-

by way of making

way of experiencing

and

is
its

partial

or complete

features of religion

religion

may

or

here bs

proper as communion the

communion with God,

individual, before he comes to be

has already, through proper discipline, experienced himself as a
he has already freed himself
centre of pure subjectivity
from entanglement with his mind-body cotiptex arrl a fortiori,

In other
through that, from the world of physical things
is already at a
words, one who is m religious attitude proper
6

According

to

some

transcendentalism,

representable

as created by

(transcendental) will

'Sobjeci' here

means

centre of pure consciousness.

final cerftre of consciousness.

God

is

the absolute

Kslictts Bhattacarya

10

which an ordinary man is he

higher level than one
to note is
already as free as possible. The second point

much
is

that religion

is

a matter of feeling, not of knowldge.

basically

In feeling, as distinguished
individuality has to psrsist

aftei

tlut

all

sense of

In spite of whatever amount of

required foi communion with God, he feels

is

self-abnegation

from knowledge, some

who

he

it is

is

No

such communion

doubt,

he depends on God,
but theie is no denying also that it is he who finds himself
to be so dependent. Communion is basically this indetermma-

he

feels too that

he

and such

tion, this see-saw,

far as

he only so

is

indetermmation

distinguishes

feeling

from knowledge

person I
to be as

him as

hateful,

tively

feel

hating

the situation there

is

situation is that the

is

concomitant experience

know

that

no exception
in
such and such.
of the 7 that knows
is

is

the 7 that

known

is

is the so-called subject iclatively to

only a misreading of the self-revelation

latter.
is

propsr

Religion

a matter of

abnsgation, to whatever extent, and

of

experienced

such and such, not 7

Even self-knowledge

so-called

of the

that

the

this situation

he 7 that

is

and such

self-knowledge

The

is

the individual knower / counts for nothing

the other hand,

X is such

angry with a

objective property of the person as alternaIn knowledge as a form of experience, on

much an

my

hatefulness

this

exactly what

is

When

thesis

arose

theie

attitude

tha

to

cognitive

The moral gathered

individuality

too

individuality

involving selfappropriate to a stage

feeling

it is

come back to our mam

demand for getting rid of

where exactly

spiritual purity

can be

that

is

in

dissociated

the

cognitive

from through

concentration on the ideal at this stage If in religion it was

communion, here it is the cognitive discovery of the idi), and
the ideal here

as one
is

is

the same perfect pure

and the same

the absolute truth.

feeling the truth

munion, nor

is

is

ideal for pursuers

Since here the approach

not

God

with

which

consciousness

of spiritual dissociation

not through
comindividual seeker and
is

whom one might be

there any see-saw of the

A
that truth.

The

Modem

UndersttBffing

ultimate here

is

of...

the final psrfect blemishless

subjectivity which, after the dissociation fro n

all that is

object

complete, demands to be discovered cognitively as not o il/

over-personal but intrinsically as impersonal pure consciousness
is

constituting the truth of

all

that has so far been lealized,

vi/

purest individual subjectivity As at the ultimate stage there is

no question of alternation between it and the individual that

the absolute

the only truth and the

realizes

it,

This

knowledge-discovery of the ultimate

is

is

whole truth*

principle, reali7a-

tion which, not having any emotional warmth about

no doubt, than communion, but

throbbing with
dignified and with

living experience,

and yet

life,

is

it,

colder

despite that, a profoundly

all

all

the

pulses of spiritual

the controlled quiet of

ommiscience and omnipotence The ultimate is omniscient in

the sense that everything, from the individual pure subjects to
the grossest physical things of the world, is to be understood as
its different symbolic ic presentations at appropriate stages, it is
'omnipotent in that these symbolic representations are its own

construction,

first

it

many centres of

symbolically

pure individual

itself

diversifying

subjectivity,

and

into

then, through

them, constructing their respective mind-body complexes and

the world of physical things -may be, each latter through what
just precedes

From

it,

may

be, alternatively in other ways.

subjectivity to this impersonal pure

pure individual

consciousness as absolute

of grades and
feeling attitude

the

stages,
it it

it is

a prolonged passage

no sudden

not, for that

knowledge approach

to the absolute. It

consisting

religion is

Though
reason, of no
leap.

relevance to
consti-

well

miy

tute a stage in the passage from the pure individual subject

to th absolute, lSvara-saskm*-tiiQ God of religion proper-

may

Brahman
well be a stage between jiva-saksin and

this is

may

not necessary The path from fiva-saksin

to

not 'Coming
8

But

Brahman

or stages, Isvara-saksm
pass through quite another stage
into the picture. at all,

Not Kvaraj

as

tffe

term

js

ordinarily understood to be.

will
'between 'hvara-sukftn and Itwra

The

won be worked

oat

distinction

12

Kalidas Bhattacarya
1

Whatever b3 the ralev-iocs of Isvara-saksin for the

realiza-

we may note in passing that there are two

widely diffetent concepts of God in the Advaita literature One
the more important one- is that of 'isvara-saksin
tion of Brahman-hood,

of these

who,

like jiia-saksin,

ates

himself from

all

and more perfectly than that,

that is object, realizes himself

dissocias pure

consciousness and has the whole world of objects as symbolic

these respects the Tsvara-saksm
As just said,

m
m that

constructions

at

is

advanced

stage

(0 for him,

even the jiva-

a symbolic construction, () he is over-personal pure

consciousness, one sole absolute centre of consciousness and

sak$m
(///)

rest

is

ultimately he constructs the jiva-saksins symbolically and the

of the objective world through them 9 , so that the ultimate

agency (of course, symbolically understood) belongs to him, not

There are two other differences One is that

to the jiva-saksins

while

the individual (jiva-saksm)

was

first

aware of himself

from

as only undistinguished

the mind-body complex (and

world of physical objects) and
then having dissociated himself from these came to discover
himself as free so far (even having been really free
spite of
apparent fusion), lvara-sak$w is not understood that way.
He is somehow understood as ever free. True, he represents

entangled through that in the

himself symbolically as pure individual subjects. But that reis not the same
type of construction as whtci an
individual subject constructs (is made to
construct) his own
presentation

warld of objaots
are not objects

HJ

constru3tion

To th; Isvira-saksm individual pure subjects

No individual pure subject is wholly a
evidences the Isvara-sakstn

The latter appears

partially) or distorted, symbolic

a? limited

Uwa-saksin

as limited,

which

it

bodily, though
no way as shrouded (except

construction
is

reilly nDt.

presenting

The

When

it

is

a question

(he individual

some

made

is

of constructing the world that is common to

is constructed
by the Uvara-sak^n through
Except these specifically few Jiva-sakfins,
to construct each his own world of
objects only.

Jivas,

it

specific jlvfrsikjins

others are

the

first diffe

bjtwsaa ths
ISvara-sZkfM and the jiva-saksin
that unlike the latter the former is ever
free.

renos, then,

A Modem
There
is

is

of...

Understanding

another difference

v*

huh

is

IJ

irore furcteirenfal. It

that in his very act of constructing the

_

of objects the 'isvara-sHsin

the world

not

also as

ftva-sdksws and

understood equally

is

other words, as
constructing it, understood,
enjoying his being and that in fullest self-evidence - as just the
sole solitary truth = pure impersonal consciousness, and nothing

This

else

in

is

Jsvara-saksin

evidencing himself as just tie

for this he requires no extra labour, no extra

and

absolute,
discipline

The

jiva-saksin too has,

he constructs -

function

ratbei

is

it

is true,

some such dual

made to construct - the world

of objects and evidences himself at the same time as pure

consciousness. But the pure consciousness as which he evidences
himself

neither that JSvara-sakstn nor the impersonal absohe evidences himself as <fcthemselves

is

lute as they are

hmited consciousness, as an

individual subjectivity which he

What

the jiva-sfilksin

it

all

means

is

that

is

still

is.

unfree in

the sense that experiencing himself as limited he experiences at

same time that this limitation is a fault and experiences,

demand to dissociate himself from the fault at
some later stage of experience. Till then the jim-saksin does not
the

therefore, a

know himself

as absolute, though he

knows himself very

well

as pure subjectivity and even as delimited pure consciouinws.

While, thus, all the distinction that there is between the lhar*

sak$in and Brahman is just functional, nothing ontologtcalthe same principle alternatively experiencing itself as Brahman,
and the f$vara-sak$in this cannot be said of the ji\a~$aksiR,
from the "iSvara-saktfn and
of the
The
.distinction

a fortinon

jlva-sZksin

from Brahman

ts

of profound ontological import

the two
have given above the more important of
in the Advaita
senses in which the term $vara (God) is used

We

literature.

The

other sense

is

much

naiver, though,

strangely

later Vedantic scholars. In this

enough, often popular among
of the absoother sense, God is what ordinary man has made

with all his

lute. He, is how the jlva (not the jiva-sak?m},
the mind-body complex arid entangle{the jlva's) fusion with
of physical things, underment, through that, with the world

14

KSlltffls

stands the absolute.

It is

presumed that even ordinary men,

from the beginning, of

the jivas, are somehow dimly aware,

the absolute as an idea] perfection,

as a dimly apprehended
but since they themselves are

regulative principle, so to say,

in that state

which

is

and entanglement - another name of

they misrepresent it, m various forms accord-

of fusion

ajliana

ing to the density of then individual ajftanas, as various deities to worship, meditate on and offer prayers to. This is God
as saguna

Brahman and

is

much

as

in the

world of objects

(mayika-jagat) as any other thing, though it

various respects This God is as
tb them

is

much

superior

much subject to
maya
any other individual in the world;
under
the
influence
of maya
dialectically
enough, verily
only,
it is understood as free from that influence, its freedom, in

the influence of

as

other words, being itself mayika,

under the influence of drug a man

quite as

much

as verily

consider himself (or

The other God, God as Tsvura-

may

unhmitediy free
is never under the influence of
maya, nor
mayika God does it create ( re-create ) the world at
a point of time. The so called creation by the JSvara-saksm

others) as

saksin, however,
like the

is

only symbolic construction which, as symbolic,

him
being only a sport (lila) for him

ssary for

unnece-

e.

is

undoubt-

edly mayika, but transparent at the same time, as every symbolism known as symbolism is The jSvara-saksm,
other
words, is not subject to maya; he rather weilds it, and, there-

fore, weilds it freely.

It is just in order to avoid confusion
of these two ideas
of Gods that the more important one we have called
jSvaras&ksm and the other JSvara. The distinction between

jsvara-

s&ksm and Jsvara

parallels that

Pure individual subjectivity,

tiis

i&wa-mksin, may

ciation

from

its

alternatively, it

dissociated itself

between jiva-saksm andjiva.

deliberately

individuality in the

may be made
from

all

that

ing warning statements like

'

order to realize

way suggested above,

to attain that
stage,
is

itself as

attempt cognitive disso-

objective,

once

it'

or,

has

through re-awaken'
and That thou,

am Brahman

A Modem

{...

Ityderstandjijg

j$

This second procedure we have already discussed. Many

of the Advaitms are for this second procedure This second
'.

art

procedure is parallel to divine grace m religion as distinct

from communion through one's own effort But, then, iust
as between such grace and self-made communion there is nt

much of fundamental

difference,

the

two being

practically

two sides of the same state of affairs, or the same fate of

affairs looked at from two different angles, so is the case
with deliberate passing over to the Jsvara-sahsm stage and
being made to reach the stage through re-awakening warning
statements The former is intuition, i e my intuiting the truth

and the

latter is revelation of that truth to

revelation are,

like

communion and

grace,

me

and

Intuition

two sides of oae

situation Be it noted further that intuition or

of the Uvara-saksin is finally the same thing
intuition or revelation of Brahman,
At the jim stage where there is little freedom from

and the same

revelation

objects there

the

is

you and

jivas,

stage

through of other individual

there is
/-subjectivity where
there is the awareness of you and

all objects,

maybe with
even at

7,

all

Likewise, at the stage of jtva-saksm too

of pure individual

freedom from
he,

an awareness

he.

aware of

jectivity, it is

still hanging on to tbf.

aware of itself as pure sub-

their objective sides

this stage, is not only

too
itself as a speaker, and addresser,

of a you as a listener, and what is equally

listener to
itself as being understood by that
important
10
As, howcwr,
be a possible 'you' in other words, as a he

and,

therefore,

of

there

is

no determination

to be addressed,
i.e

is

as to

who

the
definitely is here

vou

here understood as only a passible he,

as any subjectivity.

definite particular

is

spoken of

as just an instantiation
only when it is understood
dominant theme.
of X-ness where X-ness is understood as the
from the point of
It follows that when / understands itself,
what it understands
view of a possible jw. as a possible he,

as any

'

10

He we

have already

wo'tdUs

seen, is

one~*bo could be a you, who,

a>S4V. H* w'the same

thing as a possible

in otfter
><<?

Kalidas Bhattacarya

16

itself to be,

not

so

e
as what it ought to be} is he-ness,
but what could instantiate itself as any

far,

or that he

this

he whatsoever. Further, as here there

universal

which

substantive,

is

always adjectival,
and he as a universal

consciousness as absolute
to

is

tint-

no room for abstract

he ness

is

substantive

a universal
is

but pure

follows that as soon as / comes

It

be aware of itself as pure individual subjectivity (jiva

of itself as what also ought to be pure
) it is aware

saksm

Brahman This

is the import of
(That thou art') - 'tat' standing
how 7 is understood from the
point of view of a possible listener The whole statement 'Tat
tvam asi' intends that tvam ( I understood as a possible you )
is really (i.e as what is ought to be) a possible he,
i e
the
absolute, tvam shedding its /vom-ness, though retaining the

consciousness as absolute, as
the

'

Tal tvam asi

mahavakya

for possible he

and

core-character which
its

possibleness

and

character

many

At

Advaitins

tat

shedding

as

the jiva-s&ksin stage this absolute

what ought

understood as

is

and

puic consciousness,

is

yet retaining, similarly, its core-character

of pure consciousness.
identification is felt

'

'tvam' for

hold,

This

to be.

realizable

ought-to-be

actuality either as

through listeaing to the

mahavakya

'Tat tvam asi' or, as others appear to hold, through one's

further effort of concentration 11 on this mahavakya.

own

Be

noted here that though the jiva-saksin has with-

it

drawn himself from

his

body and mind

this

withdrawal

is

no

and, theiefore, listening or concen

tration is not out of court at this
The jiva-saksin is
stage
jjvanmukta, retaining the mind-body complex and, through
physical

separation yet,

world of objects, but not being

any way commibeing comrmaeu to uitly ouo thiug, VIA itself as
pure subjectivity This non-commttal retention of everything
else is only another name of
symbolically constructing it.
tbat, the

tted to

it,

This
the
11

is

not, of course, the

account given here

Or, jf one

likes,

is

true

whole story of jivanmukti foi

equally of videhamukti. The

negative attention.

A Modern

Understanding

17

of.,,

only difference between jtvanmukii and videhamukti is that at

the former stage one is still living, whereas the jivannndta
attains videhamukti only after death The jivannwkta to remain
living does not mean that he remains tied wholesale to his

body. What it means is only that though he has attained lhat

stage through his own effort at dissociation and though no
amount of that effort has undone, because it cannot undo,
the system of those pTiTvajanmasam^karas which
his prarabdha
are responsible for

due to

all his

experience (except ihose which ate

dissociation) at the present life

ti) have those experiences,

continues

he has learnt
time,

upon
be

he, even

spile

to keep spiritually aloof from

as> ji\anmulja
of the fact that

them

at the

as one can keep aloof Irom the pain consequent

a surgical incision even though that pain continues to

There

felt

is,

of course, a theory that

at

the

examine

that theory

of

stage

videhamukti one ceases to construct objects symbolically.

shall

same

much

We

a later section

is a mahavakya which is to be received by

the ji va-saksin from a you The mahavakya 'Aham Brahma' smi'
on the other hand, is not to be so received from others It

'Tat tvam asi'

is

an

cally,

idea, or

and

a reawakening statement,

that arises automati

either the jiva-saksm follows assiduously

what

is

suggested by it or it directly occasions, through sabdaparokpa,

18
the realization of that Brahman.

12

There may be another course of advance (even

dom) where
love or

the free /

may have

some such pure sentiment

to encounter -it

- free

which
way, realize a cosmic subjectivity

the region of free-

may

be in supreme

J.OM and he** and may, thai

m no time gives way to the

consciousness as the absolute.

impersonal pure

A MODERN UNDERSTANDING OF ADVA1TA VEDANTA

SOME CLARIFICATIONS
Kalidas

Bhattacarya

A
A

few questions need

clarification

They are

now

be answered

for the sake of

fa) Should not subjectivity = consciousness, no matter whether

pure or otherwise, belong to some substantive, some self
which is subjective or conscious ?
(b)

May not the so called self to which

than the objective mind 9

(c)

Is

it

belongs be no other

consciousness separable at all from mental states ?

by itself a distinct metaphysical entity ?

it

To

the

tirst

Is

question the Advaita answer would be as follows

could be said to belong to a substantive

conceivably

either if Y were capable of remaining withcould have anything else belonging to it But
a substantive self which can remain without consciousness and

on two giounds
out

or

if it

therefore, intrinsically as dark as matter would be a useless

Only a very few philosophers have admitted this,
and even they have insisted more on its capability of remaining with consciousness than without it
As for the other
is,

supposition

alteinaiive,

to

viz

that

it

could have something else belonging

may be noted

that besides pure subjectivity there is

no scope for anything else to belong to the so called substan'
tive here
The Advaitm has indeed spoken of
and
it,

it

pure being

Sjib-conscious (unconscious)
designate as objective mind

traces

belong

to

what

we

shall latter

Some

hold, indeed, that pure sentiments like love and piety and
pure
moral will also bslong to it But these are either forms of
pure consciousness or not In the former case there is
nothing to distinguish them

from pure consciousness, once this

and in the latter cass they belong

latter is

understood as self-contained

to the objective

mind

A Modern

Understanding

19

of...

pure bliss as equally the ultimate essence of man But these

are not distinct from pure subjectivity, in the sense that they
are addable as coordinate factors Subjectivitysconsciousness
no mere logical or transcendental preMspposinon.
is, for him,

other cases of existent things, pure

so that, as
being (puie existence) is here too an ultimate metaphysical
essence, with only this difference that, as the ultimate essence

It exists,

of

subjectivities

of different grades.it shows

so far from pure

subjectivity, I

am

is

itself as

non

different

not merely I think but iKo /

as in the case of 'am' denoting thinking,

Only, much
here too there is no distinction between
sciousness and pure beins: are the same

exist.

and

am

Pure con

essence, only

spoken

of differently Or, they are the same essence discovered through

*

dissociation
different alternative approaches of metaphysical
in the same manner, be extracted as the
Pure bliss too

might,
ultimate essence of every man's

life

and shown as non diffmnl

6

non-

from pure consciousness and pure being, The three being

and above them is needed
different, no substantive self over
2

The concepts of pure being

(nnantla) vis-a-vis

(sat),

one another

pure consciousness

(0

and pure Mill

will bs discussed in greiter ditails latw

demonstrated non-difference of pure

bliss from one another very inconsciousness, pure being and pure
terms of double negation We
each
geniously through interpreting
here
not discuss that logical demonstration

The Advaitias have sometimes

need

interpret*.

this double-negate
Sometimes, however, they present
manner It is that the absolute ,s the
in a simpler and more convmcing
W,
wh,ch
the world (including fiu)
of
negation
to be understood as not
aLanda In other words, as sat it has
wto it
aot-mw-e//, and as
as
understood
be
to
sat as at it has

.*

,HM*

as
. to be understood
to be
of these three double negations

ren
us

torn

one another. So

far. th

the negafon of the world

o J noS

hsrika

and

no

qt,on

for the

S o far

have shown

they

relate

mo

the
the positrve absolute,
*y*
in two different

thing, only spoken

of speech.

