Operational Amplifiers

Tutorial Series

_
+

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE

Spring 2002 VTech Calvin Project
For Prof. Ribeiro

Table of Contents
The Operational Amplifier______________________________slides 3-4
The Four Amplifier Types______________________________slide 5
VCVS(Voltage Amplifier) Summary:
Noninverting Configuration____________slides 6-9
Inverting Configuration________________slides 10-12
ICIC(Current Amplifier) Summary________________________slide 13
VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary_____________slides 14-15
ICVS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary_______________slides 16-18
Power Bandwidth_____________________________________slide 19
Slew Rate____________________________________________slide 20
Slew Rate Output Distortion____________________________ slide 21
Noise Gain___________________________________________slide 22
Gain-Bandwidth Product_______________________________slide 23
Cascaded Amplifiers - Bandwidth________________________slide 24
Common Mode Rejection Ratio__________________________slides 25-26
Power Supply Rejection Ratio___________________________slide 27
Sources_____________________________________________slide 28

The Operational Amplifier

Usually Called Op Amps

An amplifier is a device that accepts a varying input signal and

produces a similar output signal with a larger amplitude.

Usually connected so part of the output is fed back to the input.

(Feedback Loop)

Most Op Amps behave like voltage amplifiers. They take an input

voltage and output a scaled version.

They are the basic components used to build analog circuits.

The name operational amplifier comes from the fact that they
were originally used to perform mathematical operations such as
integration and differentiation.

Integrated circuit fabrication techniques have made highperformance operational amplifiers very inexpensive in comparison
to older discrete devices.

The Operational Amplifier

+VS

Inverting

i(-)
vid

Noninverting

i(+)

RO
Ri

Output
vO = Advid

+
-VS

i(+), i(-) : Currents into the amplifier on the inverting and noninverting lines
respectively
vid : The input voltage from inverting to non-inverting inputs
+VS , -VS : DC source voltages, usually +15V and 15V
Ri : The input resistance, ideally infinity
A : The gain of the amplifier. Ideally very high, in the 1x10 10 range.
RO: The output resistance, ideally zero
vO: The output voltage; vO = AOLvid where AOL is the open-loop voltage gain

The Four Amplifier Types

Description

Gain
Symbol

Transfer
Function

Voltage Amplifier
or
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

Av

vo/vin

Current Amplifier
or
Current Controlled Current Source (ICIS)

Ai

io/iin

Transconductance Amplifier
or
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCIS)

gm
(siemens)

io/vin

Transresistance Amplifier
or
Current Controlled Voltage Source (ICVS)

rm
(ohms)

vo/iin

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Noninverting Configuration

i(+)

+
vid
vin

+
_

iO

i(-)

vF

Applying KVL the

following equations
can be found:
v1 = vin
vO = v1 + vF = vin+ iFRF

v1
_

vid = vo/AOL

iL
+

iF
RF RL

R1
i1

vL
_

Assuming AOL

vO
-

vid =0
Also, with the
assumption that Rin =

i(+) = i(-) = 0
This means that,
iF = i1
Therefore: iF = vin/R1
Using the equation to the left the output
voltage becomes:
vo = vin + vinRF = vin RF + 1
R1

R1

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Noninverting Configuration Continued
The closed-loop voltage gain is symbolized by Av and is found to be:
Av = vo = RF + 1
vin

R1

The original closed loop gain equation is:

AF is the amplifier
Av = AF = AOL
1 + AOL

gain with
feedback

Ideally AOL , Therefore Av = 1

Note: The actual value of AOL is given for the specific device and
usually ranges from 50k 500k.
is the feedback factor and by assuming open-loop gain is infinite:
=
R1
R1 + R F

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Noninverting Configuration Continued
Input and Output Resistance
Ideally, the input resistance for this configuration is infinity, but the a
closer prediction of the actual input resistance can be found with the
following formula:
RinF = Rin (1 + AOL)

Where Rin is given for the

specified device. Usually Rin is
in the M range.

Ideally, the output resistance is zero, but the formula below gives a
more accurate value:
RoF =

Ro
AOL + 1

Where Ro is given for the

specified device. Usually Ro is in
the 10s of s range.

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier)

Noninverting Configuration Example

i(+)

+
vid
vin

iO

_
+

i(-)

vF
_
+
v1
_

iL
iF
RF RL

+
vL
_

R1
i1

+
vO
-

Given: vin = 0.6V, RF = 200 k

R1 = 2 k , AOL = 400k
Rin = 8 M , Ro = 60
Find: vo , iF , Av , , RinF and RoF

Solution:
vo = vin + vinRF = 0.6 + 0.6*2x105 = 60.6 V
R1

2000

Av = RF + 1 = 2x105 + 1 = 101
R1

iF = vin = 0.6
R1

2000

= 1 = 1 = 9.9x10-3

2000

AOL

101

RinF = Rin (1 + AOL) = 8x106 (1 + 9.9x10-3*4x105) = 3.1688x1010

RoF =

Ro
AOL + 1

60
9.9x10-3*4x105 + 1

= 0.3 mA

= 0.015

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Inverting Configuration
RF

iF
i1

vin

R1

RL

General Equations:
i1 = vin/R1
iF = i1
vo = -iFRF = -vinRF/R1
Av = RF/R1

= R1/RF

vO

The same
assumptions used to
find the equations for
the noninverting
configuration are
also used for the
inverting
configuration.

