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numerous piezometers with different vertical positions within the aquifer (Plomb, 1989;
Nader, 1990; Milwaukee Metropolitan Sewerage District, 1992; Carlson, 2001; and Dunning
et al, 2004). Both of these techniques are expensive and the second is not possible in many
settings where the aquifer is not stressed and yielding significant vertical gradient of
potentiometric level.
For northern Louisiana aquifers it appears that there are no field scale Kv values for
the aquifers in this part of Louisiana. Only permeameter tests associated with oil field
studies yield permeability values (at lab scale), for a series of cores. The majority of these
cores are samples within the Carrizo-Wilcox (Carlson, in review), which lie towards the
southern edges of northern Louisiana.
However, there are many grain-size values collected during the drilling of water
supply wells in northern Louisiana. In many cases grain size samples were collected every
10 to 20 feet yielding several values within the screened interval of the well and across a
large portion of the aquifer. For this study these samples are analyzed for hydraulic
conductivity (K) by using eight standard equations that relate grain-size properties with K.
With three to over ten values of K within a layer of sand, it was possible to calculate an
effective Kh, Kv and estimate vertical anisotropy.
METHODS
Hydraulic conductivity was determined from grain-size data for intervals within and
near the screen intervals of generally public supply and industrial wells in northern
Louisiana. These intervals have at least three or more values of grain-size determined that
include size information for the 10% (d10), 17% (d17), and 20% (d20) rank grain-size diameter
data. There are eight different equations as described in Vukovic and Soro, (1992) and
Kasenow (2002) which were used to determine hydraulic conductivity from grain-size data.
K = Cg/v(BH)v(n)d210
(1)
K = CFg/v(BH)log(500/C)d210
(2)
33
(4)
where K is hydraulic conductivity (m/day), n is porosity which is assumed to be 0.4, and d10
is diameter of grains in the 10th percentile expressed in millimeters.
United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) Formula (Vukovic and Soro, 1992):
K = C0.36d2.320
(5)
where K is hydraulic conductivity (m/day), C is a conversion factor to convert hydraulic
conductivity from cm/s to m/day, and d20 is diameter of grains in the 20th percentile
expressed in millimeters.
Pavchichs Formula (Pravedny, 1966):
K = C_d217
(6)
(7)
where K is hydraulic conductivity (m/day), n is porosity which is assumed to be 0.4, and d10
is diameter of grains in the 10th percentile expressed in millimeters.
Terzaghi Formula (Terzaghi, 1925): K = CRg/v((n-0.13)2/(1-n)1/3)d210
(8)
Kh = miKi/mi
(9)
Kv= mi/(mi/Ki)
(10)
34
Schwartz, 1990) as determine by any one of the eight equations noted previously. Lastly,
with effective Kh and Kv determined the value of vertical anisotropy was determined by
dividing Kh by Kv.
RESULTS
The results of this study were determine by analyzing three or more grain-size results
within the screen interval of wells or zones of interest for development as water source for
usually public supply and industrial wells in northern Louisiana. A significant number of
anisotropy results were determined for six aquifers in northern Louisiana: Carrizo-Wilcox ,
Catahoula, Cockfield, Mississippi River Alluvial, Sparta, and Upland Terrace. Most of the
anisotropies were result of analysis of between 3 and 6 observations (Fig. 1). This is the case
for between 62.5% of the observations for the Mississippi River Alluvial Aquifer and 93.9%
of the observations for the Catahoula Aquifer.
percentage of anisotropies
determined
60
50
Catahoula
Cockfield
Mississippi River
Sparta
Upland Terrace
40
30
20
Carrizo-Wilcox
10
0
3
10
11
12 over
12
number of observations
Figure 1. The percentage of anisotropy results by major aquifer in northern Louisiana by
number of grain-size observations that were analyzed to determine the vertical anisotropy.
The grain-size values often increase with depth for given sand, which in turn yields
increasing values of hydraulic conductivity downwards within sand (Fig. 2).