,s

which they claim

Wff and *****>. As

L neTatwT;W

SlyT^
mode

There

ther .deaded with or Affcas

absolute has to be understood

b^wen
arc

mthe

obv,

Kalidas Bhattacarya

*0

Those who hold that there is a substance, called knower

or agent*, 01 whom consciousness can be predicated adjectivally as a feature, have understood by this substance either
the meie existence, the (hat only of consci
the mere being
ousness, consciousness as such being understood as Ihe

mere

thing with its own being, on the

one hand, and its own intrinsic nature (svaifipa), on the other
as two distinct sides, consciousness forming only an additional
what* or itself an existent

character of
ously,

is

it
In this Litter alternative, consciousness,
a contingent character of that substance

obvi-

The Jaivas and the Saktas in India and the Spinozists in

the West advocate the former view. Many Saivas and Saktas
have held that pure consciousness is only a function or power,
and the substantive behind it is just pure being which weilds

The substantive is the being

of that function, that which makes ihat function an existent

that function or has that powei.

affair

It

follows that the function as such

the function with-

out being,

something which is a function and yet not an

existent affair
is but a power of that substantive
But if the

substance here
existing

that ,which

is

and that power,

stancein our present

makes the power something

power, does not refei to the subis without

being the two are

case,

only two aspects of one and the same

such, like burning

power and the

fire

hardly two distinct ontological entities

situation

and

are,

as

that has that power,

Fire

and that burning

power are not merely not two physically separate entities, they
are not even distinct conceptually, 'distinct'
meaning that each
is pinpomtedly
distinguishable, and, of course, addable to one
another. Fire and burning power are neither of them definable
without reference to the other Of neither,
again, can there be

even a definition by type suggesting that

some ideal situa
fire could be defined without reference to
burning power

tion

and

vtce versa.

ing them two

that
4

we do

is no ground whatsoever for callthough it is a fact at the same time

them two, which means that all the distinction

Thus, there
entities,

call

The concept of

self as agent vie

may have an

occasion to discuss later.

A
there

Modern Understanding

between them

is

the Advaitin has claimed

and pure consciousness

knowledge (jfiana)

So

is

21

of...

And

only verbal

is

all distinction

between self (Srman)

between knower

(cit)

what

this is exactly

jnata

and

verbal

far as the relation between the substantive r-eing

the functional pure consciousness

is

and

concerned, the Spmo/ists

and with them may be grouped some schools of &aivjsm )

the same view They differ only with regard to the
As
consciousness (subjectivity) and objects
distinct from most of the Indian trancendentahsts, they hold
that subjectivity and object, and, therefore, grades of either

<

hold

relation between

aie parallel functions (in Spmo7istic language,

same substantive being

of

attributes^

the

be noted, however, that through it IN wrong to

such
or knower behind pure consciousness
use would not be out of order if the knowledge in relation
mental
to which the self is to be called knower be only
It

may

"

speak of a

self

Mental

states (citta-vrttis), not pure consciousness.

have seen, are not subjective

Subjectivity proper is but

realized first as individual pure

pure

really

consciousness

states,

we

proper sense of the term.

pure subjectivity which, though
in the

itself

subjectivity

(jiva-sHsm),

just delimited

It

is

is

to this

states-

that appropriate mental

pure consciousness as delimited
affairs-stand as
and, through them, bodily and extra-bodily

which means that in that respect it is their subject

called knower. But it
Pure consciousness can in this sense be
sense, it is its knowthe same time, and exactly in the same
the sense remain the
therefore, the context and
too

objects,

As,

ledge

same,

it

matters

little

whether one

calls

pure consciousness
In

be predicated of
For

all

iranscentonUlisls purs
and the same th...
proper arc one

be evident as we proceed

Why

is

that could

it.

Indian

Iwledge

there

case

any
knower or knowledge of everything else.
and a feature
no distinction here between substance

,t

so

22

Kalfdas Bhattacarya

Knowledge proper

is

pure consciousness

itself.

States are themselves called conscious, this is a

Consciousness,

penultimately,

is

If mental

simple error.

pure individual

subjectivity

and ultimately, it is pure consciousness As mental states are

not subjective in the proper sense of the term they are not
conscious and a fortirion not consciousness -Sometimes their
phosphorencence passes in the name of consciousness and
mostly, again, they are called conscious because
jects at

from the oblower stages they stand dissociated and are,

therefore,,

But this subjectivity falls far

subjective relatively to them
short of pure subjectivity which is spiritual
introspection'fyivaHalf-dissociated mental states are miscalled Know-

saksm]

first, because they are relatively subjective and

secondly
because they appear to refer to things called their
objects
That their relative subjectivity falls far short of
pure subjec-

ledge,

tivity is

tant

by now abundantly clear But what

is

no

less

impor-

that it is not they as presentations which refer to

things called 'their objects'. They only stand dissociated trom
these objects and what truly refers to these latter is
mtrosis

pection=pure subjectivity. Introspection refers to objects though,

them; at the most one can say they are the modes of this,
reference.

One may,

perspective It

is

again,

view

them

a third alternative

that, unreflectionally experienced as dissociated

from

objects, they are yet reflectively discovered

introspection to be as much dissociated as
not, because, though they
are dissociated from
objects these objects are not dissociated
from them In that distant sense, to
introspection mental states,

continue to be idemtified with,

though at the same time

diss-

ociated from, objects

No

mental state as such

sciousness. In case, however,

is
knowledge or a mode of conone prefers to call it knowledge

which would indeed be a source of infinite

confusion pure
subjectivity=dehmited pure consciousness might in contrast
be,
with some justice, called knower. But
that is not
necessary!

fot

n7So

8 thOSe mcntalstates

wh

areordmanly

called

A Modem
The

real situation here

mental states

UflderstM&g

is,

as

of.

we have

jj

repeatedly shown, that

(particularly those which are

mistaken!}

called

knowledge) are only a kind of phosphorescent objects \\i'h

which pure subjectivity is found, on reflection (i e. in introspection), to have been

directly fused

and from which,

in in-

trospection, it is straightaway distinguished out. Considered

from the point of view of pure subjectivity, they constitute

the first fused stage,

and that

is

why

mental state

every

is

discovered, in introspection, 7 as with pure subjectivity emerging and yet as an object and, therefore, also as a mode of

name for subjectivity

and object alternating indeterminately.
The controversy as to whether mental states should or
reference, reference being only another

should not be called knowledge (or modes of consciousness)

The linguistic problem
is not one of mere use of language
is

undoubtedly

there,

but what more

is

and that

there

real intention of the Indian tianscendentalists*

not there
relation

is

it

pure subjectivity behind mental

is

the

whether or

is

states

and what

bears to them.

The other group of thinkers ( suggested in p. 20 ) who

recognise a substantive self behind mental states have taken
it as itself something with an intrinsic nature of its own and
with consciousness as an additional contingent character. The
the best
Nyaya-Vaisesika thinker and the Ramanujist are
admitted that
exponents of this view. The former has openly
consciousness
no
single
all conscious states (with him there is
as such except as an abstract universal, adjectival to every
conscious state) are contingent, each of them occasioned at a
H
for a limited period
particular point of time and enduring

For him,
7

therefore, the

substance called self

is

intrinsically

as an abject,
unreflective experience where it stands
dissociated from some other object or objects

Not

When we

are speaking of fnd.an

excluding the Buddhists

With

transcxjdetUalists, obv.ously

further details of this limited period

ed here.

though

we a

we need not be concern-

Kalidas Bhattacarya

24

and we have seen that a hypothesis of

useless, As for the Ramanujist, he has

without consciousness,
this type is entirely

not indeed held either that the substantive self

without consciousness or that

all

consciousness

is

intrinsically

is

contingent.

But he has distinguished between a type of consciousness which

is intrinsic to the self and another which occasionally happens
But this
there and continues for a limited period of time
js

Advaitm draws beThe Ramanujist's

only reminiscent of the distinction the

tween pure subjectivity and mental states

intrinsic

corresponds largely to the

consciousness

Advaitin's

pure subjectivity and his contingent conscious to the latter's

mental states His only point of departure is that for him
mental states are themselves states of consciousness, which,
however,

we have

just seen, is a

are not states of consciousness at

wrong notion Mental

all,

states

whatever consciousness

may be spoken of as having been there being only consciousness as undistinguishedly fused with them. The so-called connot qualitatively of the same stuff
It is because the RamSnujist has
nature of consciousness that he calls it

tingent consciousness

is

with intrinsic consciousness

taken

it

as of

the

knowledge (jnana)

too, distinguished

form

intrinsic

knowledge

or secondary ( dharmabhuta-jnana )
knowledge being understood as constituting the very
nature (svaffipaj of the substantive self
in being only attributive
intr nsic

The Nyaya Vai&sika

Ramanujist, differs with

would never admit any

thinker, otherwise, agreeing with the

him

point.

He

knowledge (consciousness)

be-

sharply

intrinsic

longing to a substantive self

on

this last

the substantive self

is,

accord-

ing to him, without knowledge, without consciousness. Yet,,

however, the difference is not as fundamental as it
to be

For

dispite all else

'stantiveselfas, after

all,

sciousness (knowledge)

to

call

appears
he has said he understands the sub-

intrinsically capable

and

conscious (cetana),

that sense

he

of possessing conis even prepared

At least this capability is then

the svarapa of that self
Further, one could doubt if there iseternal intrinsic knowledge in at least one
self, viz. God.

no

it

A Modem

Understanding

2$

of...

might indeed be understood posHivistiCapability for

mere fact that given that which is said to have that
caJly as the
and other causal factors, X will occur. But even
capability
[

then the factor which

is

said to have

that

capability

could

not be considered merely as it is, i e without that capability

for in that case there would
itself as a distinctive charactei,
be no reason why that factor and not any other could be
for the occurrence of X The same point cannot
responsible

however be urged apamst all the other causal factors involved

Many of these other causal factors are mere accessories, though
between nvniita and upad$na\
necessary (vide the distinction
wilt
and if some of them are not mere accessories they too
like the one
have to be considered as having that capability,
which is already admitted to be so
in
The way we are talking about upadana is, of course,
would undoubt
the line of satkaryavada. and Nyaya Vai&sika
be
his very notion of samavbya, may
edly demur. But, then,
thai his notion of samacalled
question He cannot deny
a
of svarupasambandha, involves
vaya at least his notion
been bold enough to accept the
paradox: only, he has
is given, a final
inexplicably
paradox as after all one that
Advaita reaction to this
that one has to put up with. The
times in this work.]
attitude has been recorded several
mental
admits self as a substance behind

Nyaya-Vai&sika
on two other grounds. They are
from one .another are
A group of mental states,lediffering
somehow .unified m he conyefexperienced as mme,
me uni
i.e. the self, is
/
here,
that
text of /. It follows
.

states

fa)
(
}

substance
fying principle, the

that original experience.

To both

Advaita would offer

the arguments, however,

following simple reply

We
behind

th,

ulterior

there being something

has nothing against
the memory and the original

me"

(including

26

Kalidas Blmttacarya

the second argument) somehow holdexperience spoken of

ing them in a unity. He would only point out that this ulterior
something may well be what he calls pure individual conscious

(jjva-saksm) which, again, is a delimitation of absolute pure

consciousness, and with regard to neither of these is there

any scope for substance-character distinction.

We

turn

now

to the question (b)

whether the substantive, called

ness

often said to belong

is

ana) to which
tions

belong.

all

Like mantal
this

is

cognitions, feelings

It

is

reject this

and

voli-

possibility

on

mmd

if thsrs is

too,

any other than

detected, hi introspection as an object*

mtrospection=pure consciousness which is subjectithat mind as its substratum.

par excellence cannot have

That which something reveals as

vity

IS

states,

the mental states 10 ,

and so

may

mental states

The Advaitm would

the following grounds

asked in p

to which pure consciousnot be the mind (antahkar~

self,

to be its substratum. If

it

its

object

is

nowhere found

be objected that a transparent liquid

found to reveal a cup both as its substratum and as an

object, the pertinent reply would be that it is never revealed
is

as

its

(that liquid's) object.

Mind could somehow be

called a substratum, of consci-

ousness

if only the latter were understood, in the Kantian

manner, as a transcendental presupposition, as an act or functionone could even say, as an overtone which by itself is
neither existent nor non-existent. In that c^se, whatever exist-

ence it may appear to have in common parlance could be

understood as having been borrowed from, mind which as an
object exists. But the Advaitm, we have seen, would not
regard consciousness as neither-existent-nor-non-existent
JO

It

may

there

is

mental

even be held

( though the Advaitm has not done

that ) that
no mind other than mental states, the unities known as
'my
'your mental states' etc bsmg made possible by corres-

states',

ponding individual pure subjectivities

A Modem

Understanding

27

of...

If consciousness could at all belong to a substratum, the

to be itself subjective. Consciousness

would have

latter

complete dissociation from

at its clearest

jectivity

is

sub-

alt that is

Consciousness, so understood, cannot be spoken of as

object

to
yet belonging

an object

Some

pan-objectivists ha>e defin-

ed the subjective as that object which is in some unique relation to another object such that one as knowledge or kroner
other as

refers to the

that
this

improves the

very relation. If in
the Indian

precisely

that

transpires
it

dissociates

known

situation,

jt

is

difficult

to see

problem

is

ul this relation

transcendentalism

have

hew

about

whuh

attempted-- it

subjective is subjective just in so far as

the

itself

But

for the whole

course of analyse

from some object

related to that object except in

and, therefore, cannot be

terms of dissociation, what

does the pan-objectivist gam by keeping that relation confm

is
ed still to objects'' The only point they appear to scoie
that they speak throughout in a single language- the language

and hold

of object

that if the subj;ei-abjMi iclation

mibm

a paradot it is after ail a paradox which

be accommodated if even as a
is given and has, therefore, to
a score over
notfurthei treatable paradox. This is undoubtedly
monoif someone, equally a lover of
easy dualism But, then,

the field

of objects

is

can analyse the relation further and proceedfinds that the paradox can be removed
ing with that analysis
monocratic
viz.
replacing the

cratic language,

by
through a total revolution,
an equally raonoci-atic language of pure
language of object by
subjectivity, there

is

no reason why

this revolution

should not

be welcome.
at all belong to a substratum
Thus, if consciousness could
The Advaitin.
the latter would have to be itself also subjective.
that no substance
further and contend
would

go
however,
According to hrn.
other than consciousness is at all required.
as so conceived would
we have already seen, a conscious self,
differ

only in name from pure

subjectivity

stent (literally, pure subjectivity=pure

When

cons.dered as exi-

existence)

the Cartesians, including Spinoza-and

much later,

M:

Kalidas Bhattacarya

understood consciousness as belonging, as anattrito another principle called Substance or In-

Schell ing

bute or aspect,

was but being (existence) reified;

only while the Cartesians took it as definite something Schelling took it as indefinite The Advaitin would here only point

difference, this other principle

put

(/)

that, metaphysically,

(space being an

pure being is but pure consciousness

much lower level, viz. that of

affair at a

body long transcended), and (H) that the theory of pure being
as Indifference is only a re-statement of the 6aiva and akta
position,

referred

already

to,

that

being

is

the that aspect

from the w/jo/=pure consciousness

scarcely distinguishable

pure subiectivity as after all an

though a living abstraction at that, because it can
operate by itself and weave out a whole system of abstractions
but he adds that as these abstractions inevitably lack
a sense of reality the whole systemwhich means,
effect,
understands

Hegel

abstraction

the basic pure subjectivity

and

has to concretize itself into mind

things through dialectical amalgamation with its

othert this other being nothing positive but just the self-negation of that subjectivity. Advaita would not very much question
this

for

like

mechanism of self-negation and

own

dialectical

amalgamation

not altogether different. It would only

point out that the Hegelian notion of concretization of the
its

abstract

is

theory

is

in sharp contiast to the central

Advaita thesis that

the reality of a thing consists just in its essence

from whatever entanglement

which

is

freed

has in other things, whether

those other things are definite positives or a datk indefinite
background or even the mere self-negation of that essence.
Hegel insists indeed that true freedom consists in absorbing
the other rather

Somehow,

this is

the Advaittn

it

than

escaping (getting dissociated) from it.

the dominant trend of Western thought But

would,

like

some present-day

Existentialists,

prefer to argue as follows

(0 The so-called concrete freedom

less

one has
{/<)

first

is

not attainable un-

realized freedom-in-itself.

Otherwise, what Hegel

calls

concrete freedom

might

A
in

Modern Understanding

2t

of..,

some cases be a form of entanglement which

is

bondage

is

no need

to whatever degree.

Once freedom-m-itself

(Z'H)

is

attained

there

for getting entangled again.

The
jectivity

mam
is

point of the Advaitm

realized as essence, there

to the objects got over,

ff one

that whatever of sub-

is
is

likes

no need

for going back

one may forgo

thjS in

trinsic joy of realization and turn again to objects which,

along with this very temporal fact of recovering that freedom

m-itself, stand in their true colour as having been constructed

or de constructed symbolically or created or de-created through
also appear as being tn the
will

transcendental

They may

creation or de-creation.
process of construction, de-construction,
The jivanmukta can even go further : he may utilize that

realized

metaphysical freedom

to

do good

aud

to the world

of course, in a total way unthinkable for good people

who have not realized this freedom whatever good which
none of
ihejvanmukta performs is a total good. Anyway,

that,

for one
these forms of turning again to object is necessary
who has realized absolute freedom. Realization of conscioua-

a full alternative to construction,

ness-by-itself is at least
taken to be of
creation and moral life, if these latter are
this alternative ft
intrinsic worth. The Advaitin just prefers
na-acttm too, Not
it that he preaches
is

because be prefers

con-

of

pure
indeed complete no-action before full realization
no-action before that or complete
sciousness, but either partial
that as a
means
no-action
no-action after that." Partial
11

Of

course, for the Advau.n, there

bevond

citta

5TJd

no scope

and he recommends cessat.oa

Whatever look 1*.

for

of action even at

hi

rtftfad
sub-levels he has exphc.tly called

n^v^yTtTitataand

German

transcendentalism.

Kalidas Bhattacarya

30

particular stage of subjectivity is attained

good actions that were needed for

the

stages,

though

Complete no-action means that with

progress along the line

final realization

we need not repeat

coming up to that

other good actions are necessary for further

of pure

consciousness

there need

not be

turn-back to objects and, therefore, to will. It may be noted

in passing that actions necessary for coming up to particular

of subjectivity are necessary as only extrinsic means.

Realization di whatever stage is sui generis it is subjectivity
stages

(dt the ultimate stage,

itself.

consciousness) discovering

The Hegelians have spoken of another type of concrete

freedom It is fieedom enjoyed m all theoretical pursuit of
Naturethe freedom of Science, in so far as Science is a
dispassionate study

it

is

free,

and in so far as

it

is

rich in

more concrete than the Advaitm's

pure consciousness which either has no content or, at the most,
content

it is

concrete

at least

looks dispassionately at one, as

in

The Advai-

introspection

would reply that introspection's dispassionate

'looking at' is just a step for it to realize its in-itself and
that once this m-nselt is realized there is no need felt to
turn outward and Jook at the contents once
again, even to
study them dispassionately. This does not, of course, prevent
anyone from coming out of the shell One
choose not
tin,

however,

may

to remain engrossed in the bliss of self-awareness

but come
out for dispassionate study, as
Science. But that, at its best,
is only another alternative
which the Advaitm
does

simply

not prefer.

There is a third alternative too one advocated

by the
TSntnkas and probably also
by Hegel, It is that every upward
19
of
realization
process
of pure subjectivity is,
that very
process, equally a downward free construction in
knowledge
and creation through will The Advaita
has no preference for
this alternative.
Regarding ultimate alternatives there is no

12

This upward process

>

as

much of

de construction or de-creation.

partial reahzation as

of symbolic

A Modern
scope for

decision

logical

31

understanding of...

Whatever decision one takes

is

either existential or pragmatic,

To

turn

now

to the third question

(c)

asked in p.

18,

as

whether consciousness is at all realizable in dissociation

from mental states Many philosophers in India and the West
have denied this possibihty. They cannot understard how
there can be mere consciousness which is not some cognition,

to

feeling or will. According to them, these states arc them-

some
selves

modes of

the sense

in

consciousness, and they are

which

colour. There

is

modes, and so

red,

no meie

is

blue,

yellow,

modes

etc.

colour, they say,

are

exactly in

mcdes of

apart from these

the case with consciousness.

The Advaitm would reply that such a thesis could ut all

be entertained if consciousness-subjectivity were regarded as an
character of mental
object to be more precise, an objective
from
states But that it is not so is clear, as we have seen,
the

analysis of introspection as subjectivity proper realizing

from the mental states that are introspected.

itself as freed

of

also shown that the apparent objectivity

or
these states is really either their objective phosphorescence
fused with them.
introspection remaining undistmguishedly

The Advaitm Jias

to demonstrate
In other ways too the Advaitm has sought

this transcendent charactei of consciousness.

the analysis of dreamless

sleep,

One

of these is

another of the phenomenon

as unknown, a thrd me
that we sometimes know a thing
From tae
as error, and so on
analysis of error detected
of these phenomena
commonsense objective point of view, none
be involving as fcqrdo
are as intelligible as they should
the Advaitt
that standpoint, and
from
consciousness
inescapable
corfd
of these phenomena thai
idea is that a correct analysis
thtt
would go
P
aloof from the contradictions
t

keep

there

is

to various extents,
consciousness dissociable,
how.
states. Let us see

mental and semi-mental

from

Kalidas Bhattacarya

32

awaking from dreamless sleep I feel sure, we are told,

period of that sleep there was no mental

On

during the

that
state.

