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.

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!

) R. Descartes(
15

.
.
.
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.





.

Determinism
.

.
16

) G. B. Vico( ) A. R. Turgot(
) J. A. Condorcet(

! ! !
.



.

1
.




.

Thomas S. Kuhn, The History of Science, In: International Encyclopedia of Social 1

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17

:
! :









.


.

) E. Mach( ) P. M Duhem(





.

.


.



) W. k. Clifford(


18

.



2 .

C. P. Snow

3


.

.


.



.L. W. Hull, History And Philosophy of Science, Longman, London, 1965, P. 213 2
3 . .-
19

.

G. Sarton

.




!

4


Ghent

) A. Comet(

4
.
20

Isis
.

.
.

.

.



.

-

.

.
P. Tannery
.



.


.


21

.
5




.




J. Dhombres

6 Epistemological Laboratory ) I. Lakatos
(
:
.

.



.

Marx W. Wartofsky, The Relation Between Philosophy of Science And History of Sci- 5
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G. Buchdahl, History And Philosophy of Science At Cambridge, In: History of Science, 6
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22

) A. Toynbee(


. :
: :

:


.

.
. . J. J Crowther

!

:



23

7 .




!


.




.
J. D. Bernal

.
7 . . . .
.-
24

.
)
(

.

.



.
25

Nahutl 8

.


9
Francisco Guerra, Aztec Science And Technology, In: History of Science: An Annual 8

.Review of Literature, Research And Teaching, Cambridge, Vol. 8, 1969, PP. 3252
R. L. Beals & H. Hoijer & A. R. Beals, An Introduction to Anthropology, 5th edition, 9
.Macmillan, New York, 1977, PP. 174176
26

.





.

) E. E. Evans-Pritchard(

10

.
.


E. Smith


G. Ghilde

Fifty Years in Anthropology
.
E. E. Evans-Pritchard, Social Anthropology And Other Essays, The Free Press, New 10

.York, 1966, P. 8
27

11
12
.

) L. Levy-Bruhl(
13



.

Thurnwald


.

.

!

11
.
B. Malinowski, A. Scientific Theory of Culture, The University of North Carolina Press, 12

.1944, 6th Printing, 1973, P. 16

13 L. Levy Bruhl, La Philosophie dAuguste :
.Comte, Felix Alcan, Paris, 1921
28

.
(K. Pearson
( 14
) (

.

15

) (
.
:
.

.

Karl Pearson, The Grammar of Science, London, 1900 Revised Reprint in Everyman 14

.Library, Dalton & Co, New York, 1937

.
: .

) :

.(
15 .
29

16

.
.







.

17 .

! 18

Non-Literal .

16 . -:
.
.E. Evans-Richard, Social Anthropology, p. 53, 35 17
18 : : .
.
30

.





.
19

20
.

.Beals & Hoijer, An Introduction to Anthropology, p. 4966 19

20 .
/ .
31

. 21 Relativism
.



) B. Malinowski(

.
.

Structural Functionalism


.

.

Trobriand ) (

21 Relativity.
32

.

.

.


.
.

.




.
. ) E. B. Tylor(

.

.

.
33

.


.






.




) A. Goldenweiser(

.


.


.

34

:





.

.




. .


.

. .

/ che-mi

22 .


.J. R. Partington, A. Short History of Chemistry, Macmillan & Co., London, 1939, P. 20 22
35

.


.


.


23 .



.






. T. E. Huff

.

.

.

.L. W. H. Hull, History And Philosophy of Science, P. 7 et Seq 23
36

24

25 .

.

.




26
: quasi-empirical
.

.

.

Toby E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, Islam, China and the West, (1993), 24

.Cambridge University Press, 1999, PP. 288-289

.
25 : .
.
Joseph Needham, Science And Civilization in China, Cambridge University Press, 26

.1954
37

27


!

.





.


27
: .
.
38

.






.

.

.

:


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.



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39

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:
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28

.

.

.



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.


. )( :
28 : .
: . .
40

29 .



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. :
.


.

30 .


31 .

Bertrand Russell, The Scientific Outlook, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1934, PP. 29

.21-22
30 . . . . .
.L. W. Hull, History And Philosophy of Science, P. 114 31
41

.

.

.

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42

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43

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44

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32 : .
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46

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47

33 .

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.T. E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, P. 237 33

48

34

.
35 .




)/( :



34
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35 :
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49

36

.



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Induction
.

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36 : .
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50

Methodology

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51

Epagoge :
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37
37

52

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! ( .
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53

Organon
.

) Thomas Aquinace(

.

.

)(

.

.


.
.

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54

.
:

.
:


.

.

.


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:


)/(
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55

38 .



.












! :

39 .

!
!
!

38 .
.-
.G. Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Vol, I, Baltimore, 1927, P. 5 39
56

! 40

.
.


.

.
.
.




40 . : .
.-

57

.




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41 .

.
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41 .
.
58

.


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.


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)(
42 . N. Malberanch
)(
.

.Occasionalism
) B. Spinoza(
42 Discourse De La Method :


.
59

. ) G. W. Leibnitz(
.





.

60

: :
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.


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.

Novum Organon


Instauratio Magna

1 .

1 .

.



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.


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:

.


2 .
) (


Francis Bacon, Novum Organon, in: The Philosophers of Science, Ed. By S. Commins & 2

.R. N. Linscott, The Pocket Library, New York, 1954, PP 73158, P. 119
62

. 3 .

) Rogers Bacon(

.

!
) T. B. Machaulay(

.


.

5 .

.F. Bacon, Novum Organom, P. 118-119 3

4 . .-
5 .
63

! ) W. Harvey(

)( .

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!

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!

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64

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6

7
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65

8
9




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10



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11 .
.
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) Ibid, P. 80 9 .(
) Ibid, P. 79-80 10 (.
11 . : : .
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66

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68

. .


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.
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Advancement of Learning

.

Pan
:
Calisto

12

Oskar Seyffert, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art, 12

.Gramercy Books, New York, 1995, p. 453

69

.
!
:



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.
:

.



13 :
) (

.
) (

.
) (

!
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70

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Forms
Simple Natures

.
.

.


!
!


:
.

Anticipation of Nature 14
.

) Ibid, P. 85 14 .(
71

.



15 .
.

.




: .

.

.

16

.

.


17
15 . .
.Francis Bacon, New Atlantis, ed. By A. B. Gough, Oxford, 1915 16
) F. Bacon, Novum Organum, P. 151-152 17 .(
72

.



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( ) (

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73

.

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N. Coper-
) nicus(
.

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Precession
18 .

.
.
.L. W. Hull, History And Philosophy of Science, P. 127-128 18
74

Orbium Coelestium

A. Osiandre

.

