Maxwellian

models oversimplied viscoelas3c responses and

thus give approximate predic3ons.

Creep

Most materials exhibit nonlinear creep

Real rates

Maxwell models steady-state creep

Model (i.e. constant creep rate )

t
To overcome limitations of Maxwell model alternative
arrangements of elements have been proposed: e.g.
Voight-Kelvin
parallel
______________________
Model with_____________________
arrangement of spring and dashpot.
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Voight-Kelvin Material Model: beLer represents ___________________

non-steady state
_______________________
creep.
transient

Ini3ally the dashpot must carry the en3re force because the spring can
carry a force only when extended.
The force in the V-K model will be equal to the force in the
= s + d
plus
dashpot________the
force in the spring: hence ____________
statically indeterminant
{_______________________}

independent as the dashpot will _constrain
Strains are no longer______________
_________
the spring to have the same deforma3on thus deforma3on

= s = d
compa3bility: _____________


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Equilibrium and compa3bility arguments can be rewriLen to

time-dependent
convey that the response is ____________________.
force equilibrium: (t)

compa3bility: (t)

= s(t) + d(t)

= s(t) = d(t)

stress-strain rela3onship for the spring:

stress strain rela3onship for the dashpot:

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s(t) = Es(t)
_______________
s(t) = E(t)
_______________
dd/dt = (1/)d(t)
_______________
d/dt = (1/)d(t)
_______________
3

To determine the governing cons3tu3ve equa3on, subs3tute the

equa3ons for the spring and dashpot into the equilibrium
equa3on.
The governing stress-strain dieren3al equa3on:

d (t )

=
+ E (t )

dt

Stress depends not only on the strain, but also the strain rate
Solu3on to the rst-order linear dieren3al equa3on (see next slide)

t /

(t ) =

1 e
E

where = E

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FALL 2014: EMCH 315

An instantaneous strain cannot be imposed as the dashpot

must deform prior to the spring in the V-K model.
Imposed condition

Non-linear creep response

t
t

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cannot
An instantaneous strain ___________
be imposed because
the model can only deform with 3me as the dashpot must
deform prior to the spring in the V-K model.

at t = 0

=0

at time t

(t ) = 1 et /
E

as t

= /E

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Now we remove the stress at some arbitrary time

Voight-Kelvin
Maxwell Model

transient
models __________________
creep:
slows
____________
down as time passes

decreases
strain ___________
zero
toward ____________
due to spring in parallel
pulling
arrangement __________
on the dashpot

1
p
o

o
p

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t1

t
8

The time-dependent strain can be determined after we

remove the stress at a new t=0, while = 1.

d
= E +
=0
dt

= E
dt

= 1e t /

cant account for __________________

stress relaxation
for a constant strain, d/dt = 0 and E =
FALL 2014: EMCH 315

Viscoelas3c Materials

Their uses

Asphalt

Roads (moves with t and T)

Silly puLy

Toys

Polymeric foams

Seat Cushions, maLress topper

Glass

Dinnerware, labware

Rubber Bands

Hold things together

Metals (T >Tm/2)

W lament in light bulbs, turbine blades

Plas3c/polymer items

Sun glasses

Rubber bumpers in cars

Absorbs energy from impact

Wood

Sagging with 3me as viscoelas3c response

Nylon Guitar String

Rockin Out!

Steel plates coated with Damping of vibra3onal energy

viscoelas3c polymer
Discs in human spines

Slip disc, rupture of discs

Skin

Holds us together

New born babys skull

Protects the brain and other important parts

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10

Examples and Applica3ons of Viscoelas3c Materials

Creep and Recovery

Materials which behave elas3cally at room temperature oien aLain signicant
viscoelas3c proper3es when heated. Such is the case with metal turbine
blades in jet engines, which reach very high temperatures and need to
withstand very high tensile stresses. Conven3onal metals can creep
signicantly at high temperatures and this has led to the development of
creep-resistant alloys; turbine blades are now oien made of so called
superalloys which contain some or all of nickel, cobalt, chromium, aluminum,
3tanium, tungsten and molybdenum.

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11

Examples and Applica3ons of Viscoelas3c Materials

Creep and Recovery
Disks in the human spine are viscoelas3c.
Creep under normal body weight and get shorter with 3me.
Lying down allows the spinal disks to recover, and thus most
people are taller in the morning than in the evening.

Skin 3ssue is viscoelas3c.
Ex. Pinching the skin at the back of the hand; it takes 3me to
recover back to its original at posi3on. The longer the skin is held
in the pinched posi3on, the longer it takes to recover. The more
rapidly it is pinched, the less 3me it takes to recover it behaves
more elas3cally.

