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If Money Does Not Make You Happy, Consider Time
If Money Does Not Make You Happy, Consider Time
of pages: 5; 4C:
Journal of
CONSUMER
PSYCHOLOGY
Research Dialogue
Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, 518 Memorial Way, Stanford, CA 94305-5015, USA
Wharton Marketing Department, University of Pennsylvania, 766 Jon M. Hunstman Hall, 3730 Walnut Street, Philadelphia, PA19104-6340, USA
Received 13 August 2010
Abstract
Although a substantial amount of research has examined the link between money and happiness, far less has examined the link between time
and happiness. This paper argues, however, that time plays a critical role in understanding happiness, and it complements the money-spending
happiness principles in Dunn, Gilbert, and Wilson (2011-this issue) by offering five time-spending happiness principles: 1) spend time with the
right people; 2) spend time on the right activities; 3) enjoy the experience without spending the time; 4) expand your time; and 5) be aware that
happiness changes over time.
2011 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Dost thou love life? Then do not squander time, for that's
the stuff life is made of.
-Benjamin Franklin
Psychologists have found a surprisingly small relationship
between money and happiness (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002;
Frey & Stutzer, 2002; Krueger, Schkade, Schwarz, & Stone,
2006), and economists have found Americans happiness levels to
have remained largely constant despite increases in the country's
financial wealth over the same time period (Easterlin, 1995). Why
does a whole lot more money not make us a whole lot more happy?
One answer is that people are just not spending it right
(Dunn, Gilbert, and Wilson, 2011-this issue). For example,
people often spend their money on objects (rather than
experiences), on the self (rather than others), and on big
luxuries (rather than small pleasures)expenditures that are not
1057-7408/$ - see front matter 2011 Society for Consumer Psychology. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2011.01.004
Please cite this article as: Aaker, J.L., et al., If money does not make you happy, consider time, Journal of Consumer Psychology (2011), doi:10.1016/j.
jcps.2011.01.004
This is not the case with any of the authors of this paper.
Please cite this article as: Aaker, J.L., et al., If money does not make you happy, consider time, Journal of Consumer Psychology (2011), doi:10.1016/j.
jcps.2011.01.004
instructed to take long and slow breaths (vs. short and quick
ones) for 5 minutes not only felt there was more time available
to get things done, but also perceived their day to be longer
(Rudd & Aaker, 2011). People can also expand their time by
spending time doing something meaningful, like helping
another (Chance, Mogilner, & Norton, 2011). Even though
feeling time-constrained makes people less likely to take the
time to help someone, spending time on someone else (vs. on
oneself and vs. getting time) subsequently makes people feel
like they have more spare time and that their future is more
expansive.
In general, having a sense of control over one's life makes a
person happier (Duncan-Myers & Huebner, 2000; Perlmutter &
Monty, 1977; Veenhoven, 1984; Peterson, 1999), less depressed (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989), and physically
healthier (Pulkkinen, Kokkonen, & Mkiaho, 1998; Marmot,
2004). Therefore, having (or perceiving) greater control over
how time is spent should have similarly positive effects. For
instance, freely chosen activities increase happiness, whereas
obligatory activities lower it (Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter,
2003). Furthermore, having spare time and perceiving control
over how to spend that time (i.e. discretionary time) has been
shown to have a strong and consistent effect on life satisfaction
and happiness, even controlling for the actual amount of free
time one has (Eriksson, Rice, & Goodin, 2007; Goodin, Rice,
Parpo, & Eriksson, 2008). Conversely, a lack of control should
have a negative effect. Indeed, Overworked Americans
complain of being in a time bind, not only because they are
busy but also because they are not in control of how busy they
are (Schor, 1993). Therefore, increase your discretionary time,
even if it requires monetary resources. And if you cannot afford
to, focus on the present moment, breathe more slowly, and
spend the little time that you have in meaningful ways.
Principle 5: Be aware that happiness changes over time
Happiness is dynamic over the course of life: age influences
both how happy one feels and how one feels happy.
Specifically, recent research found that overall well-being
increases after the age of 50 (Stone, Schwartz, Broderick, &
Deaton, 2010). In addition, the way individuals experience
happiness shifts over the life course (Mogilner, Kamvar, &
Aaker, forthcoming). For example, younger people are more
likely to associate happiness with excitement, whereas older
individuals are more likely to experience happiness as feeling
peaceful (Mogilner et al., forthcoming). The amount of
enjoyment derived from various social connections also
changes with age. We know, for instance, that the value of
spending time with interesting new acquaintances decreases as
one gets older, while the value of spending time with familiar
friends and family increases (Fredrickson & Carstensen, 1990;
Carstensen, 2006). Therefore, what (and who) makes you the
most happy right now will likely not be what makes you the
most happy a few years from now (irrespective of adaptation).
Although the meaning of happiness shifts in dramatic and
significant ways, it does so in predictable patterns. Therefore it
is possible to anticipate such changes and refrain from basing
Please cite this article as: Aaker, J.L., et al., If money does not make you happy, consider time, Journal of Consumer Psychology (2011), doi:10.1016/j.
jcps.2011.01.004
Please cite this article as: Aaker, J.L., et al., If money does not make you happy, consider time, Journal of Consumer Psychology (2011), doi:10.1016/j.
jcps.2011.01.004
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Please cite this article as: Aaker, J.L., et al., If money does not make you happy, consider time, Journal of Consumer Psychology (2011), doi:10.1016/j.
jcps.2011.01.004