.



.

.

.


Bessel

19 .
Revolution

E. A. Burtt, The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science, Routledge & Kegan 19

.Paul, London, 1980, PP. 3639

75

) T. Brahe(





.

.
. .




20 .

) J. Kepler(


.

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20 . . : .
.-
76

! 21




.Harmony of World

22

.



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.
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.
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21 . . . . .
.Bertrand Russell, The Scientific Outlook, P. 23 22
77

:
anima
vis 23

.

)(

.

:

:

.


.



.
.

.R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of Nature, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1945, P. 101-102 23
78

.


.


acceleration
=



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79

Kinematical
.

.



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) Issac Newton( .




24 .

24 R. Hooke


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80

:
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(.
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.
.
) (

.


.
.



.
) C. D. Broad
25

(


C. D. Broad, Ethics And The History of Philosophy, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 25

.1952, PP. 18 et seq

81

.






.



.

.


.




action
82

. .

.
: .

) Gravity
(


.

. :
)(
)(

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.

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83

.
:


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Picard

.





84

.




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.


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( .

.


.
85

26 .Fluxional Method







.


.



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.


) Leibniz, W. G.(
26 Method

.
86

.


.


.
.


.
S. P. De Laplac

.

. ) E. Hally
(

.
.


.

87

:


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27 .



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.
.



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27
: . . : .
. ..
88

.


.




Alchemy

! .



Phlogiston .



. ) J. J. Becher(
E. G. Stahl
28

28 .
89

) Lavoisier(

.

. ) Priestely(

.


.

.

.
. Fabrizzi


.
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!
.

90

29 .

) L. Pasteur(

) A. Leeuvenhoek(

.



.



29 . . . . .
91

:



.


:

.


.

.






30 . ) G. Cauvier(

!
Morris R. Cohen, Reason And Nature: An Essay on the Scientific Method, Dover 30

.Publishing, New York, 1978, P. 248 et seq

92

.

) C. Bernard(

Inner Environment

31




.

) Ch. Darwin(

31 .
.
93

)(

) J. Lamarck(
.




32 :
) (

.
) (
.
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.


32 . : :
.
.M. Cohen, Reason And Nature, P. 243 33
94

.
)( :


:
!



34 .

35

36 .

.
) A. Comte(

.Isiah Berlin, Four Essays On Liberty, Oxford., 1976, P. 56-57. 34
.Ibid, P. 27 35
K. Popper, Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach (1976), Oxford 5th im- 36

.pression, 1989, P. 222

95

:





.

:

.

.



) .(Sociology
) E. Durkheim(

J. Muller

)(
96

.
Weber Helmholtz Fechner
Wundt .

) W. James(
37
38




. .

) J. Herbart(
)
.M. Cohen, Reason And Nature, P. 297 37
38 ) .
( :
.
97

(
.


) I. Pavlov(
.

.
.



:


.

.


.

.

98

:


.

.


.
Formal Sciences


. Informative Sciences
.
.
. generality

.
.



.

.
.
H. Reichenbach
)(

99

.
.

39 .
.






.

.



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.

.

39 .
.
100

.



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.Determinism


.
40 .

:


41

42 .

40 : :
.
41 .
42 .
101

.



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.
.
.


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.
.
.

. = +
102

!




.

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.
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Uniformity
.

.
103

.

.


.








.









.


104

.


.

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105

Conservation

.

:
) ( .
) ( .
) ( .

.

:
J. P. Joule

D. R. Mayer

.




. ) L. Boltzmann(


106

.

.

.



.
R. Clausius
Entropy .

!
. System
disorder
.
43

) J. W. Gibbs(
J. C. Maxwell
Penguin Dictionary of Science, P. 133-134, And: Raymond A. Serway, Physics, Saun- 43

.ders College Publishing, Florida, 4th ed, 1996, P. 628-629

107

.

.

) J. J. Thomson(

.

.
) E. Rutherford(

.


.

.


108

44 .

.



.

.


.

! 45 .


46

. /

.James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, Cambridge University Press, 1933, P. 61 44

45 : : .
.-
46 .
109

.
.

: .
: .








.





.


110

.
47

.


.

) R. Brown(

.
Clarkia Pulchella

.
I. Carbonelle

.

48 .

.
47 .-
.L. Ponomarev, In Quest of Quantum, Mir Publisher, Moscow, 1973, P. 17-18 48
111

.








.

49

.

:
W. Prout
)(
49 . .
: :
)(.
112

) J. Dalton(
.

:

. .

.

.

.

.

H. Bacqueral


.


.
:

.

.

.
113

50 .


.




:

Louis De Broglie, The Revolution in Physics, Trans by Ralph, W. Niemeyer, Routledge & 50

.Kegan panl, London, 1954, P. 71

114

51 .

.




.





.

V. Rydnik, A. B. Cs. Of Quantum Mechanism, Trans, By George Yankovsky, Peace 51

.Publishers, Moscow, 1971, P. 15

115

)(

:
.
.



.


.

) S. Kierkegaard(

.

.

.
:

.


.



.
.



.


.

) J. Locke( .

.
.
) G. Berkeley(

118

 )(

.


.
.
.
.

.


) D. Hume(

:
.

.



.
:
.

.
:

!
.

119

.
.


) D. Diderot(


) dAlember

) C. S. Montesquieu(

) J. J. Rousseau

( ) Voltaire( .

.


.

.
120

 )(

.



.


.


:
) (

) ( 1 .

1
.-
121

2 : .

) G. Bruno(


.












3 .
Pantheism


Self-regulating

.R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of Nature, P. 11112 2
.Ibid, p. 99 3
122

 )(

.

.

.






.


.

) T. Hobbes(
.

.


123

) J. Toland(
.




.



. J. Lamattri
)(
.

.

. A. Helvetius
)(
.

!
! ) P. Cabanis
(
: !

.
) P. Holbach(



124

 )(

.
!

) K. Marx(

) F. Engels(

.

. F. Hegel
)(
. :





.

.
) I. Kant(


.
125

:

:
.


.



.

Positivism
Posited

.
Positif
Saint-Simon
)(

) (
.

.




126

 )(

.



.

. ) E. Littre(

.
. ) P. Laffite(


.
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.


Revue

4 Occidental
.



.


.
4 . .
.
127

:



Scientist



.



.


.



.
Method 5

.

.
.
.
5 : ).( :
128

 )(

6 Induction
deduction

Formal Sciences .
informal
sciences

. .





.


.

6 .
129

:


:
.


.

.




.


)
(
.
Justification .


.

.
130

 )(

.
Inductivism
.


.

.
131

.

.

.
:

) W. Whewell(

.Scientist

:
.

.
.

.



132

 )(

:
.
:

.

