Professional Documents
Culture Documents
F. Van Cauwelaert
ii
INTRODUCTION
Pavement Design and Evaluation: The Required Mathematics and Its Applications
Keywords: textbook for pavement engineers, high order mathematical solutions for, rigid and flexible
pavement, mechanistic methods, practical applications in the field of pavement engineering
Preface
This book is intended for Civil Engineers and more specific for Pavement Engineers, who are interested
in the more advanced field of pavement engineering made available through the theory of high
mathematics. In my extensive carrier as a Civil Engineer by profession, I noticed that some of my
colleagues feel uneasy when it comes to high-level theoretical and computational work. Perhaps this is
because of the fact that as soon as they graduated, they are confronted with many and important practical
problems where derivatives and integrals do not appear very useful at fist sight. However, at many
occasions, conferences, seminars and other meetings, I realised that Civil Engineers remain excited about
the mathematical fundamentals of their art. Slow but sure grew the idea of writing a textbook on High
Mathematics conceivable for practising Pavement Engineers. The primary objective of this book is to
serve two purposes: first, to introduce the basic principles which must be known by people dealing with
pavements; and secondly to present the theories and methods in pavement design and evaluation that may
be used by students, designers engineering consultants, highway and airport agencies, and researchers at
universities. In addition, some of the new concepts developed in recent years to improve the methods of
pavement systems are explained. This book is written in a relatively simple way so that it may be
followed by people familiar with basic engineering courses in mathematics and pavement design.
This book consists of 26 chapters and is divided into two parts. The first part, which include chapters 1-9,
covers the mathematics required by most of the problems related to pavement engineering. The assumed
mathematical knowledge is that of high school level plus some basic elements of trigonometry and
analysis. The second part, which includes chapters 10-26, is concerned with practical solutions as faced
by Pavement Engineers in the assessment of rigid and flexible pavements. The rigorous mathematical
solutions are presented in the Appendix, explaining on complex variables.
Grateful acknowledgement is offered to the Fdration de lIndustrie Cimentire, Belgium (the Federation
of the Belgian Cement Industry) for their intellectual and financial support in the process of the
realisation of this book.
Thanks is due to my dear friend, Marc Stet, for proof-reading and editing the manuscript. His helpful
comments to the mathematical and editorial content are highly appreciated.
iii
INTRODUCTION
and displacements in a semi-infinite body under a circular flexible plate uniformly loaded. It generalises
the solution to different vertical loads (isolated, rigid, rectangular) and to orthotropic bodies. Chapter 21
presents the solution a semi-infinite body subjected to shear stresses: radial and one-directional. Chapter
22 gives the analytical solution for a multi-layered structure, included the problem of the adhesion
between the layers, that of an eventual fixed bottom and that of an anisotropic subgrade. Chapter 23
presents the numerical procedure required for the solution of a multi-layered structure. Chapter 24
presents the theory at the base of the back-calculation methods for flexible pavements. Chapter 25
presents the numerical procedure required for the back-calculation method for flexible pavements.
Chapter 26 presents a practical test of interest with both types of road structures (rigid or flexible) multilayered structures: the ovalisation test.
The Appendices gives the basic theory of complex numbers, especially the integration in the complex
plane.
vi
CONTENTS
Table of Contents
Page
Preface............................................................................................................................................. iii
PART 1: THE REQUIRED MATHEMATICS................................................................................ 1
Chapter 1 The Laplace Equation.................................................................................................... 1
1.1
Introductory note................................................................................................................. 1
1.2
Derivation of the Laplace equation in polar co-ordinates from the Laplace equation in Cartesian
co-ordinates........................................................................................................................ 2
1.3
Equations related to the Laplace equation.............................................................................. 3
1.3.1
The Laplacian with coefficients different from 1. ............................................................... 3
1.3.2
The double Laplacian....................................................................................................... 3
1.3.3
The extended Laplacian ................................................................................................... 3
1.4
Resolution of the Laplace equation ....................................................................................... 4
1.4.1
Resolution by separation of the variables........................................................................... 4
1.4.2
Resolution by means of the characteristic equation (Spiegel, 1971) ..................................... 5
1.4.3
Resolution by means of indicial equations ......................................................................... 6
Chapter 2 The Gamma Function.................................................................................................... 9
2.1
Introductory note................................................................................................................. 9
2.2
Helpful relations.................................................................................................................. 9
2.3
Definition of the Gamma Function ......................................................................................10
2.4
Values of (1/2) and (-1/2)...............................................................................................11
Chapter 3 The General Solution of the Bessel Equation. .............................................................. 15
3.1
Introductory note................................................................................................................15
3.2
Helpful relations.................................................................................................................16
3.3
Resolution of the Bessel equation (Bessel functions of the first kind) .....................................17
3.4
Resolutio n of the Bessel equation for p an integer (Bessel functions of the second and third
kind)..................................................................................................................................19
3.4.1
For n integer, Jn = (-)n J-n .................................................................................................19
3.4.2
Bessel functions of the second kind..................................................................................19
3.4.3
Bessel functions of the third kind .....................................................................................21
3.5
The modified Bessel equation. ............................................................................................21
3.6
The ber and bei functions....................................................................................................23
3.7
The ker and kei functions....................................................................................................24
3.8
Resolution of the equation 2 2 w + w =0............................................................................25
3.9
The modified form of the Bessel equation ............................................................................25
Chapter 4 Properties of the Bessel Functions. .............................................................................. 27
4.1
Introductory note................................................................................................................27
4.2
Helpful relations.................................................................................................................27
4.3
Derivatives of Bessel functions ...........................................................................................29
4.3.1
Derivative of (rt)p Jp (rt)....................................................................................................29
4.3.2
Derivative of (rt)-pJp(rt)..................................................................................................29
vii
4.3.3
4.4
4.4.1
4.5
4.5.1
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.5.4
4.5.5
4.5.6
4.5.7
4.6
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.7
4.7.1
4.7.2
4.7.3
Derivative of Jp (rt)..........................................................................................................29
Bessel functions of half order..............................................................................................30
Values of J1/2(rt), J-1/2(rt), J3/2 (rt), J-3/2 (rt)...........................................................................30
Asymptotic values..............................................................................................................31
Asymptotic values for Jp and J-p.....................................................................................31
Asymptotic values for Yp and Y -p ....................................................................................33
Asymptotic values for Hp (1) and Hp (2)................................................................................33
Asymptotic values for Ip and I-p .......................................................................................33
Asymptotic value for Kn ..................................................................................................35
Asymptotic values for ber and bei....................................................................................36
Asymptotic values for ker and kei....................................................................................36
Indefinite integrals of Bessel functions ................................................................................37
Fundamental relations .....................................................................................................37
The integral rn J0 (rt)dr .....................................................................................................37
Relations between Bessel functions of different kind ............................................................38
Bessel functions with argument rt ..................................................................................38
Relations between the three kinds of Bessel functions .......................................................38
Bessel functions of purely imaginary argument.................................................................39
viii
CONTENTS
ix
10.2
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.3
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.3.4
10.4
10.5
10.5.1
10.5.2
10.5.3
10.5.4
10.5.5
CONTENTS
13.4
13.4.1
13.4.2
13.4.3
13.4.4
13.4.5
Chapter 14
14.1
14.2
14.2.1
14.2.2
14.2.3
14.3
14.3.1
14.3.2
14.3.3
14.4
14.4.1
14.4.2
14.4.3
Chapter 15
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.4.1
15.4.2
15.5
15.5.1
15.5.2
15.5.3
17.6
17.7
17.8
CONTENTS
20.7
20.8
25.4.2
25.5
25.5.1
25.5.2
............................................................................................................................... 273
xiv
1.1
Introductory note.
In mechanical engineering and thus also in the mechanics of civil engineering, one always starts with the
fundamental requirement of equilibrium: equilibrium of the normal forces and equilibrium of the
moments acting on the analysed body. Forces are resultants of stresses. In order to locate exactly those
forces and determine, at least analytically, their amplitude, it is convenient to start from an infinitesimal
section of the body. On such an infinitesimal section, the stresses are necessarily infinitely small and,
hence, can be considered as constant and uniformly distributed over the area of the infinitely small
section. Hence the resulting force is simply the product of the constant stress by the area of the section
and its point of application is the centre of gravity of the section, i.e. the midpoint of the section. All the
resulting equations will then necessarily be differential equations and, nearly in almost all applications,
the differential equation expressing equilibrium is a Laplace or an assimilated equation. The development
of these equations are presented in chapter 10, the first chapter of Part 2 Applications. As in many
fields of engineering, also in Pavement engineering the differential equation of Laplace is the solution of
a great series of applications. Symbolically, Laplace equation is written as follows:
2 = 0
(1.1)
It is a homogeneous differential equation with second order partial derivatives.
Function of the co-ordinate system, the equation is developed:
in plane Cartesian co-ordinates
2
x 2
2
y 2
=0
(1.2)
2
x 2
2
y 2
2
z 2
=0
(1.3)
in polar co-ordinates
1
1 2
+
=0
r r r 2 2
(1.4)
1 1 2 2
+
+
=0
r r r 2 2
z 2
(1.5)
r 2
in cylindrical co-ordinates
2
r 2
In case of axial symmetry, / = 0 and equations (1.4) and (1.5) simplify in:
2 1
+
=0
r 2
r r
2 1 2
+
+
=0
r 2
r r
z 2
Equation (1.2) is applied in chapter 10.3.4.
Equation (1.4) will be utilised in chapters 10.5.1 and 19.1.
Equation (1.7) will be utilised in chapters 10.5.2, 10.6, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3 and 20.4.
1
(1.6)
(1.7)
1.2
Derivation of the Laplace equation in polar co-ordinates from the Laplace equation in
Cartesian co-ordinates.
x = r cos
y = r sin
Hence
r 2 = x2 + y2
= tan 1 ( y / x )
Express the partial derivatives
r
=
x
(x 2 + y 2 )1 / 2
x
= cos
r
r y
= = sin
y r
1
y
sin
=
=
x
r
y 2 x2
1+
x2
1 1 cos
=
=
y
r
y2 x
1+ 2
x
Then
r
=
+
x
r x x
sin
= cos
x
r
r
2
x 2
2
x 2
= cos 2
2
r 2
r
+
r x x x x
1 2
1
2 2
2
2
sin
+
sin 2
sin cos
+
sin cos
r
r r 2
r r 2
2 r
2
1
1
2
2
2
2 2
= sin
+ cos
+
cos
+ sin cos
sin cos
2
2
2
2
2
r
r r
r
r r
y
r
1
1 2
+
=
+
+
r r r 2 2
x 2
y 2
r 2
(1.8)
1.3
Besides the properly so called Laplace differential equation, there exists a series of useful differential
equations closely related to the Laplace equation.
1.3.1
2
x 2
1 2
=0
C y 2
(1.9)
The double Laplacian, or the Laplace operator applied to a Laplace equation, is also a solution of an
important series of applications.
It writes
2 2 = 0
(1.10)
Developed, for example in volume co-ordinates, the double Laplacian is
2
2
2 2 2 2
+
+
+
+
=0
(1.11)
x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2
2
2
Equation (1.10) is applied in chapters 10.3, 10.5.1,10.5.2, 10.5.3, 10.5.4, 20.1, 20.2, 20.3 and 20.4.
1.3.3
Often the Laplacian equation is completed by derivatives of an order lower than the second. Here in polar
co-ordinates:
1
1 2
+
+
+ k = 0
r r r 2 2
r 2
(1.12)
2 2 + A 2 + B = C
(1.13)
or more generally
The extended Laplacian is used in chapters 10.1.5, 10.2.2 and in chapters 12 to 19.
1.4
2 f 1( x )
x 2
f 2 ( y ) f 3 ( z ) + f1 ( x )
2 f2 ( y )
y 2
f3 ( z ) + f1 ( x ) f 2 ( y )
2 f3 ( z )
=0
z 2
Each of the 3 terms of the sum is a function of one single variable; this results in
2 f1 ( x )
= C1 f 1 ( x )
x 2
2 f 2( y )
2 f3( z )
= C3 f 3 ( z )
z 2
= C2 f2( y )
y 2
C1 + C 2 + C3 = 0
2 f (r )
r 2
g( z ) +
1 f ( r )
2 g( z )
g( z ) + f ( r )
=0
r r
z 2
2 f(r )
2
1 f ( r ) g ( z )
r 2 + r r + z 2 = 0
f(r )
f (r)
g( z )
Thus
2 f (r )
r 2
1 f
= Cf ( r )
r r
2 g( z )
z 2
Choose Cg(z) = e z.
Hence f(r) must be a solution of
2 f (r )
r
1 f ( r )
+ f(r ) =0
r r
= Cg( z )
(1.14)
The function known as Bessels function of the first kind and of n- th order and denoted Jn (r) is defined as
follows (Bowman, 1958):
J n( r ) =
( r / 2 )n ( r / 2 )2 + n ( r / 2 )4 + n ( r / 2 )6 + n
+ ...
0! n!
1! ( n + 1 )! 2! ( n + 2 )! 3! ( n + 3 )!
(1.15)
Hence
( r / 2 )2 ( r / 2 )4 ( r / 2 )6
+
+ ...
1!1!
2! 2!
3!3!
(1.16)
r ( r / 2 ) 3 ( r / 2 ) 5 ( r / 2 )7
+ ...
2
1!2!
2!3!
3! 4!
(1.17)
J 0( r ) = 1
and
J1 ( r ) =
Differentiating the series for J0 (r) and comparing the result with the series for J1 (r) results in:
dJ 0 ( r )
= J1 ( r )
dr
(1.18)
d
(rJ 1( r ) ) = rJ 0 ( r )
dr
(1.19)
d dJ 0 ( r )
r
= rJ 0 ( r )
dr
dr
d 2J 0( r )
dr 2
1 dJ 0 ( r )
+ J0 ( r ) = 0
r dr
(1.20)
This solution applies to homogeneous linear differential equations with constant coefficients defined as
a0
d n
dx n
+ a1
d n 1
dx n 1
+ ... + a n 1
d
+ an = 0
dx
(1.21)
It is convenient to adopt the notations D , D2, ..., Dn to denote d/dx, d2/dx2 , ...d n/dxn, where D,
D2 , ..., Dn are called differential operators.
Using this notation, (1.21) transforms
n
n 1
+
a0 D + a1 D
... + a n 1D + an = 0
a 0 m n + a1m n 1 + ... + a n = 0
(1.22)
(1.23)
a0 ( m m1 )( m m2 )...( m mn ) = 0
which roots are m1 , m2 , ...mn .
(1.24)
= C1e m1 x + C2 e m 2 x + ... + Cn e m n x
(1.25)
iu
(1.26)
(1.27)
=0
(1.28)
+ f ( x)= 0
(1.29)
= C1 + C 2 x + C3 x 2 + ... + Ck x k 1 e m1 x
Example
Consider the double Laplacian in plane Cartesian co-ordinates:
4
x 4
+2
4
x 2 y 2
4
y 4
4 f ( x)
x 4
+2
2 f( x)
x 2
Equation (1.29) is a homogeneous linear differential equation of order 4. The characteristic equation
writes:
m 4 + 2m 2 + 1 = 0
(1.30)
( m + i )2 ( m i )2 = 0
(1.31)
1.4.3
(1.32)
d 2w
dx
+ k 2w = 0
f ( x ) = a0 + a1 x + a 2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + a4 x 4 L
Apply (1.33)
6
(1.33)
2.1.a 2 + k 2 a0 = 0
3.2.a 3 + k 2 a1 = 0
4.3.a 4 + k 2 a2 = 0
a2 =
k2
2!
k4
k2p
a2 p = ( ) p
4!
( 2 p )!
a1 = a3 = L = a 2 p + 1 = L0
a4 =
(1.34)
(1.35)
The successive terms of (1.34) are the terms of the cosine series. Hence, the first solution of (1.33) is
f(x) = cos(kx). The second solution is obtained by setting a 0 = 0 and a 1 = k. Obviously, the second
solution of (1.33) is f(x) = sin(kx).
Chapter 2
2.1
Introductory note
In chapter 1, we have defined the Bessel function of the first kind and of order zero as:
(r / 2 )2k
J 0 ( r ) = ( )k
k! k!
J n ( r ) = ( )k
(r / 2) 2k + n
k ! ( k + n )!
J p ( r ) = ( )
(r / 2 )2 k + p
k! ( k + p + 1 )
For our purpose, the gamma function is essentially required to express Bessel functions of non-integer
order: it is the factorial function for non-integers. Observe that with these definitions (n+1) = n!
2.2
Helpful relations
( p)=
p1 x
dx
( p + 1 ) = p ( p )
(1) = 1
( n + 1 ) = n!
(1 / 2 ) =
( n ) =
d ( n )
1 1
1
= ' ( n ) = ( n ) + 1 + + + ... +
dn
2 3
n 1
2.3
( p)=
p1 x
dx
(2.1)
( p + 1 ) = x e dx =
p x
x p e x
o
( e
)( px
p 1
)dx = p x p 1e x dx = p ( p )
o
( p + 1 ) = p ( p )
(2.2)
By taking (2.1) as the definition of (p) for p > 0, we can generalise the gamma function to p < 0 by use
of (2.2) in the form
( p)=
( p + 1)
p
(2.3)
( 1 ) = e x dx = e x
o
=1
(2.4)
( 2 ) = 1 ( 1 ) = 1
( 3 ) = 2 ( 2 ) = 2 1 = 2!
( 4 ) = 3 ( 3 ) = 3 2 ( 2 ) = 3 2 1 = 3!
( n + 1 ) = n!
For n being a positive integer.
2.3. Values of gamma functions.
The values of (p) for non-integer values of p must be computed numerically. One obtains for 1 p 2
p
(p)
1.0
1.00
1.1
.951
1.2
.918
1.3
.898
1.4
.887
1.5
.886
1.6
.894
1.7
.909
1.8
.931
10
1.9
.962
2.0
1.00
2.4
Two particular values of the gamma function, (1/2) and (-1/2), appear in many applications. By
definition:
( 1 / 2 ) = x 1 / 2 e x dx
o
( 1 / 2 ) = 2 e u du
2
Then
[ ( 1 / 2]2 = 2 e u
o
2
2
v 2
=
4
e ( u + v ) dudv
du 2 e
dv
oo
/ 2
[ ( 1 / 2 )]2 = 4 e r
/2
rdrd = 2
o o
d =
o
Hence
(1 / 2 ) =
(2.5)
and by (2.3)
( 1 / 2 ) =
(1 / 2 )
= 2
1/ 2
(0 ) =
dx
that we write
1
1
1
1
1
( 0 ) = e x
+
... dx + e x
+ ...dx
x 2! x 2 3! x 3
2! x 2 3! x 3
o
o
Derive
d x 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
= e x
e x
+
2
3
2
3
2
3
dx
2! x
3! x
2! x
3! x
x
2! x
3! x
Hence
( 0 ) = e
1
1
+ ... e x
+ ... dx
2! x 2 3! x 3
o
2! x 2 3! x 3
11
(2.6)
1
1
+ e x
+ ... dx
2
3
2! x
3! x
o
(0 ) = e
(0 ) = e
+ ...
2! x 2 3! x 3
o
1
1
1
1
1
+
+ ... 1 +
1
1! x o
1! x 2! x 2 3! x 3
(0 ) = e
x 1 / x
1
1 +
=
1! x o
(0 )
=
1
( n ) =
( 1 ) =
(2.7)
(2.8)
(2.9)
The gamma function is undefined when the value of the argument is zero or a negative integer.
2.6. Derivative of (n).
We call (n) the derivative of (n) with respect to n. For simplicity we consider only the case of n being
an integer, which besides is the only case required for our purpose.
By definition
d
'(n)=
x n 1e x dx =
dn
We first compute (1)
( )
d n1 x
dn x e dx =
n 1
log x e x dx
' ( 1 ) = log xe x dx
o
Integrating by parts
x log xdx =
x2 1 x2
x2
x2
dx =
log x
2 2 x
2
2
n 1
x
1 n 1
xn
xn
log x dx =
log x x
dx =
log x
n
n
n
n2
Further
log xe
dx = ( x log x x )e x + x log xe x dx xe x dx
x2
x 2 x 1
1
x
x
log
x
e
dx
=
log
x
e + x 2 log xe x dx
x 2 e x dx
2!
2.2!
2!
2.2!
12
3
x3
1
2
x
log x x e x + 1 x 3 log xe x dx 1 x 3 e x dx
x
log
x
e
dx
=
3!
2!
3.3!
3!
3.3!
...
xn
1
x n x 1
1
n 1
x
n x
x
log
x
e
dx
=
log
x
e + x n log xe x dx
x e dx
n!
( n 1 )!
n
.
n
!
n
!
n
.
n
!
Assembling:
x x2 x3
x n
x2
x3
x n x
x
x x
+
log
x
e
dx
=
+
+
...
+
log
x
e
+
+
+
...
+
e
1! 2! 3!
1.1! 2.2! 3.3!
n!
n.n!
1
1
1
1
xe x dx
x 2 e x dx
x 3e x dx ...
x n e x dx
1.1!
2 .2 !
3.3!
n.n!
x2
x3
x n x
x
x
x x
log
x
e
dx
=
e
1
)
log
x
e
+
+
+
...
+
e
n
.
n
!
1
1
1
1
xe x dx
x 2 e x dx
x 3e x dx ...
x n e x dx
1.1!
2 .2 !
3.3!
n.n!
x
x
log xe dx = log x o log xe
o
x2
x3
( 2 ) ( 3) ( 4 )
+
+
+ ...e x
...
1.1! 2.2! 3.3!
1
.
1
!
2
.
2
!
3
.
3
!
log xe
(
x
(
x 0
x 0
log xe
x 0
1 1
...
2 3
1 1
2 3
1 1
1
log xe
dx = ( x log x
x )e x
o
+ x log xe
o
dx xe x dx
x
x
x
x log x e dx = log xe dx + xe dx
13
(2.10)
'(2)=
x log xe
dx = + ( 2 )
1
' ( 3 ) = 2! + ( 3 ) 1 +
2
...
1 1
1
' ( n ) = ( n 1 )! + ( n )1 + + + ... +
2 3
n 1
'( n )
1 1
1
= + 1 + + + ... +
(n)
2 3
n 1
14
(2.11)
Chapter 3
3.1
Introductory note.
In the way trigonometric functions are solutions of Laplace equation in Cartesian co-ordinates, Bessel
functions are solutions of Laplace equation in polar or cylindrical co-ordinates. One could say that Bessel
functions is a three dimensional function whereas trigonometric functions are two dimensional functions.
The fundamental characteristics of both functions are identical:
d2 f( x)
- if f(x) = cos(x)
dx 2
d2 f(r )
- if f(r) = J0 (r)
dr 2
= f( x)
+
1 df ( r )
r
= f (r)
dr
Bessel functions are essentially utilised in problems presenting an axial symmetry: in pavement
engineering, the common case of a circular load on a layered structure, i.e. nearly all applications of
chapters 12 to 26.
Jp and J-p are the two solutions of the first kind of Bessels equation
d 2
dr
1 d
r dr
+ t 2 = 0
d 2
dr
1 d
r dr
t 2 = 0
These also, arent used in this book. However, they allow introducing the Ker and Kei functions,
solutions of:
d 2
dr
1 d
+ it 2 = 0
r dr
which is applied in the problem of a slab subjected to an isolated load (chapter 12.4) and in the
ovalisation test (chapter 26.4).
The modified form of Bessels equation:
d 2F
dr
+ ( 1 2 )
1 dF
r dr
2 p2 2
r
F + 2 2 r 2( 1 ) F = 0
permits us to illustrate the existence of relations between Bessel functions of order and trigonometric
functions (chapter 4.3) Those relations allow us to establish asymptotic approximations for Bessel
functions (chapter 4.5), required for the numerical computations of functions of high arguments.
15
3.2
Helpful relations
J p ( rt ) = ( )
0
J p ( rt ) = ( )
0
(rt / 2 ) p + 2k
k! ( p + k + 1 )
(rt / 2 ) p + 2k
k! ( p + k + 1 )
J n ( rt ) = ( ) n J n ( rt )
Yn ( rt ) =
for n integer
n 1
2k n
2
[ J n ( rt )(log( rt / 2 ) + )] 1 ( n k 1 )! ( rt / 2 )
0
k!
1
1 1 1 1
1 ( rt / 2 ) 2k + n
k 1 1 1
(
)
+
+
+
...
+
+
+
+
+
...
+
1 2 3
0
k 1 2 3
n + k k! ( n + k )!
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + iY p ( rt )
H (p2 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) iY p ( rt )
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
k! ( k + p + 1 )
0
1 n 1
k ( n k 1 )!
K n ( rt ) = ( )
2 0
k! ( rt / 2 ) n 2k
I p ( rt ) = i
+ ()
J p ( irt ) =
( rt / 2 ) n + 2k
k! ( n + k )!
0
1
1
log(
rt
/
2
)
(
k
+
1
)
( n + k + 1 )
2
2
1 1 1
1
( 1 ) =
( k + 1 ) = + + + + ... +
1 2 3
k
J 0 ( rti i ) = I 0 ( rt i ) = ber( rt ) ibei ( rt )
n +1
ber( rt ) = ( )
0
( rt / 2 ) 4k
( 2 k )! ( 2k )!
bei( rt ) = ( )
0
( rt / 2 )4 k + 2
( 2k + 1 )! ( 2k + 1 )!
K 0 ( rt i ) = ker( rt ) kei( rt )
ker( rt ) = ber( rt )[log( rt / 2 + ] +
kei( rt ) = bei ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ]
16
(rt / 2 )4 1 + 1 ...
bei( rt )
4
2!2!
2
(rt / 2) 2 (rt / 2 )6
bei( rt ) +
4
1!1!
3! 3!
1 1
1 + + ...
2 3
3.3
2
r 2
1
1 2 2
+
+
=0
r r r 2 2
z 2
(3.1)
= F ( r ) cos( p )e tz
and apply it to (3.1) that transforms into:
2F
r 2
1 F p 2
F +t2F = 0
r r r 2
(3.2)
The general solution of equation (3.2) can be found by the method of the indicial equations (Wayland,
1970). Therefore assume that the solution can be written as a series such as:
F = an r
n + + 2
(3.3)
Hence
F
n + +1
= ( n + )a n r
r
0
2
F
n +
= ( n + )( n + 1 )r
2
r
0
(3.4)
(3.5)
{ [( n + )( n + 1 ) + ( n + ) p 2 ] an r n + + t 2 an r n + + 2 }= 0
+ ( n + p )( n + + p )a n r n + t 2 a n r n+ 2 = 0
2
0
If the terms in r0 and r1 are equal zero, the relation becomes homogeneous regarding the exponents of r.
Therefore choose a 0 = arbitrary, a1 = 0 and = p.
Rearrange the indices
r ( n + 2 )( n + 2 2 p )an + 2 + a nt 2 r n + 2 = 0
0
(3.6)
If (3.6) has to be identical zero whatever the value of m, each term of the summation has to be equal zero.
Hence the recurrence formula
( n + 2 )( n + 2 2 p )a n + 2 = a nt 2
and because a 1 = 0, all the terms with an odd index are also equal zero.
Finally resulting in:
17
(3.7)
a2 =
2
a0 t 2
a0 t 2
a0
t
=
=
2( 2 2 p )
2 2( 1 p )
1 ( 1 p ) 2
4
a0
a 2t 2
t
a4 =
=
4( 4 2 p ) 1 2( 1 p )( 2 p ) 2
a6 =
6
a4 t 2
a0
t
=
6( 6 2 p )
1 2 3( 1 p )( 2 p )( 3 p ) 2
..............
2s
( ) s a0
t
a2 s =
s! ( 1 p )( 2 p )...( s p ) 2
If p is different from zero or not an integer, one obtains two linearly independent solutions
( rt / 2 ) p + 2 k
( rt ) p + 2 k
k
F = A ( )
+ B( )
k! ( p + k + 1)
k! ( p + k + 1 )
0
0
k
(3.8)
The corresponding series are called Bessel functions of the first kind and noted
J p ( rt ) = ( )
0
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
k! ( p + k + 1 )
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p ( rt ) = ( )
k! ( p + k + 1 )
0
k
The Bessel functions of the first kind and of order 0 and 1 are represented in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 Bessel functions of the first kind and of order 0 and 1
18
(3.9)
(3.10)
3.4
3.4.1
Resolution of the Bessel equation for p an integer (Bessel functions of the second and third
kind)
For n integer, Jn = (-)n J-n
When p is an integer, let say n, solutions (3.9) and (3.10) are not linearly independent any more. Indeed
when p = -n
n+ 2k
n+ 2k
( rt / 2 ) n+ 2k n1
k ( rt / 2 )
k ( rt / 2 )
J n ( rt ) = ( )
= ( )
+ ( )
k! ( n + k )!
k ! ( n + k )!
k! ( n + k )!
0
0
n
k
( rt / 2 ) n+ 2k
=0
k! ( n + k )!
Write k = n + j
n+ 2 j
( rt / 2 ) n + 2k
n+ j ( rt / 2 )
J n ( rt ) = ( )
= ( )
k ! ( n + k )!
( n + j )! j !
n
0
k
( rt / 2 ) n+ 2 j
n
J n ( rt ) = ( ) ( )
= ( ) J n ( rt )
j! ( n + j )!
0
n
Y p ( rt ) =
J p ( rt ) cos( p ) J p ( rt )
(3.11)
sin( p )
Yn ( rt ) = lim
J p ( rt ) cos( p ) J p ( rt )
sin( p )
p n
Y0 ( rt ) = lim
J p ( rt ) cos( p ) J p ( rt )
sin( p )
p0
J p ( rt )
p
Y0 ( rt ) =
cos( p ) J p ( rt ) sin( p )
J p ( rt )
p
cos( p )
1 J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )
Y0 ( rt ) =
p
p
J p ( rt )
p
= ( )
0
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
' ( p + k + 1 )
log( rt / 2 )
k! ( p + k + 1 )
( p + k + 1)
19
J p ( rt )
p
= ( )
0
and for p 0
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
' ( p + k + 1)
log( rt / 2 ) +
k! ( p + k + 1 )
( p + k +1)
2k
2
' ( k + 1 )
k ( rt / 2 )
Y0 ( rt ) = ( )
log( rt / 2 )
0
k! k!
( k +1)
By (2.11)
'( k + 1)
1 1 1
1
= + + + + ... +
( k + 1)
1 2 3
k
Hence
Y0 ( rt ) =
( rt / 2 )2 ( rt / 2 ) 4
J
(
rt
)
[
log(
rt
/
2
)
+
]
+
0
1!1!
2!2!
1 ( rt / 2 )6
1 + 2 + 3!3!
1 1
1 + 2 + 3 ...
(3.12)
Yn ( rt ) =
n 1
2k n
2
{J n ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ]} 1 ( n k 1 )! ( rt / 2 )
0
k!
(3.13)
2k + n
1
1 1 1 1
1 ( rt / 2 )
k 1 1 1
( ) + + + ... + + + + + ... +
0
k 1 2 3
n + k k! ( n + k )!
1 2 3
Figure 3.2 Bessel functions of the second kind and of order 0 and 1
20
3.4.3
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + iY p ( rt )
(3.14)
H (p2 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) iY p ( rt )
(3.15)
These functions are called Hankel functions or Bessel functions of the third kind.
3.5
If in 3.3 we chose:
= F ( r ) cos( p ) cos( tz )
as solution of the Laplace equation, equation (3.2) would modify into:
2F
r 2
1 F p 2
F t2 F = 0
r r r 2
(3.16)
F ( rt ) = AJ p ( irt ) + BJ p ( irt )
(3.17)
where
J p ( irt ) = ( )
0
J p ( irt ) = i
i 2k + p ( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
k! ( p + k + 1 )
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
k! ( p + k + 1 )
0
Hence we define the function Ip , modified Bessel function of the first kind, as a real function, solution of
the modified Bessel equation.
Ip =i
( rt / 2 ) p+ 2k
J p ( irt ) =
k! ( p + k + 1 )
0
F ( rt ) = AI p + BI p
(3.18)
(3.19)
It is easy to deduce from (3.18) that when p is an integer, let say p = n, In = I-n. In that case, the second
solution is usually defined by
( ) n I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
p n
pn 2
K n ( rt ) = lim
(3.20)
K p ( rt ) =
I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
2
sin p
K n ( rt ) = lim K p ( rt )
pn
(3.21)
K n ( rt ) =
1 n 1 k ( n k 1 )!
( )
2 0
k ! ( rt / 2 )n 2k
(3.22)
+ ()
( 1 ) =
n + 2k
1
1
ln(
tr
/
2
)
(
k
+
1
)
( n + k + 1 )
2
2
1 1 1
1
( k + 1 ) = + + + + ... +
1 2 3
k
n +1
( rt / 2 )
k! ( n + k )!
0
The modified Bessel functions of the first kind and of order 0 and 1 are represented in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 Modified Bessel functions of the first kind of order 0 and 1
The modified Bessel functions of the second kind and of order 0 and 1 are given in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4 Modified Bessel functions of the second kind and of order 0 and 1
22
3.6
2F
r 2
1 F
( i )t 2 F = 0
r r
(3.23)
i( rt / 2 )2 ( rt / 2 ) 4 i( rt / 2 )6 ( rt / 2 )8
I 0 ( rt i ) = 1 +
+
...
1!1!
2! 2!
3!3!
4!4!
i( rt / 2 ) 2 ( rt / 2 ) 4 i( rt / 2 )6 ( rt / 2 )8
I 0 ( rt i ) = 1
+
+
...
1!1!
2! 2!
3!3!
4!4!
We define:
I 0 ( rt i ) = ber( rt ) ibei ( rt )
(3.24)
where
( rt / 2 ) 4 ( rt / 2 ) 8 ( rt / 2 )12
ber( rt ) = 1
+
+ ...
2!2!
4! 4!
6!6 !