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Inverting Configuration Continued
Input and Output Resistance
Ideally, the input resistance for this configuration is equivalent to R 1.
However, the actual value of the input resistance is given by the
following formula:
Rin = R1 +

RF
1 + AOL

Ideally, the output resistance is zero, but the formula below gives a
more accurate value:
RoF =

Ro
1 + AOL

Note:

R1 This is different from the equation used

R1 + R F

on the previous slide, which can be confusing.

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier)

Inverting Configuration Example
RF

iF
R1

i1

vin

Given: vin = 0.6 V, RF = 20 k

R1 = 2 k , AOL = 400k

+
vO
-

RL

Rin = 8 M , Ro = 60
Find: vo , iF , Av , , RinF and RoF

Solution:
vo = -iFRF = -vinRF/R1 = -(0.6*20,000)/2000 = 12 V
iF = i1 = vin/R1 = 1 / 2000 = 0.5 mA
Av = RF/R1 = 20,000 / 2000 = 10
Rin = R1 +

RF

= 2000 +

1 + AOL
RoF =

Ro

= R1/RF = 2000 / 20,000 = 0.1

20,000

= 2,000.05

1 + 400,000
60

= Note:
1.67 ism0.09
because using
different formula than above

ICIS (Current Amplifier) Summary

Not commonly done using operational amplifiers
iL
Load
_
iin
+
1 Possible
ICIS
Operational
Amplifier
Application

iin = iL
Similar to the voltage
follower shown below:

vin

+
_

vin = vo
+

vO
-

Both these amplifiers have

unity gain:
Av = Ai = 1

Voltage Follower

VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary

Voltage to Current Converter
iL
i1

vin

R1

Load

Load
i1

_
+

OR
vin

+
_

General Equations:
iL = i1 = v1/R1
v1 = vin
The transconductance, gm = io/vin = 1/R1
Therefore, iL = i1 = vin/R1 = gmvin
The maximum load resistance is determined by:
RL(max) = vo(max)/iL

R1

+
vin

+
_

iL

VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier)

Voltage to Current Converter Example
iL
i1

vin

R1

Load

Given: vin = 2 V, R1 = 2 k
vo(max) = 10 V

_
+

Find: iL , gm and RL(max)

Solution:
iL = i1 = vin/R1 = 2 / 2000 = 1 mA

Note:
If RL > RL(max) the op amp
will saturate
The output current, iL is
independent of the load
resistance.

gm = io/vin = 1/R1 = 1 / 2000 = 0.5 mS

RL(max) = vo(max)/iL = 10 V / 1 mA
= 10 k

VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary

Current to Voltage Converter
RF

iF
_
+

iin

vO

General Equations:
iF = iin
vo = -iFRF
rm = vo/iin = RF

VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary

Current to Voltage Converter

Transresistance Amplifiers are used for low-power

applications to produce an output voltage proportional to
the input current.

Photodiodes and Phototransistors, which are used in the

production of solar power are commonly modeled as
current sources.

Current to Voltage Converters can be used to convert these

current sources to more commonly used voltage sources.

VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier)

Current to Voltage Converter Example
RF

iF

Given: iin = 10 mA
RF = 200

_
+

iin

vO

Solution:
iF = iin = 10 mA
vo = -iFRF = 10 mA * 200 = 2 V
rm = vo/iin = RF = 200

Find: iF , vo and rm

Power Bandwidth
The maximum frequency at which a sinusoidal output signal can be
produced without causing distortion in the signal.
The power bandwidth, BWp is determined using the desired
output signal amplitude and the the slew rate (see next slide)
specifications of the op amp.
BWp =

SR
2 Vo(max)

SR = 2 fVo(max) where SR is the slew rate

Example:
Given: Vo(max) = 12 V and SR = 500 kV/s
Find:

BWp

Solution:

BWp =

500 kV/s = 6.63 kHz

2 * 12 V

Slew Rate
A limitation of the maximum possible rate of change of the
output of an operational amplifier.
As seen on the previous slide,

This is derived from:

SR = 2 fVo(max)

SR = vo/ tmax

f is the
frequency in
Hz

Slew Rate is independent of the

closed-loop gain of the op amp.