:



.
.

7
.

William Whewell, History of Scientific Ideas, Vol, I. John W. Parker & Son, London, 7

.1858, P. v-vi
133

. .

:


:

. Mysterious
Point
. :
8 .Inductive Rationalism
.

.



.


: .

.


Robert Blanche, William Whewell, In: the Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. By Paul 8

.Edwards, Macmillan Publishing, New York, 1972, V.8, P. 288

134

 )(

.
9 .

.


.
: ) J. S. Mill(

.



)(



) J. Bantam(

!


. .

.
J. S. Mill, System of Logic (1843), Ed. By J. M. Roson, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 9

.1973, PP. 249302

135

.

.

.
.

.

.


!
.
.

.
.
!

.

= +

.Logic of truth
136

 )(

) G. Boole(
.
.

:

.
10
.

.

!

:
) ( :Method of Agreement

11


.



.
.Alan Ryan, J. S. Mill, Routledge & Kegan Panl, London, 1974, P. 71 10
.J. S. Mill, System of Logic, P. 390 11
137

) ( :Method of Difference


.


.


.
) ( Joint Method of Agreement and
:Difference
.
.
) ( :Method of Residue


12

.
) ( :Method of Concomitant Variation

.

.Ibid, P. 398 12
138

 )(

! 13
) W. Herschel(

Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy


.

:
!

)
(
.

14

.Ibid, P. 402 13
.Alan Ryan, J. S. Mill, P. 80 14
139

.


.

.






140

 )(

.



.
!


. :

.


Introduction a letude de la medicine experimental.

.
:

15 .

15 .
141

.

.


16
17

.

.

.

! 18
.
16 .
17 .
18 .
.
142

 )(

.
.

.
observation .experiment
empirical

experimental


.



.



.



.

143

.


19 .


.

Francois Huber


.



.


.
.


19 .
144

 )(

.
.

.

.



.

.
.


.




.

.

.

145

:






.


) (
) ( ) ( ) ( )(
: .


:



.
:





146

 )(

20
.

.
.

. .

:

:
.
.


.
.

!
.
: :

Jerrold, & Katz, The Problem of Induction and its Solutions, University of Chicago 20

.Press, 1992, P. 5
147

Apriorism

B. Russell
)(

21 .
.

.


.

.



.

.Bertrand Russell, Mysticism and Logic, Uniwin Books, London, 1963, P. 183 et seq 21
148

 )(

.
.


.

.
.


.


.

.



:

22 .
David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, ed. By L. A. Seleby-Bigge, 22

.Oxford, 1936, P. 40-41

149

.

23

:

:


24

25 .

.N. K. Smith, the Philosophy of David Hume, Macmillan, London, 1949, P. 368 23
Fahrhang Zabeeh, Humes Problem of Induction, in: D. Livingstone & J. Tiking (eds.), 24

.Hume: A Revaluation, Fordham University Press, New York, 1976

.Ibid, P. 69-70 25
150

 )(

.
! :

.










26 .

.Hume, An Enqyuiry Concerning Human Understanding, P. 42-43 26

151

Custom or habit

.




.





.



. M. Montaigne
)( .

27 .

27 . .:
.
152

 )(

28 .


!


!




.
.
:

.
!

.Bertrand Russell, Problems of Philosophy (1912), Oxford, 1973, P. 34-35 28
153

29 .

30

.



.

: 31 .

Apriorism
!



32

: !

.
Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy, Brothers, Working London, 1954, 29

.PP. 699-700
.B. Russell, Problems of philosophy, P. 36 30
31 .
.F. Zabeeh, Hunes Problem of Induction, P. 81 32
154

 )(

.



33 .

.
.

.
:
!


:
! 34
) A. N. Whitehead(
!


!
! :



.J. Katz, The Problem of Induction And its Solutions, P. 17 33
.A. N. Whitehead, Sciense And Modern World, Fontana Books, Glasgow, 1973, P. 17 34
155

.
: :

35
.

: :

John Polkinghorne, Beyond Science: The Wider Human Context, Cambridge University 35

.Press, 1996, P. 5
: : :
. .
156

 )(

.

:

:



: Hypotheses non Fingo


:
.
:





.



:

157

36 .

Hypothetical deductive Method







.

.




.

36 .
.
158

 )(

.

.
.



.

:

37 .




.Bertrand Rassell, The Scientific outlook, Op. cit., P. 33 37
159

. 38

:
.

.
38

.



. .


) .(
:
The Wisdom of God Manifested in The Works of

Creation



.
160

 )(

: .


.

.



.








.

.


. :

.
161

.

.



.

.


.

) (



:
) ( .
) (
!
) (
.

) (

.

!
162

 )(

) (

!

) (
) (
.

.


! 39





!
.

.
:
.
Paul Feyerabend, Philosophical Papers, Vol, I: Realism, Rationalism and Scientific 39

.Method, Cambridge University Press, 1981, P. 132135

163

!

.

40
.

) S. Hawking( 41 :


.Karl Popper, Conjectures And Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledg, P. 47 40
: : .
: .
41

.



.
164

 )(

.


. 42 .


.



.





.

.

42 .
.-
165

.





.

.




.

.

.




.
166

 )(

.

.
) (




.

!
.

.

.




.

167

.









.





.

.











.
168

 )(

.








.

.



.

.



:

.
169

.
.





.

.



.

!

.

170

M. Plank
)(
.


.
.

1 .

: Quantity
:
. :
. .
.

.


:
2
.


.

.


:

.
.

:
) ( .
) (

3 .

.Ernest Hutten, The Ideas of Physics, Oliver & Boyd., London 1976, P. 71 2
.V. Rydnik, ABC of Quantum Mechanics, op cit., P. 28-29 3
172

.
.


4
. W. Wien
:

5 .


Rayleigh Jeans
:
.

.
/
. /

4
.
.Ibid, P. 3032 5
173

6 .

.

/
.

.


.

.
Flow Stream
7 . :

.Ibid, P. 33-34, And: Louis De Broglie, Revolution in Physics, PP. 103108 6
.J. Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, P. 95 7
174

.

. .





8

.





:
E = h = .
E energy h

:



/ /.

8 . .
175

=
9
.

.



!






10 .

.







.

.

.L. Ponomarev, In Quest of Quantum, Op cit., p. 34 9
.L. Broglie, The Revolution in Physics, Op eit., p. 121 10
176

.

.

.

Equipartition :
Thermal equilibrium

11 .



/
.




: )
(
Dulong & Patit

.
.Ibid, P. 119 11
177

.


.

/ /

.


.

.


12 .




) Niels Bohr(
:

.
.Ibid, P. 119-120 12
178

Complementary
.






.







.

.

13 .

.