This increase of grain-size and resulting hydraulic conductivity is typical as indicated by the
fact that bottom samples usually have a larger value of hydraulic conductivity than the top
samples for all six of the aquifers of this study: Mississippi River Alluvial (80%), Catahoula
(75%), Carrizo-Wilcox (70%), Cockfield (62%), Upland Terrace (59%) and Sparta (58%).
In addition when bottom samples have a higher hydraulic conductivity than top samples the
difference is usually greater than when the reverse is the case (Fig. 3). Approximately 80%
35
of the K bottom divided by K top ratios range between 0.5 and 4, with about two thirds over
1, which is reasonable given fluvial sands within the Mississippi River Alluvium and the
Upland Terrace typically become coarser downwards (Fisk, 1938; Wang, 1952; Visher,
1965; and Carlson, 2006). The other aquifers are generally also considered to have formed
under fluvial and/or deltaic conditions Catahoula (Maher, 1940), Carrizo-Wilcox (Anderson,
1960), Cockfield (Fisk, 1938; Anderson, 1960), and Sparta (Wang, 1952).
15.5 to 18.6 (51 to 61)
1
10
100
1000
(3.28)
(32.8)
(328)
(3280)
hydraulic conductivity m/day (ft/day)
Figure 2. Above is an example of how hydraulic conductivity as function of depth below the
surface for the Mississippi River Alluvial Aquifer in Madison Parish.
Initially eight different techniques were used to determine the anisotropy of hydraulic
conductivity from grain-size data. These results were compared with each other using a ttest. For all aquifers seven techniques: Hazen, Beyer, Sauerbrei, Kozeny, Pavchichs
Slichter and Terzaghi, yield a t-test results indicating that results were the same, that is the
confidence of difference is less than 95% which is the standard for defining a statistical
comparison indicating that two data sets are significantly different (Kirk, 1990). Only the
USBR technique yielded t-test results that indicate that its anisotropy results are significantly
different from the other seven tests (Tables 1 and 2). With this in mind further analysis was
limited to the seven techniques that yield anisotropy values that are similar to each other.
The results in the following figures were determined from only samples that include at least 7
techniques used for the determination of vertical anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity.
36
percentage of observations
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
under
0.125
0.125 to 0.25 to
0.25
0.5
0.5 to 1
1 to 2
2 to 4
4 to 8
8 to 16
over 16
Figure 3. Above is display of the ratio of hydraulic conductivity for bottom sample divided
by hydraulic conductivity for top sample by Pavchich technique for the six aquifers
considered in this study.
As a result of the fact that hydraulic conductivities generally increase downwards for
the sand aquifers of northern Louisiana the typical vertical anisotropy is over one and
generally between 1 and 2 (Figs. 4 to 6). Generally the anisotropy values are under 1.25
(Figs. 4 to 6). This is probably a result of the procedure that only determines anisotropy from
a stack of layers (K values) and ignores any anisotropy within these individual layers. This
probably yields a low value of vertical anisotropy because it ignores small scale features such
as stratification (bedding planes) (Domenico and Schwartz, 1990; Anderson and Woesnner,
1992), lamina (Anderson and Woesner, 1992), imbrication (Bouwer, 1978) and layering on a
small scale of a fewer millimeters (Bouwer, 1978), which can yield a vertical anisotropy at
the scale of core samples and will be missed by grain-size samples for intervals typically 10
to 20 feet.
Table 1. Average t-test values for comparison of the eight technique results for vertical
anisotropy, read by matching result in each column with a row.