( rt / 2 ) 2 ( rt / 2 )6 ( rt / 2 )10
bei( rt ) =
+
+ ...
1!1!
3!3!
5! 5!
Notice that:
(3.25)
(3.26)
( )
( )
(3.27)
( )
( )
(3.28)
I rt i + I 0 rt i
J rti i + J 0 rti i
J rt i + J 0 rt i
ber( rt ) = 0
= 0
= 0
2
2
2
I rt i I 0 rt i
J rti i J 0 rti i
J rt i J 0 rt i
bei( rt ) = 0
= 0
= 0
2i
2i
2i
The ber and bei functions can be depicted in Figure 3.5
23
3.7
Again consider equation (3.23), which solutions of the second kind are:
2
rt i
rt i
rt i
2
rt i
1 2
1 1
K0 rt i = I 0 rt i log
+ +
+
1 + +
1 + + ...
2
1!1!
2! 2!
2
3! 3!
2 3
( )
( )
Recall that:
log
rt i
rt
rt 1
rt 1
rt
rt
rt
rt
2
2
( )
rt
1 2
1 1
1
+
1 + + ...
2
3!3!
2 3
rt
rt
rt
rt
2
1 2
1 1
2
1 + + i
1 + + ...
2
4
1!1!
2! 2!
2
3! 3!
2 3
We define:
( )
(3.29)
( )
(3.30)
K0 rt i + K0 rt i
2
K rt i K 0 rt i
kei( rt ) = 0
2i
(rt / 2 )4
ker( rt ) = ber( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ] + bei ( rt )
4
2! 2!
ker( rt ) =
1 + ...
2
(rt / 2 )2 (rt / 2 )6
ber( rt ) +
4
1!1!
3!3!
24
(3.31)
1 1
1 + + ... (3.32)
2 3
3.8
d 2 1 d d 2 w 1 dw
+ w= 0
+
+
dr 2 r dr dr 2 r dr
(3.33)
The solution can be obtained by splitting (3.33) into two simultaneous differential equations
d 2w
dr
d 2z
dr 2
1 dw
=z
r dr
(3.34)
1 dz
= w
r dr
(3.35)
Both equations are verified together if z = miw . Indeed, if, for example, z = iw
(3.34) becomes
d 2w
1 dw
iw = 0 , and
r dr
dr 2
d 2w
1 dw
d 2 w 1 dw
(3.35) becomes i
+i
+ w = 0 or
+
iw = 0
r dr
dr 2
dr 2 r dr
Hence the solution of (3.33) is given by the solution of
d 2w
dr
1 dw
( i ) w = 0
r dr
(3.36)
The equations (3.25), (3.26), (3.31) and (3.32) give the solution of (3.36), for its two signs
(3.37)
2F
r 2
+ ( 1 2 )
1 F 2 p 2 2
+
F + 2 2 r 2( 1 ) F = 0
2
r r
r
(3.38)
F ( r ) = Ar J p ( r ) + Br J p ( r )
(3.39)
F ( r ) = Ar J p ( r ) + Br Y p ( r )
(3.40)
or, if p is an integer,
An interesting application of (3.38) is the resolution of the Laplace equation in two- dimensional
Cartesian co-ordinates
2
2
x 2
25
2
y 2
=0
Hence
2 F ( x ) 2
=
+ t F ( x ) e ty = 0
2
x
= 1/ 2
=1
2 p 2 2 = 0
(3.41)
=t
p =1/ 2
Hence
F ( x ) = Ax 1 / 2 J 1 / 2 ( tx ) + Bx 1 / 2 J 1 / 2 ( tx )
(3.42)
F ( x ) = A cos( tx ) + B sin( tx )
(3.43)
However
is also a solution of (3.41). Therefore, one must conclude that there exists a relation between Bessel
functions of order 1/2 and trigonometric functions.
26
Chapter 4
4.1
Introductory note
This chapter deals with the most important properties of Bessel functions: derivatives, functions of half
order, asymptotic values, indefinite integrals and relations between functions of different kind.
4.2
Helpful relations
d
dr
d
dr
d
dr
d
dr
[( rt )
[( rt )
J p ( rt ) = t ( rt ) p J p1 ( rt )
J p ( rt ) = t ( rt ) p J p+ 1( rt )
p
J p ( rt )
r
p
J p ( rt ) = tJ p +1 ( rt ) + J p ( rt )
r
2p
J p1 ( rt ) + J p +1( rt ) =
J p ( rt )
rt
rJ 1 ( rt )
rJ 0 ( rt )dr = t
J 0 ( rt )
J 1( rt )dr = t
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
sin( rt )
rt
J p ( rt ) = tJ p1 ( rt )
2
cos( rt )
rt
1
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
e rt e rt
2rt
1
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
e rt + e rt
2rt
rt
K 1 / 2 = K 1 / 2 =
e
2 rt
2
p
J p ( rt )
cos rt
for high values of rt
rt
4
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
2
p
sin rt + +
rt
4
2
2
p
Y p ( rt )
sin rt
rt
4
2
J p ( rt )
27
2
p
cos rt + +
for high values of rt
rt
4
2
Y p ( rt )
2 i( rt p / 2 / 4 )
e
for high values of rt
rt
2 i( rt p / 2 / 4 )
H (p2 )
e
for high values of rt
rt
1
I p ( rt )
e rt + e rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) i for high values of rt
2rt
H (p1 )
ber( rt )
rt
cos
for high values of rt
2rt
2 8
e rt / 2
rt
sin
for high values of rt
2rt
2 8
rt / 2
rt
e
cos
+ for high values of rt
2rt
2 8
e rt / 2
bei( rt )
ker( rt )
rt / 2
rt
e
sin
+ for high values of rt
2 rt
2 8
kei( rt )
( )
J p ( z ) = J p e i z = e ip J p ( z )
J p e mi z = e mi p J p ( z )
J p ( rt ) =
J p ( rt ) =
H (p1 ) ( rt ) + H (p2 ) ( rt )
2
Y p ( rt ) Y p( rt ) cos( p )
H (p1 ) ( rt ) =
H (p2 ) ( rt
)=
sin( p )
J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )e ip
i sin( p )
J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )e ip
i sin( p )
sin( mp )
J p ( rt )
sin( p )
sin( mp )
H (p2 ) ( rtemi ) = e mp i H (p2 ) ( rt ) + 2 e p i
J p ( rt )
sin( p )
I p ( rt ) = i pi / 2 J p ( rtei / 2) )
K p ( rt ) = i e pi / 2 H (p1 ) ( rti )
2
K p ( rt ) = i e pi / 2 H (p2 ) ( rti )
2
H (p1 ) ( rtem i ) = e mpi H (p1 ) ( rt ) 2e pi
28
4.3
4.3.1
d
d
( rt ) 2 p + 2k
p
k
( rt ) J p ( rt ) =
( )
dr
dr 0
2 p + 2k k! ( p + k + 1 )
2 p + 2k 1
t
k 2( p + k )( rt )
= ( )
p + 2k
2
k! ( p + k + 1 )
0
= ( )
( rt ) 2 p + 2k 1 t
2 p +2 k 1 k! ( p + k )
= t ( rt )
( )
( rt )( p 1 ) + 2k
2( p 1 ) + 2k k ! [( p 1 ) + k + 1]
d
( rt ) p J p ( rt ) = t ( rt ) p J p 1 ( rt )
dr
4.3.2
(4.1)
Derivative of (rt)-pJp(rt)
d
( rt ) p J p ( rt ) = t ( rt ) p J p + 1( rt )
dr
4.3.3
(4.2)
Derivative of J p (rt)
d
p
J p ( rt ) = tJ p 1 ( rt ) J p ( rt )
dr
r
deriving the left member of (4.2) by parts yields
(4.3)
d
p
J p ( rt ) = tJ p + 1 ( rt ) + J p ( rt )
dr
r
(4.4)
d
[J 0 ( rt )] = tJ 1( rt ) = tJ 1( rt )
dr
(4.5)
Particularly
] [
d
t
J p ( rt ) = J p 1 ( rt ) J p + 1 ( rt )
dr
2
(4.6)
J p 1( rt ) + J p + 1( rt ) =
29
2p
J p ( rt )
rt
(4.7)
4.4
4.4.1
Expanding the Bessel functions in their series and recalling that (1/2) = yields:
2
sin( rt )
rt
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
cos( rt )
rt
2 sin( rt )
J 3 / 2 ( rt ) =
cos( rt )
rt rt
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
J 3 / 2 ( rt ) =
2 cos( rt )
+ sin( rt )
rt rt
(4.8)
(4.9)
(4.10)
(4.11)
[
[
1
e rt e rt
2rt
1
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
e rt + e rt
2rt
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
]
]
(4.12)
(4.13)
K 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) I 1 / 2 ( rt )
=
2
sin( / 2 )
rt
e
2rt
(4.14)
K 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) I 1 / 2 ( rt )
=
2
sin( / 2 )
rt
e
2 rt
(4.15)
Hence
K 1 / 2 ( rt ) = K 1 / 2 ( rt )
4.4. Values of K0 (rt) and Kn(rt)
By definition (3.21)
I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
sin p
p 0 2
K0 ( rt ) = lim
dI p ( rt )
K0 ( rt ) =
dI p ( rt )
dp
dp
cos p
30
1 dI p ( rt ) dI p ( rt )
2 dp
dp
(4.16)
K 0 ( rt ) =
K0 ( rt ) =
Letting p 0
1d
( rt / 2 ) 2k p
d
( rt / 2 ) 2k + p
k ! ( k + p + 1 )
2 dp
k ! ( k p + 1 ) dp
( rt / 2 ) p log( rt / 2 ) ( k p + 1 ) + ( rt / 2 ) p ' ( k p + 1 )
( k p + 1 ) ( k p + 1 )
( rt / 2 ) p log( rt / 2 ) ( k + p + 1 ) ( rt / 2 ) p ' ( k + p + 1 )
( k + p + 1 ) ( k + p + 1 )
( rt / 2 ) 2k
2k!
K0 ( rt ) =
( rt / 2 )2 k
k! k!
' ( k + 1 )
log( rt / 2 ) + ( k + 1 )
K0 ( rt ) = I 0 ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ] +
+
( rt / 2 )6
3!3!
K n ( rt ) = ( )
n +1
( rt / 2 ) 2 ( rt / 2 ) 4
+
1!1!
2! 2!
1 +
1 1
1 + 2 + 3
I n ( rt )[log( rt / 2 ) + ] +
4.5.1
(4.17)
1 n ( ) k ( n k 1 )!
2k n
( rt / 2 )
2 0
k!
1
( rt / 2 ) 2k + n
n
+ ( ) [ ( k ) + ( n + k )]
2
k ! ( k + n )!
0
4.5
1
2
(4.18)
Asymptotic values
Asymptotic values for Jp and J-p
2F
r 2
1/2
1 F p 2
F +t2F = 0
r r r 2
p2 1/ 4
+ t 2
G = 0
r 2
r2
2G
(4.19)
2G
r
+ t 2G = 0
(4.20)
G = A cos( rt ) + B sin( rt )
Hence
F = A( rt ) 1 / 2 cos( rt ) + B( rt ) 1 / 2 sin( rt )
31
(4.21)
but also:
F = CJ 1 / 2 ( rt ) + DJ 1 / 2 ( rt )
(4.22)
Equations (4.21) and (4.22) confirm, as we knew by (4.8) and (4.9), that there exists a relation between
the Bessel functions of half order and the trigonometric functions, and that this relation is valid for all
values of the argument, thus in particular for high values of the argument. Hence the equations:
2
sin( rt )
rt
2
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
cos( rt )
rt
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
can be considered as the asymptotic equations for the Bessel functions of half order.
Thus (4.19) must have, for p not being an integer, two approximate values for high values of the argument
such as
J p ( rt ) Ap ( rt ) 1 / 2 cos( rt + p )
(4.23)
J p ( rt ) B p ( rt ) 1 / 2 sin( rt + p )
(4.24)
The coefficients p and p must be determined in such a way that equations (4.23) and (4.24) are linearly
independent and compatible with the definitions of Jp and J-p.
Derive, with respect to r, Jp in (4.23)
J 'p ( rt ) =
t
A p ( rt ) 3 / 2 cos( rt + p ) A p ( rt ) 1 / 2 t sin( rt + p )
2
For high values of the argument the first term can be neglected against the second
J 'p ( rt ) A p ( rt ) 1 / 2 t sin( rt + p )
Further (4.3) and (4.4) simplify for high values of the argument
J 'p ( rt ) tJ p 1( rt )
J 'p ( rt ) tJ p + 1( rt )
Hence
(4.25)
(4.26)
If we choose Ap = Ap-1 = Ap+1 = A and p = k - p/2 in such a way that A and k are independent from p ,
we notice that equations (4.25) and (4.26) are satisfied. Indeed
p
( p 1 )
A sin rt + k
= A cos rt + k
2
2
Then
J p ( rt ) A( rt )
1 / 2
cos rt + k
This equation must be satisfied for all values of p, thus also for p=1/2 for which
J 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
Hence A = (2)1/2 and k = - /4
2
2
sin( rt ) =
cos rt
rt
rt
4 4
32
Finally
J p ( rt )
2
p
cos rt
rt
4
2
(4.27)
J p ( rt )
4.5.2
2
p
sin rt + +
rt
4
2
(4.28)
Since Yp and Y-p are the paired second solutions with Jp and J-p we shall admit implicitly the following
asymptotic equations
2
p
sin rt
rt
4
2
2
p
Y p ( rt )
cos rt + +
rt
4
2
Y p ( rt )
4.5.3
(4.29)
(4.30)
2 i( rt / 4 p / 2 )
e
rt
2 i( rt / 4 p / 2 )
H (p2 ) =
e
rt
H (p1 ) =
4.5.4
(4.31)
(4.32)
2F
by writing F(rt) = G(rt)/(rt)1/2
1 F p 2
+
F t2 F = 0
2
2
r r r
r
2 p2 1/ 4
t +
G = 0
r 2
r2
2G
(4.33)
2G
r
t2G = 0
(4.34)
G = Ae rt + Be rt
Hence
F = A( rt ) 1 / 2 e rt + B( rt ) 1 / 2 e rt
but also
33
(4.35)
F = CI 1 / 2 ( rt ) + DI 1 / 2 ( rt )
(4.36)
Equation (4.35) is valid for all values of the argument, thus in particular for high values of the argument.
Hence the equations:
[
[
]
]
1
e rt e rt
2rt
1
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
e rt + e rt
2rt
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
can be considered as the asymptotic equations for the modified Bessel functions of half order.
Hence (4.33) must have, for p not an integer, two approximate values for high values of the argument
such as
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
I p ( rt ) = A p ( rt )
I p ( rt ) = B p ( rt )
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
+e
+e
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
(4.37)
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
(4.38)
The coefficients and must be determined in such a way that equations (4.37) and (4.38) are linearly
independent and compatible with the definitions of Ip and I-p.
Derive, with respect to r, Ip in (4.37)
t
A p ( rt ) 3 / 2 e rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) + e rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
2
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
+ A p ( rt )
t e
e
I 'p ( rt ) =
For high values of the argument the first term can be neglected against the second
I ' p ( rt ) A p ( rt )
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
t e
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
Further simplify the derivatives of Ip (rt) for high values of the argument
I 'p ( rt ) tJ p 1 ( rt )
I 'p ( rt ) tJ p + 1 ( rt )
Hence
A p ( rt )
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
t e
= A p 1( rt )
A p ( rt )
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
1 / 2 rt + ( p 1 / 2 )
t e
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
t e
t e
rt + ( p 1 / 2 )
(4.39)
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )
1 / 2 rt + ( p + 3 / 2 )
= A p + 1( rt )
+e
+e
rt + ( p + 3 / 2 )
(4.40)
If we choose Ap = Ap-1 = Ap+1 = A and = 0, = i in such a way that A and are independent from p ,
we notice that equations (4.39) and (4.40) are satisfied.
34
1 / 2 rt
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) i
e e
1 / 2 rt
rt + ( p 1 / 2 ) i
= A( rt )
e + e
A( rt )
Hence
1 / 2 rt
I p ( rt ) A( rt )
+e
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )i
This equation must be satisfied for all values of p, thus also for p=1/2 for which
1
e rt e rt
2rt
I 1 / 2 ( rt ) =
Hence A = (2)1/2
Finally
I p ( rt )
rt
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 ) i
e
+e
2rt
(4.41)
I p ( rt )
rt
rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )i
e +e
2rt
(4.42)
4.5.5
( ) n I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
pn
p n 2
K n ( rt ) = lim
(4.43)
K n ( rt )
e rt + e rt ( p 1 / 2 ) i e rt e rt + ( p + 1 / 2 )i
pn
2rt
e rt i e pi e pi
n
()
1
K n ( rt )
2
p
n
2rt
( )n
2
( )n
K n ( rt )
2
2
2rt
cos( n )e rt
K n ( rt )
rt
e
2 rt
(4.44)
K p ( rt )
rt
e
2 rt
(4.45)
35
rt
e
2rt
K 0 ( rt )
4.5.6
(4.46)
( )
2
J 0 rt i
rt i
1/ 2
cos rt i
4
e i( rt / 2 / 4 ) e rt / 2 + e i( rt / 2 / 4 ) e rt / 2
cos rt i =
4
2
e i( rt / 2 / 4 ) e rt / 2
cos rt i
4
2
( )
J 0 rt i
e rt / 2 i( rt 2 / 8 )
e
2rt
( )
e rt / 2 rt
rt
i sin
cos
2rt 2 8
2 8
(4.47)
e rt / 2 rt
rt
+ i sin
cos
2rt 2 8
2 8
(4.48)
J 0 rt i
Similarly
J 0 rt i
Hence
4.5.7
(4.49)
( )
(4.50)
J rt i + J 0 rt i
e rt / 2
rt
ber( rt ) 0
=
cos
2
2rt
2 8
J 0 rt i J 0 rt i
e rt / 2
rt
bei( rt )
=
sin
2i
2rt
2 8
Asymptotic values for ker and kei
( )
(4.51)
( )
(4.52)
K0 rt i + K0 rt i
2
K rt i K 0 rt i
kei( rt ) = 0
2i
ker( rt ) =
Apply (4.46)
K 0 ( rt i ) =
36
2 rt i
e rt i
i / 8 rt( 1 + i ) / 2
e
e
2rt
rt / 2 i( rt / 2 + / 8 )
e
e
2rt
rt / 2 rt
rt
e
cos
+ i sin
+
2 rt
2 8
2 8
=
K0 ( rt i ) =
(4.53)
Similarly obtain
rt / 2 rt
rt
e
cos
+ + i sin
+
2 rt
2 8
2 8
K0 ( rt i ) =
(4.54)
rt / 2
rt
e
cos
+
2rt
2 8
rt / 2
rt
kei( rt ) =
e
sin
+
2 rt
2 8
ker( rt ) =
4.6
4.6.1
(4.55)
(4.56)
d
[rtJ1 ( rt )] = t( rt ) J 0 ( rt )
dr
d
[J 0 ( rt )] = tJ 1( rt )
dr
From those equations we easily deduce next fundamental integrals
rJ 1 ( rt )
t
J 0 ( rt )
J 1( rt )dr = t
rJ 0 ( rt )dr =
4.6.2
(4.57)
(4.58)
J ( rt ) ( n 1 ) n1
J 0 ( rt )dr = r n 1
r J 1( rt )dr
t
t
r n1
( n 1 ) n 2
n 1
r J 1 ( rt )dr = t J 0 ( rt ) + t r J 0 ( rt )dr
Hence
J 0 ( rt )dr = r
n J 1 ( rt )
( n 1 ) n1
( n 1 ) 2 n 2
+
r
J 0 ( rt )
r J 0 ( rt )dr
t2
t2
(4.59)
If n is odd, formula (4.59) leads to (4.57). If n is even, formula (4.59) leads to J0 (rt)dr, which is
tabulated.
37
4.7
4.7.1
Since Bessels equation is unaltered if rt is replaced by rt, we must expect the functions Jp (-rt) to be
solutions of the equations satisfied by Jp (rt). Considering the relation ei = -1, we may write
J p ( rt ) = J p ( ei rt )
We can even consider the more general function Jp (emirt) where m is an integer.
J p( e
mi
rt ) = ( )
(rtemi / 2)p + 2k
k! ( k + p + 1 )
Hence
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p e m i rt = e imp ( ) k
= eimp J p ( rt )
k! ( k + p + 1 )
4.7.2
(4.60)
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + iY p ( rt )
H (p2 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) iY p ( rt )
Hence by multiplying Yp(rt) by cos(p) and subtracting from Y-p(rt)
J p ( rt ) =
H (p1 ) ( rt ) + H (p2 ) ( rt )
2
(4.61)
Consider (3.11)
Y p ( rt ) =
J p ( rt ) cos( p ) J p ( rt )
sin( p )
Replace p by p
Y p ( rt ) =
J p ( rt ) cos( p ) + J p ( rt )
sin( p )
J p ( rt ) =
Y p ( rt ) Y p ( rt ) cos( p )
sin( p )
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + iY p ( rt )
J p ( rt ) cos( p ) J p ( rt )
H (p1 ) ( rt ) = J p ( rt ) + i
sin( p )
38
(4.62)
H (p1 ) ( rt ) =
J p ( rt )[cos( p ) i sin( p )] + J p ( rt )
i sin( p )
H (p1 ) ( rt ) =
J p ( rt ) J p( rt )e ip
(4.63)
i sin( p )
and similarly
H (p2 ) ( rt
J p ( rt ) J p( rt )e ip
)=
i sin( p )
(4.64)
J p ( rt ) =
H (p1 ) + H (p2 )
(4.65)
Multiply equation (4.63) by eip and (4.64) by e-ip and add together
J p ( rt ) =
H (p1 ) ( rt )e ip + H (p2 ) ( rt )e ip
2
(4.66)
J p ( rtemi ) J p ( rtemi )e ip
H (p1 ) ( rtemi ) =
i sin( p )
H ( rte
H (p1 ) ( rtem i
)=
m i )
e mpi J p ( rt ) e mpi J p ( rt ) e ip
)=
i sin( p )
e mp i J p ( rt ) J p ( rt )e ip
i sin( p )
sin( mp )
J p ( rt )
sin( p )
(4.67)
sin( mp )
J p ( rt )
sin( p )
(4.68)
and similarly
4.7.3
Consider (3.18)
I p ( rt ) = i
Recall that ei/2 = i, e 3i/2= -i.
Hence
( rt / 2 ) p + 2k
J p ( irt ) =
k! ( p + k + 1 )
0
I p ( rt ) = e p i / 2 J p ( irt )
Apply (3.21)
39
(4.69)
K p ( rt ) =
I p ( rt ) I p ( rt )
2
sin p
pi / 2
J p ( irt ) e pi / 2 J p ( irt )
e
K p ( rt ) =
2
sin p
pi
J p ( irt )
pi / 2 J p ( irt ) e
K p ( rt ) = i e
2
i sin p
Hence by (4.63)
K p ( rt ) = i
pi / 2 ( 1 )
e
H p ( irt )
2
(4.70)
K p ( rt ) = i
pi / 2 ( 2 )
e
H p ( irt )
2
(4.71)
and similarly
40
Chapter 5
5.1
Introductory note
The gamma function, (n), is a function with one variable. The beta function, B(m,n), is a function with
two variables. The function can be defined as a product of - functions. It is useful in the expression of
solutions of definite integrals of Bessel functions, which, for particular values of their parameters, can be
written in simple closed-forms.
5.2
Helpful relations
1
B( m , n ) = x m 1( 1 x ) n 1 dx
0
/2
B( m , n ) = 2
cos
2m1
sin 2n1 d
B( m , n ) = B( n , m )
B( m , n ) =
5.3
2 p1
( m ) ( n )
(m + n)
p+
1
1
( p ) = ( 2 p )
2
2
B( m ,n ) = x m 1( 1 x ) n 1 dx
(5.1)
B( m ,n ) = 2
cos
2m 1
sin 2 n 1 d
(5.2)
B( m , n ) = B( n , m )
41
(5.3)
5.4
By definition:
( m ) = e x x m 1dx
0
(m)(n)= e
x m1
Write x = 2, y = 2
( m ) ( n ) = 4 e
dx e y y n1dy
0
2m 1
d e 2 n1 d
2
2
2
( m ) ( n ) = 4 e ( + ) 2m1 2n 1dd
00
( m ) ( n ) = 4 e r r 2m+ 2 n1dr
2
/2
cos
2 m1
sin 2n1 d
2
( m ) ( n ) = 2 B( m, n ) e r r 2 m+ 2n1 dr
Write r2 =
( m ) ( n ) = B( m, n ) e m+ n1d = B( m, n ) ( m + n )
0
Hence
B( m ,n ) =
5.5
( m ) ( n )
(m + n)
J=
/2
2p
sin (2 )d
0
Write u = 2
42
(5.4)
/2
1
J = sin 2 p udu =
2
sin
2p
/2
udu =
sin
2p
u cos 0 udu =
( 1 / 2 ) ( p + 1 / 2 )
2 ( p + 1 )
J=
/2
0
/2
J = 2 2 p1 2
sin
2p
/2
(2 )d = ( 2 sin cos ) 2 p d
0
cos 2 p sin 2 p d = 2 2 p1
J = 2 2 p1
( p + 1 / 2 ) ( p + 1 / 2 )
( 2 p +1)
( p + 1 / 2 ) ( p + 1 / 2 )
2 p ( 2 p )
Hence
2 2 p1 ( p + 1 / 2 ) ( p ) = ( 1 / 2 ) ( 2 p )
(5.5)
Equation (5.5), called the duplication formula for gamma functions, will often be used in further
developments.
43
44
Chapter 6
6.1
Helpful relations
J ( t ) 2
1 1 J ( at ) J ( bt )
(t ) sin d = 2 + 2 2 ( at ) ( bt )
0
2 = a2 + b2 2 ab cos
/2
z +1
J + +1( z ) =
J ( z sin ) sin +1 cos 2 +1 d
2 ( + 1 ) 0
/2
+1
+1
cos
d =
x y J + +1( x 2 + y 2 )1 / 2
( x 2 + y 2 )( + + 1 ) / 2
2( x / 2 )
J( x ) =
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 )
6.2
/2
Gegenbauers integral
J ( ) 2
1 1 J ( at ) J ( bt )
sin d = 2 +
2 2 ( at ) ( bt )
2 = a2 + b2 2 ab cos
which is valid for > -1/2, has been first proved by Gegenbauer (Watson, 1966), hence its name.
Develop the Bessel function in its series
J ( t )
( t ) sin
0
d =
k
( )
t
= 2 ( )
2
(t )
( )
2k
( )
2 k
(t / 2 ) + 2 k
2k
k! ( k + + 1 )
sin 2 d
( )2k
sin 2 d
k! ( k + + 1 )
j! ( k j )! (a 2 + b 2 ) ( 2ab cos )k j
k
k!
j =0
cos
sin 2 d
45
(6.1)
If m = 2n
cos
2n
sin
/2
d = 2
cos
2n
sin 2 d = B(n + 1 / 2 , + 1 / 2 )
If m = 2n + 1
cos
2n +1
sin
d =
(1 sin
)n
sin 2 d sin = 0
Hence
J ( t )
0 ( t )
sin
( 1 /
2 ) ( + 1 / 2 ) t 2
( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
d = 2
a + b2
1! ( + 1 ) ( + 2 )
( + 1 ) ( + 1 ) 2
4
2 ( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
( 3 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
t
+ a2 + b2
+ 4 a 2 b2
2! ( + 1 ) ( + 2 )
2! ( + 2 ) ( + 3 )
2
3 ( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
( 3 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
t
a 2 + b2
+ 6 a 2 + b 2 a 2b 2
+
....
3! ( + 1 ) ( + 4 )
3! ( + 2 ) ( + 4 )
2
1
( at / 2 ) 2
( at / 2 ) 4
2
sin
=
2
(
1
/
2
)
+
1
/
2
)
...
( t )
+
1
)
1
!
+
2
)
2
!
+
3
)
1
( bt / 2 )2
( bt / 2 )4
+
+
...
( + 1 ) 1! ( + 2 ) 2! ( + 3 )
J ( t )
Hence
J ( t )
J ( at ) J ( bt )
2
sin
=
2
(
1
/
2
)
+
1
/
2
)
( t )
( at ) ( bt )
0
6.3
The integral:
z + 1
/2
J ( z sin ) sin
+1
2 ( + 1 ) 0
cos 2 + 1 d = J + + 1( z )
(6.2)
which is valid when both and exceed -1, expresses any Bessel function in terms of an integral
involving a Bessel function of lower order. It was proved by Sonine (Watson, 1966) by expanding the
integrand in powers of z, and by simply applying the definition of the beta function (chapter 5).
z + 1
/2
J ( z sin ) sin
2 ( + 1 ) 0
46
+1
cos 2 + 1 d =
+ + 2 k + 1
= ( )k
/2
sin
+ + 2k
2 + 2 k + 1
cos 2 + 1 d
k ! ( + k + 1 ) ( + 1 )
z + + 2 k + 1 ( + k + 1 ) ( + 1 )
( )
2 + + 2k + 1k ! ( + k + 1 ) ( + 1 ) ( + + k + 2 )
= J + +1( z )
6.4
The integral:
/2
+1
+1
cos
d =
x y J + +1( x 2 + y 2 )1 / 2
( x 2 + y 2 )( + + 1 ) / 2
(6.3)
which is valid when both and exceed -1, is also due to Sonine (Watson, 1966).
It is also proved by expanding the integrand in powers of x and y.
/2
+1
cos + 1 d
/2
( )k + j
0 k =0 j =0
2k +
1
( y / 2 )2 j + B( + k + 1, + j + 1 )
k+ j ( x / 2)
(
2
k ! j! ( + k + 1 ) ( + j + 1 )
2k +
1
( y / 2 )2 j+
k+ j ( x / 2)
(
2
k ! j! ( + + k + j + 2 )
][
k
1
(
x / 2 )2 (( y / 2 )2
k+ j
= ( x / 2 ) ( y / 2 ) ( )
2
k ! j! ( + + k + j + 2 )
Applying the binomial theorem yields
[(x / 2)
2 k+ j
+ (y / 2)
k+j
][
k
j
( k + j )!
( x / 2 )2 ( y / 2 )2
k! j!
0
Hence, with m = k + j
/2
+1
cos + 1 d
1
( x / 2 )2 + ( y / 2)2
= (x / 2 ) ( y / 2 ) ( )m
2
m! ( + + m + 2 )
47
2m + + + 1
x2 + y2 / 4
( x ) ( y )
m
=
()
+ + 1
m! ( + + m + 1 )
+ + 1
2
2
2
x + y /4
x y
2
2 2
=
J
x +y
+ + 1 + + 1
2
2
2
x +y
6.5
Poissons integral
Often one wants to verify from which value of the argument the asymptotic expansions, developed in
chapter 4, can be considered as sufficiently accurate. Poissons integral (Watson, 1966) brings a fully
trustworthy answer to this question. Indeed, any Bessel function of the first kind can be expressed as
J( x ) =
2( x / 2 )
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 )
/2
(6.4)
provided that > - 1/2. The bounds being finite, this integral can safely be numerically integrated.
Equation (6.4) can also be written as
2( x / 2 )
J( x ) =
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 )
/2
(6.5)
2( x / 2)
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 )
Apply the beta function
/2
( )k
(x / 2 )
k x
( )
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 )
2k
x 2k cos 2k sin 2
d
( 2 k )!
( k + 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
( 2k )! ( k + + 1 )
( x / 2 )
x 2k ( 2k 1 )! ( 1 / 2 ) 1
=
(
(1/ 2)
( k 1 )! ( 2k )! ( k + + 1 ) 2
k
( )k
2k 1
( x / 2)2k +
k! ( k + + 1 )
48
Chapter 7
7.1
Introductory note
The hypergeometric function of Gauss is a solution of a differential equation similar to the Bessel
equation. It can be expressed as a product of multiple products, sort of truncated functions. The
function is useful in the expression of solutions of infinite integrals of Bessel functions, which for
particular values of the parameters can then be written in simple closed-forms.
7.2
Helpful relations
( ) n = ( + 1 )( + 2 )...( + n 1 )
( )0 = 1
( ) ( ) ...( )
] n! (1 n) (2 n) ...(p n)
1
2
q
p Fq 1 , 2 ,... p ; 1 , 2 ,...q ; z =
n =0
] ( a )n ( b )n z n
n! ( c )
2 F1 a ,b; c ; z =
( 1 b n )n m = ( 1 )n( b + m )n m
a + b + 1 a + b + 2
2
2
( a + b + 1 + m )m
m
m
=
2m
( a + b + 1 )m
2
( a + n ) = ( 1 )n
(a)
( a + 1 )n
n Cm( a )m( b )n m = ( a + b )n
m =0
2 F1 a ,b; c ;1 =
2 F1
( c ) ( c b a )
( c b ) ( c a )
[a ,b; b; z ] = ( 1 z ) a
2 F1 0 ,b; c ; z =2 F1 b ,0 ; c , z = 1
49
zn
(c )
xb 1( 1 x )c b 1
dx
2 F1 [a ,b; c ; z ] =
( b ) ( c b )
(1 zx )a
1
2 F1
7.3
[a ,b; c ; z ] =
z
z
F a ,c b; c ;
a 2 1
1
(1 z )
Definition
The series of hypergeometric type are solutions of differential equations that will not be handled here.
However they allow to express a great number of relations in a convenient compact notation, invented by
Pochhammer (Watson, 1966). Further, their properties, especially those of the series 2 F1 , also called the
hypergeometric series of Gauss, are very helpful in the resolution of infinite integrals of Bessel functions.
We write:
( )n = ( + 1 )( + 2 )...( + n 1 )
( )0 = 1
(7.1)
1( 1 + 1 ) 2 ( 2 + 1 )... p ( p + 1 ) z
+ ...
1 ( 1 + 1 ) 2 ( 1 + 2 )... q ( 1 + q ) 2!