.
13 . .-
179

14




.

.

.

.

.


!






.

.R. Serway, Physies, Florida, 1996, P. 1203 14

180

h = e + 1/2mu2 = / + .
=


/
.

15 .



. .


.



16
) I. Schrodinger(
.


15 . .-
16 . .
181

.
) 17 A. H. Compton(

.
.

18


) (
) scatter( 19





20
.

17

: . :
.
.L. De Broglie, The Revolution in Physics, P. 114-115 18
.Penguin Dictionary of Science, P. 84 19
.Ponomarev, In Quest of Quantum, P. 2426 20
182

.




21 .

.

.

-

:
.



21 . .-
183

Max Born :
.

.

.

) W. Heisenberg(

Indeterminacy Principle



.







.


.
184

22 .
.

.


23 .


.

.
S. Weinberg S. Glashow

.
.
.

22 .
.-
23 . .
185

.
:

/
/

.



24

.
:

) Lucretius.(

24 . .
186

.Corpuscular Theory of Light
.



.



.

.


Alternative fits of transmission and Reflection



:

.






187

25 .

.

C. Huygens .
) A. Fresnel(




26
.

.

. Ether
.





.James Jeans, The Mysterious Universe, PP. 2832 25
Theresa Levlett, Editing out Caloric: Fresnel, Arago and the Meaning of Light, in: 26
British Journal for the History of Science, Cambridge University Press. March 2000. Pp

.4965
188

.


A. Michelson
) ( .E. Morley
/ .

/ :

/


/.
189

/

.



27 .

.




.
:


.
) A. Einstein(




.

.

27 . . .
.
190

) (

.




.

28 .
/



/
/


.
29

Hans Reichenbach, Relativity Theory and Apriori Knowledge, Trans, & ed. By Maria 28
Reichenbach, University of California Press, 1958, P. 17 et seq, See also: A, Einstein & L.

.Infeld, The Evolution of Physic, Cambridge, 1938, P. 225

29 /

/

.
191

.




:

.
Brokhaven

/
.

192

30 .







.

.


31

.

.




.
30 . :
.
31 .
. ..
193

:
32 .



: / spatio-temporal
Minkowisky

33



34
.


.





35 .
32 . .
A. Eddington, The Nature of the Physical Reality, University of Michgan Press, 1963, 33

.P. 53
34
.
.J. Jeans, The mysterious Universe, P 35
194

.





.






.
:

/
.



36 .

/

.P. 220 A. Einstein & L. Infeld, The Evolution of Physic 36
195

37 .

:

Simultaneity

.


.

.



37
.
196

:
.


38 .


39

.



Friedman
Lemaitre

.

40 .
Hans Reichenbach, The Philosophy of Space and Time, Dover Publishing, New York, 38

.1958
:
.
39 . .
40 . .-
197

.
.

.
.

.
) (

41 .



.

: .

41 . .
198

. :
.


.

.

.

.

.

:




.
.
A. S. Eddington

199

.
Indeterminacy
Uncertainty

.
.

42
:
!

:

.



.

.Cliford M. Will Was Einstein Right? Oxford University Press, 1989, PP. 7578 42
200

.

.

.

.



.
:

:

.

.
.

.

.



201

.
.





43 .

:


.


.
.
!

.

.

Henry Margenau, The Nature of Physical Reality, McGraw Hill, New York, 1960, P. 43

.497
202

.


.

= +


: .
!



.

) Thomas Acquinace
( :
:
!

.

.


.

203

44 .


.

.
. theorem
theory .
.

) :

: (
.



.

.

45

44 . .
45 .
.
204

46 .

.

:

:
.

47

:
:


.

: :
.


.
Thomas Heath, Mathematics in Aristotle (1949), Theommes Press, Bristol, 1988, P. 46

.23-24
The Elements of Euclid, ed, By I. Todhunter, Everymans Library, J. M. Dent & Sons, 47
.London, 1948, PP. 105, 71-72, 113-114, 134137, 173
205

:

) (
) ( :

.

.
G. Saccheri

. ) J. H. Lambert

(

.



48 .

) J. Bolyait(
:


K. F. Gauss

48 . . .-
206

:

49 .


.


)
(

.
) E. Riemann(
.

!
:


Klein Cayley


.
49 : .
207

50 .

.



.



:
:
:

Coordinative Definition
.

.M. Cohen, Reason and Nature, P. 174-175 50

208

51 .


.

.


.

52
.



.
:
! 53

!


51 . .-
.Hans Reichenbach, Relativity Theory and Apriori Knowledge, P. 3-4 52
53
: . . .
209

.



.




.

.


54 .
.conventions

54 .
210

.
:



55
.



.





Novelty

.Hans Reichenbach, Relativity Theory and Apriori Knowledge, PP. 194-195 55

211

:
containing :

logical Implication
.

56

57


.

.

.H. Cohen, Reason and Nature, P. 194-195 56

57 Function

.



.
212

.

.

:

.

.

.
) K. Gdel(

.

.

formula

A. M. Turing
213

.
) J. Von Newmann(
58
!
.




.
:


.


. !

. Modern
.

58 . :
.
.
214

.

. :



!
59 .


.


.



.

.

.L. De Broglie, The Revolution in Physics, P. 129-130 59

215

60 / .

!

/
.


.



.

.


.
.

60
!
216

.

Indeterminism
.


.

.
.

:




.
61

A. Eddington, Indeterminacy and Indeterminism, In: Aristotelian Society Supplemen- 61

.tary Vol, X. London, 1931, P. 162

:
.
217

.
: !

.


.






.
.
System Chaotic
62 )= (


.

) .
Chaos (

!

.Brian L. Silver, The Ascent of Science, Oxford University Press, 1988, P. 241 62
218

.


63

.


.H. Reichenbach, Relativity Theory and Apriori Knowledge, P. 96 63
219

64

.



.

:

.

64 . .
220

.

.

.

.
:
.






.

.

: .


.
G. Dover
.
221

)(




.
65 .

.
.
!
.



. Cognitive Psychology

.
65 . :
. ..
222

.


.

.
.
:

66 .
.


.




.
.Sidney Hook, Hero in History, Secker and Warburg, London, 1945, P. 96 66
223

Possibilism L. Febvre

) V. D. La Blache(

.

.
.




67 .

.

.

.

.


.

.

/
67
.
224

.



.

.


.

.




.



:

.

225

68 .




.



.
.

68 . .-
226

:



.



.

.

.

.


.

.

.

.




.

.

.


.

.

.

) S. T. Colerid(
.
228

.

J. H. Stirling


F. H. Bradley
)( ) J. E. Mctaggart(
.

.


.

.

: .
229

.
: .

) Main De Biran(

.


. .