We

13

are told also that this assurance relating directly

to something that

is

but be a case of memory.

cannot

past

But nothing that was not once known can possibly be remembeied.

It

follows that the absence-of-all-mental-states that is

now remembered was somehow known

fiom which,

in turn,

it

m that

of

dreamless sleep,

Anther follows that

could not hove it^pif been a mental state,

this

all

knowledge
mental s rates

having been, professedly, absent then. It must have, therefore,

been mere consciousness standing aside all mental states. This

knowledge of was but introspection, it being presumed that

it introspection can reveal a positive mental state, it can also
reveal the absence

of

all

such

states.

This absence as revealed in dreamless sleep is, according

to the Advaitin, the primaeval object, logically the first object
of introspection us its (introspection's) self-negation a selfnegation that forms at the same time a dark positive ground
capable of developing, in other inteiests, into different stages

of objectivity and

also into

detailed objects

primary self-negation cvm dark positive

14
cisely what is known in Advaita as may a
this

Objectivity as

ground

is pre-

The second phenomenon

that the Advaitin analyses is

'knowledge of a thing as unknown'. Normally,
when we know an object as such and such, some aspects of

what he

it

calls

in the

are,

same

cognitive

although they cannot be

knows
for
13

14

that object as such

examplemeaning by
The word 'mental

situation,

said to be

and

such.

that

its

implicitly

known

admitted

in the

way one
reality of that object,
being there (for whatever

used here

The

a wider sense, covering submental states like percept, body-sense, etc

We

are also told

state' is

by

the Advaitin

that

on awaking from dreamless

sleep we remember another thing also It is that there was a

feeling
of peace (bliss) too
during tbe sleep The important point to note in
this connexion is that
according to the Advaitin this feeling too is-

no mental

state. Really, it is non-different

from pure consciousness.

Modern

of...

Understanding

period) prior to the cognition

be said that this prior being

is

admitted

33
this

way.

It

cannot

is not known, for it is

admitted,
however, implicitly, and admitted quite as much as the object

in the

form

'such and such'

or remembered or inferred.
inference

would presuppose

Nor
Not
its

is

that prior being perceived

inferred,

because any such

admission in some other case

known as unknown, meaning that its knownot through any mental state In contrast, its being
now and such and such may be said to be known as kno\\n,
It is,

therefore,

ledge

is

and the only

intelligible

are

meaning of

known

this latter

aspects

Fiom

this, again, it follows that there

however mysteriously

phrase

is

that

as revealed through menial states.

these

related

is

a kind of knowledge,

to the object known, which is

independent of mental states altogether This precisely ts the

Advaitm's pure consciousness as knowledge proper which not
only, as already seen, reveals mental states direct but, as just
somehow reveals other things too direct, i e. without

seen,

any mental

state intervening as a

Not only

the

medium.

prior being but the very being

the iode

in the
pendence of the objects, its thinghood, is also known
same way, known, m other words, as unknown. Empirically,

Advaitin is not an idealist, he, like any normal man,

admits the prior being and independence of the object known.
He only insists that though both the object as such and such
known and, *bereand its
being cum independence are
the

prior

fore,

undemed so

far (rather asserted, as against the Vijtfaa&ft

known in two
Buddhist), the two sides are
one known as known and

the other

known

different

as

ways-

unknown.

time
Demands too that, we have held earlier, emerge from
of pure
on the pathway of progressive realization

to time

are known as unknown. The only

impersonal consciousness
known as undifference between these and the other things
as unknown,
known is that while demands, initially known
said of the
as known, this cannot be

later to be known
And, secondly *hen
other things that are known as unknown.
of progressive realization
the demands higher Tip on the path

come

Kalidas Bbattacarya

34

come

to be

mental

known,

that

knowledge

is

not

mediated

by

may be

said

states.

Indeed, whatever a matter of inalienable faith

unknown, there being on some occasions a

need, and on some occasions none, that one should put

known

to be
felt

as

best efforts to

are all of

make

known

it

as

known

them of cognitive impoit

Inalienable faiths

Non-cognitive faiths are

those which are dispensable

Questions and searches, too, are cases of

knowing some-

thing as unknown, provided the questions are not silly and

the searches not utuegulated, i. e unbacked by guiding hypo-

That about which one asks a relevant question is alknown, and similarly with what is seriously sought
after,
And, yet, in either case it must at the same time be
also unknown, tor were it not unknown there could not be
theses.

ready

11

question or search at all It cintiot be said that some part

or aspect of the thing was known and some other part un-

known
known

If
is

by tlut is meant that only the part which is unquestioned or searched after, the difficulty would be

tiut if this part be wholly

tion or search

known and

Nor can

ptntly

it

with regard to this latest

be said that the question

thera could not be questhis part itself is partly

unknown

difficulty

would

arise

can it
is not about, and the search not for,
but about or for the whole thing considered as with

any part,
the

unknown

be said that

unknown, for the same

unknown

part

True,

part. Neither, also,

when we ask a question 16 about a

stands partly known and partly unknown. But that

alone does not occasion the question
The question about a
certain character of a thing
necessarily presuppose that the
thing

it

possibility

of that character

that

thing

is

already known,

the question that is raised

being about its actuality, and between possibility and actuality the relation is not that of a
part and a whole. The content
both the cases is absolutely

15

Perheps there is not much of difference between relevant question and

serious cognitive search. The Sanskrit term
'A/Bass' stands for both

16

And

similarly in the case of search.

A Modern
the same. Further,

all

Understanding

questions are

35

of...

not

about

whether a

known

thing (actually) possesses a certain character or not

Questions like 'Are you coming?' may with some effort be

way and

translated that
ing?'

may be

But what about

question

The

latter

itself
is,

like

questions

"

What

are you think

dismissed as casual and, therefore, not serious

ilic

"

of

question

What about

then;

'Is

God?

the question

'

or the

Is there

veiy
" "

God'

course, a second-level

question and nuy,

questions, be dismissed as

corresponding higher level

b uimtr.himerely formal. But the question Is there Cod
guously a first-level one and yet not about some character
of a thing Exisler.ee is no character ot a thn g, tie qivticr is

like

'

">

clearly

about the actualization of a

maining unchanged, which means

possibility

the content re-

that the content stands known-

Only, when theie is question it is known as unknown The content of every question and search is thus known as unknown.

There is another case of knowing something as unknown

In the case ol enor detected as error, when, for example, in.
the rope-i>nnke illusion the snake is now known us false and
the rope as What was truly there, the snake that was percei\ ed
earlier can only be said to be what was known as not Aon/

unknown If the snake was known and was yet not ical,
what it all comes to is that though it as snake was known

as

were not known. Rejection

prior being and independence
of that snake means that it is denied to have been known
been
as unknown, though there is no denial of it having

its

now

known Normally, when

as

a thing is
that

known as unknown, meaning

known

as real

it is

known

was not merely presented

prior being and independence
it

an object but also that

and these latter, we have seen,
(thmghood) were known too,
are known as unknown. True, in normal unrefkctive cognition
as

its

in

real. It is only
the object is not known explicitly-^
that we feel retrocontrast with illusion detected as illusion
normal unreflective knowledge we
spectively aware that in

of the object, meaning at least

implicitly knew the reality
Illusion unravels for the tirst
that its reality was not denied.
of normal unreflective cognition.
time, the mysteries

Kahdas Bhattacarya

36

In

the cases

all

from

mentioned above

the cognition of

an object as real to illusion detected as illusion there is knowm the case of illusion
ledge of something as unknown. Only,
detected as illusion one comes to be aware of this 'knowledge

unknown' through
of an object as

of something as

much
of

it

in the cognition

as false, knowledge of

denial

its

real

asm

X as unknown is

Again,

as

the cognition

a type of

know-

X) which is free from the intervention of a mental

cases has nothing to do
state. As knowledge in these two
with a mental state, it means that what we have here as
ledge (of

knowledge

is

mere consciouness

As

differentiated

from

the

pure consciousness experienced in dreamless sleep, it does inthat is known But this refedeed still refer to an object

rence is as free as introspection

referring to a

mental state

Besides, even pure consciousness as dreamless sleep is not

without all reference It refers still to the absence of all mental
states,

absence being specifically mentioned as an object

All the cases mentioned above

from dreamless sleep to

illusion
understood
the ordinary way
people understand them, involve some basic contradictions.
In dreamless sleep it is knowledge of the absence of all knowillusion detected as

it is some form of knowledge of a

The only reasonable way to get rid of

ledge, in the other cases

thing as unknown.

is to recognise levels or types

Some present-day linguistic analysis and symbolic logicians who recognise types just for this purpose have yet understood them as

such contradictions

only levels of consideration (in there terms, levels of language),

intending thereby that there are no corresponding levels of

some realities havinghigherontological status than some

could not admit because, for various reasons
were
committed to the empirical the perceivable as the
they
17
level
of
only
the Advaitms
reality Free from that inhibition
realities,

others. This they

17.

This does not

piricism.

mean

transcendentalists

ther

that transcendentalism

In the history of

Even so

philosophy,

is

more naive than em-

both Indian and \Vestern,-

and empiricists have always argued with one anoOnly it is a matter of accident

the present days

A Modem
-and,
general,

for the

matter of

and many

be levels of

that,

too in ths

reality too,

of...

Understanding

the

Indian

37

transcendentalism in

West- understand

the levels to

higher being at least more real

than the lower, if not

rejecting it altogether
because it is more of the essence of the

more

It is

real

lower, and essence

that which at the higher level of reflection is
distinguished
out and found to be such that the content at the lower level
can be represented in its terms as a
logical construction
is

These

transcendentahsts do not deny

question are levels of consideration, but
must be of some content taken, at least

that the
all

levels

in

considerations

implicitly,

as

real,

unless there are exphct reasons to the

contrary. The higher
level consideration is not of a mere lower-level sentence The

content here
real,

is

what

and not merely

a statement

that

sentence

that,

m consideration at

is

of,

the lower-level real has been transported to that higher

having undergone necessary changes to

The

i.e

the higher level

level,

suit that higher level.

higher-level consideration, even as referring to the lower-

level real,

reveals certain features of

it,

constituting

its rela-

which were unsuspected before and which cannot be detected by that lower level consideration. A higher

tive essence,

level consideration

is

not,

of the same content from

again,
just

a co-ordinate consideration
different angle.

For,

first,

already taken as a content of that higher-level; secondly,

different coordinate consideration does not reveal features

it is

unsuspected before; thirdly, no account of the content from

the point of view of one such consideration can be translated
into the language of another; and, fourthly what is of importhat modern people are more favourbly disposed toward the empirical
than toward the metaphysical. This may be due to the influence of
modern days. But even then Science and its present-day
Science

1 mean the contemporary empiricists have to settle the

between perception (observation) and logic One cannot
is
serve both these masters at the same time unless one of these
somehow subordinate to the other. The qrestion of questions today

canvassers
issue

which to be subordinated to which? The issue started from the

to this date.
days of Kant and remains unsolved
is

Kahdas Bhattacarya

38

tance here

contiadictions

m one such consideration

met with

cannot be removed by another.

Basic contradictions

is

it

met with

in a first-level consideration

another highei -level one, and

removed there because the contents now is viewed in us

can be removed,

if at all,

in

essential transcendent character, the accident being

viewed

now

as either the self-negation of that transcendent character or

as its function
either symbolic construction, the essence just
symbolized in the language of the accidental, or created by
the

essence-as-transcendental-will

freedom of that essence

just

to

another fashion

demonstrate
If,

the

therefore,

oui present case, knowledge at the ordinary empirical level

involves such basic contradiction it can be freed from that

when in its essential form it is understood, at a higher-level,

as non empirical, i.e
as non mental
when, in other words,
it is understood
as autonomous pure consciousness
Kant's
apriorities are the appropriate contents
at

different

higher

consciousness itself

of

( spiritual )

levels.

Advaita

is

either in its free

introspection

or higher

of pure consciousness
concerned with pure
reference

up

as

at the

level

over-personal

God, limiting itself into pure individual centres

of subjectivity and symbolizing itself, through giades, into the
world of objects, including mental states, or, still higher up,

consciousness,

as the self-contained impersonal pure consciousness

withdrawn

into itself

D
It

must be noted, however,

that ways in which the Advaitm

has sought to demonstrate the separateness of
consciousness,
viz. through the analysis of dreamless
sleep and of the cases
of knowing a thing as unknown, are none of them
convincing
if consciousness has not already been understood as
subjective

the sense of being dissociable

fore, as virtually

example,
is

separate

who hold

from mental states, and, therefrom them. There are people, for

that consciousness,

an object among objects,

its

even as introspection,
like that of any

subjectivity,

A
other mental

state

Modern
called

character explicable as

with another
object.
jectivity

Understanding of.

cognition,

j,

being only a relationa

its

a cognitive situation alone

being
as in relation to
it,
is,
techmcallv

which,

Such people, unable to

of consciousness, would

there is any according to

them,
even with some consciousness of

recognise

any

intrinsic sub-

interpret dreamless sleep

if
as only a total
blank, not
it at that
Awareness
stage

of this blank on awaking they would never

call its

memory

or retrospection, but either the

memory of what was just before the blank coupled with the normal
experience on awaking
or, in case the period of dreamless
is
sleep

that

very short,

noimal experience along with the experience that was before

the blank, not the memory of that experience The former
alternative is maintained by those who hold that it is introspection which reveals an experience and the latter by those
that mental states are themselves
self-revealing, In

who hold

the former case the

memory of

blishes the continuity of that

the pre-sleep experience estaexperience with the post-sleep

one and thereby proves

the blank between the two, assuming,

of course, that memory

refers to the past as past

and

direct

experience carries with it its presentness as an overtone. In

the latter case, the blank period being very short, the presleep experience continues with the post-sleep one and there-

by exposes the blank, quite as much as two quickly

sounds expose the aching void in between, or as a
ceived

presents

be long,

gap

revived

the

empty space

deny the so-called

these

ring per-

has bounded.

it

the pre-sleep experience

memory. Some of

successive

may be

philosophers

dreamless sleep altogether as

If the

taken

as

ma> even

a figment of

imagination.

As for the so-called 'knowledg of something as unknown,'

who are not prepared to admit consciousness as sub-

those

jectivity

our sense

will

not hesitate to interpret each of

Reality of an object that is

the cases mentioned differently.

known, whether
cognition or in

that reality consists in

its

its

being prior to

its

would not,
independence (thinghood), they

Kalidas Bhattacarya

40

for

example,

understand

as

itself

any way known as a

separate item, but as just being a postulate of all knowledge,

meaning that it consists just in that object being known.
Reality of a thing known is, according to them, no content

of the thing
that is known
it is neither an immanent part
known nor any content transcending it. The proposition 'An
:

object
is

is real'

equivalent, according to them, to 'An object

is

known.'

Demands

(cognitive faiths) and questions too they would

simpler ways. Knowledge of these is no doubt
knowledge of possibilities, but they would not take possibility
(possible object) as belonging to a higher level For them, there
interpret in

are

no

levels,

either

of reality or even of consideration.

only an object that

is

possible object, according to them,

known by

If

is

'actual object' is

meant

by
thought,
inferred
an object that is known directly, in perception, as present
before me, now and here, a possible object, in contrast, is.
one that is not so known either because it is not here and
i

now

or because, though it is here and now, I fail to perceive

and that too either because there is some additional factor some defect or some obstruction -or because it is constitution-

it,

and
no
anywhere, not even the level-distinction of

ally unperceivable

the possible have

level-distinction

Except for

the

this difference,

same ontological

the

status

actual

There

is

consideration These thinkers are not worried over basic contradictions which, others hold,

have only to be got rid of by

distinguishing between levels (types) of consideration (language).

They entertain an interesting -attitude toward such basic con-

They hold that though one must try one's best

m spite of, our best efforts
we, in our normal objective attitude, cannot get rid of some
we have to put up with them as final mexphcabilities, as mtradictions.

to get rid of contradictions, if

exphcabihties which are after all given. Because of these basic

paradoxes they are not prepared to

give

up the normal ob-

and indulge
all sorts
of mystic flights
the subjective attitude the transcendentalists recommend.
jective attitude

in,

A Modern

of..

Understanding

These pan-objectivists

41

* ell-entrenched. True,

are so far

the transcendentahsts have, with their distinction of levels

the subjective attitude, got rid of the basic contradictions.

But

if there is

no

justification of the distinction of

levels

and

that subjective attitude on other independent grounds, postulation of these in deference only to these paradoxes would only

be ad hoc

and

Further, these pan-objectivists have no prior idea

this new attitude and level distinction are precisely

their details 18

what

as to

m
No

doubt, the basic contradictions, are got nd

have seen,

if level-distinction is admitted. But, then,

of, as

we

m order

to dislodge these pan-objectivists from their uni-level objective

standpoint

we have

to

offer

independent grounds for level-

and for going over to the subjective attitude. In

the first two chapters of this work we have elaborated these
very grounds. The Advaita rejoinders to pan-objectivism, devedistinction

loped in

this section, are based

on those independent grounds.

question

is

often asked as to whether consciousness

at least I-consciousness, specifically

from body.

can be separated even

all forms of con-

Dialectical materialists hold that

linked inseparably with physiological

to

sciousness are

somehow

complications,

them*
though consciousness has, according
in
all its own, as reflecting or reacting upon,

a cycle of life
or extra-bodily stimuli. Others, less
specific manners, bodily
sense of personal identity
revolutionary, hold that at least the
is

no other than

To

that of the identity of body.

as follows:
the Dialectical Materialist Advaita would reply
Materialism has not distinguished between

First, Dialectical

mental
pure consciousness and
'

18

Many

of

them would

states,

and, secondly, whether

of consider*,
also dtfnuss the riea of 'levels
of a
that a higheHevel consideration

tion (language)' on the ground

wh.ch
will not really solve the paradoxes
lenience of The lower-levcl
do not concern the mt
to solve. For, the paradoxes
they are meant

of language only.

Kalldas Bhattacarya

42

consciousness has been understood

distinguished or not,
throughout as an object though otherwise qualitatively different
,

The question of linking consciousness to complications of

body disappears altogether as soon as it is realized that it is
i e,
freedom either from all that is object or
itself. As object, consciousness can at the most-be understood

subjectivity,

as an adjectival fringe of a highly complicated set of matter,

called body; but as soon as these fringes are found to have
specific behaviours of their own, irrespective of body, they,
howsoever mampulable cybernetically, appear to have attained
dignity of their own which is none other than their reahza
tion of freedom, to whatever extent, from what they are said

have originated from. Dialectical Materialists themselves

have admitted this freedom. Indeed, their whole objective is
to curb this freedom, to keep it confined to the interest of
the matter it has originated from, to utilize it only for the
to

well-being of matter (the material side of man), not to destroy

it and degenerate into a lower level
of evolution From the
point of view of genesis the concept of evolution may even

connect these behaviours, through lower stages of evolution,

with even microcosmic matter, but the old problem of emergent vs mechanical evolution remains unsolved
logic

The

inevitable

of the theory of emergent evolution is that what

emerges
and so far free, form had been at the lower

in a distinct,

stage undistinguishedly fused, being distinguished out only at

the higher stage. Emergence of
cannot be understood except
as
realizing itself in freedom. Unless this is admitted there

is

no

getting

away from

hiatus after hiatus,

which these Dialectical Materialists

matter,

and the unity of

so much bank

upon, disappears.

The only cjairn of the Dialectical Materialists that

sonable to a large extent is that the
movements of the
emergent consciousness, which,

if left to

themselves,

is rea-

newly

would

build novel idealistic superstructure

very likely to run counter
to the interest of the
genuine material base, should be constantly

braked and put into the service of that base. This

re-

A Modem

minds us of

Uadenfcudteg

the Kantian
attempt

as 'empirically real*, however

be. But the difficulty is that

43

of...

traosoeodentaUy ideal'

despite our best efforts

on

exercising

works

to see that reason

it

it

may

goes

its

transcendent freedom, and that in a way not

always prejudicial to the real interest of matter, unless of
course the interest of matter be
just to deny the freedom of
the transcendent
Inconscient or even half-conscient matter
cannot judge what is of real interest to it. A
must rot

judge

be a party to the ongoings of what he is a

judge of All
judgement has to be dispassionate, which means that the
judge qua judge stands outside these and is free so far True,
such judges, with their active freedom,
may do infinite harm,
but that

because in

that regard they have only

thejwutfr of
its dispassionateness
Kant who is otherwise so
for keeping reason within empirical limits has
yet
tended that when it is a question of practical reason it defies that
is

freedom, not

much

on

control and

is

yet

He recommends

its

control only

The only drawback

science.

reason

our best friend and guide

is

.hat

of

in

in practical life.

the theoretical

his account

field

of

of theoretical

he has quite dogmatically insisted on similar

of theoretical reason II the

restriction even for other uses

account that we have given till now of Advaita philosophy

is all right
and we have tried to show that it is the charge
which Kant brings to bear upon philosophers
as rationalists u ould thus recoil on him, provided the
metaphysical is understood as dealing not with pure objects
or absolute ) but with pure consciousness ( relative
( relative
or absolute ) Indeed, his first Critique is itself an account of

of dogmatism

known

the behaviours of pure theoretical reason. If he has not called

that account metaphysics, this is only because these behaviours

understands as mere ( transcendental ) presuppositions

not as existent But we have seen how the
),

he
(

postulates

Advaitm would

react to this position.