Example:
Given: SR = 500 kV/s and vo = 12 V (Vo(max) = 12V)
Find: The t and f.
Solution: t = vo / SR = (10 V) / (5x105 V/s) = 2x10-5 s
f = SR / 2 Vo(max) = (5x105 V/s) / (2 * 12) = 6,630 Hz

Slew Rate Distortion

v

desired output
waveform

SR = v/ t = m (slope)

v
actual output
because of
slew rate
limitation

The picture above shows exactly what happens when the

slew rate limitations are not met and the output of the
operational amplifier is distorted.

Noise Gain
The noise gain of an amplifier is independent of the amplifiers
configuration (inverting or noninverting)
The noise gain is given by the formula:
A N = R 1 + RF
R1
Example 1: Given a noninverting amplifier with the resistance
values, R1 = 2 k and RF = 200 k
Find: The noise gain.
AN = 2 k + 200 k = 101
2 k

Note: For the

noninverting amplifier AN = AV

Example 2: Given an inverting amplifier with the resistance

values, R1 = 2 k and RF = 20 k
Find: The noise gain.
AN = 2 k + 20 k = 12
2 k

Note: For the

inverting amplifier AN > AV

Gain-Bandwidth Product
In most operational amplifiers, the open-loop gain begins
dropping off at very low frequencies. Therefore, to make the
op amp useful at higher frequencies, gain is traded for
bandwidth.
The Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBW) is given by:
GBW = ANBW

Example: For a 741 op amp, a noise gain of 10 k corresponds

to a bandwidth of ~200 Hz
Find: The GBW
GBW = 10 k * 200 Hz = 2 MHz

Cascaded Amplifiers - Bandwidth

Quite often, one amplifier does not increase the signal enough
and amplifiers are cascaded so the output of one amplifier is the
input to the next.
The amplifiers are matched so:
BWS = BW1 = BW2 = GBW

where, BWS is the bandwidth of all

AN

the cascaded amplifiers and AN is

the noise gain
The Total Bandwidth of the Cascaded Amplifiers is:
BWT = BWs(21/n 1)1/2
where n is the number of amplifiers
that are being cascaded
Example: Cascading 3 Amplifiers with GBW = 1 MHz and AN = 15,
Find: The Total Bandwidth, BWT
BWS = 1 MHz / 15 = 66.7 kHz
BWT = 66.7 kHz (21/3 1)1/2 = 34 kHz

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) relates to the ability of
the op amp to reject common-mode input voltage. This is very
important because common-mode signals are frequently
encountered in op amp applications.
CMRR = 20 log|AN / Acm|
Acm =

AN

log-1 (CMRR / 20)

We solve for Acm because Op Amp data sheets list the CMRR value.
The common-mode input voltage is an average of the voltages that
are present at the non-inverting and inverting terminals of the
amplifier.
vicm = v(+) + v(-)
2

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Example
Given: A 741 op amp with CMRR = 90 dB and a noise gain,
AN = 1 k
Find: The common mode gain, Acm

Acm =

AN
log-1 (CMRR / 20)

1000
log-1 (90 / 20)

= 0.0316
It is very desirable for the common-mode gain to be small.

Power Supply Rejection Ratio

One of the reasons op amps are so useful, is that they can
be operated from a wide variety of power supply voltages.
The 741 op amp can be operated from bipolar supplies
ranging from 5V to 18V with out too many changes to the
parameters of the op amp.
The power supply rejection ratio (SVRR) refers to the slight
change in output voltage that occurs when the power
supply of the op amp changes during operation.
SVRR = 20 log ( Vs / Vo)
The SVRR value is given for a specified op amp. For the
741 op amp, SVRR = 96 dB over the range 5V to 18V.

Open-Loop Op Amp Characteristics

Table 12.11
Device

LM741C

LF351

OP-07

LH0003

AD549K

Technology

BJT

BiFET

BJT

Hybrid
BJT

BiFET

AOL(typ)

200 k

100 k

400 k

40 k

100 k

Rin

2 M

1012

8 M

100 k

1013 || 1 pF

Ro

50

30

60

50

~100

SR

0.5 V/s

13 V/s

0.3 V/s

70 V/s

3 V/s

CMRR

90 dB

100 dB

110 dB

90 dB

90 dB

Sources
Dailey, Denton. Electronic Devices and Circuits, Discrete and Integrated. Prentice Hall, New
Jersey: 2001. (pp 456-509)
Table 12.1: Selected Op Amps and Their Open Loop Characteristics, pg 457

Liou, J.J. and Yuan, J.S. Semiconductor Device Physics and Simulation. Plenum Press,
New York: 1998.
Neamen, Donald. Semiconductor Physics & Devices. Basic Principles. McGraw-Hill,
Boston: 1997. (pp 351-357)
Web Sources
www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0803814.html
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0836717.html
http://people.msoe.edu/~saadat/PSpice230Part3.htm