.

.
J. Lachelier


.
) E. Boutroux(

.


.
.
.

.
230

.

) A. Cournuot(


.

.

. ) C. Renouvier(
.

.

.





.
.

.
231

.

.

) E. Husserl(
Phenomenology
.
.

.

.
.

) M. Merleau Ponty(

.

.

.
.

.

.

232

Hermeneutics
.


.

.
H. G. Gadamer

.

.



.

.

.


233

.


.

.

) J. Royce(

Pragmatism
.

. .
.

C. S. Peirce
)(

.

.
234

.
.

:
.


.

.

:

truth
235

J. Dewey

.


.
.
. .

.




.

H. Spencer

)( ) L. Stephen(





.

236

.

.experience


.

:

.


.

.



.

.
.

237

.

.

.




.

.
:

.
.



238

.

.

Formal :


.


.

.

.

Logic
.
Logic
Logos :/ .
ology Logos
Bio Biology
Psyche Psychology Geo Geology
. .


/
239

.

.

:




1 .

2
.
.
. :
.


.
.
1
)( .
2 :
.
240

.
.

.

) Abelard(
Dialectica
Logic .


.

.
)
(
.




.

.


241

) R. Whately(
) W. Hamilton(
.

.

3
.

.


.
.George Henrik fon Wright, Logic and Philosophy in The Twentieth Century 3

.
242

.



.


.
.

.

) L. Coutrat(
Logistic
Logistiqe .

.

) G. Boole( .
) A. de Morgan(
.






.
243

.

.

:
.

+ = 4




.

.
.



: .

.
4 . .-
244

.


.

) W. S. Jevons( J. Venn .


.

. ) G. Frege(
) G. Peano(


.
.

.
) D. Hilbert(
Formalism

.


.Meta-Mathematics
245

.
.

.


L. Euler J. Lamber
B. Bolzano
.

intuition
. .
L. E. Brouwer

.A. Heyting
)(


.


.



.

.


246

.

988
DCCCCLXXXVIII :

VIII X CXIII
.






5 .

6 .

.Irving M. Copi, Introduction To Logic, Macmillan, New York, 5th, Ed., 1978, P. 264 5
Bertrand Russell, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, In his: Sceptical Essays, George 6

.Allen & Unwin, London, 1928, PP. 5479, P. 72

247

.



.





.

:


/
.

.



.

.
7
B. Russell, Our Knowledge of External World (1914), George Allen & Unwin, London, 7

.2nd ed., 1926, P. 42

248

.

.

.
.






.

: :

:



.
249

8 .



.



.
!

.
.



.
.

.
) L. Wittgenstein
(


.
8 .
250

.


.
Jena
.

.


.

.


.
.
/
.
.
) (

.

.

251

.
:
Lehre
. .

9 .


.

!

.

.

.
.
.

.

L. Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, Trans, By C. K. Ogden, Kegan Panl, 9

.London, 1933, 4, 112

252

.
Semantics
Syntax
.
.Metalogic .




10 .
.

.

11

.
.
. :

. .
Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trasn by G. Ans-comb, Basil Black- 10

.well, Oxford, 1958, Preface P.ix

.Ibid, Passage 244, P. 89 11
253

.

.

.
.
game :
) ( .
) ( .
) ( .
) ( .
) (
.
.

.


.
12
.

.Anthony Kenny, Wittgenstein, Harvard University Press, 1973, P. 104 12
254

.

.


13 .

!

.
!
!




. .

.
.

Timothy Binkley, Wittgensteins Language, Nortinus Nijhof, The Hague, Netherlands, 13

.1973, P. 214216
255

.
.


) K. Twardowiski(


many-valued logic
.

.
. Modal Logic
.

.

.

.
.

.
.

.
) A. Tarski(

.
256

.

.

.
14 .
.

.

.

.

.

! :



15 .

14 . .-
15
.
257

.

:
.

Soft-Ware hard-ware .

:


258

. 16 .
:

) B. Russell(
.
.
.




.




.

.
.

.
.G. H. Von Wright, Logic and Philosophy in The Twentieth Century, P. 14-15 16
259

.

.

!
.

.

.


.



17 .

18 .



.


.

.

17
. .
Ralph Schoenman, Bertrand Russell: Philosopher of the Century, George Allen & 18

.Unwin, London, 1967

260

.


.

.



.

19 .


.

.

Bertrand Russell, My Philosophical Development (1959), George Allen & Unwin, Lon- 19

.don, 3rd ed., 1969, p.254

261

20

.




.

.

.

.
.
21
.

.


. :


20 . .-
21

.

262

.
.


!

.
)(









22 .



23 .

.
.B. Russell, My Philosophical Development, P. 44 22
B. Russell, My Mental Development, In: P.A. Schilpp (ed.), The Philosophy of Bertrand 23
Russell, Vol, V of: The Library of Living Philosophers, Evanston, Illinois, (1944), 2nd, Ed.,

.1946, PP. 120. P. 11

263

.


muddle !


.


.
.
.



.

.

.
naive
.

.

.


.
264

.

: 24 .

.

25
.


.

/
.




:


.B. Russell, The Autobiography, Unwin Books, London, 1975, P. 147 24
25

.
.
. .
265

.


: . 26
.
:

27 .



. events

.

.

.
.


.

B. Russell, Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories, The Bodley Head, 26

.London, 1954, PP. 4044

27 : .
266

.
events

.


.

.
.

.


.
28 .
images
sensations
29 .

B. Russell, The Analysis of Matter (1927), George Allen & Unwin, London, 1954, P. 28

.314
.B. Russell, The Analysis of Mind, Gerge Allen & Unwin, London, 1921, P. 387 29
267

) C. Wright(

) R. B. Perry(
. .


.
.
.


.

.

.
-
.
:

.

!

.
268

.

/


.

30
.


31


.

.
:

.

Logical Atomism



.B. Russell, The Analysis of Matter, P. 389 30
31
.
269

.
.

.




.

. .



.
.

!

270

:
32 .


.


.

.
) G. Ryle(
.
.

.

.

.

.
.
. :
) ( () () ()
() .

32 .
271

33 .
.


.

.
.




. W. E. Johnson
J. M. Keynes
H. Jeffreys F. Ramsy
Bayesianism
) T. Bayes(
34 .


.


C. A. Fritz, Bertrand Russells Construction of External World, Routledge & Kegan 33

.Paul, London, 1952, P. 191194

Donald Gillies, Philosophy of Science in Twentieth Century, m Blackwell, Oxford, 34
.1993, P. 14-15
272

.
.
.
.
) G. E. Moore(
.

Common Sense
.

.


.


.
.

.


. .



.

.
273

.

.

:

!
.

.

Therapeutic Analysis
.