( ) ( 2 ) n ...( p )n
1 n ( 2 )n ...( q )n
p Fq
zn
(7.2)
( z / 2 )
z 2
J ( z ) =
F + 1;
( + 1) 0 1
2
If I or I are neither zero neither negative integers, the series can be written as
n1
p Fq
n=1
( 1 + k )...( p + k ) z n
k =0
n1
( 1 + k )...( q + k )
n!
k =0
n1
n1
( )(
( 1 )( 1 + k )... p p + k z n
( 1 )... q k =0
k =0
=1+
n1
( 1 )... p n=1 n1
n!
( 1 )( 1 + k )... q q + k
( )
( )
k =0
p Fq 1 , 2 ,... p ; 1 , 2 ,... q ; z =
k =0
( )
( )
( ) (
(
[
)
]
( 1 )... q ( 1 + n )... p + n z n
(7.3)
If one of the parameters I is either zero either an integer, the series reduces in a finite polynomial.
The most common series is the so called hypergeometric function of Gauss, 2 F1 (a,b;c;z).
7.4
7.4.1
We show that:
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 ) m ( b + n )m n
Indeed
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 b m )( 1 b m + 1 )...( 1 b m + m n 2 )( 1 b m + m n 1 )
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 b m )( 2 b m )...( b n 1 )( b n )
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 ) m n ( b + n )( b + n + 1 )...( b + m 2 )( b + m 1 )
( 1 b m )m n = ( 1 ) m n ( b + n )m n
(7.4)
( 1 b m )m = ( 1 )m ( b )m
7.4.2
(7.5)
We show that:
a + b + 1 a + b + 2
2
2
( a + b + 1 + m )m
m
m
=
( a + b + 1 )m
22 m
Develop the series
( a + b + 1 + m )m
2m
= 1+
2
(a+b+2)
= 1+
( a + b + 2 )1
2
2
( a + b + 3 )( a + b + 4 )
( a + b + 3 )2
( a + b + 4 )3
+ ...
2
26
( a + b + 4 )( a + b + 5 )( a + b + 6 )
4
+
+
22
24
26
a + b + 1 a + b + 2 a + b + 1 a + b + 1
a + b + 2 a + b + 2
+ 1
+ 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
+
= 1+
( a + b + 1)
( a + b + 1 )( a + b + 2 )
a + b + 1 a + b + 1
a + b + 1
a + b + 2 a + b + 2
a + b + 2
+ 1
+ 2
+ 1
+ 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
+
( a + b + 1 )( a + b + 2 )( a + b + 3 )
Hence
a + b + 1 a + b + 2
2
2
( a + b + 1 + m )m
m
m
=
2m
( a + b + 1 )m
2
51
(7.6)
7.4.3
( a ) = ( a 1 )( a 2 )...( a n ) ( a n )
= ( 1 ) n ( a + 1 )( a + 2 )...( a + n ) ( a n )
= ( 1 ) n ( a + 1 )n ( a n )
Hence
( a n ) = ( 1 ) n
7.4.4
(a)
( a + 1 )n
(7.7)
m C n ( a )n ( b )m n = ( a + b )m
n =0
where m Cn is the symbol for the combination of m elements in groups of n elements. We shall prove the
relation for m = 3; however, the proof can easily be extended to any value of m.
3
3 C n ( a )n ( b )3n =
n =0
( b )( b + 1 )( b + 2 ) + 3( a )( b )( b + 1 )
+ 3( a )( a + 1 )( b ) + ( a )( a + 1 )( a + 2 ) =
( b )( b + 1 )( b + 2 ) + ( a )( b )( b + 1 )
+ 2( a )( b )( b + 1 ) + 2( a )( a + 1 )( b )
+ ( a )( a + 1 )( b ) + ( a )( a + 1 )( a + 2 ) =
( a + b + 2 )[b( b + 1 ) + 2ab + a( a + 1 )] =
a [ ( b + 1 )( b + 2 ) + 2( b + 2 )( b a ) ( b a )( b a + 1 )] =
( a + b + 2 )( a + b + 1 )( a + b ) = ( a + b )3
and
3
3 Cn ( a )n ( b )3 n = ( a + b )3
n =0
m C n ( a )n ( b )m n = ( a + b )m
n =0
52
(7.8)
7.4.5
Consider the product of two Bessel functions with the same argument (at)
J ( at ) J ( at ) =
( 1 )
m =0
+ 2n
( at / 2 ) + 2m
n ( at / 2 )
( 1 )
m! ( + m + 1 ) n=0
n! ( + n + 1 )
The coefficient of (-)m (at/2)++2m , obtained from the sum of next products,
m
( 1 )
m n
n =0
( at / 2 ) + 2m 2n
( at ) +2 n
n
( 1 )
( m n )! ( + m n + 1 )
n! ( + n + 1 )
is
m
( m n )! ( + m n + 1 )n! ( + n + 1 )
n =0
m!
( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 ) ( m n )! n! ( + m n + 1 ) ( + n + 1 )
n =0
m Cn
m
!
+
m
+
1
)
+
m
+
1
)
n =0
[
( + m )...( + m n + 1 )] ( + m n + 1 )[( + m )....( + n + 1 )] ( + n + 1 )
( + m n + 1 ) ( + n + 1 )
=
mCn
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
n =0
by (7.8)
( ) m ( 2m )m
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
( + + m + 1 )m
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
by (7.5)
Hence
( at / 2 ) + + 2m ( + + m + 1 )m
J ( at ) J ( at ) = ( )
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m + 1 )
0
53
(7.9)
7.5
The series 2 F1 [a,b;c;z], usually noted F[a,b;c;z], is a solution of the differential equation (Wayland, 1970)
z( 1 z )
d2y
dz
+ [c ( a + b + 1 ) z ]
dy
aby = 0
dz
Elementary properties
If a, b or c are neither zero neither negative integers, the series can be written as (7.3)
(c )
( a + n ) ( b + n ) z n
F [a , b; c ; z ] =
( c + n)
( a ) ( b ) 0
n!
(7.10)
When a or b are equal zero or a negative integer, the series reduces to a polynomial.
When a = 0
F [0 ,b; c; z ] = 1
(7.11)
When a = -1
F [ 1, b; c ; z ] = 1
Next equation is always true
b
z
c
F [a , b; c ; z ] = F [b, a ; c ; z ]
(7.12)
(7.13)
z
z2
z3
+ a( a + 1 )
+ a( a + 1 )( a + 2 )
+ ...
1!
2!
3!
a c
a( a + 1 )c( c + 1 ) 2 a( a + 1 )( a + 2 )c( c + 1 )( c + 2 ) 3
= 1+
z+
z +
z + ...
1! c
2! c( c + 1 )
3! c( c + 1 )( c + 2 )
= F [a , c; c; z ]
( 1 z )a = 1 + a
Hence, whatever c
F [a ,c ; c ; z ] = ( 1 z ) a
7.5.2
(7.14)
We show here how the hypergeometric series can be represented as a definite integral. In several cases,
the solution of this integral allows to express the infinite series as a closed form analytical expression. We
start with equation (7.10):
F [a , b; c ; z ] =
=
(c )
( a + n ) ( b + n ) z n
( c + n)
( a ) ( b ) 0
n!
(c)
( a + n ) ( b + n ) ( c b ) z n
( c + n ) ( c b )
( a ) ( b ) n =0
n!
(c )
zn
b + n1
c b1
=
(1 x )
( a + n ) dx
x
( a ) ( b ) ( c b ) n=0
n!
1
54
(c)
( zx ) n
b1
c b1
=
x (1 x )
( a + n ) n! dx
( a ) ( b ) ( c b )
n=0
1
0
( a + n)
n =0
( zx ) n
zx
( zx ) 2
= ( a ) + ( a + 1) + ( a + 2 )
+ ...
n!
1!
2!
zx
( zx ) 2
= ( a )1 + a + a( a + 1 )
+ ...
1!
2!
= ( a )F [a ,c ; c ; zx ] = ( a )( 1 zx ) a
Hence
1 b1
(c)
x ( 1 x ) cb 1
F [a ,b; c ; z ] =
dx
a
( b ) ( c b )
(
1
zx
)
0
7.5.3
(7.15)
F [a ,b; c;1] =
(c )
x b 1 ( 1 x )c b 1
dx
( b ) ( c b )
( 1 x )a
1
(c)
xb1( 1 x )c b a 1dx
( b ) ( c b )
0
7.5.4
( c)
( b ,c b a )
( b ) ( c b )
( c ) ( c b a )
F [a , b; c ;1] =
( c b ) ( c a )
(7.16)
When z is positive, the series F[a,b;c;z] converges only when z is smaller than 1. When z is negative, the
series may converge for z> 1, but the result remains indefinite when strictly applying the definition:
F [a , b; c ; z ] = 1
ab
a( a + 1 )b( b + 1 ) 2 a( a + 1 )( a + 2 )b( b + 1 )( b + 2 ) 3
z+
z
z + ...
1!
2! c( c + 1 )
3! c( c + 1 )( c + 2 )
zx
)
0
Write y = 1 -x, dy = - dx
( 1 zx ) = [1 z( 1 y )] = [1 z + zy ]
a
55
z
= ( 1 z ) 1 +
1 z
(c)
1
( 1 y ) b1 y c b1
F [a , b; c; z ] =
dy
a
( b ) ( c b ) ( 1 z ) a
z
0
1 + 1 z y
(c)
1
=
( b ) ( c b ) ( 1 z ) a
y c b1 ( 1 y ) b1
dy
a
z
0
1 + 1 z y
1
z
F [a , b; c ; z ] =
F a ,c b; c;
a
1 z
(1 z )
(7.17)
J ( at ) J ( bt ) =
( 1 )
m= 0
+ 2n
( at / 2 ) +2 m
n ( bt / 2 )
( 1 )
m! ( + m + 1 ) n= 0
n! ( + n + 1 )
The coefficient of (-)m ab (t/2)++2m , obtained from the sum of next products,
m
( 1 )
m n
n =0
is
( at / 2 ) + 2m 2n
( bt ) + 2 n
n
( 1 )
( m n )! ( + m n + 1 )
n! ( + n + 1 )
a 2m 2nb 2n
( m n )! ( + m n + 1 )n! ( + n + 1 )
n =0
m
=a
2m
2n
[( + m )( + m 1 )...( + m n + 1 )] ( + m n + 1 )
b
( m n )! n! ( + m + 1 ) ( + m n + 1 )[( + n )( + n 1 )...( + 1 )] ( + 1 ) a
n=0
2n
m
( 1 ) n [( m )( m + 1 )...( m + n 1 )] b
= a2 m
m
n=0
( m n )! n! ( + m + 1 ) ( + 1 )( + 1 )n
( 1 ) n ( m )n [m( m 1 )...( m n )] b 2n
m! n! ( + m + 1 ) ( + 1 )( + 1 )n a
n=0
m
= a2 m
=a
2m
b2
m! ( + m + 1 ) ( + 1 )n!( + 1 ) 2
n a
n=0
2
2
F m, m; + 1; b / a
= a 2m
m!( + m + 1)( + 1)
m
( m )n ( m )n
Hence
J (at ) J (bt ) =
2m
( at ) (bt )
F m, m; + 1; b 2 / a 2
m ( at / 2)
2 + ( + 1) m =0
m!( + m + 1)
56
(7.18)
Chapter 8
8.1
Introductory note.
This chapter presents the most important infinite integrals of Bessel functions of direct application in
pavement analysis, especially in multilayer theory.
8.2
Useful relations
at
J ( bt )t
at
J ( bt )t
( b / 2 ) ( + ) + + + 1
b 2
dt =
F
,
; + 1;
2
a + ( + 1 ) 2
a 2
dt =
( b / 2 ) ( + )
(a
+b
+
2 ( + 1 )
+ 1 +
b2
F
,
; + 1;
2
2
a 2 + b2
J 0 ( bt )dt = b
J 1 ( bt )
dt = 1
t
J 1( bt )dt = b
at
J 0 ( bt )dt =
at
J 0 ( bt )tdt =
(a 2 + b 2 )1 / 2
(a 2 + b 2 )3 / 2
at
2
e J 0 ( bt )t dt =
at
e J 1 ( bt )dt =
2a 2 b 2
(a 2 + b 2 )5 / 2
1
a
1
1
/
2
b
a2 + b 2
57
J 1 ( bt )tdt =
at
J 1 ( bt )t 2 dt =
at
cos( bt )dt =
at
sin( bt )dt =
at
at
(a 2 + b 2 )3 / 2
3 ab
(a 2 + b 2 )5 / 2
a
a2 + b2
b
a2 + b2
e
e
a 2 + 4b 2
at
sin( bt )
b
dt = tan 1
t
a
at
sin( bt )tdt =
2 ab
(a 2 + b 2 )2
at
1
e J ( bt )J ( ct )t dt =
( bc ) ( + 2 )
a + 2 ( 2 + 1 )
+ 2 + 2 + 1
b 2 + c 2 2bc cos 2
F
,
;
+
1
;
sin d
2
2
2
a
at
a 2 + ( b c )2
sin( bt ) sin( ct )
1
dt = log 2
2
t
4
a + ( b + c )
at
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt =
a
1
1
2 a + ( b c ) 2 a 2 + ( b + c ) 2
58
sin tb sin tc ma
bc
e
dsdt = arctan
2
ts
2
a( a + b 2 + c 2 )1 / 2
00
sin tb sin tc ma
bc( 2a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )
m ts e dsdt = 2 (a 2 + b 2 )(a 2 + c 2 )(a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )1/ 2
00
at
J ( bt ) J ( ct )t
b c
dt =
2 + ( + 1 )a + +
( + + + 2m )
c 2 b 2
F
m
,
m
;
+
1
;
m! ( + m + 1 )
2
2
b
0
4 a
+ + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
b
dt = +1
t
a
2 ( + 1 ) + + 1
0
+ + 1 + 1
b2
F
,
; + 1; if b < a
2
2
a 2
+ +1
( )
+ 1 + + 1
2
2
J ( at )J ( at )
a 1
dt =
t
2 + + 1 + +
0
J ( at ) J ( bt )
t
dt =
2 + 1
( ab )
2 + 1 2 + 3
4 a 2b 2
F
,
; + 1;
2 +1
4
4
2
2 2
+
1
a
+
b
2
2
2
2
( + 1 ) a + b
2
59
8.3
8.3.1
at
J ( bt )t
( b / 2 ) + 2k
dt = ( )
t + + 2k 1e at dt
k ! ( + k + 1 )
0
k
at
1
k
e J ( bt )t dt = ( )
( b / 2 ) + 2 k ( + + 2 k )
k ! ( + k + 1 )a + + 2k
+ + + 1
( b / 2 ) ( + )
at
1
2
2
e J ( bt )t dt = ( + 1 )a + 1 1! ( + 1 )
b2
a
+ +
+ + 1 + + 1
+ 1
+ 1 4
2
2
2 2
b
+
...
4
2! ( + 1 )( + 2 )
and by (7.11)
at
1
e J ( bt )t dt =
( b / 2 ) ( + ) + + + 1
b2
F
,
; + 1;
2
( + 1 )a +
2
a 2
(8.1)
Strictly spoken, the series converges for b < a only. Therefore transform the series by application of the
integral transform of the hypergeometric function (7.17):
( b / 2 ) ( + )
+
2
2 2
a +b
( + 1 )
at
1
e J ( bt )t dt =
+ 1 +
b2
F
,
; + 1;
2
2
a 2 + b 2
Convergence at the origin (t = 0) requires + > 0. Indeed, expand the integrand in series
( bt / 2 )
a 2t 2
at
1
e
J
(
bt
)
t
dt
=
1
at
+
...
... t 1dt
2!
( + 1 )
0
0
( b / 2 )
( b / 2 )
+ 1
t
dt
=
t +
( + 1 )
( + ) ( + 1 )
Convergence is secured for t = 0 if + > 0.
60
(8.2)
8.3.2
Particular value.
We have seen in 7.5.1 that for particular values of its parameters, the hypergeometric function reduces
to simple expressions.
The case where = + 1.
+
b2
F
,0; + 1; 2
=1
a + b2
2
Hence
( b / 2 ) ( 2 + 1 )
2 + 1
2
2 2
a +b
( + 1 )
at
e J ( bt )t dt =
at
J 0 ( bt )dt =
at
J 1 ( bt )tdt =
(8.4)
a 2 + b2
(a
b
2
(8.5)
2 3/ 2
+b
(8.3)
J 0 ( bt )dt = b
(8.6)
J 1( bt )tdt = b 2
(8.7)
1
1
b2
b2
F + 1, ; + 1; 2
=
F
+
1
;
+
1
;
=
2
2
a + b 2
a 2 + b 2
a
a + b2
2
Hence
a( b / 2 ) ( 2 + 2 )
2 + 3
2
2 2
a +b
( + 1 )
at
+1
e J ( bt )t dt =
at
J 0 ( bt )tdt =
at
J 1 ( bt )t 2 dt =
61
(a
a
2
(a
+b
2 3/ 2
3 ab
2
+b
2 5/ 2
(8.8)
(8.9)
(8.10)
3
2
b2
3b2
=
1
.
a 2 + b 2
2 a2 + b2
Hence
at
J 0 ( bt )t dt =
2
(a
2a 2 b 2
2
+b
(8.11)
2 5/ 2
( 2 ) 1 x 0 ( 1 x )2
2
1
F 1, ;2; z = F ,1;2; z =
dx = 1 1 z
1/ 2
z
2
2
( 1 ) ( 1 ) 0 ( 1 zx )
Hence
at
at
1
b2
J 1 ( bt )dt = 2
F 1, ;2; 2
a + b 2 2
a + b 2
b/ 2
2 a 2 + b 2
b2
J 1 ( bt )dt =
1 1
a2 + b2
b2
a 2 + b2
b/2
J 1 ( bt )dt = b
1/ 2
= 1 1
b
(8.12)
2
2
a +b
a
(8.13)
= 0 and = 1
( 2)
x 0 ( 1 x )2
2
1
F ,1;2; z =
dx
=
1 1 z
z
2
( 1 ) ( 1 ) 0 ( 1 zx )1 / 2
at
e
J 1 ( bt )
t
dt =
1
b2 1 2
2
F ,1;2;
= a + b a
1
/
2
2
2
2
2
2
a + b b
a +b
( 2 )
( b / 2 ) ( 2 )
= = 1/2
J 1 ( bt )
dt = 1
t
Apply (7.16)
1
1 3 b2
1 3 b2
(3/ 2)
x 1 / 2
a
b
F ,1; ; = F 1, ; ; =
dx = tan 1
2
2
2
b
a
2 2 a ( 1 / 2 ) ( 1 ) 0
b x
2 2 a
1+
a 2
62
(8.14)
(8.15)
at
1 / 2
J 1 / 2 ( bt )t
8.3.3
( b / 2 )1 / 2 ( 1 ) 1 3 b 2
2
b
dt =
F ,1; ;
tan 1
=
2
a ( 3 / 2 )
b
a
2 2 a
(8.16)
This integral, together with the sin integral, occurs very often in physical problems. The solution is an
application of (8.8). By (4.9), transform the cos function in the corresponding Bessel function
at
b at
cos( bt )dt =
e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t 1 / 2 dt
2
0
at
e cos( bt )dt =
8.3.4
b a( b / 2 ) 1 / 2 ( 1 )
a
=
2 a2 + b 2 ( 1 / 2 ) a 2 + b2
(8.17)
b at
sin( bt )dt =
e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t 1 / 2 dt
at
Hence by (8.3)
at
8.3.5
b ( b / 2 )1 / 2 ( 2 )
b
sin( bt )dt =
=
2 a 2 + b2 ( 3 / 2 ) a 2 + b 2
(8.18)
at
8.3.6
1
b
cos( bt ) sin( bt )dt = e at sin( 2bt )dt =
2
2
a + 4b 2
0
(8.19)
By (4.8)
at
e
sin( bt )
b at
dt =
e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t 1 / 2 dt
t
2
0
By (8.16)
at
sin( bt )
b 2
b
b
dt =
tan 1 = tan 1
t
2 b
a
a
63
(8.20)
8.3.7
By equation (4.8)
at
b at
sin( bt )tdt =
e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t 3 / 2 dt
2
0
By equation (8.2)
at
3/2
e J 1 / 2 ( bt )t dt =
By equation (7.15)
3 1 3
b2
F , ; ;
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 3/2
a
+
b
a +b
( 3 / 2)
( b / 2 )1 / 2 ( 3 )
1 3 3
b2
a
F , ; ;
=
2
2
1/ 2
2 2 2 a + b a 2 + b 2
sin( bt )tdt =
2 ab
Hence
at
8.4
(a
+b
2 2
(8.21)
8.4.1
at
J ( bt ) J ( ct )t
J ( t )
( bc / 2 )
dt =
e at t + 1 sin 2 ddt
( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) 0 0
+ 2 + 2 + 1
2 2
F
,
;
+
1
;
sin d
2
a +2 ( 2 + 1 ) 0 2
a 2
( bc ) ( + 2 )
at
sin( bt ) sin( ct )
dt = bc e at J 1 / 2 ( bt )J 1 / 2 ( ct )dt
t
20
e
0
at
sin( bt ) sin( ct )
bc
dt = 2
t
2a
64
3 3 2
F 1, 2 ; 2 ; a 2 sin d
(8.22)
e
0
8.4.3
sin( bt ) sin( ct )
bc
sin d
1
dx
dt =
d =
t
2 a 2 + b 2 + c 2 2bc cos
4 a 2 + b2 + c 2
0
1
x
2bc
at
e
at
a 2 + ( b + c )2
sin( bt ) sin( ct )
1
dt = log 2
2
t
4
a + ( b c )
(8.23)
at
at
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt =
0
3 3 2
F
,2 ; ; sin d
a 3 0 2 2 a 2
bc
at
sin d
2
2
0 ( a + b + c 2bc cos )
at
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt = abc
at
e sin( bt ) sin( ct )dt =
8.4.4
(a
dx
2
+ b 2 + c 2 2bcx
a
1
1
2 a + ( b c ) 2 a 2 + ( b + c ) 2
I=
00
sin tb sin tc ma
e
dsdt
ts
/ 2
00
0 0
sin tb sin tc ma
ts e dsdt =
By (8.23)
I=
1
4
/2
which we rewrite
65
(8.24)
1 + 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
( a + b ) cos + ( a + c ) sin
I=
log
d
4
cos sin
0
1 2
2
2
2
2
2
( a + b ) cos + ( a + c ) sin
/2
1+ z
z3 z5
= 2z +
+
1z
3
5
log
/2
1
I=
4
2
2bc cos sin
1
+
(
2
cos sin ( a + b 2 ) cos 2 + ( a 2 + c 2 ) sin 2 3
)3 + 1 ( )5 + d
The integral
/2
I=
[( a
(cos sin ) n 1
2
+ b 2 ) cos 2 + ( a 2 + c 2 ) sin 2
1 1
( 2bc ) 2 k +1 u 2 k
I =
2 0 k =0 2k + 1 ( a 2 + b 2 ) + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
Using
u
2
2k
+ 2u 2
du =
u2k
2 k +1
2 k 1
4 k 2 2 + 2 u 2
2 2 2 k +1
+ u
du =
1
4 k 2
2k
1
4k
2k + 1
( 2 k 1 )u 2k 2
( 2k 1 )u 2 k 2
( 2 + 2 u 2 ) = arctan
0
2 2 2k
+ u
=
0
du
+ 2u 2
2k
du
du
1
2
bc
1
b3c 3
I=
+
+
2 ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + c 2 ) 1 / 2 2.3 ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + c 2 ) 3 / 2
1.3
b5c 5
2.4.5 ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + c 2 ) 5 / 2
Hence
I=
bc
arcsin
2
( a 2 + b 2 )1 / 2 ( a 2 + c 2 )1 / 2
or
66
(8.25)
I=
8.4.5
bc
arctan
2
a( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )1 / 2
(8.26)
I=
m
00
sin tb sin sc ma
e dsdt
ts
where m2 = t2 + s 2
Let t = cos and s = sin
sin tb sin sc ma
m ts e dsdt =
00
/ 2
0 0
By (8.24)
I=
/2
1
a
2
1
1
1
2
d
cos sin a + ( b cos c sin )2 a 2 + ( b cos + c sin ) 2
Let u = tan
I=
a
1+ u2
du
2 0 u ( a 2 + b 2 ) 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
a
1+ u2
du
2 0 u ( a 2 + b 2 ) + 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
I=
+
a
4( a 2 + c 2 )
a
4( a 2 + b 2 )
log
log
a 2 + b 2 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
a 2 + b 2 + 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
a 2 + b 2 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u
a 2 + b 2 + 2bcu + ( a 2 + c 2 )u 2
a 1
1
bc
+
2 a 2 + b2 a 2 + c 2 a a 2 + b2 + c2
1/ 2
( a 2 + c 2 )u bc
( a 2 + c 2 )u + bc
+
arctan
arctan
a( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )1 / 2
a( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )1 / 2 0
bc( 2 a 2 + b 2 + c 2 )
I=
2 ( a 2 + b 2 )( a 2 + c 2 )( a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ) 1 / 2
67
(8.27)
8.5
The integral is solved using equation (7.18) established for the product of two Bessel functions with
different arguments.
at
J ( bt )J ( ct )t 1 dt =
( ) ( b / 2 ) 2m t + + + 2m 1 F m, m; + 1; c 2 / b 2 at
e dt
m! ( + m + 1 )
2 + ( + 1 ) 0 0
b c
b c
at
1
e
J
(
bt
)
J
(
ct
)
t
dt
=
+
+ +
2
+
1
)
a
0
( + + + 2m )
c 2 b 2
F m , m ; + 1;
b 2 4 a 2
0 m! ( + m + 1 )
8.6
(8.28)
This integral is of great importance in the resolution of physical problems because it allows expressing
discontinuous boundary conditions. Many applications in pavement design will be based on the properties
of this integral, the so-called discontinuous integral of Weber and Schafheitlin (Watson, 1966).
8.6.1
The solution of the integral depends on the relative values of a and b, hence, the term discontinuous to
qualify the integral. We assume that b < a, and solve the integral as the limiting function of an
exponential function
J
( at ) J ( bt )
dt
= lim
c0
ct
e
J ( at )J ( bt )
t
dt
Expand the Bessel function with the smallest argument (here bt)
J ( at )J ( bt )
t
dt = lim
c0
ct
k
e J ( at ) ( )
0
( ) k ( b / 2 ) + 2k
k ! ( + k + 1 )
c0
= lim
ct
( b / 2 ) + 2k t + 2k
dt
k ! ( + k + 1 )
J ( at )t + 2k dt
( ) k ( b / 2 ) + 2k ( a / 2 ) ( + + 2k + 1 )
= lim
+ + 2 k + 1
c 0
k ! ( + k + 1 )
2
2
2
a +c
( + 1)
68
+ + 2 k + 1 2k +
a2
F
,
; + 1;
2
2
a 2 + c 2
We now go over to limit by setting c = 0. For a proof that the limit of the hypergeometric series, when c
tends to 0, is the same as the value of the series when c = 0, (see Watson, 1966). Hence
( )k ( b / 2 ) +2 k ( a / 2 ) ( + + 2k + 1 )
+ + 2 k + 1
k ! ( + k + 1 )
t
2
a2
1
+ + 2 k + 1 2 k +
F
,
; + 1;1
2
2
( +1)
J ( at ) J ( bt )
dt =
( )
1
( )k 2
2k
b
a
2k
J ( at ) J ( bt )
t
( + + 1 + 2k )
k ! ( + k + 1 )
dt =
b
a +1 2 +
(1/ 2 )
+ + 2 + 2 k + + 1 2k
2
2
Let ( + + 1 + 2k ) / 2 = p
2k
b
()
J ( at ) J ( bt )
b
a
dt = +1
+
1
t
a
2
0
k ! ( + k + 1 )
k
2
( 2 p ) ( 1 / 2 )
2 p 1
2
( p + 1 / 2 )
Apply equation (5.5) on the term between accolades
2k
+ + 1
+k
b
2
dt = +1
+ + 1
t
a
2
0
k! ( + k + 1 )
k
2
+ + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
b
( )k
a
2k
b
+ + 1
+ 1
+ k
J ( at ) J ( bt )
2
2
b
a
dt = +1
+ + 1
t
a
2
0
k! ( + k + 1 )
+ + 1
69
+ + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
b
2
dt = +1
t
a
2 ( + 1 ) + + 1
+ + 1 + 1
2k
2
2
k
k b
k! ( + 1 )k
a
Hence
+ + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
b
dt = +1
t
a
2 ( + 1 ) + + 1
0
+ + 1 + 1
b2
F
,
; + 1;
2
2
a 2
(8.29)
+ + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
a
dt = +1
t
b
2 ( + 1 ) + + 1
0
+ + 1 + 1
a
F
,
; + 1;
2
2
b 2
(8.30)
In order to establish the convergence conditions at the origin develop the Bessel functions in series and
integrate
J
( at )J ( bt )
a
b
t + + 1
dt =
+ .....
2 ( ) 2 ( ) + + 1
t
0
( at ) J ( bt )
dt
t
ab
cos at
4
2
70
cos bt
dt
4 2
8.6.2
The solution of the integral is given by equations (8.29) with a = b. Apply equation (7.16)
F ( a ,b; c;1 ) =
J (at ) J ( at )
t
( c ) ( c b a )
( c b ) ( c a )
dt =
1
a
2
+ + 1
( )
2
+ + 1 + + + 1 + + 1
( + 1)
2
2
2
(8.31)
When = 0, equation (8.31) is undefined. Hence, when a = b, the requirements for convergence are
++1>>0
However, when - = 2k + 1 the convergence conditions remain
+ + 1 > > -1
Indeed, by equation (8.31)
J
0
lim
( at )J ( at )
dt
1
0 a
= lim
( )
( k + 1 ) k
2
By equation (7.7)
(an) =
( )n ( a )
( a + 1 )n
k
( )( ) + 1
1
( )
1
2
k
lim
= lim
0 a
0 a
( k + 1 ) k
k!
2
2
By equation (5.5)
lim
+ 1 1
( )k
2
+ 1
( at )J ( at )
1
2
2
k
dt = lim
k ! (1 / 2 )
0 a
t
Hence, when - = 2k +1
1
1
J ( at ) J ( at )dt = ( ) 2
2a
71
(8.32)
8.6.3
J ( at )J 2 k 1( bt )dt =
b 2k 1 ( k )
b2
F k ,k ; 2 k ;
a 2k ( 2 k ) ( k + 1 )
a 2
(8.33)
when b = a
J ( at )J 2k 1 ( bt )dt = ( )
1
2a
(8.34)
when b > a
a( k )
a2
J ( at )J 2 k 1( bt )dt = b +1 ( + 1 ) ( k ) F k , k + 1; + 1; b 2 = 0
8.6.4
Integral
J
b<a
( at ) J ( bt )
dt
J ( at )J 1( bt )dt
b
a
1
2
b 1
sin( at ) cos( bt )
dt
t
1 a
2 b
0
1
a
1
2a
J 0 ( at ) sin( bt )dt
a b
J 0( at ) cos( bt )dt
1
2
1
2a
J 1 ( at )J 0 ( bt )dt
b>a
b=a
72
1
2
b a
0
(8.35)
8.6.5
In the special case in which the Bessel functions are of the same order, the discontinuous integral can be
evaluated in a simple form.
Apply equation (6.1)
J ( at ) J ( bt )
t
J ( t ) 2
t 2
ab
=
sin d
2 ( + 1 / 2 ) ( 1 / 2 ) 0 ( t )
ab
J ( at ) J ( bt )
J ( t )t
2
dt
=
sin 2 ddt
(
)
(
)
+
1
/
2
1
/
2
t
0
00
Apply equation (8.2)
J ( t )
1 ( 2 + 1 )
2 + 1
t
dt = 2 +1
F
, ; + 1;1
2
2
2
( + 1 )
( + 1 ) ( 1 / 2 )
2 + 1
F
, ; + 1;1 =
2
2
2 + 2 1 +
J ( t )
1 ( 2 + 1 )
(1/ 2 )
t
dt =
2 + 2 1 +
2
2 +1
ab
J ( at ) J ( bt )
1
( 2 + 1 )
sin 2
2
dt =
d
2 + 1 2 2 + 2 1 + 0 2 +1
t
0
2
2
2
Apply equation (5.5)
2 + 2 2 + 1
2 2
2
2
( 2 + 1 ) =
(1/ 2 )
2 + 1
J ( at ) J ( bt )
(ab )
sin 2
2
dt =
d
1 + 0 2 +1
t
2 + 1
0
2
( 1 / 2 )
2
2
Expand the integral in powers of cos, with = 2ab/(a2 +b2 )
1!
73
2!
sin 2
2 +1
0 2
2
2
a + b 2 ab cos
2 + 1 k
2
1
k
cos k sin 2 d
2 +1
k!
0
(a 2 + b 2 )
cos
2 j +1
sin 2 d = 0
when k =2j
cos
2j
sin
/2
cos
d = 2
2j
sin 2 d = B( j + 1 / 2 , + 1 / 2 )
Hence
sin 2
2 +1
0 2
2
2
a + b 2 ab cos
1
2 +1
2
2
2
a +b
2 + 1
2 j 2 j + 1 2 + 1
2 j
2 2
( 2 j )! ( j + + 1 )
By (5.5)
( j + 1/ 2) =
1
2 +1
2
2
2
a +b
( 1 / 2 ) ( 2 j )
2 2 j 1 ( j )
2 + 1
2 j 1 2 + 1
2 j
2 2
j! 2 2 j ( j + + 1 )
2 + 1
2 j
2
2j
2 + 1 2 + 3
=
4
4
j
j
74
sin 2
2 +1
0 2
2
2
a + b 2 ab cos
=
Hence
( 1 / 2 ) ( + 1 / 2 )
(a
+b
2 +1
2
(
2 + 1
( ab )
+ 1)
2 + 1 2 + 3 2 j
2
2
j
j
j ! ( + 1 ) j
J ( at ) J ( bt )
t
dt =
2 2
2 + 1 , 2 + 3 ; + 1; 4 a b
(8.36)
F
2 +1
2
4
4
2
2
+ 1
a +b
2
2
2
2
( + 1 ) a + b
2
Equation (8.36) is valid for a > b or a < b. In this form of the result, the discontinuity is masked.