Pure consciousness, theoretical or practical and in Advaita

Vedanta we are concerned with theoretical puie consciouness
is

thus free of

all

material (objective) limitation

Dialectical

44

Kaiidas Bhattacarya

Matnalists are sometimes afraid that such freedom

may

take

man

wholly unconcerned with the world, freedom amounting only to a secluded enjoyment of its pure being The
Advaita reply to this we have already seen. One may, it is
a

into his secluded free bemg, but one need not.

more important for him is that one cannot freely
itself
respond to objects unless one has realized freedom
Free response to the world of objects is to have it as a free

true, retire

What

is

construction or creation, of course, through stages A.t whatever stage he is freely responsive, this is made possible by
the amount of dissociation (freedom) he has attained

As against th.cs
who hold that

less

revolutionary of materialists

those,

of personal identity is
no other than that of the identity of one's body the Advaita
reaction is simpler. Advaita would never object that the individuality of pure subjectivy (pure I-consciousness) is vitally
viz.,

at least the sense

related to that of one's

derived

body, but he

from

will

not say that

it

is

With regard to body, the

notion of individuality is ambiguous. Each body as a physical
thing has its identity like any other thing of the world But
that does not make it as individual as
my body. I cannot claim
unqualifiedly

that

any body to be individual in the sense of

its

being

my

body.

Individuality, in this other sense, determines whether it is my

body or yours or anyone else's. Otherwise, whatever body is
there could be claimed as
my body. But if so much is granted

only a small step to see that the individuality of my body

because of 7 the individual which
ultimately is / the jivasaksm, and similarly with your body, etc.
it is
is

the same time, however, 7 the

jiva-sak$m is individual
it refers
(freely) to the world of mentals (mind)
mine and through that to the
body called mine. What
it all means is that the
body and the mind are as much body
and mind as also mine So far, the
concepts of I the individual
and that mind and body
imply each other. When the Advaitm

At

so far only as

called

claims that the

individuality of the individuated pure consciousness derives ultimately from that

body and mind they

mean

this

Modern Understanding

mter-implication,

with,

45

of...

of

course,

contextual

emphasis on body [ Besides, mind, according to them, is a

subtle (suksmd) form of body.] But logically before that,
pure consciousness had had to individuate itself Pure consciousness as the impersonal absolute has no reference (not even
free reference) to that body,

it

being referred to only by the

individuated pure conscious, the pure 7 As, again, pure im

personal consciousness cannot individuate itself without the
resulting individual referring at the same

body and mind, the

litre,

freely to

that

pure / and that body and mind should

be regarded as simultaneous developments. Only, the pure /
is but that impersonal absolute self-delimited (self-individuated),
while that mind and that body are symbolic representations

of the

/.

SOME IMPORTANT EPISODES IN THE VASUDEVAHINBI

AND THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE BRHATKATHA
J. C. Jain

Abbreviations used

BKM-Bthatkattama* fart,

BK-Brhalktjtha;

Brhatkatha&lokasahgraha, JHP-Jinaserufs HarivamsapUTtoa.

MKH-Majjhimakhanfa (MSSJ,
VH-VasudevaMndl)

KSS-halhttant-

TSP-Tritatiitalakapuru$jranl*i

sngara,

Introduction

In order to reconstruct the content and form of the lost

Brhatkatha (BK), we can begin by stripping the Vasttderahindi
fates of their obvious additions
( VH ) version of the major
and distortions and compare the resulting "core" stories with
their counterparts found in the Brhatkathn6lokasangraha(BK$S),

and the two Kashminan versions the Kathasaritsagara (KSS)

and the Brhatkath&rutiljan (BKM)> as well as with other Jaina
:

sources.

There are several key episodes in these works that

framework of
together, reveal a clear

when carefully pieced

what could have been

the original tale in the

BK.

Madanamafijuka's Story

BK$S

In the
is clearly

and Kashmirian versions, MadanaraaiijukS

one of the most important female

characters.

Her

mainspring of the entire narrative,

adventures in the
the first event that leads to all the other
since it is to get her back
life of the hero Natavahanadaita,

kidnapping

is

the initial

the first place

that he undertakes his fantastic journey in

of

Of course MadanamafijukS fulfills the first prerequisite

beautiful. She is
an Indian heroine by being extraordinarily
At
called even more lovely than the famed Gandharvajaua
1

BKSS

(XX.333).

48

J. C. Jain

a crucial
that

is

moment of awakened manhood and responsibility,,

when Naravahanadatta is being consecrated heir

apparent to the throne, he sees Madanamanjuka for the very

time He is immediately struck by her startling beauty
and natural charm, His narrative description of the girl has.

first

an

originality

and colour lacking

in

some of the other

stereo-

of female beauty which abound in his story.

flowing white pearl
Madanamanjuka, he reports, is dressed
pendants, looking like the autumn with its white geese and
images

typed

the brilliant flowers of the

down her

kaa

grass; her hair hangs loosely

resemble the dawning day when

making her
beyond the western mountains She
youthful but fully-grown, and though appearing calm she
darkness

back,

still

lingers

of passion like a river at the end of the rainy season.

full

Naravahanadatta
first

great love,

comes to

more than

his

cherish

own

life,

is
is.

Madanamanjuka, his
way Krsna cheri-

the

shed RukminT. And very importantly, Madanamanjuka is the

only one out of his numerous wives who is crowned with him
and in the end occupies a seat with him on the royal throne *

The

mg

justificaiton of this deed forms one of the most

"
and " controversial ucenes m the KSS.

In the BK$S, the character of

and

She appears

interest*

Madanamanjuka is continuous
three separate sections

of the
young girl of courtesan class who attracts
and wins the hero Prince Naravahanadatta, then later as hisbeloved who is abducted by the wicked MSnasavega, and
finally
consistent.

long tale: first as a

KSS (since the BR$S is incomplete here), the happy

reunion and honouring of Madanamanjuka occurs. These
major
episodes are broken by many unrelated adventures and marriin the

ages of Naravahanadatta, but Madanamanjuka still remains

a strong highlighted position throughout the
long tale.

In the VH, on the other hand, what appears as

juka in the other versions is ludicrously broken
2

Ibid (VII. 6-8).

Ibid. (110. 68-76).

iKS

MadanamaS-

up

(68.5).

into two-

Some
unrelated

totally

generations

enough spanning two

the courtesan lover of Vasudeva's

Suhiranna,

49

Important Episodes

characters,

strangely

grandson Samba (the son of Krsna by his queen Jambavati),

and Somasiri, just one of the beloved spouses in the long
line of Vasudeva's own wives

The

introduction of

the
Suhiranna
ters of a harlot

the

BK&S

and

m the

SKSS and of

both

),

MadanamanjukS

VH are almost identical. Both girls are daughKahndasenS. in the VH and Kalmgasena in
with the hero at a young age,

in love

fall

then, disappointed

love,

want

to

commit

suicide

Each

then brought together with her beloved by the stratagem

of friends, eventualJy married to the hero, and has her status

is

to lawful wife.

raised

The

details

of the narration are also

the cucurnstances of the prince's birth,

men
his participation in a dance competition, the division of
the entry into the
according to wealth, religion, and pleasure,

strikingly
'

prostitutes'

accord

dwellings,

(Padmadevika

in

entertainment

BK$S

offered

by

Bhogavaii

and the narration of her

mistress'

to the
suffering, Buddhisena's (Gomukha's
about the origin of prostitutes; all
prince, and the explanation
in

BK$S) message

the two versions

these elements match perfectly between
minor deviations in detail between
of

Theie

are,

course,

the two versions as

5

well.

But except for the

striking fact thi

a umdar contradict*
In the Hariva^apurma by Jmasena (19.34)
,s

elder brother of Vasudeva, make

revealed when Samudrav.jaya, the
Vasudeva is supposedly
brother sit on h.s lap, although

his

younger
by then a grandfather

mother Jambavati dreamed that

conceiving the child, Samba's
NaravShanadatta, to mother
veher ahecklace. In thecaseof

v*

Kufcra

JU&

who

to the laadof
dreamt that she was tafcu
V 41-44)
a jewel possessing 26 pearls (BKSS,
presented her with
caa serve as an
in the
The four fnends of Naravahanadatta

J. C.

50

Jam

Suhiranna has been snatched from the real hero Vasudeva

transferred to his grandson
are so

much

the

alike in

and

VH, th; two versions

no doubt
source, which is most likely

Samba

in the

bastes

that there can be

of their deriving from a common

famous BK of Gunadhya

the

This

transferral of character roles is a perplexing matter,

it has something to do with the

surrounding Madanamanjuk&'s origin, and the
The story
religious implications involved in her purification
as it occuis
all the versions includes a justifying "history"

and we can only surmise that

uncertainties

of courtesans, in

VH

this

appears with regard to Suhiranna,

in no way do any doubts of purification threaten the real hero

Vasudeva The author of the VH was perhaps trymg to place
some ritual distance between the courtesan and Vasudeva by
removing her to the relatively innocuous role of Samba's lover.

A
in a

deeper insight into the reasons for this can be found

exammati
of ths appiopriate scenes as they

closer

KSS, which contains the most complete version

of the Madanamanjuka story A very revealing conversation
between King Udayana and his queen Vasavadatta concerning
the approaching marriage between
Madanamanjuka and Naraappear

the

vahanadatta

is

The king

recorded (3452-58;
"

know

III,

132)

is a heavenly
consequence of a curse,
and her daughter Madanamanjuka born to her is aJso
heavenly
and of wonderful beauty So this girl, being
equal
beauty
"
to my son NaravShanadatta,
ought to be his head

nymph who

says,

this

has fallen to the earth

Kahagasena

queen

The queen answers, " What similarity can there

possibly
be between this son of yours, of
pure descent on both sides, and
"
the daughter of Kalingasena, a
girl whose mother is unchaste?
companion
practically

friend*, adding a fifth, Varsha, to the list

Varaha has
no function and has possibly been substituted to
replace

Taraantagaof the VH is Tapantaka jn the BK&S,

in the JffP and
Parantapa in the PKK ( PunynsravakaHansjha of the VH is HanSikha in the BK&S and Han-

Naravabanadatta

TaraV ntaka
thsko'sa),

simha

in the

BKK

(SrhatkatfinkosaJ

Also see

KSS

(23 55-57)

Some Important

The king

me and

is

uttering

"
replies,

forcing

these

me

to

Episodes

And

speak.

words from

an unknown

to have entered

seem to hear a voice

'

fhis

daughter of
'

Naravihanadalla

reproach of unchastity is undeserved

the influence of actions in a former
this scene

the heavens

Kalmgasena is the appointed wife of

over, Kahngasena is a faithful wife

In

$(

But some god seems

force

More-

of good family, and her

since
birth
is

it

"

has arisen from

apparenty trvmg to

defend Madanamanjuka through King Udayana Later on in

34 234-239, III, 146 ), Udayaru summons his
(

the account

ministers to discuss the matter He

is

obviously stH uncertain

informs them, "Kalmgasena is impatient for ihv marri

?
age of her daughter What shall we do The people think that
this excellent woman is unchaste; and we must certainly con
as he

sider the people. Did not Rama long ago desert queen SI'S
for this very reason, although she was perfectly chaste? We
should therefore let Naravaaanidatta himself decide what to do,

and marry Kahngasena's daughter

This seems to be a

practical

by the gamffiana memory

way out of

the

dilemma, since

a gandharva ceremony would not emphasize Madanamafijtika'

status or cause any problems But while they are all debating
i

with each other on

this

matter, a stronger force decides the

case once and for all, for all of a sudden the voice of Siva is
heard from the heavens saying. "The God of Love, after being

consumed by the fire of my eye,

from of Naravahanadatta

the

ascetism of

Ratt, I

has been created again in

Then, pleased with the

have created her as

his

wife

in

the

form

of Madanamanjuka. And dwelling with her as his head wife,

the
Naravahanadatta shall exercise supreme sovereignty over
conquered his
vidyadharas for a kalpa of the gods, having

enemies by

my

favour

"

from Siva himself

supreme confirmation
are
nacides the matter Naravahanadatta and MadanamaujuU
"
of the indisputable
de "
reincarnates of the gods, part

Of

course

born

pair,

this

and official mamage

divine order, they deserve the most elaborate
VH
the problem the author of the
ceremony But this is exactly
an outcome determined
faced he could not possibly accept such

52

by

Jsiva,

Jain

supreme god of the Hind us; besides, the entire scene

and problematic question of punt} better spared
A very mild kind of counterpart confirmation does

involves a touchy

Vasudeva

occur in the VH, when Samba's father Kanha (iCrsna) consents

to Suhiranna remaining "in the services" of the prince (sevatu

nam

i
e. as Samba's courtesan However in doing
from dismissing her simply as an unchaste girl
instead, Kanba calls the girl his daughter-in-law, and says that
she will eventually be honoured later along with the other
princesses. The scene is not neaily as dramatic or powerful
as Siva's total confirmation from the heavens, but it serves
its purposes and is in keeping
with the far more restrained
and pious tone of the VH. And although Suhiranna does

Suhiranna),

so he refrains

honourably marry Samba along with 108 other princesses,

Vasudeva himself later accuses his grandson of biini a frog
i a well" for
being too easily satisfied with the women that
'

come

to

him so

readily

The Continuation of
The

the

character of

MadanamanjukSi Character

MadanamanjukS

in the

VH

as she appears in the

up m the VH by Sooaasiri, Vasudeva's

Somasmlambha) His marriage to her is
and
perfectly ordinary
stereotyped Vasudeva saves the beautiful
Somasir! from the tusks of a mad elephant, and m gratitude
the girl's father gives his daughter to Vasudeva in
marriage

BK&S is
12th

further taken

wife (chapter

The next chapter [Vegavatilambha] begins as usual, with

Vasudeva happily enjoying pleasures with his present wife, here
Somasir! He wakes up one morning to find his beloved missing. After much anxious and futile searching, Vasudeva has
to assume that Somasiri is mad at him for some
reason, and
is
hiding on purpose Her family suspects that perhaps she
might have been abducted by some divine being, covetous of
her beauty. 8 Vasudeva becomes so
unhappy and upset that he
8

An

explanation for abduction

is

given

Madanamafljuka's mother KaliftgasenS.

her

little

daughter-"Corae,

the

BK&S

(Xtl

11-22)

by

she was singing a song to

vtdyadhara, take this beautiful daughter
.

Some Important

withdraws from

his usual occupations

all

This episode has an exact

KSS

and loses

all

desire

for food and drink

as the

*3

Episodes

and BKM), l

parallel in the fl/iS.S (as well

when

Naravahjnaduua

be!o\ed

Madanamaiijuka suddenly disappears. Both versions then

become even more similar in the appearance of Vegavati, who
has taken on the form of the missing wife and appears on
the scene as a godsend

Vasudeva

overjoyed to see his lost love once again,

attempted embraces by explaining that

is

restrains his

but she
she had

kept

to fulfill the

due to a vow of

silent

vow

self-restraint,

and now

she would have to go through the marriage

In the

ceremony with him.

BK&S Madanamanjuka

her unfulfilled vow had been

says that

yaksa instrumental
the first place, to do

to feed the

in uniting her with Naravahanadatta

oblathis they had to celebrate their mamage before offering
11
tions to the diety.

So then

the from of Somasiri in the ^ // and

married to the hero with
is

Vegavatt,
the

Madanaraanjuka

BK$S,

and a lot of wine. The Secret

the help of a clever stratagem
when Vasadeva (Naravahanadatta)
isn't revealed until one night
rotathe beautiful woman in his bed

wakes up and

finds

SomasirT (Madanamanlooking than his beloved

of her
Then follows Vegavati's long explanation

lly different
lfl

juka

of Somasiri ( Madanaman jaU)

brother Mflnasvega's abduction
the virtuous girl, as well
and his futile attempts to seduce
to transform herself and approach
as Vegavati's own decision
of

m,ne"-*hen

vhe tid>ndhara Manasavega appeared

refused, however,

before t*r

Kal.agaseni
be given
child was too young to

asked for the

BK&S

See

10

KSS

11

12

(105

g,rl

(XII

6-79),

M)

for

BKM

somewhat more

also the
(105. 47-57),

Compare

the

JOS

Compare

the

Uf (30 31, b

deceived by a

details

(13. 14-59).

v^dhara

the

Wtf

(13 2.37)

JU

of
assuming the shape

K*g

uA

that the

J- C. Jain

54

Vasudeva on her own

in disguise,

under the rather weak pre-

of bringing a message from the real Somasul In the VH

and B^S, VegavalT now assumes the prominent role, and the
text

thai she has bluntly

Sonusir! (Madaiiaraanjuka)
fact

the

betrayed
is

fully

forloin,

abducted

ignored at this point

The final recovery of Somasiit occurs in the VH in a very

unornamented and simple way, fully in keeping with the stereotyped m image and description of love that had bean presented
before After along separation and many various unrelated ad ventures, Vasude-va is finally taken to SomasuT by Pabhavatl Theie
the hero defeats

Manisavega, who afterwards takes the reunited

couple back to Soimsiri's horns in

In contrast, the
very beautiful
juka's return

BKSS

BK&S

and

Mahapura

in his

heavenly car

Kashnnrian versions contain

and important scenes concerning Madanamanand reinstate'iiant as th.3 hsro's spouse In the
makes a royal decree promoting Madanamaii-

ths king

from

the courtesan class to the rank of a noble woman l4

KSS, the final marriage ceremony between Naravahanadatta and Madanamafijuka is magnificently described, 18
and as delineated above, the justification of
Madanamafijuka's
jukfi

In th;

pure origins
is

is

a crucial part of the scene.

so overjoyed that h?

bestows

alf

maiijuka, thus letting her attain th2

Naravahanadatta
on Madana

the sciencss

rank of a

vidyadhan.**

The above comparison between Somasiri and SuhirannS

on the one hand and Madanamafijuka on the other

highlights

the differences between the

ions of the original

BK

Jam

version

The author of

and the other

the

VH uses

vers-

the stones

primarily for didactic purposes, not always bothering to keep

incidents consistent (and
purhaps sometimes

characters or

doing the opposite on purpose, in an attempt at being "origi-

The other

nal").

!te, nevertheless
13

versions, althoijgh often distorted

lemam

in

and incomp*
form more popular and romantic. 1T
to JffP&ad MKff
endings (see below).

VH, Keumatilambha Compare

14

XII. S3.

17

15 34 250-265
16
108 108-122
7
ri as KSS tbe 6th lambaka
consisting of 8 taro*gas t
?" l ;
the ;i'
7th lambaka
consisting of 26 sections.

j^?

The Importance of VegavatI

The

episodes relating to VegavatI are nearly

She is a powerful major

the narratives

Vegavatfs tale

identical

m all

figure possessing chara

which none of

ctensitics

was

also

the other

an

women do

Unquestionably

part of the original

essential

BK

text as well

When
narrates
all

(1)

2)

introduces

VegavatI
for

imposter

the

beloved

her background

versions

in

herself

to the

hero as an

Somasiri

(Madanamaiijuka), she

detail as

follows

{consistent in

She is a vidyadhan and the daughter of King Cittavega.

ruler of Suvannabha, 18 by his queen Angaravati She has
a strong-willed brother named Msinasavsgi, who has
disputed her rights ever since childhood

Manasavega

has

abducted

beautiful

earth-dwelling

woman

Somasirl (Madanamafijuka) and is Keeping her in

his pleasure garden. He does not dare violate the gd by
force because of a dangerous curse upon him, 19 and he
therefore asked VegavatI to try and persuade the girl to

love him willingly.

3)

4)

VegavatI made the attemp, boasting of he brothers good

qualities to the forlorn woman. But Soraasnr! (Madanamafijuka) was adamant m her refusal, and spoke only in
high praise and loyalty towards Vasudeva (Naravahanadatta).
VegavatI promised to go and fetch the hero, admitting
that to take abducted woman back herself would be a
She takes

too obvious betrayal of her brother's wishes

18

In the

BKSS (XIV

his queen Prthivi

rekd
3-5) the Vidyadhara king Vegavil

on Mount

AsSdha. Also see

KSS

(!0f

65-7)

BKM (13 2.40-41)

19

The

curse applies

who

violates

89-90.