.




.
.
.



274

.

.
H. Skolimowisk

.

:

.


.
.

.
-
. -

.
.


.

275

.
.



.



. :

!

!
:

.
.
.

.
276

.





.



35
!


.



. .

) M. Schlick(
35
) : .
.(
277

.
.

/
.



.
.


.

.

Erkenntnis


.


278

Nelbock
.

.

/ /

!
.









:

: .
: .
: .
279

: .

: .

:

.



.



.



.


.
.

.


.

280

/


.

.

.

!


36 .

.

.
:
: .

:
) ( :meaningful

has a
meaning
.
.J. Passmore, A Hundred Years of Philosophy, Penguin Books, London, 1975, P. 367 36
281

) ( :meaningless

!

: Analytic .Synthetic

.
.
.

.

.


.

.
.

.
.
.
282

.

nonsense
.


.
.


P. W. Bridgman

.


.


.

!
!


:
.
283

:



.

!

.



.


.

Criterion of Verification


.

.



.

.
284

.
!
.





.





.
.

.
.

285

! :



:

!

:

.






.
)(
:
:Sentence .
:Statement indicative
.
.

286

:Proposition

. :

:
37 .

.




.

:
.
.A. J. Ayer, Language, Truth And Logic (1936), Penguin Books, London, 1974, P. 811 37
287

38 .
:
. .


.



39 .


.

.

.
Conformability
.
.Testability

:
Norton White, The Age of Analysis: 20th, Century Philosophers, Mentor Books, New 38

.York, 1957, P. 210

James Griffen, Wittgensteins Logical Atomism, Oxford University Press, 1965, P. 39
.102-103
288

) (

.
.



.
:

.
) C. Hempel(

40 .

.



.


40 .
.
289

.
) R. Carnap
(



41
.




.

) O. Neurath(

42
R. Carnap, The Logical Syntax of Language, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1951, 41

.P. 318
.Ibid., P. 375 42
290

:

.


.

.
.

:

.

.


.


.

!

.
291

.
.
.

.


)( .
:

43 .

44 .

.
!

43 . .
44 . .
292

45

.

.

.

.

:
instrumentalist


.

. .
.
.
45 .
.
293

. Simplicity
.
.



.


.
.
.

46 .
!

.


.
.

46 .
294

.
.

.
.

.


.

.

.

.
.

.

.

.
!
47 .
P. Duhem, The Aim And Structure of Physical Theory, Trans by P.P, Wiener, Princeton, 47

.New Jersy, 1954, P. 281

295

) H. Poincare(
.
.


.
.

.

.
:

! 48 .


.

.



. 49 .

.

.H. Poincare, Science And Method, Trans, By F. Maitland, London, P. 178 48

.M. Cohen, Reason And Nature, P. 202 49
296

.

.

.
.


.
.

.

.

.

.

.
297

50 .

.
Syntagma 51 .




.

.

.occult

Fiction
.

.


. :

.

50
.
.R. Harre, The Philosophies of Science, Oxford University Press, 1985, P. 88 51
298

.



.



.

. :
.


.

: .



.

.

.
299

.

.



.
.


.

.

.
.



.

.
.

.


300

Conventionalism


.

.

.
.

.

.
52 .




.

.
.
.D. Gillies, Philosophy of Science in The Twentieth Century, P. 66 52
301

.
.

.


.



.



.

.

.
)(

.

.
. .
.
.

302

.
.
.


.



.

53 .

.



C. I. Lewis

.
.Ibid, P. 107 53
303

.
A. Pap

.

.Operationalism
P. W. Bridgman

.

.

.

.

.

.

.


. .
304

.


.
) H. Vaihinger(
.
.

. fictions

.
.
.

.

.

.

.
S. Toulmin
)(
:


.

305

.

.

.

.


.

.

.



.

!

.
:

306

54 .
.

!

.





Computation rules
55

.

.

.

.



.


.
.
.
54 . .
K. Popper Realism And The aim of Science (1983), Routledge, London, 1994, P. 112 55

.et s-eq
307

.
.



.




.

308

:




.
) K. R. Popper(


.

.


.
.



.

.


.





.

.
.

.




.
.

.

:

310

1 .
:H. Bondi
2 .
P. Medawar J. Eccles

.


.



.




.

.


.


.J. Polkinghorne, Beyond Science, Op, cit, P. 14 1
.Bryan Magee, Karl Popper, Viking Press, New York, 1973, P. 1-2 2
311

3

.

.

.

.
.
:

.
K. Popper, Natural Selection And The Emergence of Mind, In G. Radnitzky & W. Bartley 3
(eds), Evolutionary Epistemology, Rationality And The Sociology of Science, Open Court,

.La Salle, Lllinois, 1993, PP. 139153

312

4

.





.

.
.
K. Popper, Open Society And Its Enemies, Vol, II: The High Tide of Prophecy, George 4

.Routledge & Sons, London, 1945, 7th impression 1992, P. 79

313

.


.



.



.
!




:


)-(
314

.

.


.



:
.
:


.


.
.


.
.
315

.

.
:
5

.








.

.


Loik der Forschung
.

.K. Popper, Unended Quest, William Collins Sons, Glasgow, 1976, P. 105 5
316

6 .




.

.

.

.Bryan Magee, Modern British Philosophy, Secker & Warburg, London 1971, PP. 6374 6
: -

!


.
.


.
317

7 . :
: .



.
:
:

!

.


.


.


!
:


.
7 Conjectures gues
Conjecture

.

318

:
8 .


.

.

.K. Popper, Unended Quest, P. 87 8
319

.

9 .

.
.


.
.



:
. !
:

10 .


:
.

.
K. Popper, Logic of Scientific Discovery, Hutchinson, London, 1959, 8th impression 9

.1976, P. 51
.K. Popper, Unended Quest, P. 17 10
320

.

.
.


.

.

:
.

.

.
.

.

.


.
:

:

321

.

.

.
.
:



.





.

.



.
322

.

.



.


.

. .


.

.

.

.

.
323

.
11






.



.

Second hand
.




.




.
.K. Popper, Conjectures And Refutations, PP. 6696 11
324

.

.
.



.

!
.

.


!

!


325

:


.

!
.


.

.

.



:


.
.
: :

:

326

.
.

.

.
K. Lorentz

inborn Mechanism .



.
.


.
.
.

.

.



.
327

.


:Knowledge
:
.
:





.

belief Judgement

.

.


.
328

.Truth
.
.




.

.

correspondence .


12

.

K. Popper, Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, Oxford, 1972, 7th im- 12

.pression 1992, P. 109

329

.

: :
: .
:
.
:

.



.
:








.



.


330

.
.by-product




.

.
.
.
.