75
76
Chapter 9
9.1
Introductory note
This chapter presents the most important infinite integrals of Bessel functions resolved in the complex
plane. They are essential for application in slab theory.
9.2
Helpful relations
( z ) ( 1 z ) =
sin z
1
1
=
e t t z dt
( z ) 2i C
1
sin t z sinh t
J ( z ) = cos( z sin )d
e e
dt
I ( z ) =
1
sin t z cosh t
cos( z cos )d
e e
dt
+ ( 2 z )
cos xu
2
K ( xz ) =
du
1
1
+
0 2
x
2
u + x2
2
+1
J ( ax )
x +k
xJ ( ax )
x 20+ k 2
dx = k K ( ak )
dx = K0 ( ak )
0
x 1 J ( bx )J ( ax )
dx = ( )( + ) / 2 k 2 I ( bk )K ( ak ) when a > b
2
2
x +k
0
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
dx
=
e k ( a b ) e k ( a + b )
when a > b
2
2
2
x
(
x
+
k
)
4
k
0
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
dx
=
2 e k ( b + a ) e k ( b a ) when a < b
2
2
2
4k
0 x( x + k )
77
a+b
a b
k
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
2k
a b
a +b
2
cos
ke
cos
k when a < b
x( x 4 + k 4 ) dx = 4 k 4 e
2
2
0
ba
b+a
k
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
b
a
b+a
2
2
cos
k e
cos
k when a > b
x( x 4 + k 4 ) dx = 4 k 4 2 e
2
2
0
9.3
x p 1
1 + x dx
(9.1)
x p 1
p 1
p
1 + x dx = y ( 1 y ) dy
1
(9.2)
p 1
( 1 y ) p dy = B( p ,1 p ) = ( p ) ( 1 p )
(9.3)
z p 1
C 1 + z dz
(9.4)
Consider now
-1
The residue at z = -1 = ei is
z p 1
lim ( z + 1 )
= ( e i ) p 1 = e ( p 1 ) i
1+ z
z 1
(9.5)
Then
z p 1
( p 1 ) i
C 1 + z dz = 2ie
or, omitting the integrands,
AB
p 1
x
1 + x dx +
r
= 2ie ( p 1 ) i
BDEFG GH
HJA
2
i p 1
i
(Re
i Re
1 + Re i
( re i ) p 1 ire i
1 + re
2i
( xe2i )
1 + xe2i dx
d +
d = 2ie ( p 1 )i
where we have to use z = xe for the integral along GH since the argument of z is increased by 2 in
going around the circle BDEFG.
Take the limit as r 0 and R
2
lim
(Re i ) p 1 i Re i
1 + Re i
lim
r 0
( ei ) p i
1 i d = 0
R R 1 p
0
+e
R
d = lim
( re i ) p 1 ire i
1 + re i
d = lim r
r 0
( ei ) p i
i
2 1 + re
d = 0
x p 1
( xe 2i ) p 1
( p 1 )i
dx
+
1+ x
1 + xe2i dx = 2ie
[1 e
2i( p 1 )
] x1 + x dx = 2ie
p 1
( p 1 ) i
x p 1
2ie ( p 1 )i
2i
dx
=
=
=
1+ x
1 e 2i( p 1 ) e p i e pi sin
0
(9.6)
( z ) ( 1 z ) =
sin z
79
(9.7)
x ( x ) ( x + 1 )
=
( x )
= ( x ) ( 1 x ) =
=
=
sin x sin( x + 1 ) sin z
( z ) ( 1 z ) = ( x + 1 ) [1 ( x + 1 )] = ( x + 1 ) ( x ) =
9.4
t z
C e t
e t
t z
dt = R + +
Replace t by rei. For the first integral = -, for the second r = and for the third = . Hence
t z
re
e t dt = R e
(re )
i
e i dr
( )
( )
z
+ e i
e
e i ie i d
i
z i
R
+ e re re i
e dr
Assume that z < 1 and take the limit for 0 and R . The second integral tends to zero and
e t
t z
dt = e r r z e iz dr 0 e r r z e iz dr
0
r z
[e
iz
e iz dr
= 2i sin z e r r z dr
0
= 2i sin z ( 1 z )
80
1
1
=
ett zdt
( z ) 2i C
(9.8)
We have defined equation (9.8) for values of z < 1. However in this equation the integral defines an
analytic function for all z, hence, as for equation (9.7) defined in 9.2, by the principle of analytic
continuation equation (9.8) can be used for the reciprocal of the gamma function throughout the z plane,
i.e. throughout the complex plane.
9.5
We start with Hankels contour integral (9.8) wherein we replace z by ( + m + 1) the argument of the
gamma function in the successive denominators of the series expressing J(z):
1
1
=
ett m 1dt
( + m + 1) 2i C
Hence
( ) m ( z / 2 ) + 2 m
m! ( + m + 1 )
0
( z / 2 ) ( )m ( z 2 / 4t ) 1 t
J ( z ) =
t e dt
2i C 0
m!
J ( z ) =
J ( z ) =
( z / 2 ) ( z 2 / 4t ) t 1
e
e t dt
2i C
J ( z ) =
) (
1
ew exp ze w / 2 exp ze w / 2 dw
2i C
J ( z ) =
1
ewe z sinhw dw
2i C
(9.9)
Perform the integration around the path of Figure 9.3, consisting of three sides of a rectangle with vertices
at -i, -i, i and + i.
i
-i
Figure 9.3 Integration around the contour
We write w = t i on the sides parallel to the real axis and w = 0 i on the lines joining 0 to i.
Neglecting the integrands
81
i
0
i
J ( z ) =
+ + +
2i
i 0
i
Int 1 =
1
2i
w z sinh w
dw
( t i ) z sinh( t i )
dt
1
Int 1 =
2i
Int 1 =
1
2i
Int 1 =
1
2i
t i z sinh t
dt
t i z sinh t
dt
Similarly
Int 4 =
With
1
2 i
t i z sinh t
dt
1 i
1
e
ei =
[cos i sin cos i sin ] = sin
2i
2i
Int 1 + Int 4 =
sin
e t e z sinh t dt
Next
1
Int 2 =
2i
Int 2 =
Int 2 =
Int 2 =
w z sinh w
dw
i
0
i z sinh( i )
1
e
2
1
ei e iz sin d
2
1
2
i( z sin )
Similarly
1
Int 3 =
e i( z sin ) d
2
e
i( z sin )
+e
0
i( z sin )
Finally
82
= 2(cos z sin )
1
sin t z sinh t
J ( z ) = (cos( z sin )d
e e
dt
9.6
(9.10)
1
sin t z cosh t
I ( z ) = (cos( z sin )d
e e
dt
9.7
(9.11)
Consider (9.11)
1
sin
I ( z ) = cos( z cos )d
e t e z cosh t dt
Form
1
sin
I ( z ) = cos( z cos )d +
e +t e z cosh t dt
I ( z ) I ( z ) = 2
sin
z cosh t
cosh tdt
K ( z ) =
I ( z ) I ( z )
2
sin
Hence
(9.12)
K ( z ) =
1 z cosh t t
1
1
e
e + e t dt = e z cosh t et dt + e z cosh t e t dt
2
2
2
0
Transform the integral with the positive exponent e by setting t = -t and dt = -dt.
Hence
1
K ( z ) =
2
K ( z ) =
1
2
z cosh t t
z cosh t t
0
0
1
dt + e z cosh t e t dt
2
dt +
1 z cosh t t
e
e dt
2
0
K ( z ) =
1
2
83
z cosh t t
dt
(9.13)
Under this form the finite value of the integrand at infinite is evident.
9.8
A second integral representation, more appropriate for numerical integration, is gained from equation
cos d (Spiegel, 1974).
e
Let
I = I ( , ) = e cos d
2
Then
2
I
= e sin d
0
2
2
e
=
sin
e cos d =
I
2
0
2
2
Thus
1 I
=
I
2
or
log I =
log I =
2
+ C1
4
2
I = I ( , ) = Ce / 4
C = I ( ,0 ) = e d
2
Let x =
C=
1 / 2 x
2 0
dx =
(1/ 2)
cos d =
e
2
84
1
2
1 2 / 4
e
2
(9.14)
K ( xz ) =
( + 1 / 2 )( 2 z )
x (1/ 2)
cos( xu )
( 2 + z 2 ) +1 / 2
du
(9.15)
0 u
Therefore we shall show that equations (9.13) and (9.15) are identical
1 1 x
2 2 ( 2 z )
xz cosh t t
1
cos( xu )
dt = +
du
2
2
2 +1 / 2
0 u +z
[ (
)]
(9.16)
00 u
+z
cos xu
dtdu =
2 +1 / 2
1 / 2
00
00 u
+z
cos xu
dtdu =
2 +1 / 2
exp[ su
]cos xudu s
1 / 2
00
1 1
exp[ su ]cos xudu = 2 2 s
exp sz 2 ds
1 / 2
x2
exp
4 s
and obtain
1
cos( xu )du
1 1 1
x2
+
= s
exp sz 2
ds
2
2 2
4
s
2
2 +1 / 2
0 u +z
0
1
cos( xu )
1 1 x
+
du =
e xz cosh t t dt
+
1
/
2
2
2 2 ( 2z )
2
2
0 u +z
9.9
(9.17)
This sort of integrals is usually solved by integrating in the complex plane the function where the Bessel
function of the first kind J is replaced by the Hankel function of the first kind H(1) , for reasons which
will appear obvious at the end of the paragraph,
z + 1H ( 1 ) ( az )
z2 + k 2
dz
85
( z ik ) z + 1 H( 1 ) ( az )
( z ik )( z + ik )
z = ik
= 2i lim
= 2i
( ik ) + 1 H( 1 )( aik )
2ik
= ik i H( 1 ) ( aik ) = ik ei / 2 H( 1 ) ( aik )
ik
-r
-R
= 2 k K ( ak )
Now we compute the integral around the contour, where neglecting the integrands
+ +
The first and the third integral are solved on the axis of the real values of the variables, thus the variable z
may be replaced by x.
Int 1 =
Int 3 =
R +1
r
r
(1 )
H ( ax )
x2 + k 2
+1
(1)
( ax )
x2 + k2
dx
dx
Int 3 =
r
R +1
Int 3 =
+1
( y )
(1)
( ay )
y2 + k 2
i
(e
Replace now y by x
86
( 1)
dy
) H ( e ay )
dy
y2 + k 2
R +1
Int 3 =
(e
Int 13 =
R +1
( e ax )
x2 + k 2
(1)
) H
dx
[H
( 1)
i ( 1 )
i
( ax ) e H ( axe ) dx
2
2
x +k
Int 3 = 2
J ( ax )
x + k2
2
dx
The solution of Int2 is difficult and requires a good knowledge of the properties of complex numbers
(Appendix). Taking into account that we solve the integral for large values of R, we use the asymptotic
notation for H(1)
R
+ 1 ( + 1 )i
Int 2 =
i( a Re i v / 2 / 4 )
e
a Re i
2 2i
R e
Int 2
+ 1 ( + 1 )i
2
a Re
Int 2
2 2i
+ 2 1 / 2 ( + 1 )i i / 2
+k
Re
Int 2
R 2 e 2i + k 2
Re i d
iaR(cos + i sin ) v / 2 / 4
R e
+k
R + 3 / 2
2 aR sin
e
a
R2 + k 2
2 1 / 2
Int 2 2
R
a
87
/2
e
0
aR sin
sin
1
2 /
/2
2 1 / 2
Int 2 2
R
a
Int 2
/2
aR / 2
4 2
1 e aR / 4 R 3 / 2
a a
Int 4 =
We replace H
(1)
( re i ) + 1 H( 1 ) ( are i )
2 i 2
r e
ire i d
Int 4 = r + 2
+1
f ( a )
r 2e i 2 d
J ( ax )
x +k
if 0 < 3/2.
In particular
+k
dx = k K ( ak )
xJ ( ax )
x 20+ k 2
88
dx = K0 ( ak )
(9.18)
(9.19)
( bx )J
2
2
( ax )
x +k
dx
z 1 J ( bz ) H1 ( az )
dz
z2 + k2
The value of the contour integral is
= 2i
2i 1k 2 e i / 2 I ( bk )e i / 2 K ( ak )
= 2i
2ii
= 2i + k 2 I ( bk )I ( ak )
= 2( 1 ) n k 2 I ( bk )K ( ak )
The value of the residue can only be real if + - is an even integer. Hence the condition
+ - = 2n
Hence
Now we compute the integral around the contour, where neglecting the integrands
+ +
Int 13 = 2
r
( bx )J ( ax )
dx
2
2
x +k
Similarly it is shown that lim Int2 = 0 for R if < 4 and that lim Int4 = 0 for r 0 if
- < .
So we have proved that
x 1 J
( bx )J
2
2
x +k
( ax )
dx = ( )( + ) / 2 k 2 I ( bk )K ( ak )
For high values of the argument lim I (bk) = C1 ebk and lim K (ak) = C2 e-ak.
89
(9.20)
(9.21)
(9.22)
for b > a
(9.23)
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
dx
=
e k ( a b ) e k ( a + b )
2
2
2
4k
0 x( x + k )
x sin( bx ) cos( ax )
dx = e k ( a + b ) e k ( a b )
2
2
4
(x +k )
0
x sin( bx ) cos( ax )
k( b+ a )
dx
=
e
+ e k ( b a )
2
2
4
(x +k )
0
However, integral (9.21) has no immediate solution for a < b. Indeed in that case - < is not verified:
= -1/2, = 1/2, = 1.
We then transform the integral considering that
1
x( x 2 + k 2 )
1 1
x
k 2 x x2 + k 2
sin( b ) cos( ax )
x( x 2 + k 2
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
1 x sin( bx ) cos( ax )
dx = 2
dx 2
dx
x
k 0
k 0
x2 + k2
The solution of the first integral of the second member is given in 8.5.4. Hence for a < b
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
2
x( x + k )
dx =
4k
(2 e k ( b + a ) e k ( b a ) )
(9.24)
Note:
When the condition + - = 2n is not met, it can be shown (Watson, 1966) that the general equation
takes the form:
x 1 J
( bx )
cos
2
2
x +k
+
+
J ( ax ) + sin
Y ( ax ) = I ( bk ) K v ( ak )k 2
2
2
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
dx
4
4
x
(
x
+
k
)
0
90
1
x4 + k 4
1 1
1
2ik 2 x 2 + z 12 x 2 + z 22
1 sin( bx ) cos( ax )
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
dx
dx
2
2
2ik 2 0 x( x 2 + z12 )
x
(
x
+
z
)
2
0
(
[(
) (
)(
e z1 ( a b ) e z2 ( a +b )
e z2 ( a b ) e z 2 ( a + b )
2
2
2
2ik 4 z1
4z 2
1
=
e z1 ( a b ) e z2 ( a +b ) e z 2 ( a b ) e z2 ( a +b )
4
8k
)]
a b
a +b a +b
a +b
a b a b
i
k
k i
k
i
k
2 k i 2 k
2
2
2 +e
2
=
e
e
+
e
e
e
8k 4
a+b
a b
k
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
2k
a b
a +b
2
cos
ke
cos
k
x( x 4 + k 4 ) dx = 4 k 4 e
2
2
0
(9.25)
When a < b, the boundary conditions are not met: - = . The solution is obtained by splitting the
integral
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
1
dx 2
0 x( x 2 + k 2 ) dx = 0
x
k
x 2 sin( bx ) cos( ax )
0 x( x 2 + k 2 ) dx
sin( bx ) cos( ax )
0 x( x 4 + k 4 ) dx = 4 k 4
b a
b+ a
k
b a
b+a
2
cos
k e 2 cos
k (9.26)
2 e
2
2
91
92
a
A
P
Figure 10.1 Transversally loaded beam
The middle portion CD of the beam is free from shear force; the bending moment. Mx = Pa is uniform
between C and D. This condition is called pure bending. This problem will be solved under the
strength of materials approach and not, such as in 10.3 and 10.4, under the Theory of Elasticity
Approach. The assumptions will be more restrictive than those of the theory of elasticity, however the
solutions will be simpler and, in most cases, even correct.
10.1.1 Sign conventions
x
dx
y
xy
A
yx
dy
x
xy
B
D
xy
y
Figure 10.2 Sign conventions
93
Consider the stresses acting on the different faces of ABCD: x and y are called normal stresses in the
indicated directions and xy and yx are called shear stresses acting in a plane normal to the direction of the
first index and in a direction given by the second index [Conventions of Timoshenko (1953)]. The normal
stresses are taken positive when they produce tension and negative when they produce compression. The
shear stress on any face of an element will be considered positive when it has a clockwise moment with
respect to a centre inside the element (Figure 10.3a). If the moment is counter-clockwise with respect to a
centre inside the element, the shear stress is negative (Figure 10.3b).
dx
dy
xy
yx
Figure 10.4 Equality of complementary stresses
yx dx dy + xy dy dx = 0
Hence we write
xy = yx
94
(10.1)
10.1.2 Assumptions
Consider a prismatic beam with an axial plane of symmetry, which is taken as the xy-plane. When the
applied loads also act in such a plane of symmetry, bending will take place only in that plane. Assume
that the material is homogeneous and obeys Hookes law:
1
x y
E
1
y = y x
E
x =
(10.2)
(10.3)
Furthermore assume that as the bending moment is uniform, the bending deformation will also be
uniform. This implies that each cross-section, originally plane, is assumed to remain plane and normal to
the longitudinal fibres of the beam. Hence there is no deformation in the vertical direction and Hookes
law can be simplified:
x =
x
E
(10.4)
As a result of the loading shown in figure 10.1, fibres on the lower side of the beam are elongated slightly
while those on the upper side are slightly shortened. Somewhere in between the top and the bottom of the
beam, there is a layer of fibres that remain unchanged in length. This is called the neutral surface. The
intersection of the neutral surface with the axial plane xy is called the neutral axis of the beam.
10.1.3 Bending moment and bending stress
Consider a section of the beam parallel to the xy plane, with a segment ab orthogonal to the neutral axis
(Figure 10.5). Call w, the deflection in the y direction.
a
a
x
x
x
- dw/dx
b
b
y
y
Figure 10.5 Bending moment and bending stress
Considering the assumptions of 10.1.2., one can accept that the segment a-b remains orthogonal to the
neutral axis after bending. In the plane xy, segment ab will rotate over an angle equal to dw/dx. If u is
the displacement in the x direction, one may write
u = y
The strain is defined as the relative displacement
95
dw
dx
x =
du
d 2w
= y
dx
dx 2
(10.5)
x = E x = yE
d 2w
dx 2
(10.6)
(10.7)
x =
My
I
(10.8)
1
d 2w
=
R
dx 2
EI
M =
R
(10.9)
(10.10)
10.1.5 Equilibrium
Write now the equilibrium of the moments in a cross-section (Figure 10.6)
2T
dx dM
=
dx
2
dx
T
1 dM
d 3w
=
=
EI EI dx
dx 3
(10.11)
pdx qdx =
dT
dx
dx
pq
1 dT d 4 w
=
=
EI
EI dx dx 4
p( x ) q( x )
2 2 w =
EI
(10.12)
(10.13)
where p is the intensity of a load distributed over the beam. The double Laplacian of the deflection varies
with the value of the distributed load.
96
p
T
M + (dM/dx)dx
T + (dT/dx)dx)
q
dx
Figure 10.6 Equilibrium of moments
10.2 Equilibrium equation for bent plates
Consider a transversally loaded slab as given in figure 10.7.
x
P
Q
y
Figure 10.7 Equilibrium for bent plates
Postulate the hypothesis that the thickness of the slab can be considered to be thin against it's other
dimensions and that the deflections are small in comparison with the thickness. These basic assumptions
of the Theory of the Strength of Materials, allow to consider the mid plane as a neutral plane wherein the
horizontal displacements are admitted to be zero.
10.2.1 Bending moment and shear forces
Consider a section of the slab parallel to the xz plane, with a segment ab orthogonal to the neutral mid
plane (Figure 10.8). Name w, the deflection in the z-direction.
97
a
a
y
x
-w/x
b
z
Figure 10.8 Bending moments and shear forces
Again, one may accept that the segment ab remains orthogonal to the neutral plane after bending. In the
plane xz, segment ab will rotate over an angle equal to -w/x and in the plane yz, a similar segment will
rotate over an angle -w/y. If u is the displacement in the x-direction, one can write:
u = z
w
x
v = z
w
y
x =
u
2w
= z
x
x 2
y =
v
2w
= z
y
y 2
xy =
u v
2w
+
= 2 z
y x
xy
2w
2 w
+
1 2 x 2
y 2
Ez 2 w
2 w
y =
+
1 2 y 2
x 2
x =
Ez
xy =
Ez 2 w
1 + xy
Mx =
h / 2
z x dz =
2w
2 w
+
12 1 2 x 2
y 2
Eh 3
98
(10.14)
Mx =
2w
2 w
+
z
dz
D
x
x 2
y 2
h / 2
(10.15)
My =
2w
2 w
+
z
dz
D
y
y 2
x 2
h / 2
(10.16)
h/ 2
h/ 2
h/ 2
M xy =
z xy dz = D( 1 )
h / 2
2w
xy
h/ 2
M yx =
z yx dz = M xy = D( 1 )
h / 2
2w
xy
(10.17)
(10.18)
1
1
M x = D
+
R
R y
x
1
1
M y = D
+
R
R y
x
(10.19)
10.2.2 Equilibrium
Consider an elementary parallelepiped of dimension dx.dy.h (Figure 10.9).
dx
dy
Mx
Mxy
Myx
My
Tx
Ty
Figure 10.9 An elementary parallelepiped
Equilibrium of the moments with regard to the x-axis.
M xy
x
M y
+ Ty = 0
(10.20)
M x
+ Tx = 0
x
(10.21)
M yx
y
99
T x T y
+
+ pq =0
x
y
(10.22)
Replacing in (10.20) and (10.21) the moments by their values of (10.15) to (10.18), one obtains the
equations for the shear forces
Tx = D
2 w 2 w
+
x x 2
y 2
(10.23)
Ty = D
2 w 2 w
+
y x 2
y 2
(10.24)
Replacing in (10.22) the shear forces by their values of (10.23) and (10.24), one obtains the equilibrium
or continuity equation for a thin slab submitted to pure bending
4w
x 4
+2
4w
x 2 y 2
4w
y 4
pq
D
(10.25)
10.3 Compatibility equation for a homogeneous, elastic, isotropic body submitted to forces applied
on its surface
The problem is solved in two dimensions. Consider the elementary rectangle ABCD, with unit thickness
as represented in Figure 10.10.
x
dy
y
xy
yx
dy
x + (x/x)dx
yx + (yx/x)dx
B
D
xy + (xy/y)dy
y + (y/y)dy
Figure 10.10 Elementary rectangle
Consider the stresses acting on the different faces of ABCD: x and y are called normal stresses in the
indicated directions and xy and yx are called shear stresses acting in a plane normal to the direction of the
first index and in a direction given by the second index [conventions of Timoshenko (1970)]. The
stresses, such as represented in Figure , are considered to be positive. The normal stresses are taken
positive when they produce tension and negative when they produce compression. The positive directions
of the components of shearing stress on any side are taken as the positive directions of the co-ordinate
axes if a tensile stress on the same side would have the positive direction of the corresponding axis. If the
100
tensile stress has a direction opposite to the positive axis, the positive directions of the shear stresses
should be reversed.
Assume that the rectangle ABCD is small enough to admit that the stresses are uniformly distributed
along its sides and therefore that the stress resultants pass through the centre of gravity of the rectangle.
For simplicity, consider that the body forces (for example: weight) can be neglected.
The resolution is based on three principles: equilibrium, continuity and elasticity.
10.3.1 Principle of equilibrium
The body must remain in equilibrium under the applied forces. Therefore the sums of the horizontal
forces, the vertical forces and the moments around the centre of gravity must be zero. From Figure we
can deduce that:
x xy
+
=0
x
y
yx y
+
=0
x
y
xy = yx
The system of three equations reduces in a system of two equations:
x xy
+
=0
x
y
xy y
+
=0
x
y
(10.26)
(10.27)
System (10.26) and (10.27) of two equations contains three unknowns. In order to solve the problem,
more information is required.
10.3.2 The principle of continuity
Continuity means that the material of the body remains continuous, that the body remains uncracked after
loading. An equation between linear and angular strains can express this.If u is the displacement of a
given point in the x direction and v the displacement in the y direction, then define (Figure 10.11):
x =
u
x
y =
v
y
xy =
u v
+
y x
(10.28)
where x and y are the linear strains in the indicated direction, and xy is the angular strain in the indicated
plane.
If one assumes continuity of the material, one must assume continuity of the mathematical relationships,
thus derivability of equation (10.28). Derive twice each of the three equations of (10.28) and add the
results so as to obtain the continuity equation
2 x
y 2
2 y
x 2
2 xy
xy
(10.29)
The system now consists in three equations with six unknowns: more information is required to solve the
problem.
101
u + du
x = u/x
y = v/y
x
x+u
x + dx
x + dx + u + du
dx
x,y
x + dx, y
1 = tg(v/x) v/x
2 = tg(u/y) u/y
= 1 + 2
x + dx, y + dv
x, y + dy x + du, y + dy
= u/y + v/x
x =
y =
xy =
x y
E
y x
1
xy =
G
(10.30)
E
2( 1 + ) xy
E
where E is called Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio and G the shear modulus of the material. Equation
(10.30) applies for the state of plane stress.
10.3.4
Stress potential
In order to solve the system of the six equations (10.26) to (10.30), assume that there exists a potential
function from which the stresses can be deduced (Airy, 1862).
Seek for such an equation that the equilibrium equations (10.26) and (10.27) are satisfied.
x =
2
y 2
y =
2
x 2
xy =
2
xy
(10.31)
Replace the stresses in (10.30) using equations (10.31) and replace the strains in the continuity equation
(10.29) in order to obtain:
2
2
+
x 2 y 2
2 2
= 2 2 = 0
+
2
x 2
y
102
(10.32)
Equation (10.32) is the so-called continuity or compatibility equation: the double Laplacian of the stress
potential is zero.
10.4 Compatibility equation for a homogeneous, elastic, anisotropic body submitted to forces
applied on its surface
Consider the same elementary rectangle as that represented in Figure 10.10, but assume that the Youngs
moduli in horizontal and vertical directions differ from each other (Figure 10.12):
x
dy
y
xy
C
y
dy
x + (x/x)dx
Ex
yx + (yx/x)dx
Ey
D
xy + (xy/y)dy
y + (y/y)dy
Figure 10.12 Elementary rectangle with horizontal and vertical Young;s moduli
Write Ex = E/n and Ey = E. The equilibrium equations are similar to those presented in 10.3.1
x xy
+
=0
x
y
xy y
+
=0
x
y
(10.33)
(10.34)
2 x
y 2
2 y
x2
2 xy
xy
(10.35)
However the elasticity conditions are modified due to the anisotropy. In matrix format, Hookes law is
written as:
x E / n
y =
xy 0
E/n
1
E
0
0
x
0 y
1 xy
Due to energetic principles, the matrix must be symmetrical (Lekhnitskii, 1963). Hence
=
and = /n.
E E/n
103
(10.36)
It can further be shown (Barden, 1963, and, more generally, Van Cauwelaert, 1983) that if, as in isotropic
elasticity, there is a relation between Youngs modulus, Poissons ratio and shear modulus, it is
necessary, though not sufficient, that this equation should be
1 1 + n + 2
=
G
E
(10.37)
n x y
x =
y =
xy =
1
xy =
G
E
y x
(10.38)
E
( 1 + n + 2 ) xy
E
x =
y =
y 2
2
xy =
xy
x 2
(10.39)
Replacing the stresses in (10.38) and the strains in (10.35), one obtains the compatibility equation for an
anisotropic body in plane stress co-ordinates:
2
2
+
x 2 y 2
2
2
+n
=0
2
x 2
(10.40)
r 1 r r
+
+
=0
r
r
r
(10.41)
1 r 2 r
+
+
=0
r
r
r
Strains and displacements:
r =
u
r
u v
+
r r
r =
r
E
Elasticity:
104
r =
u v v
+
r r r
(10.42)
r
=
E
2( 1 + )
r =
r
E
(10.43)
Stress Potential:
r =
1 1 2
+
r r r 2 2
2
r
r =
r r
(10.44)
Compatibility equation:
2 1
1 2 2 1
1 2
+
+
+
+
=0
r 2 r r r 2 2 r 2 r r r 2 2
(10.45)
r rz r
+
+
=0
r
z
r
(10.46)
rz z rz
+
+
=0
r
z
r
Strains and displacements:
r =
Elasticity:
u
r
u
r
z =
w
z
r ( + z )
E
( r + z )
=
E
( r + )
z = z
E
2( 1 + )
rz =
rz
E
rz =
u w
+
z r
(10.47)
r =
(10.48)
r =
2
2
z
r 2
2
1
z
r r
2
z = ( 2 ) 2
z
z 2
2
rz = ( 1 ) 2
r
z 2
=
105
(10.49)
w=
1+
E
2
2
2
(
1
)
z 2
1 + 2
u=
E rz
Compatibility equation:
2 1
2 2 1 2
+
+
+
+
=0
r 2 r r z 2 r 2 r r
z 2
(10.50)
r 1 r rz r
=0
+
+
+
r
r
z
r
rz 1 z z rz
+
+
+
=0
r
r
z
r
r 1 z 2 r
+
+
+
=0
r
r
z
r
r =
Elasticity:
u
r
u v
+
r r
u v v
r =
+
r r r
=
w
u w
rz =
+
z
z r
v w
z =
+
z r
z =
( + z )
r = r
E
( r + z )
=
E
z ( r + )
z =
E
2( 1 + )
2( 1 + )
2( 1 + )
r =
r
rz =
rz
z =
z
E
E
E
(10.51)
(10.52)
(10.53)
r =
2
2 1 2
1
2 +
z
r r r r 2
2
1
1 2 1 2
1
=
2
2
z
r r r r r r 2
z =
2
2
( 2 ) 2
z
z
106
(10.54)
2 1 2
2
(
1
z 2 2 rz
2 1 2
rz = ( 1 ) 2
+
r
z 2 2 r z
z =
1
r
1 2 2 1 2
r z r
r r 2 2 z 2
2
1+
2
w=
2( 1 ) 2
E
z
r =
2 1
rz r
1 + 1 2
v=
+
E r z
r
u=
1+
E
Compatibility equations:
2 1
1 2
2 2 1
1 2 2
+
+
+
+
+
+
=0
2
r 2 r r r 2 2 z 2 r 2 r r r 2 2
(10.55)
1
1 2 2
+
+
+
=0
r r
r 2
r 2 2
z 2
x xy xz
+
+
=0
x
y
z
yx y zy
+
+
=0
x
y
z
zx zy z
+
+
=0
x
y
z
x =
xy =
u v
+
y x
u
x
v
y
v w
yz =
+
z y
Elasticity:
x =
y =
x ( y + z )
E
107
w
z
w u
zx =
+
x z
z =
(10.56)
(10.57)
y ( z + x )
E
z ( x + y )
z =
E
2( 1 + )
yz
yz =
E
2( 1 + )
zx
zx =
E
2( 1 + )
xy =
xy
E
y =
(10.58)
x =
2
2 2
+
z
x 2 xy
y =
2
2 2
2
z
y xy
z =
2
2
(
2
z
z 2
yz =
2 1 2
2
( 1 ) 2
y
z 2 xz
zx =
2 1 2
2
(
1
x
z 2 2 yz
(10.59)
3
1 2 2
xyz 2 x 2
y 2
1+
2
2
w=
2
(
1
E
z 2
1 + 2
u=
E xz y
xy =
v=
1+
E
yz x
Compatibility equations:
2 2 2 2 2 2
=0
+
+
+
+
2
2
x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2
y
z
2
x 2
2
y 2
108
2
z 2
=0
(10.60)
1 1 + n + 2
=
G
E
Further we shall also accept the same equation between the Poissons ratios as between the moduli, as
proposed by Eftimie (1973) and Van Cauwelaert (1983)
=
where is Poissons ratio in the horizontal plane.
Equilibrium:
(10.61)
r rz r
+
+
=0
r
z
r
(10.62)
rz z rz
+
+
=0
r
z
r
Strains and displacements:
r =
u
r
u
r
z =
w
z
rz =
u w
+
z r
(10.63)
Elasticity:
n r ( + z )
E
n ( r + z )
=
E
z ( r + )
z =
E
1 + n + 2
rz =
rz
E
r =
(10.64)
r =
2
2
(
n
+
n
(
1
+
z
r 2
1
( n + ) 2 n( 1 + )
z
r r
z =
2
2
2
2
(
n
+
n
+
n
n
(
1
+
z
z 2
rz =
2
2
2
( n ) n( 1 + ) 2
r
z
109
(10.65)
w=
2
1
2
2
2
(
n
)(
1
n
2
)
n
(
1
)
+
+
E
z 2
n( 1 + )( n + ) 2
u=
E
rz
Compatibility equation:
2 1
2
+
+
r 2 r r z 2
2 1 n 2 2 2
=0
+
+
2
2
r 2
r
r
z
n
110
(10.66)
2
x 2
2
y 2
=0
Look for a solution obtained by separation of the variables. Indeed, such types of solutions are much
easier in expressing boundary conditions. Assume solution:
= cos xe y
Suppose now that, utilising this solution, we want to express that a vertical stress, y, acting on a
horizontal boundary, located at y = 0, has next form (boundary condition)
- for a < x < a: y = f(x) = - p
- for | x | > a: y = f(x) = 0
Applying (10.31), we obtain the following expression for the vertical stress
y = cos xe y
and, for y = 0,
y = f ( x ) = cos x
At first sight, the boundary condition cannot be satisfied with the chosen solution because of the
oscillating character of the cos function. With help of an integral transformation a cos- function can
become discontinuous, but uniform. We first introduce in the original solution a dummy variable (a
variable independent of the differential equation)
= cos( mx )e my
in such a way that is still solution of the Laplace equation. If we multiply now by a function F(m) of
the dummy variable and integrate from 0 to , we still have a solution satisfying the Laplace equation.