Hazen
Beyer
Sauerbre
Kozeny
USBR
Pavchich
Slichter
Terzaghi
Hazen
XXXXXX
0.24
0.51
0.07
3.62
0.51
0.17
0.13
Beyer
0.24
XXXXXX
0.41
0.19
3.39
0.42
0.08
0.11
Sauerbre
0.51
0.41
XXXXXX
0.49
4.11
0.00
0.35
0.34
Kozeny
0.07
0.19
0.49
XXXXXX
3.67
0.49
0.02
0.08
37
USBR
3.62
3.39
4.11
3.67
XXXXXX
4.11
3.53
3.45
Pavchich
0.51
0.42
0.00
0.49
4.11
XXXXXX
0.38
0.38
Slichter
0.17
0.08
0.35
0.02
3.53
0.38
XXXXXX
0.04
Terzaghi
0.13
0.11
0.34
0.08
3.45
0.38
0.04
XXXXXX
Table2. Confidence of difference for t-test comparisons between results for the eight
different techniques used to determined vertical anisotropy of hydraulic conductivity
determined from grain-size data.
Hazen
Hazen
Beyer
Sauerbre
Kozeny
USBR
Pavchich
Slichter
Terzaghi
Beyer
6 no
XXXX
XXXX
6 no
6 no
6 no
2n4y
6 no
6 no
6 no
6 no
6 no
2n4y
6 no
6 no
6 no
Sauerbre
6 no
6 no
XXXX
6 no
1n5y
6 no
6 no
6 no
Kozeny
6 no
6 no
6 no
XXXX
2n4y
6 no
6 no
6 no
USBR
2n4y
2n4y
1n5y
2n4y
XXXX
1n5y
2n4y
2n4y
Pavchich
6 no
6 no
6 no
6 no
1n5y
XXXX
6 no
6 no
Slichter
6 no
6 no
6 no
6 no
2n4y
6 no
XXXX
Terzaghi
6 no
6 no
6 no
6 no
2n4y
6 no
6 no
6 no
XXXX
percentage of observations
1
1. .75
75
to
2
2
to
2
2. .5
5
to
3
3
to
3
3. .5
5
to
4
4
to
6
6
to
8
ov
er
8
1.
5
to
1.
5
to
25
1.
to
1.
25
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Upland Terrace
Figure 4. Vertical anisotropy results for Pleistocene age or younger units of northern
Louisiana, which include Upland Terrace and Mississippi River Alluvial Aquifers. There are
10 and 17 results determined for Mississippi River Alluvial and Upland Terrace Aquifers
respectively.
What appears to be the case for the six aquifers considered is that, in general,
anisotropy values are larger for the aquifers which have higher geometric mean of hydraulic
conductivity than lower geometric mean of hydraulic conductivity. The portion of
anisotropy results greater than 1.25 is 40% for Upland Terrace and 20% for Mississippi River
Alluvium. By comparison for tighter, lower conductivity units such as Cockfield and
Carrizo-Wilcox the portion of anisotropy results greater than 1.25 is 10% and 5.7%
respectively.
38
7
75 5
to
2
2
to
2
2. .5
5
to
3
3
to
3.
3. 5
5
to
4
4
to
6
6
to
8
ov
er
8
1.
1.
5
1.
to
1.
to
25
25
1.
to
1.
percentage of observations
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cockfield
Figure 5. Vertical anisotropy results for Catahoula and Cockfield Aquifers within northern
Louisiana. There are 23 and 19 results determined for Catahoula and Cockfield Alluvial
Aquifers respectively.
SUMMARY
Grain-size analysis will yield vertical anisotropies such that Kh is typically 1 to 2
times that of Kv. However, in general, vertical anisotropies are slightly larger for aquifers
with typically higher hydraulic conductivity such as Upland Terrace and Mississippi River
Alluvial than for aquifers with typically lower hydraulic conductivity such as Cockfield or
Carrizo-Wilcox. Lastly, these small anisotropies are probably a result of two factors: (1)
missing smaller scale features such as very thin beds of lower K material that is just mixed
into a sample 10 to 20 feet long and (2) missing the impact of bedding planes, lamina, and
grain orientation within a sediment for sediments that contain oval grains.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank Zahir Bo Bolourchi and Brad Hanson for their assistance and the access to
the vast data set of well completion reports of the Water Resources Division of the
Department of Transportation and Development.