.Critical Rationalism

.



.

.


13
.K. Popper, Conjectures And Refutations, P. 8 13
331

.
14

.
:

.

.



.

.
Common Sense
.
!
.Ibid, P. 27 14
332

.

. .

.
.
.

.

.

.

. .
.


.




.

.
333

.


.
.
.

.
.


.

.
.



.

.





.
:

.
334

:

.

Logical Asymmetry
.


.
:

.
:



.

.


!

.
.
.

.

335

Principle of transference

:

:

.
.

.



.



. :J. Katz



.




336

.

.

.

.


.



.
: .
:
:

.



337

.


.



.



: .

:

338

.



.
.

.
.
.

:
:

. .

.
:


.

.



339

.
: .
.

.




.
.

:

15 .
:
)(
.

)(
.
)(
.
)(
16 .

.K. Popper Objective Knowledge, P. 260 15

.K. Popper, Logic of Scientific Discovery, P. 32 16
340

.




.


.

.
:
.






:
341

.


.


















.

:
) ( .
) ( .
342

) ( .
) (
.
) (
.


: .
.
.


.

.


.

!
!

. :




343

.



:





.

.

.

.

) J. Lamarck(

.



.
344

.
.



.

.
.


:

345

17 .

.

.




.
.



.



18 .
.

.K. Popper Objective Knowledge, p. 265 17

Lewis Wolpert, The Annatural nature of Science, Faber And Faber, London, 1993, P. 18

.6163
346

.
.




.


19 .

.
.

20 .
.




.


.

.k. Popper, Logic of Scientific Discovery, P. 59 19

.Bryan Magee, Karl Popper, P. 25 20
347

.
.

.


.

.

:

:

Pseudo-Science

21 .

.K. Popper, Conjectures And Refutations, P. 33 21
348

.




.
Falsifiability Criterion
.




.

.

.


.
:
.
349

.

.
.
.
.
.






.
Testability
.

.



.

.
Falsifiability
.Falsification !
350

!


.


.


Corroboration :
:




.
:



.

.


basic statements


.
351

.


.

.

events

.


.


.
:
.
22 .
:

:

Potential Falsifiers.

.k. Popper, Logic of Scientific Discovery, P. 80 22

352

:


.

.

.

.

.

initial conditions
.

.

!



:



353

:

.

.
.
:

23 .
.

.

.

.
:



. :

.Ibid, P. 113 23
354

.
.

.




.

.

24

.


.


Verisimilitude
more truthlikeness

.

24 : .
355

.
:





.


.
.
.


.


.
.


.


.


:
.
.
356

.
.

.

.

.


!

.




.

.
357

.

.


.







.

.
:


25 .
25 .
.
358

.



!

) (

.



.





.


359

.
:



:
.

.
.

.

.


.

360

.

.
Discovery


26 .
.



.
:

.

.G. C. Homans, The Nature of Social Sciences, Harcourt, New York, 1967, P. 7 26
361

.




. )
(

.

. uniqueness

.
27

.


.Q. Gibson, The Logic of Social Inquiry, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1963, P. 23 27
: . :

.

362

!



.

:
:
: .


.

.



.



.

.

.
363

.
.

/
.

.

.
.
.
.


.



364

.

.



.


.

.



.

.

.


.



.

365

. .

.

.

.



.

.



.

.
366

.

.

.


.
.

367

:



.





.


.


.

.
.


.
.
.

.

.

.
.

.



.

.
.
.

.




370

.

.
.

.



.

.




.

.


.
.

.

.
371

.







.
.


. .



.

.

372

:
Object Language
Meta-Language .



.
H. Feigl
.

M. Brodbeck

.


.

!
.


.


.



.

373

.



:
.





.
.

!

.

.


.

374

1
.




.


.


.

2 .

:
.
:



1 .

.
.
2 .
375

.

.

.
.

.




.
!


.

.

.

376

3 .


.
.

.


.
:

4 :
)(
.
.
)(
.
.
)(

.

Larry Laudan, Progress And Its Problems: Toward a Theory of Scientific Progress, 3

.Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1977, P. 125

A. Polikarov, Science And Philosophy, Pulishing House of The Bulgarian Academy of 4
.Science, Sofia, 1973, PP. 29-30
377

.
:
.

. :
)( .



:
) ( ) ( ) (




.

.



!



.


: :
.
378

Revolution
: : . : .:
: . : . :
5
.

Revolutionary

Revolution
)

( Revolution

.
.Evolution

.
.

6
.



.

.
5
.
Bernard Cohen, William Whewell And The Concept of Scientific Revolution, In: Essays 6

.in Memory of Imre Lakatos, op, cit., P. 55

379

.
.

/.
G. Bechelard
)( .

.
A. Koyre

.
H. Buterfield

.


) Keyidea ( .
.

.
.
.

380

.
.
.



.




.

.

.



.

7 . )( :
.
381

8 .
:


9 .

10 .

.
.


.
.
:
11 .

12 .

.
.

.

8 .
.
9 . .
.
10 .-
11 .
12 .
382

. :

.
.

.
.

.



La Rupture

Epistemologique


.


.

383

. Scientific Novelty
.



.

.

.
.
:

) M. Foucault(



.
.

384

13 .

.
.

.

.


.


.




/ .

.
Louis Althusser, Politics And History, Trans by Ben Brewser, NIB, Bristol, 1972, PP. 13 13

.et, Seq
385

.



.








.


.

.

.
!




:

386

14 .
Universalities

.Essentialism

: Nominalism
Realism .

.

15 .

.

.
.

.K. Popper, Logic of Scientific Discovery, p. 52 14

15 . .
387

.
.
.

.


.
.
16
.

17 .

.
Karl Popper, The Open Society And Its Enemies, Vol, I: The Spell of Plato, (1943), 16

.Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1992, P. VII

17







The Open Society And Its
.Enemie vol, I
388

.
: :

T. Kuhn
Paradigm
.


: )(
.
:
.





.




.

389

.
.
A Role For History


18 .


.

.
Textbooks



.





.

Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, The University of Chicago 18

.Press, 2nd enlarged ed., 1970, PP. V: VII

:
. :
.
390

.

) A. Lovejoy( :



19 .

.

20 .

.

19 .
.
20 .
391

.


.


.

.

.
/.
21 .
.

.

Normal Science Paradigm
.




Thomas S. Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 21

.1957, p. 4
392

.
.

.

.

Puzzle
.
22 .

.



.
.


.

. -
Self-Correction .

.
. .

.Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, P. 3763 22

393

.

.

.
.

.
uncommensurability
.

23 .

!


.


.
.

23
.

. .


.
394

.

.

Textbooks
!





.

.

24 .

.

.


Second Thoughts on Paradigm
.