= cos( mx )e my F ( m )dm
0
y = f ( x ) = m 2 cos( mx )F ( m )dm
0
We have performed an integral transform on f(x), where F(m) is called the kernel of the transform.
The purpose of this chapter is to determinate expressions for F(m) satisfying a series of boundary
conditions. In this particular case, we will find
F( m ) =
2 p sin( ma )
m3
a
n x
n x
f ( x ) = 0 + a n cos
+ bn sin
2 n = 1
L
L
an =
1
L
f(x)=
f ( x ) cos
n x
dx
L
bn =
1
L
f ( x ) sin
n x
dx
L
1
A( ) =
1
B( ) =
f ( x ) cos xdx
f ( x ) sin xdx
F ( r ) = mJ 0 ( mr )F ( m )dm
0
F ( m ) = rJ 0 ( mr )F ( r )dr
0
Definitions
A function f(x) is meant to have a period T if for all x, f(x + T) = f(x), where T is a positive constant. The
least value of T > 0 is called the least period or simply the period of f(x). Let f(x) be defined in the
interval (-L, L) and outside the interval by f(x + 2L) = f(x), i.e. assume that f(x) has a period 2L. The
Fourier series or Fourier expansion corresponding to f(x) is given by
a
n x
n x
f ( x ) = 0 + a n cos
+ bn sin
2 n = 1
L
L
(11.1)
an =
bn =
1
L
1
L
f ( x ) cos
n x
dx
L
(11.2)
f ( x ) sin
n x
dx
L
(11.3)
L
L
L
A function f(x) is called odd if f(-x) = - f(x). A function f(x) is called even if f(-x) = f(x).
A half range Fourier sine or cosine series is a series in which only sine terms or only cosine terms are
present respectively. When a half range series corresponding to a given function is desired, the function
is generally defined in the interval (0, L) and then the function is specified as odd or even, so that it is
clearly defined in the other half of the interval (-L, 0). In such a case we have for half range sine series
L
an = 0
2
nx
bn = f ( x ) sin
dx
L
L
0
112
(11.4)
2
nx
a n = f ( x ) cos
dx
L
L
bn = 0
(11.5)
11.3.2
Assume that:
- f(x) is defined and single-valued except possibly at a finite number of points in (- L, L)
- f(x) is periodic outside (- L, L) with period 2L
- f(x) and f(x) are piecewise continuous in (- L, L).
then the series (11.1) with coefficients (11.2) and (11.3) converges to
- f(x) is x is a point of continuity
- [f(x + 0) + f(x 0)]/2 if x is a point of discontinuity.
Consider the series
an cos
f(x)= A+
n =1
n x
n x
+ bn sin
L
L
f ( x ) cos
mx
dx = A
L
+
cos
mx
mx
n x
dx + a n cos
cos
dx
L
L
L
n =1
bn cos
n =1
mx
and integrate from L to L
L
mx
n x
sin
dx
L
L
Applying the trigonometric functions product equations, one proves easily that
L
L
L
mx
n x
cos
cos
dx =
L
L
cos
mx
n x
cos
dx =
L
L
kx
dx =
L
cos
mx
n x
sin
dx = 0
L
L
sin
mx
nx
sin
dx = L when m = n
L
L
sin
L
L
sin
L
L
when m n
n x
mx
cos
dx = 0
L
L
L
sin
kx
dx =0
L
if k = 1,2, 3,
We obtain by integration
L
f ( x ) cos
mx
dx = a m L if m 0
L
Thus
1
am =
L
f ( x ) cos
113
mx
dx
L
if m = 1,2,3,
(11.6)
mx
and integrating from L to L proves
L
bm =
1
L
f ( x ) sin
mx
dx
L
if m = 1,2,3,
(11.7)
f ( x )dx = 2 AL
1
A=
2L
f ( x )dx
Put m = 0 in (11.6)
L
1
a0 =
L
f ( x )dx
Hence
a
A= 0
2
(11.8)
2a
p
a0
f(x)=
+ a n cos( 2 nx )
2 n =1
an =
/ 2
/2
2p
sin( 2 na )
n
4 ap
a0 =
an =
f(x)=
2 p
cos( 2 nx ) sin( 2 na )
a+
n
n =1
114
(11.9)
f(x)=
(11.10)
where
A( ) =
B( ) =
f ( u ) cos udu
(11.11)
f ( u ) sin udu
(11.12)
1
f(x)=
f ( u ) cos ( x u )dud
(11.13)
= 0 u =
When f(x) is either an even or an odd function, Fouriers integral theorem simplifies into
f(x)=
f(x)=
(11.14)
(11.15)
where
2
A( ) =
B( ) =
11.4.2
f ( u ) cos udu
(11.16)
f ( u ) sin udu
(11.17)
We demonstrate Fouriers integral theorem by use of the Fourier expansion defined by (11.1).
a
nx
nx
f ( x ) = 0 + a n cos
+ bn sin
2 n = 1
L
L
where
115
1
an =
L
1
L
bn =
f ( u ) cos
n u
du
L
f ( u ) sin
n u
du
L
L
L
L
By substitution
f(x)=
1
2L
f ( u )du +
1
n
f ( u ) cos
( u x )du
L n =1
L
(11.18)
If we assume that f(u)du converges, the first term of the second member of (11.18) approaches zero
when L . Hence
1
n
f ( x ) = lim
f ( u ) cos
( u x )du
L
L L n =1
f(x)=
1
lim f ( u ) cos ( u x )du
0
f ( u ) cos 2 ( u x )du +
1
f ( x ) = lim
0
f
(
u
)
cos
3
(
u
x
)
du
cos n ( u x ) f ( u )du
n =1
lim
cos n = cos da
0 n = 1
1
f ( x ) = lim
0
1
cos n ( u x ) f ( u )du = d
n =1
0
f ( u ) cos ( x u )du
(11.19)
f ( x ) = A( ) cos( x )d
0
A( ) =
p cos( u )du =
2 p sin( a )
2 p cos( x ) sin( a )
f(x)=
d
(11.20)
Definition
The Hankels transform, sometimes called the Fourier-Bessel Integral, is represented by next pair of
integrals
f ( r ) = mJ ( mr )F ( m )dm
(11.21)
F ( m ) = rJ ( mr ) f ( r )dr
(11.22)
as far as . Generally, the transform is applied on the Bessel function J0, often solution of differential
equations in polar or cylinder co-ordinates:
f ( r ) = mJ 0 ( mr )F ( m )dm
(11.23)
F ( m ) = rJ 0 ( mr ) f ( r )dr
(11.24)
The proof of equations (11.21) and (11.22) is given in the specialised literature by the so-called method of
dual integrals. However this method is beyond the scope of this book.
11.5.2 Example
We start with a simple application of the transform, merely given as an example. As we will see in the
applications, the Bessel function of the first kind and of zero order, J0(mr), is solution of many differential
equations expressed in polar or in cylinder co-ordinates. Assume that we want to express a discontinuous
condition on the function f(r) such as:
- for r < a, f(r) = p
- for r > a, f(r) = 0
We apply Hankels transform
f ( r ) = mJ 0 ( mr )F ( m )dm
0
117
F ( m ) = p rJ 0 ( mr )dr + 0 rJ 0 ( mr )dr
J ( ma )
F ( m ) = pa 1
m
f ( r ) = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )dm
(11.25)
Hence, without having formally proven Hankels transform integral, we can nevertheless use the
properties of the transform applying the Weber Schafheitlin integral. We now demonstrate how to apply
it with the example of 11.5.2. Assume that we want to express a discontinuous condition on the function
f(r) such as
- for r < a, f(r) = p
- for r > a, f(r) = 0
using the properties of the Weber Schafheitlin integral.
Assume that the solution can be expressed as follows
J ( ma )
J ( ma )
f ( r ) = C mJ 0 ( mr )
dm
=
C
J
(
mr
)
dm
0
m 1
m
0
0
(11.26)
+ 1
2
r
2
F + 1 , + 1 ;1; r = p
f(r )= C
2
2
a 2
a 1 2 (1) + + 1
2
(11.27)
+ 1
+ 1 + 1
a2
a
2
f(r )= C
F
,
; + 1; = 0 (11.28)
2
2
r + 1 2 ( + 1) + + 1
r 2
2
Equation (11.27) must be equal to p. Hence C = pa and the hypergeometric series must be equal to 1, thus
limited to its first term. This requires the second term between brackets to be zero: - - + 1 = 0.
118
Equation (11.28) must be equal to zero. Hence the gamma function in the denominator left of the
hypergeometric series must be infinite, or the argument of the gamma function must be zero: - + +1 =
0. Hence, we become 2 equations for the determination of and , resulting in: = 0, = 1.
The integral transform of f(r) becomes
f ( r ) = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )dm
(11.29)
which is exactly the same equation as (11.25) obtained by application of Hankels transform.
The reader will realise that many different boundary conditions can be expressed using the presented
method.
119
120
h
E
k, G
dx
Figure 12.1 Beam on an elastic subgrade
The beam is subjected to a distributed load p at its surface, a vertical soil reaction q and a shear at its
bottom. The equilibrium equation of the vertical forces is given by
d 4w
dx
pq
EI
(12.1)
However equation (12.1) contains two unknowns, w and q, hence, in order to be able to solve the
differential equation, we must have more information on the behaviour of the soil. Winkler (1867)
suggested that the subgrade reacts elastically as a layer of vertical springs. He proposed a linear relation
between the vertical reaction q and the deflection w of the beam
q = kw
(12.2)
where the constant k, expressed in N/mm3, is called the modulus of subgrade reaction.
Equation (12.1) transforms into
d 4w
dx
kw
p
=
EI EI
(12.3)
Almost a century later, as recalled by Pronk (1993), Pasternak (1954) suggested that the subgrade could
also react in the horizontal direction. He presented his subgrade model as a two-layer consisting of a shear
layer supported by the classical Winkler layer. The shear layer is characterised by its shear modulus G (in
N/mm) and the Winkler layer by its modulus of reaction k (Figure 12.2). The contact pressure between
beam and shear layer is p1 and between the shear layer and the Winklers subgrade q.
121
E
G
p1
q
Figure 12.2 Plate-Pasternak model
q = kw
By Winklers assumption
Vertical equilibrium in the beam is expressed by
EI 4 w = p p1
The vertical equilibrium in the shear layer can be deduced from Figure 12.3.
p1
dx
T
T + dT/dx
q
Figure 12.3 Vertical equilibrium in Pasternaks shear layer
p1dx qdx +
dT
dx = 0
dx
p1 q =
dT
dx
T is the shear force per unit of width in the shear layer. Pasternak (1954) assumed that the shear force is
proportional with the variation of the deflection (figure 12.4).
T =G
dw
dx
122
dw
T + dT/dx
dx
Figure 12.4 Shear force is proportional to deflection
Hence
dT
d 2w
=G
dx
dx 2
and
p1 = kw G
d 2w
dx 2
Finally, the equilibrium equation for a beam on a Pasternak foundation writes
4 w
G 2
k
p
w+
w=
EI
EI
EI
(12.4)
E
q
123
4w
x 4
kw
=0
EI
(12.5)
We notice that the factor EI/k has the dimensions of a length to the fourth power, hence we set
1
EI 4
l=
k
and call l the elastic length of the structure. Finally, equation (12.5) transforms into
4w
x 4
w
l4
=0
(12.6)
i
i
i
i
m +
m m +
m
=0
l
l
l
l
where i = (-1).
i=
1+i
i =
(12.7)
1i
2
1 + i
1 + i
1 i
1i
m +
m
m +
m
l 2
l 2
l 2
l 2
(12.8)
x
x l 2
x
x
w = e l 2 A cos
+ B sin
+ D sin
+e
C cos
l 2
l 2
l 2
l 2
(12.9)
In order to determine the integration constants A, B, C and D we write down the boundary conditions:
- (1)
for x = , w = 0
- (2)
for x = 0, w is maximum, hence dw/dx = 0
- (3)
for x = 0, T = -P/2.
Condition (1) requires splitting equation (12.9) into two parts. The first part (equation 12.10) is valid on
the left side of the beam, for negative values of x
x
x
x
wL = e l 2 A cos
+ B sin
l 2
L 2
(12.10)
The second part (equation 12.11) is valid on the right side of the beam, for positive values of x
x
x
wR = e l 2 C cos
+ D sin
l 2
l 2
124
(12.11)
(4)
for x = 0, wL = wR
A = B = C = D =
Pl 3 2 P 2
=
4 EI
4 kl
wL =
P 2 x/l 2
x
x
e
cos
sin
4 kl
l 2
l 2
(12.12)
wR =
P 2 x / l 2
x
x
e
cos
+ sin
4 kl
l 2
l 2
(12.13)
wx = 0 =
P 2
4 kl
(12.14)
wx = 0 =
2 pa a / l 2
a
e
sin
l 2
kl 2
(12.15)
4 w
x
+2
4w
2
x x
4w
y
q
D
(12.16)
Here also, equation (12.16) contains only the negative term -q because there is no distributed load applied
on top of the beam. Because of the axial symmetry, transform (12.16) in polar co-ordinates
d 2 1 d d 2 w 1 dw kw
+
=0
+
+
dr 2 r dr dr 2 r dr D
(12.17)
Because of the axial symmetry the terms in / vanish. The solution is obtained by splitting (12.17) into
two simultaneous differential equations
d 2w
dr 2
1 dw
=z
r dr
125
d 2z
dr 2
1 dz
= w
r dr
Both equations are together verified if z = iw. Hence the solution of (12.17) is given by the solution of
(12.18)
d 2w
dr 2
1 dw
( i )w = 0
r dr
(12.18)
(12.19)
( r / 2l )2 1
dkei( r / l )
2( r / 2l )
=
[log( r / 2l ) + ]
dr
r 0
1!1!2l
2 rl
1!1!
4( r / 2l )3 2( r / 2l )
= 0
+
4
1!1!2l
1!1!2l
lim
(12.21)
Hence, boundary condition (3) is satisfied. The constant d is determined by the fourth boundary condition
T = D
d d 2 w 1 dw
P
+
=
dr dr 2 r dr
2
( r / 2l )4
2!2!
( r / 2l )2
bei( r / l ) =
1!1!
ber( r / l ) = 1
Hence
d d 2 w 1 dw
1
+
=
dr dr 2 r dr
rl 2
126
ber( r / l )
4
T =
For r =
P
D
=d
2
l 2
d =
P l2
2 D
P l
w = bei( r / l )[log( r / 2l ) + ] ber( r / l )
4
2 D
(12.22)
w=
Pl 2
8D
(12.23)
The deflection in the axis of the load a slab subjected to a distributed load could be obtained by
integrating equation (12.21). However this is hard work. As will be shown in chapter 14, the solution can
be obtained in a simpler and more general way using Fouriers transform developed in chapter 11.
Observe that only three boundary conditions were required to determine the boundary constants:
conditions (1), (2), and (4). However the equilibrium equation (12.17) is a differential equation of the
fourth order and thus requires 4 boundary conditions to be met. Interesting is that the fourth boundary
condition, condition (3), although not necessary for the determination of the unknown boundary
constants, is essential for identifying that solution (12.19) is the appropriate solution of the problem.
127
128
Chapter 13
c
2a
p
G
k
d 4w
dx 4
G d 2 w kw
p
+
=
EI dx 2 EI EI
(13.1)
A particular solution of equation (13.1) allows to express the load as a pressure p uniformly distributed
over a width 2a. From this point on we shall express the loads by means of the appropriate integral
transform. In the case of a beam, we will use Fouriers integral (11.10) and more specific the integral
(11.20). By using this method, differential equation (13.1) is the unique equation to solve in the case of a
beam of infinite length. Indeed the distances c and d from the axis of the load to the edges of the beam are
large enough so that the end effects can be neglected. For shorter beams, supplementary differential
equations are necessary in order to express the boundary conditions of each specific case. The differential
equation necessary to express the boundary conditions of the beam itself is the homogeneous equation
corresponding to (13.1)
d 4w
G d 2 w kw
+
=0
dx 4 EI dx 2 EI
(13.2)
Making use of complementary solutions of the homogeneous equation does not affect the state of loading
and do not alter the physics of the problem. The differential equations that are required to express the
boundary conditions outside the beam are of two kinds. Either the beam has free edges at the end. The
differential equation then reflects a soil subjected to horizontal shear forces. Formula (13.1) can be
rewritten as follows
EI
d 4w
dx 4
d 2w
dx 2
+ kw = p
129
(13.3)
d 2w
dx 2
+ kw = 0
(13.4)
In the second case, the beam has a joint separating it from the adjacent beam. The required differential
equation can again be deduced from equation (13.1). There is no load, hence p = 0, and the equation
d 4w
dx 4
G d 2 w kw
+
=0
EI dx 2 EI
(13.5)
is again the homogeneous equation: this time applicable to the unloaded neighbouring beams. We recall
that moments and shear forces can be deduced from the equations for the deflections by next equations:
- moment in the beam
d 2w
M = EI
-
T = EI
-
(13.6)
dx 2
d 3w
(13.7)
dx 3
T =G
dw
dx
(13.8)
d 4w
dx
2g d 2 w
l
dx
1
l
w=
p
EI
(13.9)
2 p cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
p=
dt = p
t
for x < a
(13.10)
2 p cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
dt = 0
t
for x > a
(13.11)
p=
In order to satisfy the equilibrium equation the deflection w must be express similarly
2p
cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
dt
w=
A( t )
(13.12)
where A(t) is a function of the integration variable. Introducing equation s(13.10) and (13.12) into (13.9)
yields
130
2 p cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
w=
dt
k t t 4 + 2 gt 2 + 1
0
(13.13)
The explicit solution of equation (13.13) depends on the value of g. It is obtained by a reduction of the
degree of the denominator from 4 to 2 followed by an application of the integrals in the complex plane
equations (9.15) and (9.16).
-
For g < 1
w=
where =
p
k
1+ g
2
cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
dt
t t 2 + ( a i )2 dt
2 t t 2 + ( + i ) 2
1 g 0
0
1 g
2
(13.14)
2 2
g
=
2
1 g2
( x + a )
p
( x + a )
( x + a )
w=
cos
sin
e l
2k
l
l
( x a )
e l
cos
( x a )
( x a )
sin
l
l
p
( a x )
( a x )
l
w=
cos
+ sin
2 e
2k
l
l
( a + x )
( a + x )
( a + x )
l
e
+ sin
cos
l
l
(13.15)
(13.16)
For x > a
( x a )
p
( x a )
( x a )
l
+
sin
w=
cos
2k
l
l
( a + x )
( a + x )
( a + x )
l
e
+
sin
cos
l
l
131
(13.17)
For g > 1
w=
p
4k
cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
cos( xt / l ) sin( at / l )
dt
dt
2
2
2
2
t t +
t
t
+
a
g 2 1 0
0
g + g2 1
where =
(13.18)
= g g2 1
For x < -a
( xa )
( x + a )
( x a )
( x+a )
e l
e l
e l
p
e l
w=
2
2
4k g 2 1
l
l
l
e
e l
p
2e
2e
w=
2
2
2
4k g 1
(13.20)
For x > a
( x+a )
( x a )
( x + a )
( xa )
e
l
l
l
l
e
e
p
e
w=
2
2
4k g 2 1
(13.19)
(13.21)
For g = 1
For x < -a
xa
x+a
p l
x+a
x a
l
w=
e
2
e
2
4k
l
l
(13.22)
a x l
a + x
p
l
w=
4e
2 +
e
2 +
4k
l
l
(13.23)
a+x
xa
p l
xa l
a + x
w=
e
2 +
e
2 +
4k
l
l
(13.24)
For x > a
132
13.2.2 Application
Consider the infinite beam given in Figure 13.2.
2a = 200
h = 200 E= 20000
G
k = 0,1
y
Figure 13.2 Infinite beam on a Pasternak foundation
For different values of G, deflections, moments and shear forces in the beam and in the shear layer are
listed in Table 13.1. One will note the positive influence of an increasing shear resistance of the soil.
G
10000
50000
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.17
37923
0
0
1.09
35303
0
0
0.90
28621
0
0
0.90
6848
-47
0
0.85
5781
-42
-8
0.71
3230
-30
-28
0.48
-6959
-12
0
0.47
-6271
-10
-7
0.44
-4425
-5
-25
Table 13.1 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of infinite length.
Solution #1
Consider the beam with one edge as presented in Figure 13.3. In order to reduce the amount of
mathematics, we will consider a beam with only one free edge and of infinite length in the other direction
which solution requires only 2 or 3 boundary equations. The mathematics for a beam with two edges are
exactly the same but the number of boundary equations is double.
With the first boundary condition we will demonstrate that the moment in the beam and at the edge must
be zero; all authors even in the presence of dowels or other transfer devices accept this condition. Hence,
M(x=c) = 0. If the edge is free, the shear force in the beam and at the edge should also be zero, which is
true in the case of a Winkler foundation. In the case of a Pasternak foundation the shear force in the beam
should be zero but all together the shear force in the shear layer should be continuous from the inside to
133
the outside of the beam. However, the differential equation of equilibrium (13.2) is of the fourth order:
hence we can only express a total of 4 boundary conditions with two edges, and thus only a total of 2
boundary conditions with only one edge. Hence we have only 1 equation left to express the shear
conditions at the edge of the beam.
c
2a
h, E
G
k
d 4w
dx 4
2g d 2w
l 2 dx 2
1
l4
w=0
(13.25)
d 2w
dx 2
+ kw = 0
(13.26)
Again the explicit equations for the complementary solutions depend on the value of g. The parameters
and are the same as in 13.2.
-
For g < 1
x
x
w A = e l cos
p l
x
wA =
e cos
2k
l
(13.27)
Indeed, multiplying the solution of a differential equation by a constant does not affect the result.
x
p l
x
wB =
e sin
2k
l
-
For g= 1
134
(13.28)
p l
wA =
e
2k
(13.29)
p
wB =
xe l
2k
-
(13.30)
For g > 1
x
p l
wA =
e
2k
(13.31)
p l
wB =
e
2k
(13.32)
The reader will have noted that we now have a solution comprising of two terms with a positive exponent.
The reason is that we have located the edge on the positive side of the x-axis. Hence the values of the
functions wA and wB will be smaller for all the values of x < c so that in the numerical computation
overflow problems are automatically avoided. The solution of (13.26) is
wc = e
k
G
=e
x 1
l 2g
(13.33)
For the complementary solution outside of the beam, we have chosen the negative exponent, because the
function must vanish for x . The moment cancels by writing for x = c
d2
w + Aw A + BwB = 0
2
dx
(13.34)
d 3 2g d
d
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = C [wc ]
3 2
dx
l dx
dx
(13.35)
The system consists of two equations with 3 unknowns. To solve we need one more equation. Usually
one chooses an equation expressing the deflections outside are a fraction of the deflections on the slab
side
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC
(13.36)
where 0 1. The solution of the problem consists now of a system of 3 equations, (13.34), (13.35)
and (13.36), and 3 unknowns.
13.3.2 Application
Consider the finite beam as presented in Figure 13.4.
Table 13.2 gives the response of the deflections, moments and shear forces in the beam and in the shear
layer are given for different values of G and a deflection ratio of 0 %. Table 13.3 for a deflection ratio of
50 % and Table 13.4 for a deflection ratio of 100 %.
135
1000
200
p
h = 200
E = 20000
G
k = 0.1
Figure 13.4 Example of a half-infinite beam with free edge on a Pasternak foundation
G
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
w
1.23
1.01
0.57
M
37767
9005
0
0
T-beam
3
-40
0
T-subgrade
0
0
0
w
1.17
1.01
0.69
M
33848
6159
0
10000
T-beam
1
-35
7
T-subgrade
1
-7
-7
w
1.00
0.91
0.76
M
26304
2115
0
50000
T-beam
-1
-29
8
T-subgrade
8
-15
-8
Table 13.2 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moment in beam is zero
at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer inside are equal with the shear forces in shear layer
outside. Deflection ratio is 0 %.
G
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
w
1.23
1.01
0.57
M
37767
9005
0
0
T-beam
3
-40
0
T-subgrade
0
0
0
w
1.17
0.99
0.65
M
34162
6501
0
10000
T-beam
1
-36
6
T-subgrade
1
-7
-8
w
0.95
0.80
0.56
M
27728
3722
0
50000
T-beam
0
-28
4
T-subgrade
4
-21
-18
Table 13.3 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moment in beam is zero
at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer inside are equal with the shear forces in shear layer
outside. Deflection ratio is 50 %.
136
10000
50000
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.23
37767
3
0
1.16
34446
2
1
0.92
28562
1
2
1.01
9005
-40
0
0.97
6811
-35
-7
0.74
4663
-28
-25
0.57
0
0
0
0.62
0
5
-8
0.44
0
2
-26
Table 13.4 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moment in beam is zero
at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer inside are equal with the shear forces in shear layer
outside. Deflection ratio is 100 %.
Note that the variation in the results due to the variation of the G-values is significantly more dominant
than the variation due to the deflection ratios. Also see that, however different from zero, the shear forces
in the beam at the edges of the beam are very low.
13.3.3 Solution #2
Several authors are convinced that it is very difficult, if not impossible, to measure the deflection of the
subgrade outside the beam, and thus a fortiori the ratio between the subgrade deflection outside the beam
and the deflection on top of the beam at the edge. We have further shown that a variation of the deflection
ratio had no great influence on the results. Hence a solution has been searched for in order to avoid the
use equation of (13.36). An option is to assume that the sum of the shear force at the edge of the beam
and the shear force in the shear layer is equal to the shear force in the shear layer under an infinite beam.
In that case equation (13.35) writes
d 3 2g d
2g d
[w]
3 2
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 2
dx
dx
dx
l
l
(13.37)
Hence the system is reduced to the 2 equations (13.34) and (13.37) with 2 unknowns. In fact the system
ignores what happens outside of the beam and refers to what it can support under the influence of an
infinite beam
13.3.4 Application
Again, we consider Figure 13.2, but this time we apply the solutions (13.34) and (13.37). Deflections,
moments and shear forces in the beam and in the shear layer are given for different values of G are listed
in Table 13.5.
137
10000
50000
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.23
37767
3
0
1.15
35403
2
1
0.90
28940
1
1
1.01
9005
-40
0
0.93
7853
-36
-7
0.71
5090
-28
-27
0.57
0
0
0
0.52
0
1
-8
0.39
0
1
-26
Table 13.5 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moment in beam is zero
at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer inside are equal with the shear forces in shear layer
for a beam of infinite length.
Note that the results do not differ very much with those of the previous tables. Hence we advocate the use
of the method presented in this paragraph, simply because it is more easier. The results are strictly the
same in the four tables for G = 0. This is in fact the Winkler case where no shear transfer is possible
through the subgrade and where the deflection is by hypothesis zero. It is evident that the results must be
the same
G
k
q
y
Figure 13.5 Half-infinite beam on a Pasternak foundation
We prefer this configuration in order to simplify the mathematical expressions. The solution for the
loaded beam is given by of equation (13.13), which expresses the load and the two solutions wA and wB
with positive exponents in x of the homogeneous differential equation (13.2).
138
The solution for the unloaded beam is given by solutions wC and wD with negative exponents in x of the
homogeneous differential equation (13.2). Those solutions depend again on the value of g.
-
For g < 1
x
p l
x
wC =
e
cos
2k
l
(13.38)
p l
x
wD =
e
sin
2k
l
-
(13.39)
For g = 1
x
p l
wC =
e
2k
(13.40)
x
p l
wD =
xe
2k
(13.41)
- For g > 1
x
p l
wC =
e
(13.42)
2k
p l
e
wD =
2k
(13.43)
d2
w + Aw A + BwB = 0
dx 2
(13.45)
d2
CwC + DwD = 0
2
dx
(13.46)
d 3 2g d
d 3 2g d
[
w
+
Aw
+
Bw
]
=
3 2
[CwC + DwD ]
A
B
l 2 dx
l dx
dx
dx
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC + DwD
(13.47)
(13.48)
The solution now consists of a solvable system of four equations (13.45), (13.46), (13.47) and (13.48) and
four unknowns.
139
13.4.2
Application
Consider the same application as in Figure , but this time with a joint instead of an edge. Deflections,
moments and shear forces in the beam and in the shear layer are given for different values of G in Table
13.6, Table 13.7 and Table 13.8 respectively for deflection ratios of 0, 50 % and 100 %.
10000
50000
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.23
37767
3
0
1.17
33848
1
1
1.00
26304
-1
8
1.01
9005
-40
0
1.01
6159
-35
-7
0.91
2115
-29
-15
0.57
0
0
0
0.69
0
7
-7
0.76
0
8
-8
Table 13.6 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moments in beams are
zero at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer are equal in both beams; Deflection ratio is 0%.
10000
50000
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.21
39758
4
0
1.13
36277
3
1
0.93
28181
0
3
0.92
11149
-41
0
0.88
8807
.37
-7
0.77
4233
-28
.24
0.38
0
-8
0
0.43
0
.3
-8
0.50
0
3
-21
Table 13.7 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moments in beams are
zero at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer are equal in both beams; Deflection ratio is
50%.
140
10000
50000
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
W
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.20
40754
5
0
1.11
37384
4
1
0.90
29095
1
1
0.87
12221
-42
0
0.82
10013
-38
-7
0.70
5266
-28
-28
0.29
0
-12
0
0.31
0
-7
-8
0.37
0
1
-27
Table 13.8 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moments in beams are
zero at the edge; Shear forces in beam and shear layer are equal in both beams; Deflection ratio is
100%.
It is evident that for the beam with a joint, the deflection ratio is meaning full especially near the joint.
Also, the ratio between the deflections on top on two beams can easily be measured with a good accuracy.
However, as in the previous case, a simpler method is also given.
13.4.3 Solution# 2
Similar to the case of a beam with a free edge, an easier method can be derived. It is clear that the ratio
between the deflections depends on the amount of shear force transferred through the joint (for example
by means of the dowels or aggregate interlock). In 13.4.5 we demonstrate for a slab on a Winkler
foundation there is an equation between the amount of transferred shear Q and the ratio between the
deflections:
Q=
2
T = T
1+
(13.49)
for x = c
d2
w + Aw A + BwB = 0
2
dx
141
(13.50)
d 3 2g d
d 3 w 2 g dw
[
w
+
Aw
+
Bw
]
=
.
3
A
B
l 2 dx
dx 3 l 2 dx
dx
(13.51)
When = 0, we have a free edge behaviour, with only shear transfer in the shear layer. When = 1, we
have the case of f full shear transfer.
13.4.4
Application
Consider Figure13.4, but this time with a joint instead of an edge. Deflections, moments and shear forces
in the beam and in the shear layer are listed for different values of G in Table 13.9 to Table 13.11. The
shear transfer is varied between 0, 67 and 100%. The shear transfer of 67 % corresponds with a deflection
ratio of 50 %.
G
10000
50000
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.23
37767
3
0
1.17
33848
1
1
1.00
26304
-1
8
1.01
9005
-40
0
1.01
6159
-35
-7
0.91
2115
-29
-15
0.57
0
0
0
0.69
0
7
-7
0.76
0
8
-8
Table 13.9 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moments in beams are
zero at the joint; Shear transfer at the joint is 0%.
G
10000
50000
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.21
39768
4
0
1.12
36882
3
1
0.89
29283
1
0
0.92
11160
-41
0
0.85
9466
.37
-7
0.68
5478
-27
-29
0.38
0
-8
0
0.37
0
-5
-8
0.34
0
3
-29
Table 13.10 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moments in beams are
zero at the joint; Shear transfer at the joint is 67%.
142
10000
50000
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
w
M
T-beam
T-subgrade
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
1.20
40754
5
0
1.11
37611
4
1
0.88
29453
2
0
0.87
12221
-42
0
0.81
10261
-38
-7
0.67
5699
-27
-30
0.29
0
-12
0
0.29
0
-8
-9
0.32
0
0
-30
13.11 Deflections, moments and shear forces in a beam of finite length; Moments in beams are zero at
the joint; Shear transfer is 100%
13.4.5 Proof that, in de case of a Winkler foundation, at a joint Q = T
For x = c, let d - a =(c - a) /(l2). Consider equation (13.16) and its successive derivatives.
w = e ( d a ) cos( d a ) e ( d + a ) cos( d + a )
M = e ( d a ) sin( d a ) e ( d + a ) sin( d + a )
T = e ( d a ) [cos( d a ) sin( d a )] e ( d + a ) [cos( d + a ) sin( d + a )]
Ignore the stiffness EI and the powers of l2 in the denominators of M and T, which, anyhow, simplify in
the expressions of the boundary conditions. Hence, we may write T = w M. Let
A = Ae d
B = Be d
C = e d
D = De d
T M w
cos d
1+
T M w
B = M cos d +
sin d
1+
A = M sin d +
Hence
and the relationship has been proven (Van Cauwelaert and Stet, 1998).