39
percentage of observations
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
75
0.
to
1
1
25
to
1.
25
1.
75
to
1.
5
1.
to
1.
75
1.
to
2
2
to
2.
.5
to
3
3
to
5
3.
.5
to
to
6
6
to
8
er
v
o
Carrizo-Wilcox
Figure 6. Vertical anisotropy results for Sparta and Carrizo-Wilcox Aquifers within northern
Louisiana. There are 35 and 110 results determined for Carrizo-Wilcox and Sparta Aquifers
respectively.
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Geological Survey, Geological Bulletin, no. 34, 164p.
Beyer, W., 1966, Hydrogeologische Untersuchungen bei der Ablagerung von
Wasserschadstoffen: Zeitschrift fuer Angewandte Geologie, v 12 no. 11, p 599-606.
Bouwer, H., 1978, Groundwater Hydrology: McGraw Hill Inc., New York, New York,
480p.
Carlson, D.A., in review, Louisiana Aquifer Hydraulic Properties, Louisiana Geological
Survey, report of investigations, unnumbered.
Carlson, D.A., 2006, Systematic Variability of Hydraulic Conductivity within the Mississippi
River Alluvial Aquifer in Northeastern Louisiana: Gulf Coast Association of Geological
Societies, Transactions, v 56, p.121-136.
Carlson, D.A., 2001, Dependence of Conductivities and Anisotropies on Geologic Properties
within the Near-Surface Aquifer in Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Doctoral Dissertation,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 768p.
Carlson, D.A., 2000, A Hydrogeophysical Examination of the Paleozoic Rock of
Southeastern Wisconsin-Northeastern Illinois, unpublished report for U.S. Geological Survey
Wisconsin office, 67p.
40
Domenico, P.A., and F.W. Schwartz, 1990, Physical and Chemical Hydrogeology: John
Wiley and Sons, New York, New York, 824p.
Dunning, C.P., D.T. Feinstein, R.J. Hunt, and J.T. Krohelski, 2004, Simulation of GroundWater Flow, Surface-Water Flow, and a Deep Sewer Tunnel System in Menomonee Valley,
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Fisk, H.N, 1938, Geology of Grant and LaSalle Parishes: Department of Conservation
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Hazen, A., 1892, Some physical properties of sands and gravels: Report Massachusetts State
Board of Health.
Kasenow, M., 2002, Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity from Grain Size Analysis:
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Kirk, R.E., 1990, Statistics an Introduction, 3 rd edition: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
Forth Worth, Texas, 711p.
Kozeny, J., 1953, Hydraulik: Springer, Wien, Germany, 588p.
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Maher, J.C., Ground-Water Resources of Rapides Parish, Louisiana: Department of
Conservation Louisiana Geological Survey, Geological Bulletin, no. 17, 96p.
Nader, D.C., 1990, Three-Dimensional Digital Simulation of the Ground Water-Lake
Michigan Hydraulic Connection: Masters Thesis, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, University of
Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 159p.
Pravedny, G.H., 1966, Design and selection of grain-size composition of filter beds for the
transition zones of large dams: Energiia, Moscow
Plomb, D.J., 1989, A 3-D Finite Element Model to Predict Drawdown Caused by Infiltration
into a 32 ft. Diameter Tunnel in Solving Ground Water Problems with Models: Associate of
Groundwater Scientist and Engineers, National Water Well Association, 4th international
conference on the use of models to analyze and find working solutions to groundwater
problems, Indianapolis, Indiana, February 7-9, 1989, proceedings, p 955-978.
Slichter, C.S., 1898, Theoretical investigations of the motion of ground waters: United States
Geological Survey, 19 th Annual Report, p 295-384.
Terzaghi, K., 1925, Principles of soil mechanics: Engineering News-Record, v. 95,
p 832.
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