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12

Examples and Applica3ons of Viscoelas3c Materials

Creep and Recovery
Wood is viscoelas3c.
Creep under the weight of the roof and garavity can take many
decades or centuries to be no3ceable.

Polymer foams used in seat cushions.
Seat cushions creep to allow progressive conforma3on of the
cushion to the body shape.

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13

Examples and Applica3ons of Viscoelas3c Materials

Energy Absorp3on

Viscoelas3c materials have the property of absorbing vibra3onal
energy, damping the vibra3ons.
Used in tall buildings which can vibrate when dynamically
loaded by wind or earthquakes.

Viscoelas3c materials are excellent impact absorbers. A peak
impact force can be reduced by a factor of two if an impact buer
is made of viscoelas3c, rather than elas3c materials. Elastomers
(any of various substances resembling rubber) are highly
viscoelas3c and make good impact absorbers.

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14

Examples and Applica3ons of Viscoelas3c Materials

Energy Absorp3on

Viscoelas3c materials are used in automobile bumpers, on computer drives to
protect from mechanical shock, in helmets (the foam padding inside), in
wrestling mats, etc. Viscoelas3c materials are also used in shoe insoles to
reduce impact transmiLed to a
person's skeleton.

The car3lage at the ends of the femur and 3bia, in the knee joint, is a natural
shock absorber. In an osteoarthri3c knee, the car3lage has degraded -
some3mes the bones grind against each other causing great pain. Synthe3c
viscoelas3c materials can be injected directly into an osteoarthri3c knee,
enveloping car3lage-decient joints and
ac3ng as a lubricant and shock absorber

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15

The behavior of many viscoelastic materials lies between the

behavior of a spring or a dashpot and is described by a
combination of the Hookean (spring) and Newtonian (dashpot)
elements.
time __________
A couple of possibilities:
response

time __________
response

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16

The models described so far provide a qualita3ve

illustra3on of the viscoelas3c behavior of polymers.
The Maxwell element is the most suited to represent
uid polymers: the permanent ow predominates on
the longer term, while the short-term response is
elas3c.
The Voight-Kelvin element, with an added spring
and, if necessary, a dashpot, is beLer suited to
describe the nature of a solid polymer.

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17

Both models, the Maxwell element and the Voight-Kelvin element,

are limited in their representa3on of the actual viscoelas3c
behavior.
Maxwell

Voight-Kelvin

Capable of modeling both

stress relaxa3on and creep.
Predicts that the stress relaxes
to zero: In reality, the stress
levels o at some nite value.
Predicts that creep strain
accumulates linearly with
3me; in reality, strain can
accumulate non-linearly.

Predicts the more realis3c

case of transient (non-linear)
creep.
Predicts recovery.
Cannot impose instantaneous
strain, thus, cannot model
stress relaxa3on.

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18

General descrip3ons of mechanical responses

are
elas3c (ability to stretch and return to its original
length)
plas3c (permanent deforma3on)
viscoelas3c (elas3c and 3me-dependent response)
creep (length changes over 3me under constant
load)

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19

E MCH 315
Mechanical Response of Engineering Materials

Lecture 27
Creep I
Chap. 10

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Lecture 27: Slide 20

FALL 2014: EMCH 315

21

Creep Experiment

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22

strain that increases as a func3on of

Deni3on: Permanent
_______________
time
constant stress
temperature under ________________.
_____________
and _____________
(absolute)
For _crystalline
____________ solids, service _temperatures
____________________
- 40%
exceed _30
__________
of Tm.

Imposed condition

Response

0
TIME

tr

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23

Three stages of creep behavior: Stage I

Primary Stage -- a.k.a.
______________

slope of vs t plot is the strain rate:

Slope initially high then slope

decreases until it becomes constant
__________

2
1
0

II
t1

III
t2 tr

Decreasing transient creep strain

opposing
rate due to _____________
processes:
beginning thermally
at the ____________activated softening (or
annealing) dominates

eventually strain hardening

_____________
facilitates increasing creep
resistance
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24

Three stages of creep behavior: Stage II

II. Secondary Stage -a.k.a. ______________

initiates when becomes

constant
_______________
after Stage I

continued strain-hardening and

ongoing annealing processes
steady - state
reach _______________
equilibrium

2
1
0

II
t1

III
t2 tr

90% of life

t
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25

Three stages of creep behavior: Stage III

III. ___________________
rupture
X

2
1
0

initiates at end of stage II when

increases in an _________
unstable
manner
deformation becomes _________
localized by
the formation of a ________
neck as in a
tension test

II
t1

III
t2 tr

thus represents onset of structural

instabilityleading to fracture/
_________
rupture
terminates at time-to-rupture (tr)

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26

Two types of design situa3ons occur in engineering prac3ce.