.T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, P. 138 24
395

.
.Disciplinary Matrix

.Exemplar Matrix
.


.
25 .
26
.


.



.


.

John Watkins, Against Normal Science, In: I. Lakatos & Allan Musgrave (eds), Criticism 25

.And Growth of Knowledge, Cambridge University Press, 1979, PP. 2537, P. 27

T. Kuhn, Reflections on My Critics, in: Criticism And Growth of Knowledge, 26
.PP. 231277, P. 236
396

27 .Institution
.




28 .Institutionalized Rationality



:
29 . .



.
.



.

27 :Institution
.
.
W. H. Newton Smith, The Rationality of Science, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 28

.1981, P
29 .
.
397

.
.

30 .
.



.

31 .
.
32 .


.
.
.

T. Kuhn, Logic of Discovery or Psychology of Research, in Criticism And Growth of 30

.Knowledge, pp. 123, p. 21

.T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, P. 208 31
Thomas Kuhn, Comment on The Relation of Science And Arts, in: Comparative Studies 32

.in Philosophy And History, N. XI, 1969, PP. 403412

398

33 .


.

.


.
.



.

.



.



. :

33 . .
399

.

.

.
.

.

.
.
: :




Imre Lakatos :
.
:
.
400

.

.



34
.

.


.

.
.

.


35 .

34 . .
W. V. Quine, On Poppers Negative Methodology, In: P. A Schipp (ed.), The Philosophy 35

.of Karl Popper, Open Court Publishing, IIIinois, 1971, Vol, 14, I, P. 218
401

.
!

! .
Consequences


- Duhem-Quine Thesis




36 . .
-
.
.

.

-

. .

.

.Robert Audi (ed.), The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 1955, P. 211-212 36

402

. .


Descriptive Unit

-

.

.

hard core

.

37 .


38 .

.

Ad hoc Hypothesis
.Auxiliary Hyp
Alan Musgrave, Method or Madness, In: Essays in Memory of Imre Lakatos, PP. 457 37

.491
38 . ..
403

.
.

.


-.

.protective belt



.

39 .
.
:

heuristic .

Art of Discovery
I. Lakatos, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes, Cambridge University 39

.Press, 1978, P. 48-49

404

.




.
.

.
.

.

.

.

.
.



.
405

40


.


.

.


.

Inductivism

.
Conventionalism
.

.

.
.

.Ibid, P. 103 40
406

.
.
.

.


.

.
41 .

.
.


.

.
.I. Lakatos, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes, P. 114 41
407

.

.
.


.

42 .
:

!


Metah historical
: .

:
.




43
.Larry Laudan, Progress And Its Problems P. 168 42
.I. Lakatos, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes, P. 102 43
408

.
.
.


!
.





.
44 .
:

.
.



. .

44
) (

Revisionism
.
409

45




Essentialism
) ] :
:
[( .

.


. .

.



.
.
.

Karl Popper, Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge: in his: Conjectures And 45

.Refutations: Growth of Scientific Knowledge, PP. 97119

.historically Learned at last to think
410

.
:

: .
: .
: .



.

.

46

.
.

: :





Relativism
.I. Lakatos, The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes, P. 138 46
411

) P. K. Feyerabend(

!
!



.

.

.
.
.

.

.


.

412

.

. .

Z W
.
C. Rubbia S. V. Der Meer

.

W

47 .
.

.

.


.

.J. Polkinghorne, Beyond Science, P. 5 47

413

:


.


Anarchic Enterprise 48
: .Anything goes



.


.

!

.

.

.Paul Feyerabend, Against Method, Revised Edition, Verso, London, 1992, P. 9 48
414

!


.

.


.



.



49
.

50

.
Uncommensurability
.


49 Relativism Notes on:
.Feyerabend, Farewell to Reason, Verson, London, 1987, PP. 1989

Paul k.

.Paul K. Feyerabend, Three Dialogues On Knowledge, Blackwell, Oxford, 1992, P. 156 50

415

.
.


!
.


51 .


.

.


!

Paul k. Feyerabend, Philosophical Papers, Vol, I: Realism, Rationalism And Scientific 51

.Method, Cambridge University Press, 1981, p. 15

416

.
.

.

.


.


.

.
!


.

.

. .


417

.
:

.

.
:
.


52

.
: 53


.

:

.
.
.P. K. Feyerabend, Against Method, P. VII 52
.Bryan Magee, Karl Popper, P. 61 53
418

.



.

J. Watkins N. R. Hanson
M. Hesse
.



.
.

.



.


419

.

.
54 .

M. Polanye

55
.




.

.
. :

S. Toulmin, Foresight and: Understanding: An Enquiry Into The Aim of Science, 1982, 54

.P. 110
.B. L. Silver, The Ascent of Science, P. 50 n 55
420

.
.

.
.
.
/
.



.

56

.



57

58


56 . .
57 . . ..
58 . .
421

.



.


.




.
) J. Piaget(

. /
.


.

.

.
422

.


.
.
.

.

.

.
423

59

.

.

/
.


.

.J. Margolis, Science Without Unity, P. xix 59

424

.




.


.

.

60 .

.
61 .

M. W. Wartofsky, The Relation Between Philosophy of Science And History of Science, 60

.P. 718
.Ibid, P. 737 61
425

.

.


.
J. Agassi
Towards a Historiography of Science
A. Grnbaum
.

.




) B. Croce( .

.

.
!
.


426

62 .

.
G. Canguilhem .
internal


. .

external

63

.


64 .
.Larry Laudan, Progress And Its Problems, P. 156 62
63 . . ..
64 . .
427

.
.

.


.
) K. Manheim(

65 .
Sociology of Knowledge
.

65 : .
. .
428

Cognitive
non-Cognitive .





.R. Merton

.
.
.
.
66

.

Science B. Barber
Robert K. Merton, Sociology of Science: The Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, 66

.University of Chicago Press, 1973, P. 260

429

.
.

.


.




:


67 .

68

69


67 . :
.
.L. Laudan, Progress and its Problems, P. 221 68
.Thomas Kuhn, The History of Science, P. 76 69
430

.

.


!

.

.






.
70


.

70 . .-
431

/



.

.




.
.

) W. K. Clifford(
) G. Sarton(

.



432

.

.


.

: :
:
.



71 .



72 .

.



Joseph Margolis, Science Without Unity: Reconciling The Human And Natural Sciences, 71

.P. 23
.Ibid, P. 17 72
433

.


.
.
:

.
. N. Bohr
73 .




.

.



.

.

.

73 .
.
434

.

. :
74 .
75 Scientology









.


.

.D. Gillies, Philosophy of Science in Twentieth Century, P. 68 74

75 .
435

.


.






.



.

436