KSS

to vdytdharas and brings

a woman's
105

57-72,

virtue by force

BKM

(VH

instant death

227, 14-J5.

to

him

SS

XIV

tale found
13.251-52) In * s,nUJr
turned

named Madanimwais
the Kardkmiacana (6), a vtdyrthara
he
an ascetic jfirl whwe modetfy
Into a parrot by the curse of
bad outraged

J. C. Jain

56

on SomasirT's (Madanamaiijuka's) form and meets the hero

obvious that VegavatI has lost no time falling madly
hero herself, forgetting or just ignoring

is

It

in love with the

her promise to Somasirl

(Madanamanjuka)

VH

the role of Vegavat! after she meets the hero

becomes somewhat problematic due to obvious distortions and
In the

and uniqueness is
of one lambha as usual, the account of VegaShe
also plays an
lambhas
takes
two
up
marriage

additions, but neveitheless her importance

clear. Instead
vati's

important role in the Mayariavegalambha, which is almost

4 times as long as the Vegavatilambha. We meet her again

the

Keumatilambha and under the name of Samali

Her detailed account

Samalilambha
flo
BK$S, the KSS, and the BKM

is

also

given

in the
in

the

Manasavega's abduction of Vasudeva while he is sleeping

with VegavatI - a crucial event in the other versions - hardly
covers five sentences
the beginning of the Mayanavega-

VH From

then on the chapter rambles a great

the long details of a war and the brief
deal, going into
account of the marriage with Mayanavega* 1 after Vasudeva helps
her father to victory. Their idyllic married life does not

lambha in the

remain so for

Vasudeva

calls

long,

her

VegavatI, and she

the

fears her

Later on Vegavat!,

to her

and

however
by

Mayanavega is upset when

name of his former beloved

husband's heart does not belong

assumes the form or Monasavega

at great

personal peril saves

episode had very little to do with

The

Vasudeva's

Mayanavega

life,

but this

herself.

of the Mayanavegalambha is obviously the work

of Jain authors and not a part of the original text of the
story.

20

rest

The long Jam

BK&S

sargas 12-15,

13.2 14-59

and 13

narratives

KSS

of the Sanatkumara

chapters 105, 106, 107 and 120,

BKM

and
parts

5
i

The account of Mayanavega's

narrated in the
25,

and 26 1-25

indicates

JHP

(Sanskrit' Madanavega's) marnaga is

in three parts at three different
places 24 77-g6,

The account

some unclanty

the

TSP

is

in the original text.

very brief.

This

also-

Some Important Episodes

Subhoma
inserted
"8

well

Cakravartlns

as well as

the

Jam Ramayana" are

here. There are other additions and

discrepancies as

In the following lambha, the second

account of king Jar&sandha has been

the

Vegavatilamhha,

added, who has

Vasudeva kidnapped to try to advert a
threatening prophesy
The hero is put into a leather
concerning him
bug jnd
dropped from the ridge of a mountain, whence Vega\ali
eventually finds and rescues him This episode is not found
in any of the other versions at all
It

seems that the ongmal account

only been padded in the

as the

of Vegavati

lias

K//, but highly distorted as well,

not

much

of MadanamaiijuU was spli' mto

single
the two of Suhiranna and Somasirl
Although nothing is
mentioned about Vegavali when Vasudeva is abducted by
character

in the beginning of the Mayarivegtilambfu, in

the other versions Vegavali becomes infuriated and wildlv
defends her husband by engaging in outright conbit with h;r

Manasavega

all

own
left

in
is

brother Curiously enough this important episode is totally

out here in the VH, and instead the very same scene appears-

the Samalilambha The

a totally different context
Once when Vasudeva has been sleeping with

such

situation
hib wife

of a sudden that someone with a face very

similar to Samalfsis carrying him away. He guesses his abdu

Samali, he realizes

all

ctor must be Angaraka, Samalfs brother Angaraka boasts that

Vasudeva cannot do a thing to defend himself, since he lacks

the nacessary magic power But then Samali herself appears on

the scene, declaring to her brother "If you do not leave my

husdand alone
of a kinsman
22

Compare

I shall

to you

abandon my relations
Angaraka takes the challenge and

be obliged to
"

the story of Ramayaoa

KSS J07 12-26

narrated by

Vegavatj

to

Nara-

vahanadatta,

23

For instance, the three lambhas of

the

VH

narrating

the

marrwC

ha\e been summaaccounts of Mayanavega, VegavatT and Balacanda

of Jinasena (JHP)
rized in the 26th sarga of the Harh'amsapurSna

Madanavega's

account in 1-25,

Balac&ndnfs account in 47-56

ment of the

original narration.

Vegavati's account

Again

this

in 26-46,

and

shows some disarrange-

J.

fg

C. Jala

then magic powers to

they begin a vicious fight, exploiting
the fuM
They slash at each other with their swords, cutting
each olher into pieces, only to have new images of each other
account of the un
immediately appear out of the old This
usual combat between SamalT and Angaraka tallies exactly with
and Manasavega narrated in the
between
the

Vegavat!
a*
The descnption regarding Vegavatl is
so far,
keeping with her character AS poitiayed
events in her life, including
fitting in perfectly with the other
Manasabrother
with
her
the difficulties she had always had
fight

#A,S'5 st

very

and

much

KSS

in

to Vegavali's tale.
vega, this fight obviously belongs originally
It is unclear why it was transferred from its natural occurence

beginning of the Mayanavegafamhfm to the Samalilambha

in the
in the

VH
of Vegavat! s Prominence

Summary

In all the narrations originating

plays a unique

and important

from the BK, Vegavatl

we have briefly seen

role, as

VH The following
an itemized summary of the ma 101 episodes concerning
Vegavatl drawn from all the aforementioned versions

in relation to the tale as appeais in the

is

(1)

Vegavatl

in

disguise

(all

versions)

Madanamafijuka's sudden abduction,

Vegavatl comes to the grieving heio in the disguise of his lost
beloved She breaks the news to him and manages to remain
After

Soraasiii's

there happily as his newly-married wife

(2)

Vegavatl 's first rescue of Vasudeva (only in

When Vasudeva

VH)

Suppanaht in the form

of Mayanivega, Vegavatl arrives on the scene and fights tooth
and nail to save him She succeeds, although in doing so
she loses her own magic power, acquired with such difficulty
from her father. However Vasudeva is delighted that they
are

now

24

XV.

25

105. 89-91.

is

abducted by

both merely earth-dwellers, and he

68-78, 84-104, 150-153.

tells

her,
""

"Don't

Some

Important Epheies

worry about

losing your magic spell; now we can pass our

time without disturbance, and can go where\cr we like "* tt

Vegavati

(3)

(only

acquirer

ne\\

magic pouer from

Ralatftndti

PH)

After coming into contact with Princess Bftldcanda, \asude\a

asks her to bestow two magic spells on VegavaU, so that s),e

could always guard him a7

The second rescue Vega\ arts fight \\tih Maaasau'va {in
(4)
BK$S and in the form of SSmall in the S&malilamhha in
the

vat!

VH

When Naravahanadatta is abducted b> MStusavega, VegaHer magic power tells her
is mad with grief and anxiety

of her beloved husband's whereabouts. Giving up the idea of

suicide,
26

38 she
immediately goes out to search for htm in the

Veguvatilambha, 250. 2-4

Compare

VegavatT comes to KausambT and

the Kss

(10750^2),

falls to <he feet

where

of her in-laws

"While Teinaoberiflf \au

prostrates herself before her husband, crjmg,
1 have become emaciated, I have recovered m\ magic powers by *!f"
mortifjcation

27
28

Bslacandalambha, 256, 5-6

VH, 229, 4 The idea of suicide

is

mentioned

lotalJv without

conim
SK&f

or explanation The circumstances can be explained fully JB tbe

(XX

329-354)

friend.

He

ruy dear

Once VegavatT overhears Naravahnadtt* Ulkiflg to

"My beloved was so dear, but truly, when 1 ft

remarks

VegavatT, I forgot even

MadanaBMftjW." Nturtlly Vefmtt

"

Bat
NaravSbanadatta goes os,
overjoyed to hear this But then
tbe ihjrd
my second love as soon as I have conquered
Poems,
thcecod
one, as 1 forgot my first love when j conquered
b*t ate
lack m quality,
women, clothes and the moon may all
"
are ne*
Vegavati
nevertheless taken up by people when they

is

I will forget

on

the

last bit of dis.atwt*!eda

understandably crushed by this
demands
proud and fiery tptf.t
husband,
part of her gallant new
unromantic floras She decide*
soch
dramatic to counter

Hr

something
to

commit

wood

suicide, asking the

iftftafen

for making a funeral pyre

Compare

the

BKM

the cause df her sorrow, remarks,

Madanamaajuka,
devoted to some

you

started

other

woman

lov.ni
'

"

Am^i to

collect tftough

Pnbhivm,
- Hav,a left your prmou,
g
Ve^vaU. and now >ou

(13.5.101-102)

where

J. C. Jain

60

hopes of protecting him. Then she has the terrible fight with
a 9
her own brother, and manages to save her husband
(5)

The third rescue (only

VH)

Vegavall picks up Vasudeva and rescues him after he has

been pushed off the ridge of a mountain by King Jarlsandha's

men. They are

ecstatic

their reunion

These are the major elements

the

life

of Vegavati as

relationship to the hero la all the narratives

(VH. 5/CS'S, KSS, BKM) these details are recorded with remaikable similarity Such is not the case even with the famous

she appears

narration of Gandharvadatta, the details of which are absent

in the KSS and the

BKM

Although Vasudeva goes on to other adventuies and other

women, Vegavati always remains important to him; proof of
this is his desire that she particularly should be chosen to
guard him Vegavatl's tenacity, courage, fierce loyalty and
combined beauty and strength of mind make her a high cut
above most of other women characterised
the narration.
Undoubtedly she also had thess qualities as well in the

original

29

Bfhatkatha.

Jn the

go and

SKSS (XV
assist

155-156) Naravghanadatta requests Amrtagati to

her fight with Manasavega.

Vegavati

DANDIN'S INDEBTEDNESS
Maan

TOSLB^DHL

Singh

Subandhu's influence on Dandin does not appear as much

By Dandm's time Bam had probab3> eclipsed

1
as on Sana

Subandhu's fame

It is probably for this reason That Dandtn

speaks very highly of Bana in his A\tuw\ndat* does
not mention, along with other poets and works' , Suhandhu
or his prose romance Vasavadatia, already declared by BSna

who

as a work which had brushed aside the pride of poets as

*
He, however, speaks of a
soon as it reached their ears

Subandhu who

freed himself from Bmdus&ra's prison by capti-

his heart by dramatising the story of Vatsaraja and

of
is thus obviously a different writer from the author
8
He refers to the
romance Vasavadatta
extant

vating

who
the

prose
there is nothing to ascertain
story of Vasavadatta , though
that he hints at the story as told in Subandhu's VasavadatW
of
states in his description of the citizens
Dandin

punmngly

Kusumapura

the Avantisundari

that people

had an

insati-

of the KZdamban*. and incorporates

8
he differs
the story of Kadamban as told by Bana, though
his son. Thus he must owe more

able

from

thirst for the rasa

its

continuation by

10

Still the influence of Subandhu's

to Bana than to Subandhu.
can be
(vakroknpUrtia) style
punning, pedantic and striking

Some common
witnessed at places in his prose romance.
he
are particularly remarkable which
11

words and expressions

seems to owe to Subandhu.

See, for instance, the

followmg

kamtncarlla proper)'

l4,

to-

2)
18 - " ne

Maan

62

Singh

(3)

(p

59, line

(p

55, lines 3-4)

(p

1)

line 8)

5,

(4)

flswmiinsi

pro (p

(p

23, lines

(p. 57, line 1)

(p

23, line 9)

(p. 58, line 2)

Ime3)

56,

12-73)

(5)

(6)

(7)

^T*TO5^<fcs[fr!nTq^
(p

67, lines 2-3)

(p

129, line 2)

pp

3^;?^ <frtor

(p
.
.

(9)

136, line 4-137, line 1)

170
orf,

gatrraim

=ti

h ne

(p. s,

g^HRi^q;

lines 13-14)

16)

g^i^KTO^^48, lines 5-6)

(p

^p

130, line 3)

(P

132, line 5-6),

(10)

(11)

^^1^

25, lines 7-8)

137, lines 1-3)

(p.

vtaiK(PP

(p

140,

hne

3,

157, lines

j-o, 231, line 3)

3Sq%rwTHp. 241, line 11);

Fnftm-( p 23, line 12)

(12)
168, line 3)

(P
(13)

TOn^ro*ft
(P 191, line

(14)

jpftmOTT-

3)

(P
(15)

218,

mw
fp

225,

34) Iines 15 _ 16)

p 2 3, line 9)

arfii^E,:,

hne 2-3)

% ws,

siwpftw

q^

hne 2)

p 23j Jme
.

^^ ^^
(p

133j

lme

Dandin's Indebtedness to Subudhti

{16)

<17)

(p. 254, lines 5-6)

(p

fatftefam

ffcftftatftfemii

(p

34, lines 9-10)

(p

193,

line

iw^fant

258, line 3)

(p. 216, line 4)

REFERENCES
For Subandhu's

pp

influence

115-132, FO/,

pp

XII,

21-33,

on Bana

1887, pp.

J,

see

W,

114-132,

A Critical and Comparative Study of Si,banilitu

Hindu University, 1965), pp 650-678.

Ed TSS, No

The

writers

H/M/,

CarieHien

172,

Tnvandrum,

the Rumfyana,

these

hues

Dax

1954, prefatory verit

and works mentioned bv Daiulm

zas of the Avaatisundarl are

t,r.d

!,

H/M/

F W. Thomas

the Doctoral thesis of the author ot

No

19,

in the prefactory stan-

the Mahsbhzrata, Subi-

Vasandhu (different from the author of the extant prose romance

Bhasa (and his dramas)
vadaHB), the Brhatkaths, Maladeva, Sadraka,
Kalidaso,
NarJyana, some
Sarvasena (and his HarMjaya), the Sett',
some poete
blind poet (proably Kunmradssa), Baa and Maynra,
who though dark was the abode of excellent
(probably Vijjika)
jstis

and gunas, the ManovatT ami Damodara

Hartocarlta,

No. LXVI,

ed.

A A

Fuhrer,

Bombay

Sanskrit and Prakr.t

semi

No. 12.
1909, prefatory verse

refers to

This verse probably

mtz A History of Mian

Subhadra Jha

1963,

1965, Introduction, p

Subandhu's

Literature,

p 392,
XI, our

Avanttsundtirl, prefactory

thesis,

verse No. 6,

Viandon

vol. HI,

P V Kane

Pt

T,

See

Wmter-

translated by

Th* ffv'acaiM, cd

pp. 5-7,

II.

Maan

64

Rangaswami Sarasvati

Singh

"Vasubandliu

1924, p. 12) reads Efc^TipfisrT instead

of

and Subandhu" in IA, Lui,

The verse shows that

sicQKTstt.

Subandhu was a contempory of Bindusara who had first imprisoned him but released afterwards when he captivated his heart by
this

meiini

on

of Vatsaraja's story
Abhinavagupta in his Ablnnarahlturatl
Nzt\afastra (XIII, 46-47) mentions a drama entitled

Bruirata's

Isawadattn-Naiyadlnra of a Mahskavi

Subandhu

as

'an example of

the nntvayua, in which the author appears to have dramatised Vatsar.lja

story,

Udayana and Bindusara, with Bindusara witnessing Udayana's

Udayana becoming audience to Vasavadatta's act and so on .
3%

f|

^
*
5[53(T

B^lfpTJ, T=t g^f^

HTTlfsflfflfcl

It

(Madras Government, Oriental Library

quoted bv V Raghavan in his article
IHO, XIX, No. 1, 1943, pp 69-72)

MS

Vol

45,

lir, p.

entitled

'Stibandhu'

in

At other place also (p 47) Abhinavagupta says :

TO^ifti^ En*nrwre?-3T3n: srf?N (^fim)
At a previous place, he has told us that
Candragupta and Bindusira hgure as characters in this drama

&&

(Ibid,

In the Natyadarpana of

a reference to

this

(under

Vol.

II,,

Rnmacandra and Gunacandra

drama

I. 21,

36,

ed.

448)

too,

we

find

Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1929)

Dandin's indebtedness to
Snbandhu

This

is

same Subandhu

probably the
Danclm and it i,

probably th,s

Vasavadatts placed

in the

nstyzdfwa (-nrtnwa),
Sara's heart and secured
his

imprisonment

credits

not

Bindusara took him

who was
Canakya
Subandhu

of a

the

IJ^yana and

w ,*/,'/a-

h ,,

Iv.MtJr,!

r.dJin n

fc

<

suppression of a revolt in 1^,1,

part.c.pated ,n

The

captive

some

du

U,

Th, n.,,., for

pnsun

d 'iiniul> know,,

not

ment.oned hv

Va.s-.raji

*,,>/
vmch

his rele.se from h,s

Subandhu

that

of

story

form

65

been

the presentation of

by Bmdusara

Bmdusara with

unlikely

as has

ft

vich revolt

and

ca?e

resembles thit of R'I^I.J

hrst imprisoned
by Bindusara'* father Can
Iraaupta anj
and then released to
accept the oft ice of a" mnmtu
is
said to be Bmdusara's counselor
The

fyamenjHui-

miilakalpa
a boy (ed

which

describes Bmdusara
s
coming to the throw us
Qanapati SasbT.TSS, part HI, p 613) K P Javas\vai
Imperial Hlsloi y of India Sanskrit text, pp
3203) refers to a Bran
inana as one whose name
begins with TO and he is probably, as
suggested by K P. Jayaswal (op cil pp 72-73) Subandhu
Pait'

ill,

653) This Sakaradya Dvi ja or Subandhu is mentioned just aKu th-'

Vikaradya Dvija which is Visnugupta; both are said to be in
Puspapura,

the

Maurya

capital

Raghavan

(Subaiidiiu

IHQ, XIX, No

in

1943, p. 72, note 3) reconstructs the corrupt text thus

T* (5?)

Thus

As

this

Subandhu might

have been a counsellor of

Bmdusara

the accession

of Candragupta Maurya to the throne could not

have taken place before 326 B C and as Brahmamcal and Butidiust
writers

years

1819,

unanimously assign to his reign a period of tvventv-four

a period endorsed by Dandin's Avantlswfarl also (p 183, lines

"

JT^sRT

^IW^

uf?T3Tfa,

?I^?t{5Pl

3&>m

^f^ffl

tgf^ BTf?I=RifI
to the

jG%

throne

before 269

BC

55^tft

before
if

Edict of his son

son BTndusara could not

) his

302

the king

ASoka

BC

His

reign must have

Magas mentioned

really

died

termirnted

in the thirteenth

253 B

in

have come

C Puramc

Rock

writers

give a period of twentyfive years for the retgn-a period aisJ assigned

by Dandm in his Avafitisundan (p J8

R^^TR, *ftl!fan VfSVl"), the Burmese

line

F,

'V^ffoffofa^rril'T

tradition allots to

of twenty-seven years, while ceylonese chroniclers

his

reign at twenty-eight years

Buddha's

nirvana

(486

have reigned from 300 B

his

name

B C)

to

fi<c

him a period
length of

the

we accept the Cantonese date for

to 273 B C. tben Bmdusara must
273 B C The Greek references put
If

as Anutrochates, a corruption of

Anutraghatm

(the

slajer

Maan

of enemies), a

Singh

which appsars to havs been assumed by Bmdusara

title

and which

seems

verse shows

him as a patron of

In his
as a writer

point to his

to

Bhzvapraka'sana

who

on dramaturgy

Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1930

V Kane

probably, as

is

Dandin's

conquests

Saradatanaya speaks of a Subandhu

divided dramas ( nntakas ) into five

prasnnta, bhttsvara and

kinds, viz, pHrna

He

widespread

letters also

238,

samagra

(ed

GOS, No XLV,

3*:=pfc$=*lTR 5R31 STf

T^Wl)

(Hntoty of Sanskrit Poetics, 3rd ed

Delhi, 1961, p 61) also thinks, different from the Mahnkavl Subandhu,
the author of the Vasavadattn nntyzdhvra f-n^ttavara)
6.

Daiakwnaracarlta, ed

Bombay, 15th

Press,

The

editor &ri

Narayana

reference to be to

(vide footnote,
8

20, line 9,

p
;j

Avantisundan, pp
the

therefore,

6n Narayana Rama Xcarya Nimiya Sagara

edition,

1951,

Rama

Subandhu's

145 lines 2-3,

Acarya, however,

understands the

version of the story of Vasavadatta

145)

sr^TO WTJarCtarrf^jn^

|"

243-246, text full of lacunae and incomplete See

AvantisunJarikatfasSra (ed.
Hanhaia astri,

Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, Mylapore, Mad g s, 1957) V

Dandin connects the narrative of his prose romance with

110-150

by making Kapifljala take birth as the Brahmana Mgta n

ga and
Pundanka relate his tale to cheer up MandakinT

it

10
1

For Sana's influence on Dandin see our thesis

pp
Sfe for exinaple, Avantiwndjrt,
pp
94,

100,

112.