_____________________ limits on total amount of strain
tolerated by structural element (e.g. minimal clearances)
steady-state creep
(requires predictive equations for ________________.
____________________
_________________________ life3me of the component
prior to failure is cri3cal (creep strains can be tolerated)
creep rupture
predictive equations for ______________.)
(requires
_____________________
We want to determine = f (material properties, , T, t).

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27

Strain-limited design and predic3ve equa3ons for steady-

state creep.
3 contributions to the total strain.
(i) instantaneous ____:
strain generated at loading

ss
0

II

(ii) transient _______ :

time dependent contribution
and depend on stress,
temperature, and material

(iii) steady-state _____

contribution when strain
rate is constant
The total strain is calculated as

tot (t) =

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28

The transient term can be considered negligible rela3ve to

the steady-state term.

tot (t) = o +

1 ,t1
I

calculation for the steady-state or

linear creep rate

2 ,t 2

ss =

ss
II

III

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29

Steady-state creep rates ss depend on stress and temperature.

Different constant stress levels
at the same temperature.

The same constant stress levels for

different temperatures.

Raising either or T ________

What we want to know is the functional dependence of
____________________________________so that we can
use this for design.
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30

constant

1
a

ln

ss

1
b

1
c

An equation of the form:

ss = Ae -H/kT
describes steady state creep.

1/T

Where:
material- and stress- dependent
A = coefficient, _________________________.
drive creep
H = activation energy (potential energy necessary to ____________
k = Boltzmans constant (k = 1.38x10-23 J/K or
k = 6.79x10-23 in-lb/R)
temperature (absolute degrees)
T = __________________________
____________
K
= 273 + C
R = 460 + F
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31

ln

same slope

H ( ) = H

-H
k

ln

ss

ss

Consider two sets of data were collected each at different levels

of constant stress.

different
slope

-H
k

1 2

1/T

1/T
Activation energy can be stress dependent so _______________

ss = Ae

kT

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32

Experimentally determined rela3onships for the stress dependence of the

steady-state creep rate are of the form ________

New material parameter =

.
om
m
H ( )
H

ss
m
kT
= e kT
ss = e

o o

Normalized (or nondimensionalized) form:

, m, and H are material parameters.

We consider cases when the instantaneous load can be
considered quasi-static and the strain rate is __________:
____________ creep rate equation.
m

ss = e
o

H ( )

kT

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33

In-class problem (solution method for HW6 #1)

Shown below is the steady-state strain rate creep response for Al, determined at
230oC. What is the equation relating the steady-state strain rate to stress? What
are the values of the two parameters for Al?

Recalling that ss

we can rewrite
the Dorn-Miller creep rate equa3on as
m H ( )

1
ss = e kT m

o

m
and set
1 HkT( )
B= e
o
m

Rewrite a simplified form of the Dorn-Miller

equation as
Using this form we can simply solve for two
parameters B and m

NOTE: At a single temperature there is no way to say anything

about temperature dependence of the strain rate.

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34

Solve for two parameters B and m

Take the logarithm of both sides

log ss = logB + m log

m is the slope and can be calculated as
log10 ss1 log10 ss 2 )
(
m=
=
( log10 1 log10 2 )

sub ( , )
1
ss1

ss
B= m =

m typically ranges from

4.0 m 6.0
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35

In-class problem: Determine the complete Dorn-Miller

steady state creep rate equation.
we must determine
HkT( )
ss = e
_______________.
o
Taking the natural logarithm of ss :
m

H ( ) 1

ln ss = ln +

k
T
o
can determine H( ) from the slope of lnss vs 1/T

By analyzing experimental data, we can ascertain whether

the activation energy H() is indeed stress dependent.
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36

Compare steady-state creep data for two different

constant stress levels.

slope

(ln ss )
H ( )
=
(1 / T )
k

(ln ss )
(ln ss )
=
(1 / T ) =4 ksi (1 / T ) =6 ksi
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37

since slopes are iden3cal

____________and activation energy is _______________
(ln ss )
slope is defined by
=
(1 / T )

HW6 # 3: Given H()

Plot
for one value of , substitute Boltzmans constant
k (J/K or in-lb/R) in order to determine H
Note units for k
Convert T to R (T in F) or
Convert T to K (T in C)
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38

By analyzing data for dierent stress levels, we can determine

the remaining
terms;
. .
Compare the same steady-state
creep data for different constant

temperatures.

Use simplified D-M eqn

m

ss = B

Taking the logarithm of

both sides to the base 10
log10 ss = log10 B + m log10
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39

With m, subs3tute previously determined H

and use known

data points to determine o .
m

ss = e
o

H
kT

known data points will

establish

;T;
ss

to determine

We can determine the complete

Dorn-Miller steady state
creep rate equa3on (see
Example
Prob.
10.2
for
solution).

FALL 2014: EMCH 315

40