143
144
G
k
q
Figure 14.1 Circular slab on a Pasternak foundation
Naturally circular slabs are rare in pavements. In fact only the case of a slab of infinite extent is of
interest to us because it can be solved in polar co-ordinates, thus with only one variable; the radial
distance r. To conserve this advantage in the case of limited slabs, we will only consider in this chapter
the case of slabs with axial symmetry: the load is applied in the centre of the slab. The equilibrium's
equation for an axial-symmetrical load case on a Pasternak foundation is given by
2 1 2 w 1 w G 2 w 1 w kw p
=
2+
2 +
2 +
+
r
r
r
r
D
r
r
D
D
r
r
r
(14.1)
where p is the pressure uniformly distributed over a circular area with radius a, r is the distance to the origin
of the cylindrical co-ordinates, D = Eh3/12(1-2) is the stiffness of the slab, E is Young's modulus, is
Poisson's ratio, G is Pasternaks shear modulus, k is the subgrade reaction modulus and h is the thickness of
the slab. In the case of a circular slab, we will use Hankels integral and in particular the integral (11.23)
developed in 11.5. For finite slabs, supplementary differential equations will be necessary in order to
express the boundary conditions of each specific case. The differential equation necessary to express the
boundary conditions of the slab itself is the homogeneous equation corresponding to (14.1)
2 1 2 w 1 w G 2 w 1 w kw
=0
+
+
2+
+
r r r 2 r r D r 2 r r D
r
(14.2)
The differential equations that are required to express the boundary conditions outside the slab are of two
types. The first type considers a slab terminated by a free edge. The differential equation then reflects a
soil subjected to horizontal shear forces. It can be deduced from (14.1)
2 w 1 w
G
+
+ kw = 0
2 r r
r
145
(14.3)
The second type is where the slab is separated by a joint with a circumcircular slab. The required
differential equation again can be deduced from equation (14.1).
2 1 2 w 1 w G 2 w 1 w kw
+
+
=0
2+
+
r r r 2 r r D r 2 r r D
r
(14.4)
which is again the homogeneous equation this time applicable to the unloaded adjacent slab. We recall
that moments and shear forces can be deduced from the equations for the deflections by next equations
- radial moment in the slab
d 2w
1 dw
M r = D
+
2
r dr
dr
(14.5)
d 2 w 1 dw
M t = D
+
2
r dr
dr
(14.6)
d d 2 w 1 dw
Tr = D
+
dr dr 2 r dr
(14.7)
Tt = D
-
1 d
r d
d 2 w 1 dw
=0
2 +
r dr
dr
T =G
-
(14.8)
dw
dr
(14.9)
T =G
1 dw
=0
r d
(14.10)
2 1 2 w 1 w 2 g
+
2+
r r r 2 r r l 2
r
2 w 1 w w p
2+
+ =
r r l 4 D
r
(14.11)
pa
p=
J 0 ( tr / l )J 1 ( ta / l )dt = p
l 0
pa
p=
J 0 ( tr / l )J 1( ta / l )dt = 0
l
for r < a
(14.12)
for r > a
(14.13)
In order to satisfy the equilibrium equation the deflection w must be expressed in a similar manner.
146
2p
w=
A( t )J 0 ( tr / l )J 1 ( ta / l )dt
(14.14)
where A(t) is a function of the integration variable. Introducing (14.12) and (14.14) into (14.11) derives
pa
w=
lk
J 0 ( tr / l )J 1 ( ta / l )
(t 4 + 2 gt 2 + 1)
dt
(14.15)
The explicit solution of equation (14.15) could be obtained through the methods developed in Chapter 9.
However for values of g < 1, the solution contains complex variables which are extremely difficult to
express as real expressions. Hence we will compute (14.15) numerically.
14.2.2 Application 1
P
pa
1 ta
P
J 1 ( ta / l ) = P lim
=
t
a 0 l
a 0 al 2l
2l 2
lim
w=
tJ 0 ( rt / l )
dt
4
t
+
1
0
2l 2 k
w=
dt
2l 2 k t 4 + 1
0
Let t2 = tg
w=
d =
4l 2 k (tg 2 + 1)cos 2
8l 2 k
0
147
(14.16)
14.2.3 Application 2
We consider the infinite slab given in Figure 14.3. The response expressed in deflections, radial moments
and stresses for different values of G are given in Table 14.1.
2a = 200
p=1
r
h = 200
E = 20000
k = 0.1
G
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
10000
50000
r=0
r = 250
r = 500
0.0920
9335
1.40
1.40
0.0856
9017
1.35
1.35
0.0679
8078
1.21
1.21
0.0836
3570
0.54
0.70
0.0776
3313
0.50
0.66
0.0609
2582
0.39
0.54
0.0683
1269
0.19
0.35
0.0631
1111
0.17
0.33
0.0491
691
0.10
0.24
148
R
2a
p
h
G
k
q
Figure 14.4 Finite circular slab on a Pasternak foundation
Mathematically we need 2 complementary solutions, wA and wB, of the homogeneous equilibrium equation
2 1 2 w 1 w 2 g
2+
2 +
2
r
r
r
r
r
2 w 1 w w
2+
+ 4 =0
r
(14.17)
d 2w
dx 2
+ kw = 0
(14.18)
We assume that the solution of (14.17) is of the same type as the solution of equation (12.17) for a slab
subjected to an isolated load: a modified Bessel function of the first kind. Hence we consider that the
Laplacian in polar co-ordinates is an operator with next property
d2 1 d
2
f ( tr ) = t f ( tr )
2 +
r dr
dr
Hence we can consider equation (4.17) as a characteristic equation (1.4.2) which roots will give us the
argument of the modified Bessel functions.
D4
2g
l2
D2 +
1
l4
=0
1 g
1+ g
+i
2
2
1+ g
1 g
D2 = g + i 1 g 2 =
i
2
2
D1 = g + i 1 g 2 =
(14.19)
(14.20)
Aw A + BwB =
pa
r ( + i
r ( i
AI 0
+ BI 0
lk
l
l
that we transform in
149
(14.21)
pa A r( i
r ( + i
I0
+ I0
lk 2
l
l
pa B r( i
r ( + i
I0
+
I0
l
l
lk 2i
and further in
2k
pa (r /( 2l ))2 k k
A
( 1 ) n C 2 k 2 n 2 n +
lk 0
k ! k ! n = 0
2n
2k
pa (r /( 2l ))2 k k 1
B
( 1 )n C 2 k ( 2 n + 1 ) 2 n + 1
lk 0
k ! k ! n = 1
2n + 1
where =
-
1+ g
2
1 g
2
For g = 1
D1,2 = 1
Aw A + BwB =
-
(14.22)
pa
r
AI 0 ( r / l ) + B I 1 ( r / l )
lk
l
(14.23)
(14.24)
For g >1
D1 = g + g 2 1
(14.25)
D2 = g g 2 1
(14.26)
pa
[AI 0 ( r / l ) + BI 0 ( r / l ]
lk
Aw A + BwB =
where =
g + g2 1
(14.27)
= g g2 1
Equation (14.17) has 4 solutions. We have chosen the 2 Bessel functions of the first kind because their
values at the origin are finite: I0(0) = 1, I1(0) = 0. For the third boundary equation (14.18), which has 2
solutions, we shall take the Bessel function of the second kind because its asymptotic value tends to zero.
wC = K 0
l 2g
(14.28)
We write the boundary conditions. The deflection outside is a fraction of the deflection inside:
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC
(14.29)
d 2w
1 dw
[w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 0
+u
dr 2
r dr
(14.30)
The sum of the shear force in the slab and the shear force in the subgrade at the slab side is equal to the
shear force in the subgrade outside:
d d 2 1 d 2g d
2 g dwC
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
+
C
2
2
2
r dr l dr
dr
dr dr
l
150
(14.31)
14.3.2 Solution #2
As explained in 0, we consider in the second solution that the sum of the shear force in the slab and the
shear force in the subgrade is equal with the shear force in the subgrade in the case of a slab of infinite
extent. The boundary conditions are
d 2w
1 dw
+u
[w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 0
dr 2
r dr
d d 2 1 d 2g d
2 g dw
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
+
dr dr 2 r dr l 2 dr
l 2 dr
(14.32)
(14.33)
E = 20000
G
k = 0.1
Figure 14.5 Example of a slab of finite extent on a Pasternak foundation
Deflections, radial moments and stresses are given for different values of G in Table 14.2.
G
0
10000
50000
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
r=0
0.4072
6323
0.95
0.95
0.3830
6358
0.95
0.95
0.3110
6354
0.95
0.95
r = 250
0.4022
990
0.15
0.30
0.3780
1035
0.16
0.30
0.3060
1106
0.17
0.31
r = 500
0.3958
0
0
0.09
0.3715
0
0
0.09
0.2993
0
0
0.10
Table 14.2 Deflections, moments and stresses in a slab of finite extent; Moment in slab is zero at the
edge; Shear force in slab and shear force in subgrade are equal with shear force; in subgrade for a
slab of infinite extent
151
Solution #1
The solution for the loaded slab is given by equation (14.14), which expresses the load and the two
solutions wA and wB of the homogeneous differential equation (14.17). The solutions for the unloaded slab
are the two other solutions of (14.17), wC and wD, which are the expressions for wA and wB wherein the
Bessel functions I of the first kind are replaced by Bessel functions K of the second kind. We write the
boundary conditions:
The deflection outside is a fraction of the deflection inside
(14.34)
The radial moment at the loaded slab side of the joint is zero
d 2w
1 dw
+u
[w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 0
dr 2
r
dr
(14.35)
The radial moment at the unloaded slab side of the joint is zero
d 2w
1 dw
+u
[CwC + Dw D ] = 0
dr 2
r
dr
(14.36)
The sum of the shear force in the slab and the shear force in the subgrade at the loaded slab side is equal
with the sum of the shear force in the slab and the shear force in the subgrade at the unloaded slab side
d d 2 1 d 2g d
d d 2 1 d 2g d
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
[CwC + DwD ]
+
+
dr dr 2 r dr l 2 dr
dr dr 2 r dr l 2 dr
(14.37)
14.4.2 Solution #2.
To reduce the number of boundary equations to two, we suggest to express the shear force in the loaded
slab as a fraction of the shear force in the slab of infinite extent. The resulting boundary conditions are:
The radial moment at the loaded slab side of the joint is zero
d 2w
1 dw
+u
[w + Aw A + Bw B ] = 0
dr 2
r
dr
(14.38)
The shear force in the loaded slab is a fraction of the shear force in the slab of infinite extent
d d 2 1 d 2g d
d d 2 1 d 2g d
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
w
+
+
2
2
2
r dr l dr
dr dr
r dr l 2 dr
dr dr
where 0 1.
152
(14.39)
R = 500
2a = 200
p=1
r
h = 200
E = 20000
G
k = 0.1
Figure 14.6 Example of a slab of finite extent on a Pasternak foundation
Deflections, radial moments and stresses are given for different values of G and for different percentages
of shear transfer are listed in Table 14.3 to Table 14.5.
10000
50000
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
r=0
r = 250
r = 500
0.4072
6323
0.95
0.95
0.3830
6358
0.95
0.95
0.3110
6354
0.95
0.95
0.4022
990
0.15
0.30
0.3780
1035
0.16
0.30
0.3060
1106
0.17
0.31
0.3958
0
0
0.09
0.3715
0
0
0.09
0.2993
0
0
0.10
Table 14.3 Deflections, moments and stresses in a slab of finite extent; Moment in slab is zero at the
edge. Shear transfer at the joint is 0 %
153
10000
50000
w
M
s radial
s tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
r=0
r = 250
r = 500
0.1940
7496
1.12
1.12
0.1821
7429
1.11
1.11
0.1472
7130
1.07
1.07
0.1878
1871
0.28
0.44
0.1759
1842
0.28
0.44
0.1413
1695
0.25
0.41
0.1783
0
0
0.14
0.1666
0
0
0.14
0.1326
0
0
0.13
Table 14.4 Deflections, moments and stresses in a slab of finite extent; Moment in slab is zero at the
edge. Shear transfer at the joint is 67 %
10000
50000
r=0
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
w
M
radial
tangential
r = 250
0.0890
8073
1.21
1.21
0.0831
7957
1.19
1.19
0.0665
7512
1.13
1.13
0.0821
2305
0.35
0.51
0.0763
2239
0.34
0.50
0.0602
1986
0.30
0.46
r = 500
0.0712
0
0
0.16
0.0656
0
0
0.16
0.0505
0
0
0.15
Table 14.5 Deflections, moments and stresses in a slab of finite extent; Moment in slab is zero at the
edge. Shear transfer at the joint is 100 %
154
c
2a
p
G
k
2 w 2 w kw p
=
+
2 +
y 2 D D
x
(15.1)
(15.2)
2
2
2
2 w + w - G
2+
y 2 x 2 y 2 D
x
p=
4p
2
00
where a and b are respectively the length and the width of a rectangular load with a uniformly distributed
pressure p. The centre of gravity of the load is located in x = 0 and y = 0. The elastic length is l = [Eh3/12(12)k]1/4. A similar equation must express the deflection
w = C(s,t)
oo
(15.3)
C(s,t) =
4p
l4
2 D t 4 + 2 t 2 s 2 + 2 gt 2 + 2g s 2 + s 4 + 1
(15.4)
155
2
2 2
4
2
2
2
2
2
t 4 + 2t s + 2 gt + 2 gs + s + 1 = (t + z1 )(t + z 2 )
(15.5)
where
- with g > 1
2
z1= s 2 + g + g - 1
z2= s
C(s,t) =
-
with g < 1
2+ g -
g -1
1
1
2 2 - 2 2
g 2 - 1 t + z 2 t + z 1
1
2p
2k
(15.6)
z 1 = + i
z 2 = - i
1
2
2
2 = ( s 2 + g ) + 1 - g + ( s 2 + g)
2
1
2 = ( s 2 + g )2 + 1 - g 2 - ( s 2 + g)
2
1
2p
i
1
C(s,t) =
2 k 1 - g 2 t 2 + z 12 t 2 + z 22
(15.7)
(15.8)
(15.9)
cos(tx/l) sin(ta/l)
(ax )1/2
t( t 2 + z 2 ) dt = 2 zl I 1/2 (az/l) K -1/2 (xz/l)
o
(15.10)
- with x < a
and making use of the trigonometric identity
cos(tx/l)sin(ta/l) = sin[t(x+a)/l] - sin(tx/l)cos(ta/l)
sin(at/l)
(15.11)
sin(tx/l) cos(ta/l)
(ax )1/2
dt
=
I 1/2 (xz/l) K - 1/2 (az/l)
t( t 2 + z 2 )
2 zl
o
(15.12)
Knowing that
I 1/2 (z) =
1
e z - e- z
2z
-z
e
2z
156
with x > a
p
w=
2k
-e
-
z 22
g2 -1 o
(15.13)
- (x - a) z 1 /l - - (x + a) z 1 /l
cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
ds
z 12
with < a
w=
- (x - a) z 2 /l
- - (x + a) z 2 /l
p
2k
2-e
g 2 - 1 o
2 - e -(a - x) z 2 /l - e -(a + x) z 2 /l
z 22
z 12
(15.14)
ds
with g < 1 and making use of the complex equation e(i)z = cos(z) i sin (z)
-
with x > a
w=
p
k
cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
2 s(s 4 + 2gs 2 + 1)
1- g o
- (x - a)/l
1 - g 2 cos [(x - a) /l] + (s 2 + g) sin [(x - a) /l]
e
(15.15)
with x < a
p
w=
k
cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
s(s 4 + 2s 2 g + 1)
1- g
- (x + a)/l
e
2
2
1 - g cos [(x + a) /l] + (s + g) sin [(x + a) /l] ds
1- g2
(15.16)
p
w=
2k
2 +
cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
- 2 + 1 + s 2 (x + a)/l e -(x + a)z/l
ds
s(s 2 + 1 )2
-
with x < a
157
(15.17)
p
w=
2k
4 - 2 +
cos(sy/l) sin(sb/l)
- 2 + 1 + s 2 (x + a)/l e - (x + a)z/l
ds
s(s 2 + 1 )2
(15.18)
M xy 3 w
3w
=
V x = Tx
+
(
2
)
y x 3
xy 2
M yx 3 w
3w
=
V y = T y +
+
(
2
)
x y 3
x 2 y
(15.19)
(15.20)
Solution #1
First we consider the case where the sum of the shear forces in slab and subgrade is equal to the shear
force in the subgrade outside the slab. We also limit the problem to that of a slab with only one edge.
Mathematically we need 2 complementary solutions, wA and wB, of the homogeneous equilibrium
equation
2
2
2
2 w + w - G
2+
y 2 x 2 y 2 D
x
(15.21)
with g > 1
w A, B =
-
2 w 2 w kw
=0
2 +
+
y 2 D
x
p
2k
[A( s )e
1
2
g 1 0
z1 x / l
+ B( s )e z 2 x / l
]cos( sy / l )ssin( sb / l ) ds
(15.22)
with g = 1
p
x
cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
w A, B =
A( s )e xz / l + B( s )e xz / l
ds
2k
l
s
0
-
with g < 1
158
(15.23)
p
w A, B =
k
x / l
1 g2 0
cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
ds (15.24)
s
We also need the solution of the equilibrium equation of the subgrade outside the slab
2 w 2 w
-G
+
+ kw = 0
x 2 y 2
(15.25)
Considering that the edge is located on the positive side of the x axis, we take the solution with the
negative exponent
s 2 + 1 /( 2 g ) cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
p
l
wC =
C( s )e
ds
2k
s
x
(15.26)
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = CwC
2
2
+
x 2
y 2
(15.27)
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 0
(15.28)
3
3
2 g
+(2 )
15.4.2
(15.29)
Solution #2
We assume that the sum of the shear forces in slab and subgrade is equal to the shear force in the
subgrade under a slab of infinite extent. :The boundary conditions are
- cancelling of the moment at the edge of the slab
2
2
+
x 2
y 2
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 0
(15.30)
3
3
2 g
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 22g w
+(2 )
2
2 x
x 3
l
l x
xy
(15.31)
Solution #1
We consider that the shear forces left from the joint (loaded slab) are equal to the shear forces right from
the joint (unloaded slab). We need 2 supplementary solutions of the homogeneous equation (15.12)
applying to the unloaded slab. We assume that the joint is located at the positive side of the x axis,
hence we shall only consider the functions with a negative exponent. The solutions are
159
with g > 1
p
wC , D =
2k
-
[C( s )e
1
2
g 1 0
z1 x / l
+ D( s )e z 2 x / l
]cos( sy / l )ssin( sb / l ) ds
(15.32)
with g = 1
p
x
cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
wC , D =
C( s )e xz / l + D( s )e xz / l
ds
2k
l
s
0
-
(15.33)
with g < 1
p
wC , D =
k
1 g2 0
x / l
cos( sy / l ) sin( sb / l )
ds
s
(15.34)
2
2
+
x 2
y 2
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 0
(15.36)
2
2
+
x 2
y 2
(15.35)
[w + CwC + DwD ] = 0
(15.37)
3
3
2 g
+(2 )
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
2
2 x
x 3
y
l
3
3
2 g
[CwC + DwD ]
+(2 )
2
2 x
x 3
y
l
15.5.2
(15.38)
Solution # 2
Let us consider that the shear force at the edge of the loaded beam is partially transferred and is thus equal
to a fraction of the shear force in an infinite slab; further we consider that the shear force in the subgrade
at the joint is equal with the shear force in the subgrade under an infinite slab. This can be expressed by 2
boundary conditions applied at the edge of the loaded slab. The boundary conditions are:
- cancelling of the moment at the edge of the loaded beam
2
2
+
x 2
y 2
[w + Aw A + BwB ] = 0
160
(15.39)
3
3
2 g
+(2 )
[w + Aw A + BwB ] =
2
2 x
x 3
l
x
y
3w
3 w 2 g w
+(2 )
xy 2 l 2 x
x 3
(15.40)
Two equations are enough to express the boundary conditions. Note that if we adopt the second solution
for both cases (free edge and joint), equations (15.39) and (15.40) solves the whole problem. Indeed for
the case of a free edge, just let = 0 in order to obtain boundary condition (15.31).
15.5.3
Application
x
2a = 200
h = 200
E = 20000
p = 0.7
x
G
q
k = 0.1
G
0
10000
50000
x
y
w
x
y
w
x
y
w
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
0.90
0.93
0.098
0.87
0.89
0.090
0.77
0.78
0.068
0.06
0.33
0.078
0.05
0.30
0.070
0.01
0.21
0.050
0
0.18
0.053
0
0.15
0.045
0
0.09
0.030
Table 15.1 Bending stresses and deflections in a slab with a joint; The shear transfer is zero
161
G
0
10000
50000
x
y
w
x
y
w
x
y
w
x=0
x = 500
x = 1000
0.92
0.93
0.096
0.88
0.89
0.088
0.78
0.78
0.067
0.08
0.31
0.072
0.06
0.28
0.065
0.02
0.21
0.048
0
0.14
0.040
0
0.12
0.036
0
0.08
0.026
Table 15.2 Bending stresses and deflections in a slab with a joint; The shear transfer is 50 %
162
THE MULTISLAB
h1
E1
p1
g1
E2
h2
p2
q2
E3
h3
p3
q3
G, k
4 w1 =
p q1
D1
4 w2 =
p1 q 2
D2
4 w3 =
p2 q
D3
(16.1)
163
4 w =
pq
pq
=
D1 + D2 + D3
D
(16.2)
4 w
G 2
kw p
w+
=
D
D D
(16.3)
d 2w
d 2w
M = D 2 + 2
dy
dx
(16.4)
d 2w
d 2w
M = M 1 + M 2 + M 3 = (D1 + D2 + D3 ) 2 + 2
dy
dx
(16.5)
i =
6 Di d 2 w
d 2 w 6 Di M
+
=
hi2 dx 2
dy 2 hi2 D
(16.6)
16.4 Full friction at the first interface, full slip at the second interface
We replace the two upper layers by an equivalent layer which modulus is equal with the modulus of the
upper layer. The transverse section of the equivalent layer is a T section, as given in Figure 16.2. The
width of the vertical bar of the T section is equal with the ratio of the moduli: b = E2/E1. Hence the
moment of inertia of the transformed section remains equal with the moment of inertia of the initial
section.
E1
E1
c
h1
E2
h2
E1
E3
E3
h3
Figure 16.2 Multislab with friction at the first interface; slip at the second
164
THE MULTISLAB
c=
(16.7)
I 12 =
(16.8)
D12 =
E1 I 12
( 1 12 )
(16.9)
4 w =
Therefore we can write
p q2
D12
4 w =
p2 q
D3
(16.10)
pq
pq
=
D12 + D3
D
G
kw p
4 w 2 w +
=
D
D D
4 w =
(16.11)
(16.12)
h c D12
x = Mx 1
I 12 D
(16.13)
h + h2 c D12 E 2
x = Mx 1
I 12
D E1
(16.14)
x =
6 M x D3
h32 D
(16.15)
c=
165
(16.16)
(16.17)
E1
E1
c
h1
b1
E2
h2
E1
E3
b2
h3
E1
h c
x = Mx 1
I 123
(16.18)
h + h2 c E 2
x = Mx 1
I 123
E1
(16.19)
h + h2 + h3 c E3
x = Mx 1
I 123
E1
(16.20)
166
THE MULTISLAB
4 w =
-
4 w =
E1
(1 - F)
pq
D1 + D2
(16.21)
pq
D12
(16.22)
b
E2
(1 F ) 4 w(D1 + D2 ) = (1 F )( p q )
F 4 wD12 = F ( p q )
Adding both equations, we obtain the equilibrium equation for a structure in partial friction.
4 w =
The elastic length is
l4 =
pq
pq
=
(1 F )(D1 + D2 ) + FD12
D
(1 F )(D1 + D2 ) + FD12
k
4 w
G 2
kw p q
w+
=
D
D
D
D
k
(16.23)
(16.24)
(16.25)
167
16.6.1 Application
2a = 200
p = 0.7
E1 = 30000
h1 = 200
E2 = 10000
h2 = 300
k = 0.1 G = 200000
Figure 16.5 Example of a two-layered multislab
The bending stresses are given in Table 16.1 at different depths and for different friction conditions. The
computations refer to the middle of the slab. The stresses can also be depicted from Figure 16.6.
Adhesion
Full slip
50 % slip
x1(z = 0)
- 0.47
- 0.38
x1 (z = 200)
0.47
0.27
x2 (z = 200)
x2 (z = 500)
- 0.23
- 0.13
168
0.23
0.20
THE MULTISLAB
- 0.25
0.47
0.27
0.02
- 0.13
- 0.38
-0.47
- 0.23
0.01
0.23
0.20 0.15
Full friction
50 % friction
Full slip
Figure 16.6 Stresses in a two-layered concrete structure function of the friction conditions at the
interface condition
169
170
17.2
P
w( r ) =
2kl 2
mJ 0 ( mr / l )
dm
4
+ 2 gm 2 + 1
m
0
(17.1)
for g < 1
w( 0 ) =
-
P
4kl 2
g
arctg
2
1 g2
(17.2)
for g = 1
w( 0 ) =
-
1
P
wo
=
2
4kl 2
1 g
P
P
=
wo
2
4kl
4kl 2
(17.3)
for g > 1
w( 0 ) =
P
8kl 2
1
g 1
2
ln
g + g2 1
g g 1
2
P
wo
4kl 2
(17.4)
P
wo
k=
4 D w( 0 )
(17.5)
where
D=
Eh 3
12( 1 2 )
l4 =
D
k
Using equation (17.5) for the computation of k, we have an iterative backcalculation method in order to
estimate the values of E and G giving computed deflections as close as possible to measured deflections.
171
17.3 Computations
The backcalculation procedure is presented in Figure 17.1.
Edif1 = Edif2
E = E + E
g=0
computation of k and the deflections
gdif2 = wcomp wmeas
gdif1 = gdif2
g = g + g
computation of k and the deflections
gdif2 = wcomp wmeas
gdif1 < gdif2
No
Yes
Edif1 = gdif1
Edif1 < Edif2
No
Yes
Results
172
The flow chart of Figure 17.1 can easily be understood. The computation starts with the input of a seed
value for the modulus E of the concrete. This value must differ from zero, to avoid divisions by zero. The
initial value of g is set equal to zero. The corresponding value of k is computed by equation (17.5). The
corresponding values of the deflections are computed for the same load and at the same distances as the
measured values of the deflections. The sum of the absolute differences between computed and measured
deflections, called Edif2, is the begin value of the E loop, i.e. the loop for the estimation of the E value
giving the best fit. For each E value, a second loop, the g - loop with begin value gdif2, estimates the g
value giving the best fit for the given E value. When both loops have allowed to determine the E and
g values, and by equation (17.5) the k values, giving the best fit of all calculation, the best results have
been derived.
w( r ) =
pa mJ 0 ( mr / l )J 1( ma / l )
dm
kl 0
m4 + 2 gm 2 + 1
(17.6)
w( r ) =
I 0 ( r / l )K 1 ( a / l ) I 0 ( r / l )K 1 ( a / l )
pa
1
kl 2 g 2 1
(17.7)
where
= g g2 1
= g + g2 1
However, even when r = 0, the value of k cannot be deduced from previous equation. Hence the method
illustrated in Figure 17.1 cannot be used. However, if we consider the elastic length l instead of the
modulus E, the problem can be solved (Stet and Van Cauwelaert, 2004) Indeed, when knowing l and g,
the value of k can be obtained from equation (17.6) The backcalculation procedure is identical to that of
the previous paragraph.
Further, in this case the value of k, corresponding with a given value of g, can be deduced from all the
deflection values and not only from the centre deflection. It seems more realistic to choose a mean value
of k obtained from all the deflection values.
Finally, in using the elastic length, the model can be used for backcalculation of a multilayered slab. Of
course the determination of each individual modulus will require some information, for example, the
ratios between the moduli or the knowledge of the value of one of the moduli.
The computations are presented in Figure 17.2.
173
ldif1 = ldif2
l = l + l
g=0
computation of k and the deflections
gdif2 = wcomp wmeas
gdif1 = gdif2
g = g + g
computation of k and the deflections
gdif2 = wcomp wmeas
gdif1 < gdif2
No
Yes
ldif1 = gdif1
ldif1 < ldif2
No
Yes
Results
174
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
Distributed
Isolated
233
241
206
210
160
162
115
116
78
79
50
51
30
30
17
17
8
8
E
30340
26505
k
0.101
0.097
G
18443
25353
Fit
30340
30414
30587
0.101
0.101
0.101
18443
18487
18483
0.199
0.205
0.264
Table 17.3 Backcalculated values of the mechanical characteristics in function of the reference
deflection
175
The differences are not significant. However, this is perhaps due to the fact that the analysed deflection
basin is a theoretical one.
0
142
300
135
600
120
1000
98
1500
75
2000
55
2500
43
E
45112
42709
46994
k
0.028
0.027
0.030
G
153175
156730
142354
Fit
0.570
0.544
0.581
k
0.103
0.070
0.046
0.028
0.017
G
0
50000
100000
153175
200000
w (r = 0)
142
142
142
142
142
176
Fit
13.857
9.286
5.000
0.571
5.714
Table 17.6 is not intended to proof anything, more data need to be analysed, but it clearly shows the
influence of the value of G on the value of k. In this way, when G = 0, the backcalculated value of k
corresponds fairly well with a modulus of 300 N/mm.
The last column of Table 17.6 presents the values of the fit when comparing the deflection basin
calculated with the assumed characteristics with the observed deflection basin (Table 17.4). It seems
evident that the best fit was obtained when taking in account the real characteristics of the subgrade. It
illustrates the fact that Pasternaks model is certainly closer to reality than Winklers model.
17.8 Example of backcalculation
Table 17.7 gives a series of deflection basins obtained on an airfield with a concrete pavement. The
deflections are expressed in m, the distances and thickness in mm.
Slab
300
600
1000
1500
2000
2500
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
142
139
104
122
120
165
143
181
150
158
135
131
98
112
109
152
133
168
136
144
120
113
82
94
97
128
113
145
115
123
98
92
67
73
75
106
93
120
96
104
75
74
59
59
59
78
74
88
76
82
55
54
44
45
42
55
55
60
58
60
43
42
36
37
33
41
41
42
45
46
Thickness
265.3
280.2
275.0
263.2
277.4
276.2
272.9
272.3
289.7
271.5
E
46994
31190
34344
21525
27541
25004
26655
34800
18612
30487
k
0.030
0.025
0.020
0.021
0.031
0.030
0.023
0.036
0.020
0.023
G
142354
191129
350504
319031
246377
141047
210052
75353
221911
168312
Fit
0.581
0.798
0.974
0.743
1.092
1.269
1.071
1.316
1.461
1.714
Table 17.8 Back calculated characteristics based on the deflections of Table 17.7
177
178
d 4w
G d 2 w kw
+
=0
D
dy 4 D dy 2
(18.1)
d 4w
dy 4
2g d 2w
l 2 dy 2
179
w
l4
=0
(18.2)
18.2.2
(18.3)
where
1+ g
2
1 g
2
w = Ae y / l + Be y / l + Cye y / l + Dye y / l
(18.4)
w = Aey / l + Be y / l + C y / l + De y / l
(18.5)
where
= g + g2 1
18.2.5
= g g2 1
Boundary conditions
The values of the constants A, B, C and D are determined by the boundary conditions. The width of the
slab is L. The slab is subjected to a moment Mc on each of its boundaries which compensates the moment
resulting from the curvature due to the thermal gradient. The case is symmetric. The boundary conditions
are:
- for all y, w(y) = w(-y)
- for y = 0, the deflection presents a maximum: dw/dy = 0
for y = L/2, the moment is equal to Mc: -D d2w/dy2 = Mc
- for y = L/2, the shear force in the slab is zero: -D dw/dy + G dw/dy = G dw/dy.
18.2.6 Expression of the moment for g < 1
Let z = L/(2l). The boundary conditions write:
The deflections are symmetrical:
A=C
B = D
A + B C + D = 0
and
(18.7)
(18.8)
2
M l
Ae z g cos( z ) + 1 g 2 sin( z ) Be z g sin( z ) 1 g 2 cos( z ) = c
2D
For y = L/2, dw/dy = 0
(18.9)
[ (1 2 g ) cos( z ) (1 + 2 g ) sin( z )]
Be z [ (1 2 g ) sin( z ) + (1 + 2 g ) cos( z )] = 0
Ae
2M c l 2
A=
[ (1 2 g ) sin( z ) cosh( z ) + (1 + 2 g ) cos( z ) sinh( z )] (18.10)
D
2M c l 2
B=
[ (1 2 g )cos( z ) sinh( z ) (1 + 2 g ) sin( z ) cosh( z )] (18.11)
D
= sin( 2 z ) + sinh( 2z )
The resulting moment is MR = Mt Mc = Mt - Dd2w /dy2
Introduce the values of A and B in the expression of the moment Mc; the resulting moment becomes
M R , y = D 0 +
+
that we write
DA
g cos( y / l ) cosh( y / l ) 1 g 2 sin( y / l ) sinh( y / l )
2
l
DB
g sin( y / l ) sinh( y / l ) + 1 g 2 cos( y / l ) cosh( y / l )
2
l
M R , y = D 0C y
(18.12)
(18.13)
sin( 2 z ) + sinh( 2z )
(18.14)
sin( 2 z / 2 ) + sinh( 2 z / 2 )
181
(18.15)
A B
+C +D =0
l
l
Hence
A= B
( 18.17)
C = D
A e z + e z + 2Cl e z + e z + Clz e z e z =
For y = L/2, dw/dy = 0
M cl 2
D
A e z e z + 3Cl e z e z + Clz e z + e z = 0
(18.18)
(18.19)
M cl 2
[3 sinh( z ) + z cosh( z )]
D
M cl 2
sinh( z )
Cl =
D
= sinh( 2 z ) + 2 z
A=
(18.20)
(18.21)
The resulting moment is MR = Mt Mc. Introduce the values of A and B in the expression of the moment
Mc; the resulting moment becomes
M R , y = D 0 +
2D
l2
(18.22)
that we write
M R , y = D 0C y
(18.23)
sinh( z ) + z cosh( z )
M R ,y = D 0 1 2
sinh( 2 z ) + 2 z
18.2.8
(18.24)
Aey / l + Be y / l + Ce y / l + De y / l = Ae y / l + Be y / l + Cey / l + De y / l
(18.25)
For y = 0, dw/dy = 0
A + B C D = 0
182
(18.26)
Hence
A=C
B=D
M l
A 2 ez + e z + B 2 e z + e z = c
D
For y = L/2, dw/dy = 0
A 3 ez e z + B 3 e z e z = 0
(18.27)
(18.28)
A=
M cl 2 3
sinh( z )
D
M cl 2 3
sinh( z )
D
= 2[ cosh( z ) sinh( z ) cosh( z ) sinh( z )]
B=
(18.29)
(18.30)
M R , y = D 0 +
that we write
2D
A 2 cosh( y / l ) + B 2 cosh( y / l )
l2
M R , y = D 0C y
(18.31)
(18.32)
sinh( z ) sinh( z )
M R , y = D 0 1
(18.33)
M R , y = D 0 +
2D
A 2 cosh( z ) + B 2 cosh( z )
l2
sinh( z ) + z cosh( z )
M R , y = D 0 1 2
2 z + sinh( 2 z )
(18.34)
This equation is identical to equation (18.24) which therefore is verified together with the basic equations
(18.15) and (18.33).