140-141,

191, line 8,192, line

1,

146-149,

686-697

4-8, 18, 19, 20-21, 22-24, 77-78

Datakunnacartta pp, 60,

l.ne 1-2*
1ms 1, 206, lines 7-8, and

202, I,ns 14,203,

Ucctnnsa Vll exhibiting an exercise in

style
12,

13

Ed

Hall, Bibliotheca Indica Publication,

Calcutta,

1S59

In our opinion, the extant

Avantisundan is the genuine prelude to
the extant Dasakumzracanta
proper (excluding the Purvaplthika and
ths Uttampltklto) and
the original title of the

romance,

now

SUNDARJ

complete prose

available

For details

see

in

its

our

mioraplete
thesis'

form, was

pp. 89-112

AVASfH-

BAPPA BHATTI AND HIS TAR AC A IS \

A, N.

Bhatti

Bappa

is

Upadhje

one of those few

good deal of information

mostly from Gujarat and belonging

we

get a

than 1200

AD

hundied yeais
important of them may be

There

[i]

is

to different period* later

all

Bappa Bhu!

after
listed

whom

Pr.ib.tnJrns,

In their present form, thev are

five

nearly

about

ai'thors

in different

composed
The most

here

the Bappa-Bhayi -sun-cant a in Sanskrit, interIt is aligned to 13ih~(4th

spersed with Prakrit quotations

AD

century

of PrabhScandra or Candra-

The Prabhavaka-canta

[li]

prabha was revised by Pradyumnasuri m A D.

tains a life-story of Bappa Bhatti among its
twenty-two Jama
[ni]

teachers, poets

1277

It

con-

biographies of

and authors

The Prabandha-kosa of Raja&khara (A

1349'>

has a

Bhatti. This gives

ptabandha dealing with the career of Bappa
more details and additional facts, and has much common,
and (li) noted
with the sources under Nos
even m
(1,1

expressions,

above The story about Bappa

Bhatti

almost

is

identical

these three
[iv]

The Tvihakalpa of

Jinaprabha

(<

1331

AD.)

also

Bappa Bhatti

gives a few details about

All India Oriental Conp aper submit ted to the 26th Session of the
and Jaimsm Section. Vikram University, Ujiam.ll.

ference, Prakrit
1

s,

pp
2

P 'PANDIT

For the
S

& N

UTAGIKAR

CM/fewft. introduction

125 ff, Poona 1927

detailed

see
and for itt prosi digen ra Sanskrit
'The Bappa Bha^! Canta and the EarJj History

account

K AIYANGAR

of the Gurjara Empire,'

Series, III

Nos

1-2,

PP

Journal

af

the

BB of *

101 ff. and 313 ff,

AS

Bombay 1928

AN

48

Upadhve

The VidDasata-piakmana of Piadyumnasun [c.

J27S ADI, The Gathasahctsi of Sanuyasundaia (c 1630) and
the Paltavuli of R.dvivaidhana gam \t 1683 AD] have also to
[v-vn]

say a few things about Bappa BImti, especially his dates

of hirth, death etc, after the date of Nirvana of Mahavira
It

is

quite piobable that the details recorded in the

souices

on oial

are based

additions and modifications

traditions

which

have

m course of tiansmission

above

suffered

The

dates

given have noagieement, his date of birth, for instance, varies

bw'twaan
741 to 774 They can be taken as tentative to

AD

fo confirmed by authentic epigraphical and hteraiy

evidence.

Bappa Bhaui had his Teacher in SiddhasenaSun who

made him a Sun at the lecommendation of king Ama, the
son and successoi of Yasovanrum of Kanauj whom he con-

Bappa Bhaui is said to have defeated a Buddhist

Vardhana-kunjaia by name in a miraculous manner,
with the help of a deity in this, he was helped by Vakpati

verted

scholar

whom

also he converted etc Vakpati's conversion is not confirmed by any other soutces or from the woiks of Vakpati

The Prabandhas say that Vakpati composed the Mahumahavyaya after the Gaudavaho, but Vakpati himself tells us
he had written the former long befoie the latter The
biographic details of Bappj. Bhatti are obviosly built up with
the object of religious edification
his close association with

that

Ama and his baing a contemporary

A D ) may bs acsepted as facts of
different

vievvi

ab;mt

ruler or the other

'It

is

likely that

of the 14th centuiy

ofGvvilioi

Vdrman
^

to

who supp

H R KAPADIA
A/

identification

m whom
>rted ths

N3gabhatta

kha, pp

ths

Ama

with

some

U of the

are united several

early

kings

Jama co-nmunity from YasD

4
conqusnng Pratlhara dynasty'

Caturvimwtlka.
187ff, Bombay, 1926

Meuter

of

M.
Meister has observed thus
should be seen as mythical hydra king

Lately

Ama

of Vakpati (7th-8th century

history But there are held

Agamodaya Samiti eJ

\ma, Amrol. and Jamisra

in

Journal of the Oriental Institute,

Baroda, Vol.

Aopjnii?

Gwalior Fort

XKlt

3,

March

the

1973.

69

Bappa Bhatfl and His Taragan*

Bhatti was a distinguished Acarya with great in

the contemporary royal courts; a linu of succession

Bappa
fluence

of Teachers started from him. and

to this lin: belongs

SaJha-

rani, alias $r!-Siddhasenasurt,. the author of the Viiauvai Liha

(A D

This

1066)

clear

is

from the following Cathay

am

<

ft tftalr
!TFf

fir

Earlier scholars like S

AlYANGAR
a view

etc.

P.

P\NL>IT," S. KRISH^\SWA.MI

have studied most of these sources uith

to
to ascertaining the historical value of the references
Bhatti
rulers and authors associated with B.\ppa

contemporary

Bhatti

Bappa

vimsatiknS a

is

hymn

well

known

as the author of the

in Sanskrit, containing

96 verses

Grfirrin diffe-

Tirthakaras Each Jioa is

rent metres, addressed to twenty-four
and embellished with
foui verses. The style is heavy
praised
some Sanskrit
both sabda- and artha- Alamkaras. Naturally

commentaries are

written

on

it

without their aid many verses

easily construed

cannot be

The foadt-stotra.

in thirteen Sanskrit verses, quite eloqueni

ll gives md.rec'ly details

composed by him.
pro
Jaimsm her .mage
about Sarasvatl as conceived in
even t.nged with Tamru.
with reverence and devotion,

,n style,

is

also

jected
halo,

and her favour

is

sought

entertaining loyal patrons.

There

is

for

it

was, so

far,

gifts

**

Blam The name of it

known from some references

a third work of Bappa

1S T-ara gana, and

poet.c

A.

70

speaks of

it

Upadhyc

Bhaiu

Here Bappa

Taragana

refers to

Dhanapala

credited with the composition of

is

fifty-two Prabandhas, the

(2)

thus

it

in his

etc

Tilakamanjan

(c

970

AD

manner

in this

The commentatoi takes Bhadrakirtih=Bappa Bhal(acat ya,

and taraganadhrana (which has a double meaning) = Taiaganabhidhana-kavytimargena or taiaganadhvana = akasena.
(3) Lastly,

Vadijanghaia (who refeis to the Dasarupaka,

AD),

on Dandm's Kavyadarsa,
term kosa by the following observation :

while commenting

974-75

I.

13, explains the

On

Dr V

this

RAGHAVAN 10

remarks thus

The Kosa

is

a string or collection of stories too, besides ideas, is a new

information. The story-kosa is illustrated by a known work

Kathakosa The two other names Kisnasara and TaraAll that we gather from them is that they
are fanciful names for collections,' Of course many Kathakosas

called

gana are obscure

'

known But

am

wondering whether there is a defect

the readings of VSdijanghaia's remark. Aie we to read it thus
are well

From
is

these three

icferences,

it

is

Taragana

Kavya, Prabandha or Kov'a

differently described as a

AGARACHAND NAHTA,

Shri

seen that the

Bikaner,

drew

my

attention to a Ms. the Taragana, accompanied by a Sanskrit

commentary I have now got a photostat copy of it I am
working on an authentic edition of the Prakitt text and the

Sanskrit
9
10

commentary

Sanghi
V.

Jam

Series

RAGHAVAN

It

No

has
13,

all

twenty two folios (written

Bombay

Bhoja's f>r"gara-praknsa, p

629, Madras, 1963,.

Bappa Bhattt and His

Taragtnt

on both

sides,

excepting the fifth

folio,

^
Nfltan character,

with padimatra\ but fol.os Nos

14-16 are
mMng. \s the
number shows it has 175 Gathas ,n
all, but the colophon
says that it has only 172 Gathas
last

As

three folios are

missing, we have
100-125 along with their Saosktit

a deplorable

Some
(i)

loss,

lost in

them Gathas

commentary that is indeed

is known to us so fjr

because no other Ms.

extracts 11 fiom the

Ms

are given below

Opening Portion

JH%
b

qH^^

ll'll

ij?i:

jnfojwf

^5i
i

ftflaw^fijl.

5RKft5ifiifira5iH<.

*Hi<q.

^r

g^

srBf^iT

uRiftisw:

aiNifii

srat

q^:

siPijirt

gfei^. 7.

"Hifi

fonfa: w"tiffi

-u

i<fet
i

ff

w^
5-9

n*ll

11

These

extracts arc edited and presented here

wh

minor vjrreuum

N Upadhye

A.

72

=ET

Em

if* TT =is4

wnwn

*ruiFifiipF5i#far

THI
%PI

^ utj

gnui

^Ht^i

TOGO

^fe-

GSrAS 775

(/)

?F,i?tr%

fW

5JTOITT5T1I

g?t

qT^grf^Tf

nwfm

11111

[] mwFitPt
,

1^1

These extracts

Bhui

is

g*r

^3

make

the author of the

like Bhadraklrti,

n ^5nonp?g imnpr
it

abundantly

clear

that

Bappa

He had various names

Some Sankuka seems to have

Taragana

Gajapati etc

this Taragana, collecting GSthas of Bappa Bhatti

commentator suggests. This Taragna is a Kosa, consist
ing of Gathas There is no doubt that Prabhacandra, Dhanapala

compiled
as the

and VEdijanghala are referring to one and the same Taragana

though they descube it differently as Prabandha, Kavya and

The

Prakut text and construction of

commentary present many difficulties. What is
urgently needed is any other Ms. of this work,
the

constitution of the

Sanskrit

TWO MORE

INSCRIPTIONS OF WESTERN KSHATRAPAS

Rasesh Jamindar

Under review are two more inscriptions

belonging io the
Western Kshatrapa dynasty. Of these one was discovered from
Vandha, while the findspot of the other is not known but is

the office of the

preserved
Superintending Archaeologist
of the Western Circle of the Department of
Archaeology

Gujarat

State.

Vandha

Pillar-inscription of the time of Rndrashfaba

Presently preserved in Kachchh Museum, Bhuj,

tary pillar-inscription
District Kachchh.

So
consists

this

fragmen-

was found from Vandha, TfilukSMandvi,

far unpublished, this mutilated stone-pillar inscription

of six lines. Written in Brahml script, the language

of the record

The

is

Sanskrit and the whole epigraph is in prose *

inscription

has

suffered

from corrosin

at

several

places and therefore some important details are missing regard*

ing the names both of issuer as well as dead. Gotra of the

donee is also difficult to make out The incision of the rccood

seems very shallow and therefore many letters arc faeiag
damaged entirely while others have become illegible. The teagtb

and breadth of

the

characters of this

epigraph

are shorter

than those of the Andhau inscription of the same king.* The

letter Jno in the first line is very distinct and bold. The throe
1

See figure No.

1.

The author has been kindly supplied with a phoior*!* of thk ioicnptfcs then
tion and also extended cooperation by Slri It H. R*v*i,
i
1962, The
curator of the museum, when the author vfefcrt Btatf
author is grateful to him.
See Sambodhl, Vol. 3, no. 2-3, pp.
(

44$ ISH

Jammdar

Rasesh

74

Varase in the third line

letters for

we find this word written

The intention behind this
scribe's

is bit

two

in
is

confusing Normally
as thus
Farse.*
may be a

letters

not clear

Probably

mistake

Text

This

--

55?rr

of the king
son of the king
the year probably 110
done in memory of

was issued during the

record

Swami Rudrasimha

MahSkshatrapa

reign

1st,

Mahakshatrapa Rudradama. Dated in

of the Saka Eia this erection was

by someone whose names aie not legible. The

of the unit is absolutely missing because of corrosm,
therefore nothing can be guessed The identification of gotra

somebody
digit

also

is

not

Title

possible.

first

before

line

We have so

far

historically

the

is

come

1st

5
.

addition of one

RudradamS

is

may

have

had

not visible obviously.

across four inscriptions of the time

This

record

offers

either regarding the date

Fragmentary

for

word Rudradama

the

engraved swami, which

of Rudrasimha

swami

Perhaps the damaged portion in the

conspicuously missing

more epigraph

or

no new material

the king excepting

to this king.

Stone-inscription

First noticed by P P, Pandya. the then archaeologist of the

former Saurashtra State, in 1959, this fragmentary stoae-

the office of Shri J

M. Nanavati

Government Archaeologist

of Gujarat,

mscnption was preserved

the
-4,

then

officiating

Refer the word

in

varse iq the fifth

this king (See ibid).

5

jbid, vol. 3, no. 2-3,

See figure

No

2.

pp 47

Ime

of the Afldhau

inscription of

Two more

Rajkot

when

same

1962

in

inscriptions of

75

Western Kshatrapas

this authoi visited

and taken eye-copy of the

'

The photograph of this inscription was first published in the

Chronology of Gujarat* and read by Dr H. G Shaslri as under
:'

But this reading of Dr. H G Shastn is rot satisfactory and

follows .
complete The present author now leads this recoid as

f ft-

Sbastn has not succeeded

Dr.

which

is

clear to

some extant

in line

the

date

two of the record

His

identifying

not acceptable, as he has read *r.

The four letters for fwra are
The fust three letters of the
obviously clear without doubt
as *,
second line are <SRR He has read the first alphabet
of the same line
but it seems * to me. The fourth letter
for tens is not
stands for the figure of hundred The figure
of figure for tens This
clear This may be either digit figure

reading of second line

instead ftyw
%*

&m

author

feels

that

date tentatively

is

gw

then the
the figure stands for five If so,
Era ).
be read as 100+5 ( of the Saka

may

erected by someone.
This memorial stone was offered and
the record is
not legible. But the object of
is
of all creatures .ferf*?f3l*
for the benefit and hapiness
the characters of this
So far the orthography is concerned
overhead horibold and seem as if marked by
are
epigraph
It
The most sigmficant letter m this recordjs

whose name

zontal

line.

has bccu suppled to

'

The photograph of' this uuenpbeo

thankful
5 M. Uavat, I a very much
ft, M*jtuudar,
General Editor Dr. M.

7
?>

to

m authorfay

te tata*--

BodvW pe XVII A

8
'

9
1 1

12

"

It

It

and a^t
eems
but
shoMld be fit,

but sign for

A for

/ Is

17

.not-

(e)

Rapcsh Jamindar

76

is

of atteast three

the

two

othei

q as conjunct letter is differently

& of this inscription. The form of
not homogeneous

faswn
fanr and *m are similar, while those of ^T and
The angularity is almost disappeared in
as well as in ^T^RST are

TT in

Both the

types

than the

engraved

of

are also sinnlai

of

all the letters

this inscription

excepting

?;

in third line

and

one The base line of ^ is curved in line two The

q shows usual loop or curl instead its tripartite form.

$t in first
letter

Many

of the middle poifion of the inscription are

letters

much damaged and

cither

regarding the

can be made out

Who was this

Theie

therefore

conclusion

specific

is

is

it

becomes

difficult to

draw any

hardly possible to shed more light

king or date The only thing positvely

Tt

its

is

object already mentioned above

Sirhhasena of the record

one king of

this

name

in the

is

difficult to identify

family of the

fifth

Western Kshatrapa dynasty, who was the son of a sister of

Rudrasena 3rd 13
to 384 A.D
ffc^fo ruled from 382 A

3^

This epigraph under review mentions

It
eans
fa^fo
very cleaily that this record was issued during the
reign of a
king who was a son of fforafo According to Western Kashatrapa

geneology

14

Rudrasena IV was the sou of ffc^fa. Rudrasena

ruled probably during 385-386 A.D. 1 "

the above discussion
^From
3?Rta ruled in the last

it seems that
f^^q and his son
quarter of the fourth century A.D , while
this very record was written sometime in
the last quarter of
the second century A. I)
[S.E. 105=183 A.D. ] ft^tatft in the
end of first line is very
confusing. What does it mean by ? Can
we conjecture this phrase
f&fa&fc qa&t as 200 and then add
100+5 which will
ultimately come to 305. As this epigraph is
dated in Saka Era then 305 is
D- Then this
equal to 383
record might have been
engraved during very short reign of
Rudrescna IV. But this cannot be considered as
certainty

13

Gujaratno RajkTya Ane' Sa slcrutik ftihas (Editors

Vol 2, p t 152, Ahmedabad. 1972.

14

lbld '

521

'

Pankh

for details see ibid

&

Shaitn) '

151-152.

THE SOLANKIES OF TODA

*

Ram-Vallabh Somani

Toda

an

is

ancient

IOMB,

Toda Rai
*

silualed

abcut 70 miles

At preset

south-west direction of Jaipur

in

fcw*

*<

Singh

principality o

years during the 15t

1
tion, as to how the

seems that
in

after the

Gujarat

settled here
its fertility,

their

fe\v

The Nagarachal

which

territory,

might have attracted them

The Sultan Ala-ud-dm Khilji

and captured Ranathambhor and
this, the eastern Rajasthan,

is

famous for

to settle there.

Hamlr Cauhf a

defeated
its

After

adjoining area.

became the bone of

contention,

Muslim-chiefs.

between various Rajput rulers and the

of Mewar,
kings of Gwalior, the Guhilots
on
Sultans of Malawa, were having covetous eyes

Tomar

ad
it

Tbe
<J*e

Tfce

Amber and Karaul and Musttm

Lalsot were contesting Awn1

local Rajput-chiefs of Buodt,

chiefs of Hindon, BayanS and
selves

for

situation,

ym

also. In such
political
extending their sway
to esublish
the Solankies of Tod& also succeeded

themselves in this area

Early rulers

Namas! has recorded

the names' of

tfre

of

Sobnfcl

rule^

Odl Berfi, Im Dsa.

Toda as Durjanasaia, Hararaja, Surjana
are not fouad m the
Rao Ananda etc., but these nam
Therefore I do
inscriptions and colophones.
k*>
names as authentic ones. The e*rUe*
vol.

I,

p. 219.

not find the

tutor

seems to

Ram-Vallabh Somani

78

be

Nahada RSja, a whose name

V.

in

Devan No

ruler

AD)

1472 (1415

found in an inscription of
on a pedastal of an image

of Arnbikesvara temple, of Amer Another

or Sodha, whose name is found in
of Jambndvipa-Prajnapti of V.E
1492

Serlhabadeva

is

colophon

MS

of

AD)

(1435

is

incised

He seemed

have yielded his

to

Maharana Kumbha, who accoiding

to the

allegiance to

RSnakapura Jama*

temple msciiption of VE. 1496 (1439 AD), succeeded to

oveirun Ndgarachal Uparamal, Hadoti, Catasu etc In 1446

AD., the Sultan of Malawa went on expedition and made

an unsuccessful attempt to capture the stronghold of Mandals
^imillai attempts were also made in 1454
In the
garh

AD

AD

when he was going

>ear

1455

hold

of Ajmer, passed through

But Maharana

Kumbha,

the forces

that

defeated and

assisted

Toda was regained by Kumbha

From Tonk, few Jama

bearing
ruler

the

the strong

Toda and defeated its mler

the chief of Toda in regain-

The Eklmga-Mahatmya (MS) contains

of the Sultan of Malawa were

ing his paternal state

the account

to attack

VE

of

inscription

'

sculptures were found in excavation

1510 (1453

A.D

of the

It seems that either it was the name of

Dungar Singh Tomar of Gwahor, whose name might have
wrongly engraved or it is the name or local Solanki chief

Lungarendra

*T

im

vf

ajiqi?

Malwmai Kumbha

Annual

gsmi n

qft 1a

(unpublished inscription
3

ift

?T5t

(Hindi) by the author,

Report of Archaeological

pp 98-100.

Survey of

India

for

1907-8,

pp. 214-215
5

Briggs-F/mxafc,

Zajar-ul-walia (Eng

Vol

m,

Ekli&ga

Vol

IV,

pp

pp

174

214-2l5'fii6j ? if-i-Xt6ari

p 516.
)

MaSwmya (MS)

of

Saraiwati~Bhawana-*lJdaipu

Vijay Murti-/awa L?kha Sangraha

i

III,

j>.

486.

(Bag.

>

The Sotankles

of

The Sultan

Malawa

acquired

Our information about

Toda is meagre

Solanki of

of

Toil
*

7f

Tog ft

Stdharudcw

the descendents of

Beginning from Surasena Solankt

to 1597) we have definite informations about the

(VE1551

TodS

rulers of

name of his

but the

From V.E

1515

1528

to

father

(1458

is

AD.

nowhere available

A.D

to 1471

good numbei

of manuscripts were copied out in eastern

the colophons of which are
important, for
history of this tract. The following colophon*-

\y

Rajasthan,
tracing the

bear q the name of a ruler AlSuddin, ruling there

MS

The colophon of

(1)

(1458

AD

Siddha-Cakra-Katha of

t51<

copied at NenawS.

The colophon of MS Prad\umna-Cartia of

(1461 A.D ) copied at Nenawa.

VC

1518

The colophon of MS Naya Kumar-CarUa of

A.D ) copied at Nenaw.

VF

1528

(2)

(3)

(1471

MS

The colophon of

(4)

AD)

MS

The colophon of

(5)

fCatantra-maffi of V.E

1524

1467

copied at Tonk.

Prabodha-MUla of Pragvay Dbana-

at Rarathambhor
raja, Minister of AlSuddiii, copied
10 the toU name
According to Tabaquat-i-Akabar!

Alauddm
Khilji

was Kadam-KhSn,

Khilji

of Malawa.

siderable

time

He

remained

After the

Gayasu-ud-Din

succeeded

of

Mahmwd

at Ranathatnbhor, for con-

death of

The

the son of

MahmSd

Khilji his SOB

of his
following colophons

from TodS :
reign are also found
The 2dipuranaV of V.E 1557 (1480 A.D.)
(1)
of V.& 1538 (1481 A.O.)
(2)

9
10

The Uttarapwana

Amhzslka-Hodha-San&eha (Hindi)

Matarw

Kutnbttn

Akabart, Vol.

Jain

12

Ibid,'

Ill,

23
'hy the author . pfr

(Hindi) by the author, pp.

p 526

BhantorGwlh Sri

fn.

Bd. by

toM_

UXMOl T**|-'

Ram-Vallabh Somani

Si}

13 are also
found
Besides these, the following colophons
from Hadoti and Eastern Rajasthan, having the account of
his reign
(1)

The colophone of

MS

Sukumal Canta of VE. 1546 (1489

A.D.) copied at Baran

(2)

The colophon of

MS

Bliava Samgraha of

VE

1541

(14M

copied at Kotah.

A.D)

Jam temple Amber

In the

two inscriptions on

there are

AD)

and 1548

the pedastal of the images of V.E. 1533 (1476

(1491 A.D.) of the reign of Sultan Gayasuddln

An inscription of VJE. 1537 (1480 A D.) 14 is also available

of his reign in the temple of Harsha Nfitha Stkar The GurtiCuna Ratnakara kavya 1 * composed in 15th century
also
contains the account that Hadoti was forming the part of

AD

the reign of the Sultans of

From

Malawa.

appears that the Sultan of Malawa

territory of Eastern Rajasthan including

above

the

it

subjugated a vast
who held it for some years. His nominee at

Toda,
Lalla

Toda was

Khan PathSn

Solankles migrated to

Mewar

Sena on being ousted from To da

remained in Mewar for few years, where he was granted
Pur
Dist
Bhilawara
(
village
).
According to a colophon of

The Solankl

MS

chief Sura

Labdhisara^ of V.E. 1551 (1494 A.D

13

G.S Vol.

14

Rajputaaa

Museum

15

5istW)fiwiwiiWi

tfnf

vj,$ ^f
sft

he was present

there.

*fcs aft

im..{Dr. Kashwal

Praiasti

Sangraha p. 195) and RJ.B.

p. 148.

Report, Ajmer, year 1935 inscription

M'flilit^a^^a'^iffVii

\\\*\\

No IX

Gumgana-Ratnakara

Kavya.
18

vt
r

(MS)

*ft

liailf^R gj5%1 5W^flT%

He Biradi Chand Jain Temple.

The colphon of Labdhisar-

Jaipur M.S.

No

136,

The Solankiw of Toda

81

seems that Maharana Raimala,

subsequently exchanged
from village Badanor During this time the Mewar h-id

It

it

to

witness mtenstme feuds

Taking the advantage of such situation the 'Mewa' or >Mei1a,' tribe

raised
living at Bad inor
the standard of revolt
It is evident from the
Kumbhalgarh
of
VE
1517
Inscription
(1460 AD.) and colophon of MS
Sangita-Raja that the Maharana Kumbha defeated Munir T a
leader of Mewa-tnbe and captured Badanor !I Rao Jsura Sena

seemed
of

to

Mewa

Marriage

have been posted

tube

in the reign

of Tarfi Bai

there, in order to curb the power

of Maharana Ratmala

SolankT chief Rao 3ura Sena locally known as Surataru

had a handsome daughter named Tara Bai He decided to

marry her only to that who could help lum in regaining Todii
Maharana Rannal had 3 sons namely Prthviraja, Sanga and

Due

an mtenstme feud, Sanga had to lca\e Mewar

to Godawar, who according to tbe
Jam temple inscription of Nadlai of V.E 1557(1500 A. D.) *as
ruling there Now Jaimal was only remained in Mewar, who
was very proud He attempted to espouse Tar& B4i by force

Jaimal

to

and Prthviraja removed

and was slam by the said Solanki clne p The Maharfini RSimal was incited to revenge the foul murder of his son, but
he declined and replied showing magnanimity that one who
1*
had dared to insult a father, had received a proper lession.
Prthviraj when beard the sad end of his brother took up
the matter and captured T dS on the day of Moharrura This
event seemed to have taken place before 1560 (1503 A !>.)

XXt
loscpiption verse 254 (1 voi
(Hindi) by the author, pp. 97-98
Amor Knvya (MS) (Saraswati Bhawan, Udaipnr,

17

Kumbhalgarh

18

In

Mhirm
No

l$fr)

(LP 243) But

this

statement does not seem to be correct, because Slngi

Uparamit mcludins Mindalgtrh,

Cpi Tod *aw 2 big slab* coauinCba^asa and Toda At Mftndalagarh
but he <bd not puWrth it <fod II p 545),
theSoIankies,
of
the
pedigree
iog
also re-appomted SoJankies back in

At

present there

is

there, having the

only a fragnientrty

inwnptwa of V

name

SoJ

Balsbhaefra

a 1617 (1560 AD)

ruliog there,

12

Ram-Vallabh Soiuani

Tar5 Bat was married to him, who

accompanied him

also

in

specially against Surajmal Accordshe was a brave lady In this way

ing to the bardic account,
Surasena
or
R&o Suratana
recaptured Toda

many penlious engagements,

RSroacandra appointed at Chatasli by SangS

2 wives namely Sobhagya Devi

he got 2 sons namely PrthvirSja

Rao Surasena was having

and

from

STta Devi,

whom

and Puranmal 1 " and a daughter Tara Bai PrthvirSja seemed

to have died during the life time of his father and his son

Rnmcandra was appointed

after

VE

1578 (151

the colophon of

AD

MS

at Cbtitasu by
)

Maharans Smnga,

as he has not been

mentioned

in

Pai&vanath

Srawana, tfiawana-Satabisi
8"
in that year This work contains the histocomposed there
rical account of the invasion of Ibrahim Lodi on Ranatham-

bhor and creation of panic at Chatasu. The poets made the

invocation to Lord ParSwanath on the receipt of the news of
Sanga's victory. The following colophons of the reign of Rsmcandra, working undei

and
1.

2.

3.

its

adjoining areas

known from Chatasu

i^angn have been

:

The colophon of MS KarKandu^Canu of V.E. 1581.

The colophon of MS CandraPrabha Carita** of VE. 1583.
The colophon of MS Vardham&na Katha** of V.E. 1584.
It

seems that RUmacandra remained at ChatasD by V.E.

1590 (1533 A.D) and his grand father Suryasena continued

to rule at

Toda

19

Anwfi Jain temple Inscription of

20

The author's paper "Maharana Singa and Sultan tbrahimlodi" published

in Majjhamika (annual number)
Udaipur No. 2 This MS is now
available m the Jam Bhandhar of Ajmer.

21

5Rra.

vi

vf

(Kasliwal Op.

siSras

cit

E. 1593 verses 12 to 15.

135^;

p. 96)

22
(Ibjd p. 99)

xx *&
(RJBQS

II.

ft

^fqr^ft $fc urr

p. 77).

fl

sfr

ft

The Solankies

Struggle for Chatasu

13

of Torfi

Ramacandra, who was granted Chatasu had

opposition

According

of the

a colophon

to

Kachhawa was

8*

of

ruling at A"mer

Puratmmal, who ruled between

AD

to face stiff

Kachhawas, who were ruling

MS

Jtianarnaia

He was

VE

at

\rner.

Prthvifrrja

succeeded bv his son

1584 to

\W\

(1527 to

W4

After him, a factncidal battle was ensued which badly

the family of Amer At Urn time, Maide\a of Jodhpur

).

engrossed

rose to power and badly defeated Biramadeva Medatiya who

was ruling 28 in Medata, according to a colophon of \at-

Karma-Gianthavaan

in

E 1592 H35 A
<

D}

boon

atier ihc

Biramadeva soon captured ChSusii, as

position was changed
80 of fa'-f&mda (MSj of V E 1594
evident from the colophon
A D.) Ramacandra Solanki seemed to have been ousted
( 1537
from Chatasu. Maideva of Jodhpur, who was badly pursuing
from the
Biramadeva, succeeded to capture Chatasu. as evident

colophon of Varanga-cama (MS)

ot

Vb

15<?5" (153S

D,}.

there. In th

as his

representative
appointed Rawat Khetasi,
ot Chatasu and he
way the S'olanki Ramacandra was deprived

He

had to

to
yield his allegience

Ramacandra

at

Toda

Msldeva

also

V.E.
life. He was ruling at Todi
as apparent from the colophon of

6ura Sena availed long

1597

(1540 A.D.),

MS

Jam temple of Anwi (Dm

Sudarsan-Canta** of that year The
of this family. SSrtsena'i
Tonk) contains a detailed mscnption
1ft

on of

25

No. 25)
temple Jaipur (MS
of the battles between Mil.dcv.wd
For

deJ

tt

of the relevant colophon*

see

..ii.
W W * W-

at

*ft

28

autbor'.

p.

Bmrfm

fa

jrt

1W)

*** "^

ll11

'

Ram-Vallabh Somani

84

younger son Puranamal was enjoying the Jagir of Anwa, as

noticed from the various colophons of MSS found from this
place." We have got no information whether Prthvirsja ascended
the throne or not. In case if he came to throne, he might have
ruled only for two 01

three years.

Ramacandra seemed

have succeeded at Tod5 about

to

VE

AD

Several colophons of MSS and inscriptions

1600 (1543
)
have been found from Toda, containing his name as a lular The

following colophons of
1.

MSS

are interesting one 80

The colophon of MS-Jambu Swami CaritaofVE 1601

(1544

A.D)

MS Suktt MuktawaliofV.E 1603 (1546 A.D )

MS Hanumana-carita of V E 1604

Thecolophon of

3.

The colophon of

4.

The colophon of

(1547

MS

AD)

Dhanya Kumar Canta of V.E. 1605

(1548

AD)

81 of VE
1604 (1547
found from
mscnption
Toda, edited by D. C Sircar is worth-quoting This contains
the name of MahsranS Sangs's son Udai Smgh 83 of Mewar
and Islam ShEh Sur. It clearly shows that T od,a and

An

AD)

adjoining area was conquerred by the Sur kings' of Delhi,

and the Solanki kings of Toda had to yield their allegiance to
them. Still they did not forget their hereditary over lord the
rulers of Mewar. From the colophons of MSS written at Rana

its

thambhor. Cbatasu, Alwar, we find the name of IslSm Shah Sur,

29

The Aawa temple

inscription

of Varanga-charita (MS) of

RJBG.S-Vol.

IV.

30

RJBGS-Vol

V,

31

iotf

pp

of

VE

VE

1593 verse

15 and the colophon

594

194.

pp

333,

4 18, 703

*R

*ft

55

32

D.

Sircar

this pjiot SJi

(E

Vol

XXX)

aad Arya Ramchadra Tiwan have contributed articks on

t

Q, Vol

XXX N6

1,

p 25,

XXX[ No

3,

pp 273-275

The Solankies of Toda

as a ruler

of the place

gt

Ramacandra, who was

was not very powerful The circumstances

him to

retain

vast terntor}

ruling under him.

also did not allow

town was

Sanganer

held h\

V E. 1600 (1543 A.D). Chatasu, which was

about 14 miles away from that place, was directly ruled by the
Stir kings of Delhi, as apparent from the colophon of V L
The Kachhawa* *>'
(1545 A.D ) of sai-Pahuda (MS)

Kachhawa SangS

I_602

Amer weie

consolidating their power

to capture

also after few years

reign,

VE

it

and

AD)

Solanki

as evident

after this

continued

to

rule

ull

E. 1611!

from the following colophons of

is known

Nf Sts

no information about him

of

MS

NayaKumar^-canu

VE
2

succeeded

earliest

found from
1623 (1566 A.D.) 84

The colophon

and they

colophon of their
there was of Upawktidhvavana fMS) of

Ramacandra
(1555

The

The colophon of MS

Jasahara carm

MS

of

A.D

1615 {1555
(

MS

of

(1555

The colophon of his reign V E "

paying homage to the Sur kings of

AD)

1610 prove that he *as

Delhi but these last 2

it Therefore,
colophons referred to above do not mention
seems that during the last days he might have succeeded

remove the yoke of

33

m
3JTSST

34

H^

i*os tf

$m

suzerainty of the Sur kings.

sft

IP'l ^Pn^ft fl^.

UM

*HTO3i{KRra

'

op.

ft*
cit

&*
174

fa

l
ft

fli^^ 8ssiT

s5r

>

E. 1612

(ibid P. 94)

35

36

(Ibld

it

10

Ram-Vallabh Somant

85

The name of his son ParaSuram is mentioned in the

V E 1604 (1547 AD), but he does not seem
have succeeded, as no colophon of MS or inscription of

inscription of
to

his reign has

been noticed so far

R5o Kaiana and Surjan

Rao Kalyana

succeeded Ramacandra, whose 3 colophons

MS Yasodhara se canta and of

of Ghyanainava and Hoh Retiuka
8 " of V E
1615 have been noticed
Parva (of Pt. Jmadasa)

of V.E

VE

1614 (1557

1615

The

A.D) of

AD)

(1558

political

Akbar

condition of Rajasthan soon changed

Mughal came to the throne of India Both Biramadeva Medatiya and Maladeva Rathor died, and their descendants were badly defeated by Akbar Maharana Udai Smgh was
also defeated by him and the Eastern part of Mewar including Chittor was annexed with the Mughal Empire. Bharmal
'vachhawa of Amer, who was having uncommon foresight
developed matrimonial relations, with Akbar, which gave him
the great

in opportunity to increase his sphere of influence

Rao Kalyana was succeeded by Surjan who accepted

suzerainty of Akbar.
are known

the

mentioned below,

His two colophons

The colophon of MS. Srlpala^-carita of V.E. 1631

(1574 A.D.)
2.

The colophon of MS. Jiwandhara* l -carita of V.E 1636

(1579 A.D.)
After Kalyfina

T da was granted

son of Bharmal about

ous

V E.

1636

1579

AD

MSS

and the colophons of

inscriptions

Kachhawa,
whose numer-

to Jaganath

have

known

from Toda
3

39

R.J.B.G.S. Vol

RJ.B.G.S. Vol

U, p. 203
p. 509

(Ibid
41

*f

1^^ y?

an^R g^ 13 tfimtf

Tfqtq JTW

180).

ft

(Ibid

p 15

>

The Solankies of Tods

In this

way

87

the geneology of this principality

NahadRai(VE

is

as under

1472)

Sedhabdeva (V E 1492)

Rao Sura Sena (V.E

1551 to 1597)

Puranamal

Pythviraja

(VE

lira BSt (Married with

in

593-94

Anwa Pr thviraja

was

Ra'macandra

(V.E

his Jagir)
1581 to 1590 at

SisodiS

and

became Sati at
Kumbhalf arh )

Chatasu)

(VE. 1601

Parasurama

to 1612 at

Kalynna (V

1614-1615

Vt

Surjana (V.E. 1631 to 1636)

THE "PRIMITiVE"

IN

HE K MJTILYA'S ARTHASSSTH A .
Ganesh Tbite

In the ancient and medieaval

Indian literature on

xanous
we can fmd numerous traces of
primitive Orrational
way of thinking. Thus not only in the Atharva^

subjects

prescientific)

veda

but
all
the vedic literature
including UpanKids
many primitive thoughts, magico religious beliefs ard
practices, superstitions etc. The saire is truem
connection with
there are

the epics and Puranas, with the socallcd

scientific literature on
medicine, chemistry etc and with the literature on the fine
an*
like music, architecture,
painting etc Tne present paper aims
at a survey of primitive elements
the ArthasSstra of
Kautilya,

The Arthasastra

well-known as an important text of

ancient Indian political and economical
thought This text,
really speaking should not have any scape for primitive
is

thoughts and magico religious elements. But this text contains

a lot of them. 8 Here we find both the black and white
magics. The magic is often inseparably mixed with religion
Therefore we get numerous references to obeisance to gods,

worship of gods,

offerings to be paid to

them

etc

Aims etc. of magico religions rites

The magico-rehgious rites prescribed
.

in the Kau^iliya ArthaSsstra are to be perfoimed for the sake of getting a favourable

son, removing the calamities like over-rams or drought, pose

ssmg some superhuman powers like that of walking on fire or
of walking incessantly for a very long distance etc. Similarly,
1

For the translations of the passages

used

cf,V

P,

KANGLB's

from the Arthaiiitra,

The Kaufiliya Arlhuitetra-U, Bombay,

have

19M

SAUNDRES "Some allusions to magic in Kaml>a*s Arthaiastra"

JAOS,

42, 1922, (p. 75

quent allusions
witchcraft etc

"

ff.)

to sorcery,
p. 75, cf.

,
"Throughout the work, there arc fredemons, obsessed persons, incantations,

8*

P SINHA, If Significance of jehgiout

"
JBSS 44, 1958, (p. 77 ff ), p 80.

data in Kauylya's Arthaiistra

Gancsh Thite

30

to

sake of destroying the

niss for the

black magical

there are

enemy In order

this magico ichgious ritual it is

should appoint a purolnta (priest) well-

perform

essential that the king

Athanavedic magico-religion (I. 9.9). This puiolntapnest should possess following qualities He must be coming
from a high family and must be of good conduct He must
know the vedic lore along with its si\ limbs, and proficient
versed in

omens and political science He should be able to counterdivine and human calamities by means of Atharvan
remedies. The king should follow the purohita as a pupil his

act

teacher, a son his father

a servant his master

or

(I.

9 10).

Ksatnya-power, increased by a Brahmana, becomes invincible

to keep, in addition to the
(I. 9 11) In his kingdom, a king has
purohita, experts in the practice of magic (and) holy ascetics,
capable of counteracting divine calamities and honour them.
(IV. 3 44).

On

the conditions in which the

rites

magico-religious

sorcery

rites

and other

be performed, Kautilya gives

These rites are to be performed in the
should

following instructions
case of protecting the system of four varnas or in the case
of averting the anti-religious people (caturvarnyaraksartham

aupanisadikomadhZrmislhesu prayunjita-XlV. 11)

He

also says

the practices accompanied by mantras and medicines

and those that are caused by illusion are to be performed for
the sake of destroying the enemies and protecting one's own

that

people

XIV 3.8S

king

is

also advised to obtain

super-

and superhuman powers with the help of same magical

means and to cause fright to the enemy with evil, miraculous
portents, to use it for consolidating the kingdom and pacify
natural

a revolt

among

the people

(XIV

2.45)

Magico-religious rites in connection with the prince

If the prince

a living death" according to Kauttlya. Therefore he prescribes some ritual to be

performed even from before the birth of a prince. Thus when
the chief queen

is

ism

oblation of rice to

undisciplined, "this

is

her ftu (-period), priests should offer an

Brhaspati When she is preg-

Indra and

The

<prirai<ht

h.

fa,

f,

nant a children's specialist should

arrange for the nourishment
of the foetus and for

delivery When she has given bmh. the

purohita should perform sacraments for the son.
When he u
ready for it, experts should train htm
(I

Supernatural and superhuman powtrs

1722-27).