18.2.10 Equation of the thermal stress
The thermal stress is given by the classical equation = MRh /(2I).
183
18.2.11 Example
Consider a slab of great length, a width of 5000 mm and a thickness of 200 mm. Let E = 30000 N/mm,
= 0.20 and k = 0.1 N/mm. The thermal gradient is 0.08 C/mm and the coefficient of dilatation
0.00001. The thermal stresses in function of the distance to the middle of the slab and the value of
Pasternaks modulus are given in Table 18.1.
G
0
20000
50000
0
2.63
2.43
2.18
500
2.49
2.31
2.08
1000
2.06
1.92
1.74
1500
1.34
1.27
1.69
2000
0.49
0.47
0.45
2500
0
0
0
We admit that the curvature of the slab takes the shape of two perpendicular cylindrical surfaces which
leads to a clastic surface (uplifted at the four corners). It is the case of a pavement built of concrete slabs.
The problem has been considered by Bradbury (1938) as that of a slab with stiffness D built up of two
perpendicular beams subjected to a thermal gradient.
The equilibrium equation of an unloaded slab on a Pasternak foundation is
4 w
G 2
kw
w+
=0
D
D
(18.35)
M xy = M yx = D( 1 )
2w
=0
xy
(18.36)
Hence Bradbury suggests approaching the solution of equation (18.35) by next equation
w( x , y ) = w( x ) + w( y )
(18.37)
d 4w G
dx 4 EI
d 4w G
dy 4 EI
d 2 w kw
+
=0
dx 2 EI
d 2 w kw
+
=0
dy 2 EI
184
(18.38)
(18.39)
2w
2w
+
M x = D
= D( 1 + ) 0 = ( 1 + )M c
y 2
x 2
(18.40)
2w 2w
+
M y = D
= D( 1 + ) 0 = ( 1 + )M c
x 2 y 2
Mc in this equation has the same signification and value as in equation (18.8). Given equation (18.37), the
condition given in equation (18.40) can be split in two separated conditions
2w
2w
D
= D
= D 0 = M c
2
x 2
y
2w
2w
D
= D 2 = D 0 = M c
2
y
x
(18.41)
(18.42)
3w
D 3 = 0
x
(18.43)
3w
D 3 = 0
y
(18.44)
The conditions in equations (18.41) to (18.44) lead to same results as the conditions of the previous
paragraph.
The moments in the slab are
M R ,x = D 0 C x + C y
M R , y = D 0 C x + C y
(18.45)
(18.46)
When the slab is square the value of the moment along the boundaries of the slab appears in the equation
for the resulting moment along the diagonals.
M R = D 0 ( 1 + )C x = y
18.3.3
(18.47)
Examples
Consider a square slab with a side of 5000 mm and a thickness of 200 mm. Let E = 30000 N/mm,
= 0.20 and k = 0.1 N/mm. The thermal conditions remain the same. The thermal stresses along a
diagonal are given in function of the distance to the centre and the value of Pasternaks modulus in
Table 18.2.
185
G
0
20000
50000
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
0
0
3.16
3.16
2.92
2.92
2.62
2.62
500
500
2.99
2.99
2.77
2.77
2.49
2.49
1000
1000
2.47
2.47
2.30
2.30
2.09
2.09
1500
1500
1.61
1.61
1.52
1.52
1.40
1.40
2000
2000
0.59
0.59
0.56
0.56
0.54
0.54
2500
2500
0
0
0
0
0
0
The thermal stresses along a side of the slab are given in function of the distance to the centre and the
value of Pasternaks modulus on Table 18.3.
G
0
20000
50000
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
0
2500
2.63
0.53
2.43
0.49
2.18
0.44
500
2500
2.49
0.50
2.31
0.46
2.08
0.42
1000
2500
2.06
0.41
1.92
0.38
1.74
0.35
1500
2500
1.34
0.27
1.27
0.25
1.17
0.23
2000
2500
0.49
0.10
0.47
0.09
0.45
0.09
2500
2500
0
0
0
0
0
0
2w 2w
M R ,y = D 2 + 2
y
x
(18.48)
According to Bradbury, the derivative 2w/y2 cancels in y = 2500 but not the derivative 2w/x2. As a
result the stress y cannot be zero in y = 2500. In order to avoid this Bradbury suggests to consider that at
the border the slab behaves as a beam. He applies a moment Mt = EI/R = EI0.. In that case the
resulting moment is given by
M R ,x = EI 0C x
(18.49)
Equation (18.49) can be compared with equation (18.13) .The results become those of Table 18.4.
186
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
G
0
20000
50000
0
2500
2.52
0
2.33
0
2.09
0
500
2500
2.39
0
2.22
0
2.00
0
1000
2500
1.98
0
1.84
0
1.67
0
1500
2500
1.29
0
1.22
0
1.12
0
2000
2500
0.47
0
0.45
0
0.43
0
2500
2500
0
0
0
0
0
0
Table 18.4 Thermal stresses along the side of a square slab acotding to Bradbury
When he represents the boundary of a slab by a thin beam, Bradbury resolves the problem in a state of
plane stress. Nevertheless it seems evident that the considered case is one of plain strain (Timoshenko,
1951, 1). In that case the model of a slab of great length has to be adopted. The results are given in
Table 18.5.
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
G
0
20000
50000
0
2500
2.63
0
2.43
0
2.18
0
500
2500
2.49
0
2.31
0
2.08
0
1000
2500
2.06
0
1.92
0
1.74
0
1500
2500
1.34
0
1.27
0
1.17
0
2000
2500
0.49
0
0.47
0
0.45
0
2500
2500
0
0
0
0
0
0
Table 18.5 Thermal stresses along the side of a square slab following Timoshenko
The question rises: how far from the boarder have we to apply a model of a slab of great length (y = 0)
and from which distance on have we to apply the model of a rectangular slab (y 0). Since de values of
x given in Table 18.1 and in Table 18.5 are the same, we suggest to systematically adopt the model of a
rectangular slab and to accept that along the boundaries the stresses perpendicular to the boarders are
zero. However the solution is only an approximate one. In the next section we will compare the solution
for a rectangular slab with that for a circular slab, which can rigorously been established. Circular slabs
are not built in reality but the comparison of the results will enable us to appreciate the effectiveness of
the solution adopted for rectangular slabs.
Equilibrium equation
2 1 2 w 1 w kw
2 +
+
+
=0
r r r 2 r r D
r
187
(18.50)
18.4.2
w = Aber( r / l ) + Bbei( r / l )
(18.51)
where
( r / 2l )4 ( r / 2l )8 ( r / 2l )12
+
....
2!2!
4!4!
6 !6
( r / 2l )2 ( r / 2l )6 ( r / 2l )10
bei( r / l ) =
+
....
1!1!
3!3!
5!5!
ber( r / l ) = 1
18.4.3
(18.52)
(18.53)
Boundary conditions
Let
1 ber
ber1 =
r r
2 ber
ber 2 =
r 2
2 ber 1 ber
ber 3 =
+
r r
r r 2
1 bei
bei1 =
r r
2 bei
bei 2 =
r 2
2 bei 1 bei
bei 3 =
+
r r 2
r r
M cl 2
A[ber 2( z ) + ber1( z )] + B[bei 2( z ) + bei1( z )] =
D
A[ber 3( z )] + B[bei 3( z )] = 0
(18.54)
(18.55)
M cl 2
bei 3( z )
D
(18.56)
M cl 2
ber 3( z )
D
(18.57)
A=
B=
M R = D 0 ( 1 + ) +
DA
l
(ber 2( r / l ) + ber1( r / l )) + DB
(bei 2( r / l ) + bei1( r / l )) (18.58)
2
l
that we write
M R = D 0 ( 1 + )C r
18.4.5
(18.59)
Although very similar, equations (18.45) and (18.46) for a rectangular slab and (18.59) for a circular slab
differ fundamentally. Equation (18.59) is directly based on a slab model. Equations (18.45) and (18.46)
188
are based on a somewhat artificial addition of two models of slabs of a great length (rather beam models).
It is therefore necessary to compare the results of both models in order to verify their reliability.
Consider a slab with a modulus of 30000 N/mm, a thickness of 200 mm, a Poisson ratio equal to 0.20.
The subgrade modulus is equal to 0.05 N/mm. The thermal conditions remain the same. In Table 18.6 we
compare the stresses in the centre of a circular slab with the stresses in the centre of inner and outer
square slabs for different radius values.
Inner square slab
Side
14142
7071
4255
2828
1414
707
stress
2.99
3.26
2.35
0.92
0.074
0.005
Circular slab
Radius
10000
5000
3000
2000
1000
500
stress
3.00
3.21
2.97
1.45
0.13
0.009
stress
3.00
3.09
3.17
2.13
0.28
0.019
Dimensions
Square
Circular
Square
4000
2000
2828
0
2.125
1.441
0.915
Distances
200
500
2.086
1.887
1.419
1.267
0.879
0.704
100
2.115
1.441
0.906
1000
1.242
0.788
0.233
1414
0.441
0.228
0
2000
0
0
18.5
The extension of the method to a multi-slab system can be done in two different ways.
If one may admit that the radii of curvature due to the thermal gradient are the same for the different
slabs, thus that the slabs remain in contact as well in the vertical direction as in the horizontal plane, one
shall consider the system as a multi-layered structure with friction at the interfaces.
In that case, the moment Mc required to suppress the curvature is Mc = D0 at the border of a long slab
and Mc = D0 (1 + 1) at the border of a circular or rectangular slab. In those expressions
D = E1/(1 - 12).Ieq where Ieq is the moment of inertia of the equivalent section with constant modulus. The
equivalent section is represented at Figure 18.1 for a bi-slab structure. The width of the lower slab is
equal to E2/E1.(1 - 1)2/(1 - 2)2.
189
E1
E1
E2
E1
M ctotal = M c1 + M c 2 + M c 3
M ctotal = D1 01 1 + D2 02 2 + D3 03 3
The equation of equilibrium is deduced from Figure 18.2.
p1
q1
p2
q2
p3
q3
Figure 18.2 Equilibrium equation
The equilibrium equation of the upper slab is
q
4 w1 = 1
D1
That of the intermediate slab
p q2
4 w2 = 1
D2
190
4 w3 =
p2 q
D3
w1 = w2 = w3 = w
Adding the three equilibrium equations yields
(D1 + D2 + D3 ) 4 w = q1 + p1 q 2 + p 2 q = q
which is the equilibrium equation of the structure.
Let D = D1 + D2 + D3 and q = kw - G2w.
Then
4 w
G 2
k
w+ =0
D
D
Comment
It seems that the pavements in continuously reinforced concrete and their eventual base-courses in lean
concrete should be treated by the model of the slab of great length. Also the base-courses in lean concrete
of asphalt pavements. However the pavements built with concrete slabs and their eventual base-courses in
lean concrete should both be treated by the model of the rectangular slab. It is indeed not possible to
apply two different models on the same structure which, of course, would be the ideal solution.
191
192
2
1
1 2 2 1 1 2
2 +
2 +
=0
+ 2
+ 2
2
2
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
= cos( m ) Ar m + Br m + Cr ( 2+m ) + Dr ( 2m )
The stresses must be finite at the origin; hence the constants B and D vanish.
= cos( m ) Ar m + Cr ( 2+m )
19.1.2
(19.1)
(19.2)
[
]
= cos( m )[m( 1 m ) Ar
+ ( 1 + m )( 2 m )Cr ]
= m sin( m )[( 1 m ) Ar
( 1 + m )Cr ]
r = cos( m ) m( 1 m ) Ar m2 + ( 1 + m )( 2 m )Cr m
m2
m2
19.1.3
(19.3)
(19.4)
(19.5)
Boundary conditions
(19.6)
(19.7)
(19.8)
We shall develop equation (19.3) as a Fourier series in order to express the discontinuous loading
conditions. Hence the boundary equations become
m( 1 m ) AR m2 + ( 1 + m )( 2 m )CR m = 1
( 1 m ) AR m2 ( 1 + m )CR m = 0
The solutions of the system are
R m2
( 1 m )A =
2
Rm
( 1 + m )C =
2
193
and
m 2
m
cos( m ) r
r
r =
m + ( 2 m )
2
R
R
(19.9)
(19.10)
cos( m ) r
=
m
2
R
r
m 2
r
( 2 + m )
R
m2
m
sin( m ) r
r
=
m m
2
R
R
(19.11)
In order to express conditions (19.6) and (19.7) expand (19.9) as a Fourier series ( 11.3).
f ( ) =
a0
n
n
+ an cos
+ bn sin
2 n=1
L
L
2p
sin( 2 n )
n
4 p
a0 =
bn = 0
an =
Hence
f ( ) =
2 p 2 p
cos( 2 n ) sin( 2 n )
n =1 n
(19.12)
cos( 2 n ) sin( 2 n )n
+ ( 1 n )
R
n =1 n
R
(19.13)
2n
r 2( n1 )
2 p 2 p
r
+
cos( 2 n ) sin( 2n )n
( 1 + n )
R
n =1 n
R
(19.14)
r =
r
E
u=
pD
r
( 1 ) cos( 2 n ) sin( 2 n )
E
R n=1
1 + r 2 n1 1 n ( 1 + n ) r 2 n+1
+
n( 2n + 1 ) R
2n 1 R
(19.15)
Assuming the value of , the value of E can be deduced from (19.15) by a direct determination of the
displacement u, along, for example, the horizontal diameter (Dac Chi Nguyen, 1991).
194
2 p sin( 2 n ) 4 P
=
0
n
D
lim
2
4
6
2
4
6
2P 4 P
r
r
r
r
r
r
+
+
+
+
4
3
2
4
3
1
2
D D
R
R
R
R
R
R
2P
=
(19.16)
D
Equation (19.16) is the well-known formula for the tensile stress of rupture along the vertical diameter of
a loaded disc in the so-called indirect split-tensile or Brazilian tensile test.
19.2 Determination of the characteristics k and G of the subgrade
Pasternak (1954) himself proposed the method of the determination of the parameters k and G through an
eccentrically loaded plate.
19.2.1
Consider a semi-infinite body subjected to a uniform pressure p. Isolate an elementary prism dxdy.
dx
Ty + (dTy/dy)dy
p
dy
q
Tx
Tx + (dTx/dx)dx
Ty
dT y
dT
pdxdy = qdxdy + Tx dy + T y dx Tx + x dx dy T y +
dy dx
dy
dx
dT
dT
y
p=q x
dx
dy
Assume
195
q = kw (Winkler)
dw
dw
Tx = G
Ty = G
(Pasternak)
dx
dy
Hence
d 2w d 2w
p = kw G
+
2
dx 2
dy
(19.17)
(19.18)
or in polar co-ordinates
d 2 w 1 dw 1 d 2 w
p
= w l2
+
+
k
dr 2 r dr r 2 d 2
19.2.2 Eccentrically loaded plate-bearing test
Consider the eccentrically loaded circular plate presented in Figure 19.2.
e
WL
WC
WR
2a
196
(19.19)
Split the load in a normal centre load N and a moment M = eN (Figure 19.3).
M
+
a0
WL
W0
Figure 19.3 Vertical resultant and moment
and, as can be depicted from Figure 19.4:
N
x
e
y
2a
r
r
d
N
+
N
M
Figure 19.4 Eccentrically loaded plate
One has:
- w0 = (wL + wR)/2
w1 = (wR wL)/2 = atan0 aO
-
197
19.2.3
Vertical load
Split N = NP + NL.:
- NP is the resultant of the subgrade reaction underneath the plate (Figure 19.5).
- NL is the resultant of the subgrade reaction outside the plate (Figure 19.6).
NP
W0
2a
y = kw0
and
N p = kw0 a 2
Consider now the subgrade reaction outside the plate (Figure 19.6). Therefore assume that the distribution
of the deflection outside the plate is the same as the deflection under an isolated load, with the boundary
condition that for r = a, w = w0
NL
W0
2a
d 2 w 1 dw 1 d 2 w
p
= w l2
+
+
2
k
r
dr
dr
r 2 d 2
198
d 2 w 1 dw
p
= w l2
+
2
k
r dr
dr
The equilibrium equation for an isolated load is given by the homogeneous equation
d 2 w 1 dw
+
w l2
=0
2
r
dr
dr
w = AK 0 ( r / l )
where K0 is the modified Bessel function of second kind and of order zero. For r = a, w = w0. Hence
K0 ( r / l )
K0 ( a / l )
w = w0
and
NL =
a 0
1
z rdrd = kw0
K0 ( a / l )
a 0
l K1( a / l )
N = N P + N L = kw0 a 2 1 + 2
a K0 ( a / l )
19.2.4
(19.20)
Moment
M=eN
0
w1
2a
I
a 4 1 k 4
M P = = ka 0
= a 0
v
4 a 4
The moment of the stresses outside the plate is again obtained considering that the distribution of the
deflection is that of the deflection under an isolated load.
199
d 2 w 1 dw 1 d 2 w
+
+
wl
=0
2
r dr r 2 d 2
dr
2
(19.20)
The stresses along the circumference of the plate vary from 0 for = 0 to a maximum value for = /2.
Separating the variables of (19.20), we therefore use a sine function.
w = v sin
Hence (19.20) transforms in
d 2v
dr 2
which appropriate solution is
1 dv
r dr
v
l2
v
r2
=0
v = AK 1 ( r / l )
and
For r = a and = /2, w = a0. Hence
A=
w = AK 1 ( r / l ) sin
a 0
K1( a / l )
w = a 0
K1( r / l )
sin
K1( a / l )
r
rsin
M L = 2 z r sin
rdrd
0a
M L = 2ka 0
1
K1( r / l )r 2 sin 2 drd
K1( a / l )
0a
M L = ka 0
l
a2 K2( a / l )
K 1( a / l )
200
1 l K 2 ( a / l )
M = ka 4 0 +
4 a K1( a / l )
(19.21)
wR + wL 2
l K1( a / l )
a 1 + 2
2
a K0 ( a / l )
(19.22)
w wL 3 1 l K 2 ( a / l )
Ne = k R
a +
2
4 a K1( a / l )
(19.23)
N =k
K2( a / l )
1
+
e(wR + wL ) 4 a / lK 1 ( a / l )
=
K 1( a / l )
a (w R w L )
1+ 2
a / lK 0 ( a / l )
Knowing e, a, wR and wL, determine a/l in an iterative manner from (19.24) and k from (19.22).
201
(19.24)
202
2
1
2 2 1 2
2 +
+ 2 2 +
+ 2
r r
z r
r r
z
r
The Bessel function J0(mr) is a solution of equation
203
= 0
(20.1)
2
r
1
r r
+ m 2 = 0
(20.2)
2 f(z)
2m
+ m 4 f ( z ) J 0 ( mr ) = 0
z 4
z 2
(20.3)
Using the resolution method by means of the characteristic equation ( 1.4.2), we obtain the solution of
(20.1)
= J 0 ( mr ) Ae mz Be mz + zCe mz zDe mz
(20.4)
Applying equation (10.49), we obtain the expressions for the stresses and the displacements
z = mJ 0 ( mr ) Am 2 e mz + Bm 2 e mz Cm( 1 2 mz )e mz +
+ Dm( 1 2 + mz )e mz
r = mJ 0 ( mr ) Am 2 e mz + Bm 2 e mz + Cm( 1 + 2 + mz )e mz
Dm( 1 + 2 mz )e mz
mJ 1 ( mr )
Am 2 e mz + Bm 2 e mz + Cm( 1 + mz )e mz
mr
Dm( 1 mz )e mz
= mJ 0 ( mr )Cme mz Dme mz 2
mJ 1 ( mr )
+
Am 2 e mz + Bm 2 e mz + Cm( 1 + mz )e mz
mr
Dm( 1 mz )e mz
rz = mJ 1 ( mr ) Am 2 e mz Bm 2 e mz + Cm( 2 + mz )e mz +
+ Dm( 2 mz )e mz
mJ
(
mr
)
1+
0
w=
Am 2 e mz Bm 2 e mz Cm( 2 4 mz )e mz
E
m
Dm( 2 4 + mz )e mz
1 + mJ 1 ( mr )
2 mz
2 mz
u=
+ Cm( 1 + mz )e mz
Am e + Bm e
E
m
204
(20.5)
(20.6)
(20.7)
(20.8)
(20.9)
Dm( 1 mz )e mz
(20.10)
z = p
z =0
rz = 0
for r < a
for r > a
whatever r
We apply a Hankels transform ( 11.5) with kernel F(m) = paJ1(ma)/m, example ( 11.4.3), in order to
express the discontinuous character of the vertical stress at the surface
z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) Bm 2 + Dm( 1 2 ) dm = p
(20.11)
Bm 2 + Dm( 1 2 ) = 1
We further express that the load is strictly vertical, thus that the shear stress at the surface must be zero
rz = pa J 1 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) Bm 2 + Dm2 dm = 0
(20.12)
Bm 2 + Dm2 = 0
The system results in Bm 2 = 2
Hence the stress function becomes
Dm = 1
= pa
0
J 0 (mr ) J 1 (ma)
(2 + mz )e mz dm
3
m
(20.13)
z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )(1 + mz )e mz dm
(20.14)
r = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )(1 mz )e mz dm
0
J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
(1 2 mz )e mz dm
pa 1
mr
(20.15)
= pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )2 e mz dm +
0
J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
(1 2 mz )e mz dm
+ pa 1
mr
0
205
(20.16)
rz = pa J 1 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )mze mz dm
(20.17)
w=
J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
1+
(2 2 + mz )e mz dm
pa 0
E
m
(20.18)
J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
1+
(1 2 mz )e mz dm
pa 1
E
m
(20.19)
u=
Equations (20.14) to (20.19) can be integrated in the axis of the load (r = 0, J0(mr) = 1). By (8.12) and
(8.5)
z3
z = p 1
2
2 3/ 2
a +z
r =
(20.20)
r +
p
z
az 2
= 1 2 ( 1 2 )
2
2
2
2 1/ 2
2
2 3/ 2
a +z
a +z
rz = 0
w=
) (
1/ 2
2 1 2 2
z
1+
p a + z 2
z
pz 1
1
/
2
E
E
a2 + z2
u =0
(20.21)
(20.22)
(20.23)
(20.24)
w=
2 1 2
pa
E
(20.25)
J ( ma )
K dis = pa 1
m
(20.26)
The kernel for the isolated load, P = pa2 is obtained by going over to the limit
J ( ma )
P J 1 ( ma ) P
K iso = lim pa 1
= lim
=
m
m
2
a 0
a 0 a
(20.27)
P
=
2
J 0 ( mr )
( 2 + mz )e mz dm
2
m
(20.28)
The stresses and displacements are obtained replacing in equations (20.14) to (20.19) the kernel (20.26)
by the kernel (20.27).
In particular the vertical stress
206
P
z =
2
mJ 0 ( mr )(1 + mz )e
mz
dm
(20.29)
z =
P
2
(z
3z 3
2
+r
2 5/2
(20.30)
z =
3P
2z 2
(20.31)
= J 0 ( mr ) Be mz zDe mz
(20.32)
Here also the function f(z) will remain unaltered, hence Bm2 = 2 and Dm = 1. The surface boundary
conditions are
z =0
w = cons tan t
rz = 0
for r > a
for r < a
whatever r
We will meet the boundary conditions by applying a Hankels transform which kernel we determine by
the properties of the discontinuous Weber-Schafheitlin integrals ( 8.6):
J ( mr )J ( ma )
z = K 0
dm
m
0
(20.33)
2( 1 2 ) J 0 ( mr )J ( ma )
w=K
dm
E
m +1
0
For r > a
+ 1
a
+ 1 + 1
a2
2
; + 1;
z = K
F
,
2
2
+ + 1
r 2
r + 1 2 ( + 1 )
(20.34)
r0
2( 1 )
r2
2
w=K
F
,
;1;
E
2
+ 2
+1
a 2
( 1 )
a 2
2
The second condition writes: w = cons tan t for = 0
= 1 / 2 = 1 / 2 .
2
The
system
results
in
z = K m 1 / 2 J 0 ( mr )J 1 / 2 ( ma )dm
0
2
z = K
J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )dm
a
0
By 8.6.4:
z = K
2
a
1
a2 r2
In order to determine the value of K, we integrate the value of z over the circular area with radius a.
P = K
2
a
2 a
rdrd
a2 r 2
0 0
2
2a
a
P = K
Hence
K=
P
2 2a
(20.35)
Finally, for z = 0
P
z =
J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )dm
2a
w=
1 P
E a
2
J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )
dm
m
(20.36)
(20.37)
1 2 P sin( ma )
1 2 P
dm
w=
=
E 2a
E a
m
(20.38)
Comparing equation (20.38) with the result obtained for a uniformly distributed load, equation (20.25)
w=
2( 1 2 ) P
E
a
we obtain
wrigid
w flexible
208
(20.39)
Hence, when trying to determine the modulus of the subgrade by a plate-bearing test, do not overestimate
it by using the formula for a flexible load.
For z 0
P
z =
J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )( 1 + mz )e mz dm
2a
(20.40)
z =
P a 2 + 3z 2
2 2
2 2
a +z
(20.41)
2 2 2 2 2 2
=0
+
+
+
+
2
2
x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2
y
z
(20.42)
In the case of a vertical load the equation in is useless. If we assume a solution by separation of the
variables
= cos( tx ) cos( sy ) f ( z )
4 f ( z )
2
2 f ( z )
2 t 2 + s2
+ t 2 + s 2 cos( tx ) cos( sy ) = 0
z 4
z 2
(20.43)
Letting m2 = t2 + s2, the solution for f(z) is identical to the solution for a semi-infinite body subjected to a
vertical pressure distributed over a circular area. Hence
f ( z ) = Ae mz Be mz + zCe mz zDe mz
(20.44)
The constants A, B, C and D are to be determined by the boundary conditions.
The stresses must vanish at infinite depth. Hence the constants related to positive exponents must be zero:
A = C = 0. The boundary conditions at the surface (z = 0) express that
b < y < b
y >b
whatever x , y
In order to express the discontinuous character of the vertical stress at the surface, we apply a double
Fouriers integral ( 11.4) with kernel
F( t ,s ) =
4 p sin( ta ) sin( sb )
ts
2
209
(20.45)
Bm 3 + Dm 2 ( 1 2 ) = 1
We further express that the load is strictly vertical, thus that the shear stresses at the surface must be zero
(20.46)
(20.47)
xz =
yz =
Bm 2 + Dm2 = 0
The system results in
Bm 3 = 2
Dm 2 = 1
which are the same values as those obtained in the case of a distributed load over a circular area. Hence
the equations for the stresses and the displacements can directly been obtained from the results of 20.2.
We are particularly interested in the equation for the vertical stress, which can be deduced from equation
(20.14)
z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )(1 + mz )e mz dm
0
z =
4p
cos( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
( 1 + mz )e mz dsdt
2
00
ts
(20.48)
This equation cannot be integrated analytically. However, in the axis of the load (x = 0, y = 0) (20.48)
simplifies into an equation that can be integrated.
z =
4p
sin( ta ) sin( sb )
( 1 + mz )e mz dsdt
2
00
ts
(20.49)
z ,1
4p
sin( ta ) sin( sb ) mz
= 2
e dsdt
00
ts
z ,2 =
4p
sin( ta ) sin( sb )
mze mz dsdt
2
00
ts
By equation (8.26)
z ,1 =
2p
ab
arctan
2
z( z + a 2 + b 2 )1 / 2
(20.50)
By equation (8.27)
z ,2 =
2p
zab( 2 z 2 + a 2 + b 2 )
( z 2 + a 2 )( z 2 + b 2 )( z 2 + a 2 + b 2 )1 / 2
210
(20.51)
(20.20)
(20.31)
(20.41)
(20.51,52)
0.1
0.5
1
2
5
10
20
-1
-0.910
-0.646
-0.284
-0.057
-0.0148
-0.00374
-150
-6.0
-1.50
-0.375
-0.060
-0.0150
-0.00375
-0.505
-0.560
-0.500
-0.260
-0.056
-0.0148
-0.00373
-1
-0.906
-0.639
-0.282
-0.057
-0.0148
-0.00374
2 1
2
+
+
r 2 r r z 2
2 1 n 2 2 2
=0
+
+
2
2
r 2
r
r
n
z
(20.52)
2
r
1
r r
+ m 2 = 0
(20.53)
( n 2 ) f ( z ) m 2 ( n 2 + n 2 2 ) f ( z ) + m 4 f ( z ) J 0 ( mr ) = 0
z 4
z 2
211
(20.54)
2a
Eh
Ev
z
Figure 20.2 Orthotropic body subjected to a distributed vertical pressure
Using the resolution method by means of the characteristic equation ( 1.4.2), we obtain the solution of
(20.1)
= J 0 ( mr ) Ae mz Be mz + Ce smz De smz
(20.55)
where
n 2
s =
n2 2
(20.56)
A = n( 1 + ) Am 2
B = n( 1 + )Bm 2
C = n( n + )Csm 2
D = n( n + )Dsm 2
Applying equation (10.65), we obtain the expressions for the stresses and the displacements
z = mJ 0 ( mr ) Ae mz + Be mz + Ce smz + De smz
r = mJ 0 ( mr ) Ae mz + Be mz + s 2 Ce smz + s 2 De smz
mJ 1 ( mr ) mz
1+
1+
Ae + Be mz +
Ce smz +
De smz
n+
mr
n+
(20.57)
(20.58)
( 1 n )
= mJ 0 ( mr )Ce smz + De smz
n2 2
mJ 1 ( mr ) mz
1+
1+
Ae + Be mz +
Ce smz +
De smz
mr
n+
n+
212
(20.59)
(20.60)
rz = mJ 1 ( mr ) Ae mz Be mz + se smz sD smz
1 + mJ 0 ( mr ) mz
n+
n+
w=
Ae Be mz +
sCe smz
sDe smz (20.61)
E
m
1+
1+
mJ 1 ( mr )
u=
( n + ) Ae mz + ( n + )Be mz + ( 1 + )Ce smz + ( 1 + )De smz (20.62)
mE
The stresses must vanish ad infinite depth. Hence the constants related to positive exponents must be
zero: A = C = 0. The boundary conditions at the surface (z = 0) express that
z = p
z = p / 2
z =0
rz = 0
for r < a
for r = a
for r > a
whatever r
We apply a Hankels transform ( 11.5) with kernel F(m) = paJ1(ma)/m, example ( 11.5.2), in order to
express the discontinuous character of the vertical stress at the surface
z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )[B + D ]dm = p
(20.63)
B+D=1
We further express that the load is strictly vertical, thus that the shear stress at the surface must be zero
rz = pa J 1 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )[B + Ds ]dm = 0
(20.64)
B + Ds = 0
1
D=
1 s
s
The system results in B =
1 s
All the equations for the stresses can now be established. Again we are particularly interested in the
vertical stress, which equation writes
1 msz
s mz
e
z = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
e
+
dm
1 s
1 s
0
In the axis of the load, we have
(20.65)
pa
z =
J 1 ( ma ) se mz + e msz dm
1 s
(20.66)
1
1
z = p 1 sz
( a 2 + s 2 z 2 )1 / 2 ( a 2 + z 2 )1 / 2
(20.67)
By (8.13)
213
P
z =
mJ 0 ( mr ) se mz + e msz dm
2 ( 1 s )
(20.68)
P
sz
sz
+
2
2 ( 1 s ) ( z + r 2 )3 / 2 ( z 2 s 2 + r 2
(20.69)
By (8.9)
z =
and in the axis of the load (r = 0)
z =
P 1 + s + s2
2z 2
s2
(20.70)
If we compare equation (20.70) with the corresponding stress in an isotropic body of equation (20.31)
z =
we notice that if s < 1, thus n > 1
3P
2z 2
thus stress concentration in the axis of the load for the anisotropic body; and if s > 1, thus n < 1
z =
(20.71)
2z 2
The parameter was called the stress concentration factor of Frhlich. Indeed for most of the soils > 3.
Only for super consolidated clays, Frhlich observed values < 3. In fact the range of values admitted by
Frhlich was 2 < < 6. Similar observations were made regarding the values of the degree of anisotropy
of orthotropic soils. In most of the cases n > 1, except again for super consolidated clays. Hence one
could imagine a relation between the stress concentration factor of Frhlich and the degree of anisotropy
of an orthotropic soil, based, for example, on the equation for the vertical stress in the axis of an isolated
load:
1 + s + s2
s2
(20.72)
Assuming a Poissons ratio of 0.50, as usual for subgrades, equation (20.72) allows to fix a range of n
based on the range of values. One obtains
0. 6 < n < 3
This presents a particular interest. Indeed, Frhlichs relation was obtained by transforming Boussinesqs
relation afterwards i.e. without a rigorous mechanical analysis. It can be shown that Frhlichs relation
does not respect the continuity principle. However, Veverka (1973) has proved that compatibility can be
restored if the modulus of the semi-infinite body is a function of the bulk stress [p0 = (x + y + z)/3]
E = E0 p0k
where
214
(20.73)
k=
3
2
(20.74)
Nevertheless, Frhlichs model does not allow the computation of all the stresses and displacements in
the case of semi-infinite bodies subjected to distributed loads of all sorts. However, all this can easily be
done by anisotropic elasticity, by applying relations (20.72) and (20.74).
k=
1 + s 2s 2
(20.75)
1+ s s2
Hence both theories are complementary. Anisotropic elasticity provides the mathematical tools while
Frhlich provides the values of the physical parameters. Further, equation (20.75) could create a link
between the, from a computational viewpoint, relatively simple anisotropic theory and the more
complicated non-linear models developed by Ullidtz (1998).