Kautilya prescribes some magieo religious

techmque* for
obtaining some supernatural and superhuman
powers. Thus

he prescribes some techniques

against hunger
of Sirlsa, Udumbara and Sam! mixed with

The powder

clarified

is

butter

a recipe against hunger,

effective for half a month

That
prepared out of Kaseruka, the bulbous root of the lotus, th*
root of sugarcane,
milk
lotus-fibres, durvfUgrass
and cream
is effective for one month
Drinking, with milk and ghee the
powder of Mas a-beans, barley, Kulatiha, and the roots of
Darbha-grass, or VallT, milk and ghee, boiled together in equal

quantities or the paste ol the roots, ot Sala, and Pfsmparni,

along with milk, or partaking of milk boiled with that, along
with honey and ghee, one is able to fast for a month

(XIV

2.1-3)

Similarly,

there are tricks

of disfiguration in the Ksuti-

Thus oil, prepared from mustard seeds kept

for seven nights in the urine of white goats and kept in a bitter
gourd for a month and half a month is a means of disfif ur

lya's Arthassistra.

quadrepeds and bipeds ( XIV, 24). The oil of white

mustard seeds boiled with barley grains taken from the dung
a
of
white donkey fed on butter milk and barley, after seven
nights is a means of disfiguration (XIV 2.5)
ing

The techniques of changing the colour of somsthmg into

white are mostly based on sympathetic magic. Thus miwtard
oil, boiled along with the urme and dung of white goat or
white

donkey with the addition of the powder Arka, TOla,

is a means of making a person whit*. A mixture of
the dung of white cock and a boa constrictor, is a means of
making white. White mustard seeds, kept in th* unoe of a

Patanga

white

goat for seven nights, butter-milk,

Uw

milk of Arkm.

Ganesh Thite

92

and

grams-thts mixture kept for a fortnight is a means

of making white The flour of white mustaid seeds, kept for
half a month in a bitter gourd while still on the creeper is
salt

a means of making hair white. The insect that is known as

and the white bouse-hzard-hair smeared with this
paste would become as white as a conch-shell (XIV. 26-10).

Alojuna

Similarly,

there are mystical,

magical techniques of

mak

Thus one, bathing in a decoclion of

vata, and smeared with the pulp of Sahacara, become black
(XIV 216) Yellow orpiment and red arsenic mixed with the
oil of Sakuna and
Kangu, are a means of making dark

ing one's colour black

(XIV. 2.17)
In addition to these there are
in the Arthasastra for

many techniques mentioned

working out some miracles These tech-

niques are also of magical sort. Thus after fasting for three
days, and three nights one should on the Pusya day, sow
TuvatT-seeds in earth in the skull of a man killed with a

weapon or impaled on

the stake, and sprinkle them with water

he should take them on the Pusya day itself
into
them
a
and twist
rope Then the cutting of it in front
of bows and machines fitted with strings causes the snapping
of these strings (XIV. 3.64-66).

When

grown,

same manner one should fast for three days and

and sow Gufija-seeds in earth in the skull of a man
killed with a weapon or impaled on the stake, and sprinkle
them with water. When grown, he should take them on the
Pusya day itself and twist them into a rope. Then the cutting
of it in front of bows and machines fitted with strings causes
the snapping of those strings (XIV 3.64-65).
In the same manner one should fast for three days and
nights and sow Gunj&-seeds in earth in the skull of a man
killed with a weapon or impaled on the stake, and sprinkle
them with water. When they have grown, one should cause
the Gufija creepers to be taken on the new moon night OP
full moon night when there is conjunction of the moon with
Pusya-constellation.and make rings out of them. Vessels with
In the

nights

The

'primitive' in the Arthaiaslra

food and drink placed on them

a

79-81). If

man

should come under

93

are never exhausted (XIV. 3.

desires that all the butter in the

village
his possession, he should, at the time when

a night show is going on, cut out the udders of a dead cow
and burn them in the flames of a lamp. When burnt one should
grind them
inside with

with the
it.

urine

When one

of a bull and smear a new jar

it round the
village leftwise,

fakes

whatever butter may have been kept

all that

comes

into

it

(XIV

there

3.82-84).

by those

villagers,

Similarly, in order to

get fruits of all sorts, following technique may be applied On

the fourteenth day of the dark fortnight -vhen there is conjuction of the

moon

with the Pusya constellation, one should insert

in heat an iron signet ring. One

into the vulva of a bitch

should pick
trees

come

it

to

up when fallen of its own accord Fruits from

one when called with it (XIV. 3.85-87\

In order to be able to walk through fire following technique

adopted. One should smear his feet with oil boiled
of
together with the fat of a frog and the pulp of the roots
Panbhadraka, Pratibaia, Vanjula, Vajra, and Kadali. Then he

may be

can walk on burning charcoals. Before applying this oil to one's

one can walk upon the
feet, one should clean them. Then
charcoals as on flowers (XIV. 2.27-29). A ball wade
burning

a knot of the root of

PIIu, with fire in the interior, with
is a
Suvarcaia or with a knot of thread, encircled by cotton,

of

means of

the mouth (XIV. 2 34).

emitting fire and smoke from

bamboo-reed in the bones

Fire, kindled by churning a speckled
out by water but burns with
is not

put
of swimming birds,
oil of the Ku^mSra
water (XIV. 2. 37). Fire sprinkled with the
m strong winds (XIV. 2.35) Sea loam
fruit, burns in ram and
The musk-rat, the
oil burns with water (XIV. 336).
soaked
and mixetf
salt-insect are ground to powder
wag-tail and the
means of breaking chains
with the urine of a horse, they are a

<XIV.

2.39)

The

for making
ArthalSstra prescribes various techniques

distance as one wants

oneself able to walk as much
^without
with
sandals made of camel-hide
toeing fatigued Thus smearing

Ganesli Tbite

94

owl and the vulture, covering them with leaves

of the banyan tree, one walks fifty yojanas without being
(XIV 2 42) The bone-marrow or the semen of the hawk,
the fat of the

fatigued

the heron, the crow, the vulture, the

swan, the plover, and the

hundred yojanas
One may use bone-marrow or semen of the hon, the tiger, the
also for the same purpose
leopard, the crow and the owl

Vlciralla,

enables one to walk untued one

(XIV. 2 43)

Aftei pressing in a camel shaped vessel the aborted

Vamas, or dead infants in the cemetary, the

foetusses of all

produced from that enables one to walk untired for one

hundred yojanas (XIV 2.44).

fat

XIV. 3 4-ff magical techniques of becoming

Thus after fasting for three days and nights,
one should sow, on the Pusya-day bailey seeds in earth in the
skull of a man killed with a weapon on impaled on the stake
and sprinkle them with sheep's milk Then wearing a garland
ArthasSstra

invisible are told

is able to move about with one's

shadow and form invisible (XIV 3 4-5). After fasting for three
and
one
on
the Pusya-day powder separately
should,
nights,
days
the right and the left eyes of a dog, a cat, an owl and a flying
fox. Then anointing the eyes with the powder of the corresponding eyes, one moves about with shadow and form invisible
(XIV. 3 6-7). After fasting for three days and nights, one should
prepare on the Pusya-day an iron salve-container and a pin
Then, filling the skull of any one of the night- roaming creatures
with an eyes salve.one should insert it in the vagina of a dead
woman and cause it to burn Taking out that salve on the
Puysa-day, one should keep it in that salve-container, with eyes
anointed with that, one moves about with shadow and form

of the sprouts of barley, one

invisible

XIV

3. 10 -1 3)

maintained the sacred

Where ode

sees a

Brahmana, who has

cremated or burning on the pyre,,

days and mghts,one should, on the
Pusya day, make a bag out of the garment of a man who has
died naturally and fill it up with the ashes of the funeral
pyre;
fires,

there, after fasting for three

wearing that bag, one moves about with

visible (XIV 3.14). The skin of a serpent

shadow and form

tilled

in-

with the powder

The primfthv'

IB the

*S

Ac iJu&Ufj*

of the bones and marrows of that bull which

Funeral rites of

the

in

a BrShrnaiu

is

the

i<

slaughtered

means of making

animals invisible (XIV, 3 15). The skin of Pracalaka, filled with

the ashes of one bitten by a serpent, is the means of malting
deer invisible (XIV 3 J6). The skin of a serpent, filled with the
powder of the tail, the dung and the knee hones of an owl and

a flying

fox,

is

the

means of making birds

Soporiferous techniques
In order

to

make

invisible

(XIV. ^.P)

the

enemy

sleep, the

Artha<atra prei-

Thus one who *ants

to send one's enemy to sleep should fast for three davs and
a month, *ah
nights Then on the fourteenth of the dark half of
with the Pusva constellation, one
the moon in

Bribes

many magico

religious techniques.

conjunction

should purchase from a Svapaka woman, the scrapings made by

should
Bilakhas. Placing them with Masa beans, in a basket, one
out on
it
bury it in an uncrowded cremation ground. Takin?
t
pounded
the fourteenth of the next fortnight and getrng
make pills out of u 'Ihen wherem
by a maiden, one should
over
it, there ooe
Mantras
the
after
one
reciting
one throws
pill
in this-connecsends all to sleep The Mantras to be recited
as Bali, Sambar*,
tion contain obeisances to Asura-beings such
Kurabna, to auihois of
Bbandlra-paka, Naraka, Nikumbha,
contain an expression of the
smrtis like Narada, Devala etc and
desire that all the persons concerned

may g&

to sleep

(XIV

rite can
3 19-31) With these same Mantras another soponfcrous
the quill of a per
also be performed. Thus one should bury
uncrowded
and three while lines in an
cupine with three black
fourteenth of the next
cremation ground. Taking it outon the
burn
throws it along mib ashes from
fortnight, wherever one
one sends all
the Mantras referred to above,
ing ground, reciting
In the third so poriferous techmque
there to sleep (XIV 3 32-33).
One shou d fort
a
one should take similar quiU of porcupine.
fo might
the fourteenth of 0* dark
for seven days and then on
one
;

Khad.ra accumulating
offer into the fire stick, of

them to

some

and She* reciting

hundred and eight, along wuh honey
to Brahmft and all <t*r
which obeisance is paid
Mantras

Ganesh Tbite

f4
deities, to

Brabmanas

etc,

and

desire

of making others sleep

expressed. Then where at the village gate or the door of

the people go to sleep (XIV.
house,, one ot these is buried, all

jis

3 34-43) In the fourth rite for making others sleep,

has fasted for four meals should make an offering

one who

an un
crowded cremation ground on the fourteenth of the dark fortis paid
night, and taking with the Mantra in which obeisance
to Asura-beings and desire of making others sleep is express
made
of
a
tie
it
in
a
should
dead
Sanka,
bag
hog's snout.
ed, a
Piercing it in the middle with the quill of a porcupine, where
it

is

buried

(XIV
To

3.

with

the

Mantra, one sends

all there,

avert calamities
In order

to

avert

various

calamities,

of divine origin are of eight kinds

famine, rats,

wild animals,

these the country

serpents

in fire,

and

fire,

and

must be protected (IV.

of avoiding calamities of fires,

cause worship of the fiie to be
recitals

The calami-

floods, disease,,

evil

3 1-2).

spmts. From,
For the sake

the king should, in

made with

of benedictions

(IV

Artha-

Kautiliya

gastra prescribes various magico-rehgious devices

ties

to sleep

43-50)

summer,

offerings, oblations-

3.5).

For the sake

of averting the calamity of floods, he should cause worship

to be carried out on Parvan-days. Experts in the

of rivers

piactice of

magic 01

spells against lain

(IV

those versed
3.

10-11

in the

In

Vedas should

case

use-

of drought he

should cause worship of the Lord of 3aci, Ganges, the

Moun

tains, and Mahakaccha to be made (IV 3 12). The magicians

and others should counteract with secret means, the calamity
of disease. Similarly the holy ascetics should perform paci

The same is to be done in case

ficatory and expiatory rites
of epidemics Similarly
that case the king should cause to
be instituted bathing
sacred places, worship of Mahakaccha,

milking of cows in cremation grounds, burmg of effigies,

and a night festival in honour of gods In case of epidemic

connectionamong cattle he should cause lustration-rites

with the sheds and objects connected with them and worship

The

'primitive' to the

97

ArtbtiSsIn

i.e. Subrahmanya For elephants, Asvinau

V&yu for
and
and
mules,
Agni for goats (JV 313 16, cf commendonkeys
tary of Gandpati-Sastn for the deities of cattle) The device. *'f
facing a famine are rational and not magico-rehgious In e.fsc

their respective denies

for horses, PaSupati for cattle, Varuna for buffaloes,

of danger from

rats, birds, insects,

he should c IUMJ the holv

perform pacificatory rites And on Parvai d i\she shou''l

order worship of rats etc (IV 3 25-27' In cas of danger frt<m
wild animals,, herds of deer or bejsts, sxvarms of birds and croco-

ascetics

should order worship of mountain on Panan da\s (\\ .

ts in the Atharw3.33-34) In case of danger from serpents, expci

diles he

vedic lore should use magic spells On Parvan-days, he should

order worship of cobras In case of danger from aquaiiccre,uics,
similar devices are to be used (IV 3.3^-39) In case of daiucr
evil spirits, experts in the Atharvavedic lore or in me
rues for destroyng evil-spin's.
practice of magic should perform
The king should order worship of Caitya-trees with offerings

from

food, small fUgs, and goats

In case of any danger in general, offerings are
words "laruta
during day and night with the

of raised platform, umbrellas,

(IV.3.40-41)
to

be made

'

For

performing
vasaramah (we offer you cooked rice) (I V.3 42).
in his
such magico religious rites, a king should always keep
ascetics, capable of counterkingdom, experts m magic and holy
acting divine calamities (IV. 3.44).
take place di the tune
If the calamities mentioned above
rites <tre
of a raid on enemy, then also some magico-reltgious
of Kauulya Thus
to be performed according to the opinion
obeisance to deities and Brttmmw
that case one should pay
7 S.-JW.
rites to be performed (IV.

and cause the Atharvavedic

Sorcery rites.

Kauulya

rrtts
numerous magico religious sorcery
catch a.charcoal
enemy Thus one should

prescribes

for destroying the

caused by it, and feed ,t w.th

burnt by lightning of a flame
should offer offering, to
One
burnt
o
wood
by lightning.
^ w
becomes burnt by this f i,
this fire Then the enemy
similar nte
for it(XIV.l34) In a
being any remedy
out
.

to

Ganesh Thtte

99

from a. blacksmith and offer honey in

from a vintner, ghee m the fire from the
roads, garland-flowers m fire from a woman devoted to her
husband, mustard seeds in the fire fiom a harlot, curds in the
fire from a woman in confinement, rice in the fire from one

one should bring

it;

wine

fire

in the fire

who has kept sacrificial fires, meat in the fire from a Candala
and human flesh in the fire from a funeral pyre Then he should
mix all these fires together and offer fat of a goat and tip of
nose of a man and faggots of R&javrksa, with Mantras in
honour of Agni. At this time obeisance is paid to Aditi, Anumati,
Sarasvati, Savitr, etc. This fire then confounds the eyes of enemwithout there being any icmedy against it (XIV 1 35-39) In
the ArthaSastra of Kautilya there are many other magico-religious sorceries for creating physical troubles or diseases to the

ies

enemy.Thus one should

earth into which a

fill

woman

or

the skin of water-snake with the

man

has breathed This

is

means

of blocking the nostrils and choking the mouth ( XIV 3 67 X

Filling the skin of a boar with breathed -in eaith, one should

u with a -monkey's tendons By means of this one causes

suppression of urine and stools of the enemy (XIV 3 68,). On the
fourteenth of the dark fortnight, one should anoint the eyes
of an effigy of the enemy made out of Rajavrksa-wood with
tie

the bile of a tawny-coloured cow killed with a weapon. This

Js a means of making the enemy blind (XIV 3 69) One who has
fasted for four meals, should make an offering on the fourteenth
of the dark fortmght and make pms out of the bones of a
man impaled on the stake. One of these planted in the dung or
urine of an enemy, causes suppression of stools and urine, planted mhis foot-step 01 seat, it kills him by consumption,planted
in his shop, field or house

it

destroys the course of his

liveli-

one uses the wedges made out of a tree

Durnt by lightning then also similar effects can be produced
XIV 3.72) He in whose house.the Punarnava turned downwards

hood (XIV.3

Jie

70,71). If

Nimba and

the

Kamamadhu,

the hair of a

monkey, and the

bone of a human being, tied up in the garment of a corpse,

are buried, or to whose foot-step one takes it after seeing it

The

'primitive* in the Arflwiistr

does not survive beyond

three fortnights, with his

sons, wife and
his wealth. (XIV. 3.73-74).
Similarly, he in whose footstep, are

buried the Punarnava turned

downwards, theNimba, the K5mathe Svayamgupta, and the bone of
a humanbemg, at the
of
the
house
or
gate
army-camp or village or city, dose not
survive beyond three
fortnights with his sons, wife and his wealth
(XIV 3 75-76). One should peocure the hairs of a
goat, monkey,
cat and an inchneumon.of
Brahmanas.and Svapfikas and of a
crow and an owl The ordure of an
enemy, pounded with this,
causes immediate destruction (XIV
3.77) He in whose footstep
are buried flowers removed fiom a

madhu,

corpse, fermenting stuT, the

hairs of an inchneumon and the skins of a

scorpion, a bee and
a snake, become immediately
impotent, so long as that is not
removed (XIV 3.78).
is

Kautilya
intelligent

Then

supposed to be very shrewd ( ku(ilamati ) and

it may be asked how then in his work
there

is so

much of "primitive" ? For

cal,

irrational

and

asks similar question

by him

is

word primitive
way of thinking

the

prescientific

The answer of

over-simplistic

He

implies mysti

H C SETH

this question

says that this portion

proposed
may be

''spurious" and seems to be inserted in the Artha&stra under

the influence of later Tantnc literature. 8 If is not always

correct

to consider

sight, to

be

an

anything that

interpolation

appears

for one,

strange
believe

at first
that

the

magico-rehgious way of thinking is too alt pervading

ancient Indian literature that it does not make us astonish
if it is

found in the ArthajSastra of Kautilya

Vedic literature

(Sarhhitfls,

also.

The whole

BrShmanas, Upamsads, Sutra

The

texc*

and puran^s
are not lacking them. So is the case of literature on so called
sciences like Erotics, Medicine, Chemisryetc. as well as on arts like
etc.) is full

of magico

Music, Architecture
Kautilya aqd

it

religious thoughts

etc.

may

The

political lore existed

be containing

many

and Kau^ilya might have reproduced them

3

H C

''

epics

even prior to
elements

primitive

with due respect to

The spurious in KLaufcdya's Artbiastra"

Felicitation Vol Bombay, 1939 (p 250 ff), p. 255

SBTH,

F, IK

Thomas

Ganesh Tbite

100

tradition

We know

that there are

many hymns

in the Atharva-

veda containing magico religious political thoughts and further

there
a text ancillary to the Atharvaveda
in the Kausikasutia
duties of king described, the nature of
are many Rajakarmani

That the king should

is norhing but magico-rehgious
and Kau^ilya
rule
appoint a puwfuta priest, is a very ancient
The word Purohita literally means
strongly recommends it

winch

&

the king
"kept in front" (like a shield) The Purohita protects
kingdom with his magico-rehgious activities. But he is not merely
agressive also and can perform black magical
protective, he
rites against the enemy of the king ^o one has 1o trace the roots
the Atharvaof the magico-) eligious part in the Arthasastra
is

Although Kautilya himself sometimes oppo

ses superstitions etc. or allows a king to exploit public superstition
for his benefit, it is worthy to note that Kautilya was not a
vedtc hteiamre only

heretic or antivedic.
cal

people (cf\

III

On the other hand

he looks

down

the hereti-

vedic way alone is

) and declares that
7-10 etc) * Therefore there is no wonder
work some magico-religious part which is in

20,16

beneficial (1.3.4, p. 1.5

he includes in his
adherence to the Vedic way of thinking
if

Cf.

M. WINTERNITZ, Some Problems of Indian Literature,

"The whole Arthasastra shows that its author was

1925

adherent of Brahmanism

and

Calcutta,

founded on Brahmanic religion and custom ''(P.104 see following),

V. R
Ramachandra Dikslntar, " The Religious data in

Artha&stra" U.I, 1929,

strict

he presupposes a social system entirely

(P. 251ff) p.251,

253 etc

CP.

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:ope

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