In this paragraph, we have merely considered the degree of anisotropy n as a mechanical concept: the
ratio between the values of two Youngs moduli. It is the usual approach in pavement engineering.
However, one can also consider anisotropy as a geotechnical concept. Next relation has been established
(Van Cauwelaert and Cerisier, 1982) based on Prandtls bearing capacitys model (Prandtl, 1921).
s = Ka
4c
1
p 1 sin
1 + sin 2 ( / 2 )
2
1 sin ( / 2 )
where
Ka is the active earth pressure coefficient
c is the cohesion of the soil
is the angle of internal friction of the soil
p is the uniform limit pressure in Prandtls model.
20.8 The orthotropic body subjected to a vertical uniform rectangular pressure
This problem is essentially of interest in geotechnical engineering. The stresses and displacements can
directly be obtained from equations (20.47) to (20.52) transformed with the appropriate kernel of 20.4.
The vertical stress, for example, becomes
z =
4p
2 00
z =
2p 1
ab
ab
+ arctan
+
s arctan
1 s
z( a 2 + b 2 + z 2 )1 / 2
sz( a 2 + b 2 + s 2 z 2 )1 / 2
The reader interested in more results (rigid plate) and the detailed mathematics will find the required
information in Van Cauwelaert (1985).
215
216
z =0
rz 0
rz = 0
whatever r
for r < a
for r > a
rz = K m
J 1 ( mr )J ( ma )
m
[ Bm
+ Dm2 dm = f ( )
(21.1)
Bm 2 + Dm2 = 1
We further express that the load is strictly horizontal, thus that the vertical stress at the surface must be
zero
z = K m
0
J 0 ( mr )J ( ma )
m
[Bm
+ Dm( 1 2 ) dm = 0
(21.2)
Bm 2 + Dm( 1 2 ) = 0
The system results in Bm 2 = 1 + 2
Dm = 1
To determine the values of K, and we need to know the distribution of the shear stress at the interface
load subgrade. It is evident that the shear stress must be zero in the axis of the load. Hence we shall
assume that at the surface the shear stress increases linearly from the center to the circumference of the
load.
mJ 1 ( mr )J ( ma )
J 1 ( mr )J ( ma )
dm
=
K
dm
rz = K
0
m
m 1
0
For r < a
+ 1( 1) + 1
r
2
rz = 1( 1 )+1 1
1
+
(
1
)
+
1
a
2
( 2 )
2
+ 1 ( 1) + 1 1 ( 1) + 1
r
F
,
;2; 2
2
2
a
217
(21.3)
In order to obtain a linear variation of the shear stress, the second term of the F function must be zero.
Hence the first condition: 3 = 0 .
For r > a
rz =
a
r
( 1 )+1
2 1
1+ ( 1)+1
F(
1 +( 1)+1
( + 1 )
In order to satisfy the condition, the argument of the second - function of the denominator must be zero.
Hence the second condition: 1 + = 0 . The system results in = 2, =1. The shear stress at the
surface writes
= K J 1 ( mr )J 2 ( ma )dm = K
0
r
a2
(21.4)
Q = K
0 0
r2
K 2a
drd =
2
a
3
Hence
K=
3Q
2a
3Q
rz =
J 1 ( mr )J 2 ( ma )dm
2a 0
(21.5)
We have written (21.5) with a positive sign. This means that, with the conventions of Timoshenko
(chapter 10.3), the shear stresses are oriented towards the axis of the load. The other stresses and
displacements are obtained in the usual manner. Hence, the equation for the vertical stress, for example,
3Q
z =
J 0 ( mr )J 2 ( ma )mze mz dm
2a 0
(21.6)
218
In a system of cartesian co-ordinates the solutions are of trigonometric type. Both cosine and sine have
the same properties and the choice of one of the other function has no fundamental mathematical
implications. Indeed cosine and sine functions can be assimilated with the Bessel functions J-1/2 and J1/2 so
that a Hankel transform, or here, a Fourier transform can be applied on both functions. However in a
system of cylinder co-ordinates the two available solutions, J0(mr) and Y0(mr), have different
mathematical properties. A Hankel transform can only be applied on Bessel functions of the first kind.
This explains the difficulty Muki has encountered in his solution.
The compatibility equations in Cartisian co-ordinates are
2
2
2 2 2 2
2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 + 2 = 0
y
z
y
z x
x
2 2 2
2 + 2 + 2 = 0
y
z
x
(21.7)
(21.8)
The trigonometric solution will allow us to exactly define the required function.
Assume that the shear load is applied parallel to the x-axis. We assimilate the shear load with a breaking
force exercised through the wheel on the subgrade. Thus the corresponding shear stresses will be constant
all over the surface of the load. This can be expressed by a double Fourier integral of the next form
xz =
4q
cos( tx ) sin( ta ) cos( ty ) sin( tb )
dsdt
2
00
ts
(21.9)
Hence we must choose the solutions of (21.7) and (21.8) that will allow us to express the surface shear
stress in the x-direction as (21.9). The concerned stress potential is
xz =
2 1 2
2
(
1
+
x
z 2 2 yz
= sin( tx ) cos( sy ) f 1 ( z )
= cos( tx ) sin( sy ) f 2 ( z )
Remembering that the coefficients of positive exponents must be zero we finally obtain
= cos( tx ) sin( sy ) Fe mz
xz = q
for
xz = 0
for
x >a
z = yz = 0
The equations for the stresses are
and
(21.10)
(21.11)
b < y < b
y >b
whatever x , y
219
(21.12)
(21.13)
(21.14)
F
ms = 1
2
F
yz = 0
Bm 2 s + 2 Dms + mt = 0
2
3
z =0
Bm + ( 1 2 )Dm = 0
xz = q
Bm 2 t 2 Dmt +
Bm 2 = ( 1 2 )
Dm =
Fm =
t
m2
t
m2
2s
m2
zts mz
yz = sin( tx ) sin( sy )
e
m
(21.15)
(21.16)
(21.17)
xz =
4q
00
(21.18)
By taking xz as positive, we express that the shear stresses are oriented in the opposite side of the x-axis.
The kernel of the Fourier transform is
K=
4 q sin( ta ) sin t( sb )
ts
2
(21.19)
z =
4q
00
ts
m
2 00
4q
220
(21.20)
(21.21)
yz =
4q
00
(21.22)
The other stresses and displacements can be obtained in the same way.
Equations (21.20) and (21.21) can be numerically integrated without difficulties. Indeed for s =0,
sin(sb)/s = b and for t = 0, sin(ta)/t =a. However some problems could arise with (21.22) which,
therefore is better transformed by letting
t = cos
s = sin
yz =
4q
2
/2
dd
21.3 The semi-infinite body subjected to a shear load symmetric to one of its axiss
Consider a semi-infinite body subjected to shear stresses acting in the x direction but symmetrical to the
y direction: xz(x) = - xz(-x). Then the expression at the surface for the shear stress must take a form
such as
xz = K
(21.23)
= cos( tx ) cos( sy ) f 1 ( z )
= sin( tx ) sin( sy ) f 2 ( z )
The values of and are determined in order to satisfy the boundary conditions in the x direction.
-
xz = f(x)
xz = 0
xz (x)= - xz (-x)
Knowing that
cos( sy ) sin( sb )
I=
sin( tx )J ( ta )
dt
t
0
x J 1 / 2 ( tx )J ( ta )
I=
dt
2 0
t 1 / 2
for | x | < a
1/ 2 + 3 / 2
=0
2
221
(21.24)
1/ 2 + +1/ 2
=0
2
for | x | > a
xz = K
00
J 1 / 2 ( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
dsdt
s
(21.25)
xz = K
x
J 1 / 2 ( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta )dt
2 2 0
x
2a a 2
xz = K
Let us admit that for x = a, xz = -q then
q = K
2a
2a 2
x
= q
a
K = q
xz
For x = - a, xz = q
For x = 0, xz = 0
For x = a, xz = - q
The final equation for xz becomes
xz =
J ( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
2q
xa 1 / 2
dsdt
s
0 0
(21.26)
xz =
2 1 2
2
(
1
+
x
z 2 2 yz
Remembering that the coefficients of positive exponents must be zero, the definite solutions of the
compatibility equations are
= sin( tx ) sin( sy ) Fe mz
where m = t + s . The relations for the stresses become
2
(21.27)
(21.28)
(21.29)
(21.30)
(21.31)
F
ms = 1
2
F
Bm 2 s 2 Dms + mt = 0
2
3
Bm + ( 1 2 )Dm 2 = 0
xz = q
Bm 2 t 2 Dmt
yz = 0
z =0
The system results in
Bm 2 = ( 1 2 )
Dm =
Fm =
t
m2
t
m2
2s
m2
s
00
xz =
(21.32)
t 2 mz
2q 2 a sin( tx )J 3 / 2 ( ta ) cos( sy ) sin( sb )
e dsdt (21.33)
1
z
st 1 / 2
m
0 0
yz
2q
=
m
00
Other stress distributions can be obtained by setting, for | x | < a, the more general condition
1/ 2 + 3 / 2
= n , where n is an integer.
2
xz
2q
=
00
st 1 / 2
223
(21.35)
224
z0
h1
z1
h2
z2
h3
hn-2
zn-2
hn-1
zn-1
Figure 22.1 Multilayered structure
Each layer is characterised by a thickness, a Youngs modulus, a Poissons ratio, and for the last layer
considered as the subgrade eventually a degree of anisotropy.
The solutions for a two-layered structure and later for a three-layered structure subjected to vertical
uniformly distributed loads were first published by Burmister (1943, 1944).
We present the solution for an n-layered structure subjected to the different loads analysed in Chapters 20
and 22. The subgrade can either be isotropic or orthotropic, and can further be of infinite extent or limited
by a rigid bottom at a given depth.
The principal hypothesis will be that the different layers remain in contact. Hence, at the interfaces, the
vertical stresses, the shear stresses and the vertical deflections are to be identical. A second hypothesis is
that there will be some horizontal friction between the layers. This will require an equation between the
horizontal displacements and the shear stresses.
225
2
2
1
+
+
r 2 r r
z 2
2 1 2
=0
+
+
2
r 2 r r
z
J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
= pa 0
Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dm
m
0
= pa
0
J 0 ( mr )(Ai e
mz
Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dm
P
=
2a
-
P
=
2
-
J 0 (mr ) J 1 (ma)
Ai e mz Bi e mz + C i e smz Di e smz dm
m
J 0 ( mr ) sin( ma )
Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dm
m
3Q
2a
J 0 ( mr )J 2 ( ma )
Ai e mz Bi e mz + zCi e mz zDi e mz dm
m
2
2
2 2 2 2
=0
+
+
+
+
x 2 y 2 z 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
2 2 2
=0
+
+
x 2 y 2 z 2
4 2
00
226
q
4 2
0 0
q
=
4 2
-
s
0 0
s
0 0
It must be noticed that in the case of a rigid load applied on a multilayered structure, the stress function
derived from the case of a rigid load on a semi-infinite body cannot ensure a deflection profile strictly
corresponding with a rigid load (deflection constant under the load). In the case of the semi-infinite body
the f(z) functions at the surface for the vertical stress and the deflection are, excepted for a constant,
identical. Hence the same boundary condition can be used for both stress and deflection. The second
boundary condition expresses that the shear stress is zero.
In the case of the multilayer, the equations for the vertical stress and the deflection are no longer the same
because of the presence of the terms in A1 and C1. However the difference of the multilayer deflection
profile and the strictly rigid load profile remains small in such a way that the proposed stress function can
safely been used.
z = f(P)
rz = 0
If the load is a radial shear load, the loading conditions will be
z =0
rz = f ( Q )
At a depth zi, the vertical interface conditions will be
zi = zj
rzi = rzj
wi = w j
where the index i refers to the bottom of layer i and the index j to the surface of the following layer j .
The horizontal interface conditions can be of two sorts.
227
If one assumes full friction between the layers, one shall write that the horizontal displacements are equal
ui = u j
If one assumes full slip between the layers, one shall write that the shear stresses are zero
rzi = rzj = 0
This requires two sets of boundary conditions whether there is full friction or full slip between the layers
and hence two different computer programs. In order to avoid this difficulty De Jong, Peutz and
Korswagen, the authors of the BISAR program (De Jong et al, 1973) suggested next horizontal boundary
equation
ui u j = ( 1 ) rzi
- when = 0, the case corresponds with full slip at the interface.
- when = 1, the case corresponds with full friction at the interface.
The parameter is required to make the dimensions of the equality homogeneous. We recommend to take
= h1/Ei , thus the thickness of the first layer divided by the modulus of the upper layer of the interface.
Notice that the characteristic has the inverse dimensions of the characteristic k of Westergaard: it is also
a spring constant.
When 0 < < 1, one could speak of partial friction at the interface. The interest of the equation is that
one can express both extreme horizontal conditions and any intermediate condition. However it seems
difficult to appreciate the exact physical meaning of the parameter . Therefore we suggested a second
equation, namely
ui = u j
-
However, this equation cannot simulate a so-called full slip interface condition. The method presents the
advantage that the factor can be determined in situ by the ovalisation test (Chapter 26). But both
methods present the disadvantage that one must assume that the friction parameters are constant all over
the horizontal interface.
In the case of asymmetric loads, the number of constants per layer is 6, excepted for the last layer for
which the constants with a positive exponent must be zero. Hence we need 6n - 3 boundary equations.
Three equations are required to express the loading conditions; six equations will express the interface
conditions: 6(n 1) + 3 = 6n 3. The conditions are the same as in the previous case except that at the
surface there will be one condition regarding the vertical stress and two conditions regarding the shear
stresses and at each interface one condion regarding the vertical stresses, one conditions regarding the
deflections, two conditions regarding the shear stresses and two conditions regarding the horizontal
displacements.
228
the equations for the unknown parameters in such a way that their numerators contain only negative
exponents and their denominators at least one constant value and further only negative exponentials.
Ai =
f 1 ( e mz )
Cons tan t + f 2 ( e mz )
When m tends to infinity, the value of the unknown parameter necessarily will tend to zero and this
without any numerical problem. However this is not so easy to achieve when keeping in mind that the
equations for the unknown parameters can in no possible way be expressed in closed form when the
number of layers exceeds three or four. We developed a matrix method to reach this target, which is
illustrated for a symmetrical vertical load. The boundary conditions can be written in matrix form.
At the surface
M 01 ( A1 B1C1 D1 )T = (1 0 )T
At the first interface
M 11 ( A1 B1C1 D1 )T = M 12 ( A2 B2 C 2 D2 )T
At the i-th interface
M i1 ( Ai Bi Ci Di )T = M i 2 A j B j C j D j T
At the last interface
M k 1 ( Ak Bk C k Dk )T = M k 2 (Bn Dn )T
where for the simplicity of the writings j stands for i + 1 and k stands for n 1.
Invert the matrices of the left side of the equations (the matrix inversion is left over as an exercise to the
reader). Hence at the i-th interface
( Ai Bi Ci Di )T
= M i11 M i 2 A j B j C j D j T
Matrix M i11 can be split into two sub matrices in such a way that the exponents can be put aside of the
matrix brackets.
M i11 is a (2,4) matrix built with the rows 1 and 3 of matrix M i11
M i12 is a (2,4) matrix built with the rows 2 and 4 of matrix M i11
Also matrix M i 2 can be split
M i 2 = M i 21e mz i + M i 22 e mz i
M i 2 is a (4,4) matrix
M i 21 is a (4,2) matrix built with the columns 1 and 3 of matrix M i 2
M i 22 is a (4,2) matrix built with the columns 2 and 4 of matrix M i 2 .
The boundary condition can now be split as follows
( Ai Ci )T
= M i11 M i 21 A j C j T + M i11 M i 22 e 2 mz i B j D j T
229
)
( )
(Bi Di )T = M i12 M i 21e 2mz (A j C j )T + M i12 M i 22 (B j D j )T
(Bi Di )T = M Bi e 2 mz (A j C j )T + M Di (B j D j )T
( Ai Ci )T
= M Ai A j C j T + M Ci e 2 mz i B j D j T
i
( Ak C k )T = M Ck e 2mz k (Bn Dn )T
(Bk Dk )T = M Dk (Bn Dn )T
Further
(A j C j )T = M Aj ( Ak C k )T + M Cj e 2mz
(Bk Dk )T
Hence the equation for (Aj Cj)T contains at least the negative exponent e
the writings
2 mz j
(A j C j )T = M AC , j e
(Bn Dn )T
(B j D j )T = M Bj e 2mz ( Ak Ck )T + M Dj (Bk Dk )T
2 mz j
(B j D j )T = M Bj M Ck e 2m( z
z j )
( An C n )T
+ M Dj M Dk (Bn Dn )T
Hence the equation for (Bj Dj)T contains at least no positive exponent so that we can write
(B j D j )T = M BD , j (Bn Dn )T
(M AC ,0 M AC ,1e 2mz
+ M BD ,0 M BD ,1 (Bn Dn )T = (1 0 )T
Bn =
Dn =
b1 + b2 e 2 mz 1
a + be 2 mz 1 + ce 4 mz 1
d 1 + d 2 e 2 mz 1
a + be 2 mz 1 + ce 4 mz 1
230
We can now formulate the equations for all the parameters. In order to respect the method that we have
defined in the beginning, we shall express each parameter associated with the less favourable exponent:
mz
the parameters Ai and Ci with the highest possible positive exponent, i.e. with the exponent e i
corresponding with the depth of the bottom of the layer; the parameters Bi and Di with the lowest possible
negative exponent, i.e. with the exponent e
layer.
mz i 1
(B1 D1 )T
= M BD ,1 (Bn Dn )T
(A j C j )T = M AC , j e mz (Bn Dn )T
e mz (B j D j )T = M BD , j e mz (Bn Dn )T
e
mz j
mz n 1
(
b1 + b2 e 2 mz )e mz
Bn =
1
n 1
a + be 2 mz 1 + ce 4 mz 1
e mz n1 Dn =
(d1 + d 2 e 2mz )e mz
1
n 1
a + be 2 mz 1 + ce 4 mz 1
Hence all parameters, unless B1 and D1, can be numerically computed without any difficulty. The way B1
and D1 are computed is explained in Chapter 23.
22.5 The fixed bottom condition
In this case one can assume the presence of a rigid layer at a depth zn, one shall often speak of a fixed
bottom at that depth in the subgrade. There are different possibilities of expressing this supplementary
condition. We prefer expressing that at the given depth both vertical and horizontal displacements are
zero. In doing so we have two boundary conditions more that have to correspond with two unknown
parameters more, namely An and Cn.
The matrix equation at the interface n 1 now writes
M k 1 ( Ak Bk C k Dk )T = M k 2 ( An Bn C n Dn )T
In order to modify as little as possible the solution developed in the previous paragraph, we shall express
An and Cn in function of Bn and Dn in the equation. Therefore we write the displacement equations at the
level of the fixed bottom as follows
M AC ,n e mz n ( An C n )T = M BC ,n e mz n (Bn Dn )T M AC ,n ( An C n )T = M BC ,n e 2 mz n (Bn Dn )T
Then we express in the second member of the matrix equation
M k 1 ( Ak Bk C k Dk )T = M k 2 ( An Bn C n Dn )T
An e mz n1 and C n e mz n1 in function of Bn e m( 2 z n z n 1 ) and Dn e m( 2 z n z n1 )
and the problem is solved.
231
M k 1 ( Ak Bk Ck Dk ) = M k 2 (Bn Dn )
T
the matrix Mk2 with the isotropic equations for stresses and displacements by a modified matrix with the
corresponding orthotropic equations. The final result will then be expressed as follows
e mzn 1 Bn =
(b + b e
)e
2 mz1
2
2 mz1
mzn 1
a + be
+ ce 4 mz1
d + d e 2 mz1 e smz n1
e smz n1 Dn = 1 22 mz1
a + be
+ ce 4 mz1
n 2
(20.7)
Where the ration of anisotropy s 2 = 2
n 2
232
Int = pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) f ( mz )dm
0
As can been seen, the limits integration are from zero to infinity. The integral includes a product of
oscillating Bessel functions (depending on the radii, a(i), of the loads and their distances, r(i), to the
origin of the co-ordinate system) multiplied by a function of exponentials (depending on the
characteristics of the structure and the depth at which stresses are to be computed). Because of the
oscillating character of the Bessel functions, the Gauss integration formula would be very adequate if the
integrations were performed within the limits of the successive zeros of the Bessel functions. However in
this case, radii of loads and distances have to be constant values; otherwise, a separate integration has to
be performed for each load. Consequently, as we were able to show (Van Cauwelaert et al, 1988), the
time saved in using this method will be more than lost in the successive integrations. Thus, in order to
provide for a method as general and as fast as possible, we use the Newton Coates formulas.
The Newton Coates formulas split the integration range over an even number of equally spaced abscises
and compute, by appropriate polynomials, the area between two abscises. The most widely used formulas
of this type are Simpsons rule and Weddlesrule. Simpson rule gives exact results for cubic functions
and is written as
S=
h
[ f ( 0 ) + 4 f ( 1 ) + 2 f ( 2 ) + 4 f ( 3 ) + ... + f ( 2n )]
3
Weddles rule gives exact results for polynomials of degree five and is written as
W=
3h
[( 0 ) + 5 f ( 1 ) + f ( 2 ) + 6 f ( 3 ) + f ( 4 ) + 5 f ( 5 ) + 2 f ( 6 ) + 5 f ( 7 ) + ... + f ( 6 n )]
10
Since the function to be integrated is an exponential, the most appropriate rule is not known a priori. In
order to be able to compare the two integration rules, a program was written for the simple case of a two
layer. This program was used to evaluate the number of intervals required to achieve the same accuracy
using both of the above rules. However, as a preliminary, an effort was made to determine the most
slowly converging response parameter (i.e. stress, displacement). Since there is little influence of the
Bessel functions (varying between 1 and + 1) on convergence, computations were performed on the
exponential function only.
233
The results of the analysis show that the deflection at the first interface is the most sensitive response
parameter. Mathematically the reason for this is that only the vertical deflection shows a non-zero value at
the origin of the integration. Thus the analysis could be limited to this equation for comparing the
appropriate integration rule. It revealed that Weddles rule in the particular case of a multilayered
structure needs less intervals than Simpsons rule to achieve an equal accuracy. On the basis of this
analysis we adopt Weddles rule for numerical integrations.
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) a
=
m 0
m
2
lim
Hence, the values of the deflections in the different layers must be computed for m = 0, thus also the
values of the unknown parameters Ai, Bi, Ci and Di. This cannot be done by the method developed in
Chapter 22, because of numerical redundancies. However, it can be done strictly analytically as we will
illustrate in the case of an isotropic subgrade. For m = 0, all exponentials are equal to 1 and the boundary
conditions for the vertical stresses and the shear stresses simplify into
Bn = 2 n
Dn = 1
Since w1 = w2 = ... = wi = ... = wn , we can write for all layers
wi =
2
1 + n
[Bn + D( 2 4 n )] = 2 1 n
En
En
234
Scale is not a problem for force. Stresses are linear functions of the unit pressure (total load on the surface
divided by its area) so that stresses are obtained immediately in the same units as the input pressure.
Moduli do not need to be scaled because only modular ratios are used. However, it is necessary to express
moduli in the same units as stresses to avoid difficulties with the displacements. Pay attention to the fact
that the friction parameter (mm3/N) in the partial friction relationship suggested by De Jong et al (1973)
must be scaled.
We proposed to define by
i =
h1
Ei
i =
h1 / h1 1
=
Ei
Ei
step = 0.1
E2
E1
As may be noted, the equation goes through the origin because if the ratio between the moduli tends to
infinity the step width should tend to zero. For an n-layered structure, previous equation can be
generalised in
step = 0.1
En
E1
When the modulus of the last layer is higher than the modulus of the first layer, or in the case of a fixed
bottom, the value of the deflection at the origin rely on the ratio of both moduli, but, depending of the
values of the intermediate moduli, values higher than the initial values can be obtained for increasing
values of the integration variable. Therefore before starting the computation of stresses and
displacements, it is necessary to search for the highest value of the deflection function, which, when
determined, can be used to establish the step width.
23.4.2 Influence of the radii of the loads on the integration step
In the previous paragraph we considered a load radius equal to 1. Essentially this represents a radius of
the loaded area equal to the thickness of the first layer after application of the scale factor. For small
values of the argument, the value of the Bessel function J1(ma) is equal to ma/2. Also the variation, as a
function of m, of the successive values of the total integrated function, will depend upon the value of the
radius, a, of the load Consequently, the width of the integration step will necessarily depend upon the
value of a. A regression analysis shows that next equation is appropriate
235
Previous evaluations were made in the assumption that the Bessel function J0(mr), expressing the distance
r between the axis of the load and the vertical co-ordinate axis, has no influence on the accuracy of the
results. Indeed, when r = 0 and thus J0(mr) = 1, this function has no influence. When r is different from
zero, the absolute values of J0(mr) are smaller than one. The values of J0(mr) do not have any influence
on the accuracy of the results, but the oscillating nature of the function, between 1 and 1, must be taken
into account. The successive roots of J0(x) are 2.4, 5.5, 8.7, 10.8, 14.9. The values of m in J0(mr), at which
the above roots are met, depend on the values of r. It may be observed that for high values of r the roots
are very close to each other even for small values of m. The sign of the Bessel function changes after each
root and thus also the sign of the function to be integrated. The change of the sign has little influence on
the deflection because most of the deflection is obtained near the origin. However, the change of sign has
a great influence on the magnitude of the stresses because of the exponential function, which still has
significant values for large values of m. It is absolutely necessary to take those sign variations into
account to avoid errors in the values of the stresses.
We have observed that a good accuracy is obtained when one compute at least 6 values of the function
(let us call it a Weddles interval) between two roots. Therefore, when r is not zero, we will limit the step
width by a function of r, which insures at least 6 computations between the roots. The distance between
the roots is approximately equal to 3. Then the step limit can be expressed as follows
0.5
lim(m ) = r =
6
r
This limitation increases,depending on the value of r, slightly the computer time.
23.4.4
The values of the integrands, without consideration of the Bessel functions, decrease more and more
slowly when the values of the integration variable increases. To take advantage of this fact, the
integration step can be increased for higher values of m and so the computation process can be
accelerated.
We have shown that a same accuracy is achieved by multiplying the step by a factor of two when the
deflection function has decreased by one half. However, the step value cannot be increased indefinitely
because of the oscillating nature of the Bessel functions. Hence, and for the same reasons as in previous
paragraph, the step value has to be limited as follows
lim(m ) =
0.5
a
h1
A1 m 2 + B1 m 2 C1 m( 1 2 1 ) + D1 m( 1 2 1 ) = 1
236
A1 m 2 B1 m 2 + C1 m2 1 + D1 m2 1 = 0
We know that the parameters A1 and C1 can be safely computed.
Hence we express B1 and D1 in function of A1 and C1. We obtain
B1 m 2 = 2 1 + ( 1 4 1 ) A1 m 2 + 2 1 ( 2 4 1 )C1 m
D1 m = 1 2 A1 m 2 + ( 1 4 1 )C1
Let us compute, for example, the vertical deflection
1 + 1
w=
E1
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
A1 m 2 B1 m 2 C1 m( 1 2 1 ) + D1 ( 1 2 1 ) dm
m
2( 1 1 )2
w=
E1
w=
2( 1 1 )
E1
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
1 2 A1 m 2 + 2C1 m( 1 2 1 ) dm
m
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
dm
m
2( 1 1 )2
E1
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
1 2 A1 m 2 + 2C1 m( 1 2 1 ) dm
m
The first integral can analytically be integrated ( 8.6). The integral containing the terms A1 and C1 can
safely be numerically integrated. A similar algorithm can be applied for the other functions.
mz 1
. In expressing B1 and
pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )e mz 1 m dm
0
that can be integrated analytically. For r = 0 the solution can be found in 8.3. For r > 0 the method
developed in 8.5. could be used. However, when z1 is small, in particular after scaling, equation (8.28)
converges very slowly in the case of displacements and even never in the case of stresses. To solve this
problem, we have developed a method, based in fact on the theory of elasticity. We solve the problem for
an isolated load, which can easily be done with the equations of 8.3, and integrate then the result over
the area of the distributed load. The result is a finite integral that can numerically be solved without
difficulty. Let us illustrate this with the equation for the vertical stress in the case of a semi-infinite body
subjected to an isolated load
P
z =
2
mJ 0 ( mr )(1 + mz )e
mz
P
z ,1 =
2
mJ 0 ( mr )e
237
mz
dm
dm
By equation (8.9)
z ,i =
P
2
(z 2 + r 2 )3 / 2
where the index i stands for isolated. We now integrate the equation for z,i over the area of the
distributed load. Therefore we replace in the equation for the isolated load the distance r by the equation
2 a
z ,i dd
0 0
pa J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )e mz dm =
0
2 a
p
2
0 0
z d d
(z 2 + 2 + r 2 2r cos )3 / 2
2 a
0 0
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) mz
1
e
dm =
m
2a
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )e
mz
1
dm =
2a
2 a
dd
(z 2 + 2 + r 2 2r cos )1 / 2
zdd
(z 2 + 2 + r 2 2r cos )3 / 2
2 a
(
1
2 z 2 2 r 2 + 2 r cos )dd
mz
=
J
(
mr
)
J
(
ma
)
me
dm
1
0
5/2
2a
2
2
2
0
0 0 (z + + r 2 r cos )
0
0 0
These integrals can partially be solved by letting x = cos, y =sin, dxdy = dd and integrating with
)1 / 2 and (a 2 x 2 )1 / 2 . Hence
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) mz
1
e
dm =
m
2a
+ a2 x2
dxdy
(x 2 + y 2 + r 2 2 xr + z 2 )
1/ 2
1/ 2
+a
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma ) mz
(
1
a 2 + r 2 2 rx + z 2 )
+ (a 2 x 2 )
e
dm =
log
dx
m
2a
2
2
2 1/ 2
2
2 1/ 2
(a + r 2rx + z ) (a x )
0
a
1/ 2
+a
(
z
a2 x2 )
dx
mz
J 0 ( mr )J 1 ( ma )e dm = a 2 2
3
/
2
2
(a 2 + r 2 2rx + z 2 )1 / 2
0
a (x + r 2 rx + z )
1/ 2
+a
(
(
1
a2 x2 )
2 z 2 a 2 r 2 + 2 rx )dx
mz
J
(
mr
)
J
(
ma
)
me
dm
=
1
0
3a 2
2
2 3/2 2
(x + r 2 2rx + z 2 )
0
a (a + r 2 rx + z )
0
238
a x
2
2
+
3a
1/ 2
(
(
a2 x2 )
2 z 2 a 2 r 2 + 2 rx )dx
2 2
2 1/ 2 2
(x + r 2 2rx + z 2 )2
a (a + r 2 rx + z )
+a
The integrals with Bessel functions of the same order can be integrated by the equations of 8.4.
239
240
z
Figure 24.1 The surface modulus
The deflection in a semi-infinite body subjected to an isolated load is given by (20.18)
J ( mr )J 1 ( ma )
1+
(2 2 + mz )e mz dm
w=
pa 0
E
m
(24.1)
1+ P
w=
E 2
J 0 ( mr )(2 2 + mz )e
241
mz
dm
(24.2)
w=
1+ P
1
( 3 2 )
E 2
z
(24.3)
2( 1 2 ) P 1
E
2 r
(24.4)
w=
As a result, the deflections at the surface are equal to the deflections in the axis of the load when
r=
2( 1 )z
2z
z
, or when
r , depending on the value of .
( 3 2 )
3
2
The conclusion is that the deflections at the surface of a semi-infinite body, and thus probably of a
multilayer, give information about the deflections, and thus about the Youngs moduli, in the different
layers of the structure. The surface modulus, E0(i), is then defined as the modulus corresponding with the
deflection w(i) measured at a distance r(i) of the load by next equation
E0 ( i ) =
) (
2 1 2 P
1 2 pa 2
r( i )w( i )2
r( i )w( i )
(24.5)
The surface modulus provides for no more than general information. Hence the deflection under a
distributed load can be assimilated with the deflection under an isolated load.
E
h j = hi i
E j
1/ 3
(24.6)
242
r
A
E1h1
E0h1,eq
E2h2
E0h2,eq
z
E0
B
E0
Consider the following classical pavement structure with layers of increasing stiffness placed over the
subgrade.
Layer
Surface
Base
Subgrade
E (N/mm)
H (mm)
10000
0.2
100
3000
0.3
300
500
0.5
n/a
Table 24.1 Normal three-layer structure on an elastic subgrade
Distances (mm)
Deflections (m)
E0 (N/mm)
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
69.6
38.1
26.2
19.1
14.3
11.2
9
2155
656
477
436
443
446
463
Deflections and surface moduli with p = 1 N/mm, a = 100 mm
Adhesion
1
1
n/a
2100
7.5
476
243
2400
6.5
481
Back-calculated moduli
E1 = 10036 E2 = 2993 E3 = 500 N/mm
Equivalent depth of the subgrade
heq = h1(E1/E3)1/3 + h2(E2/E3)1/3 = 271 + 545 = 816 mm; req = 2/3heq =544 mm.
E0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Distances
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
0.2
0.3
0.5
E
10000
25000
500
H
100
300
n/a
Adhesion
1
1
n/a
0
38.9
3856
300
25.2
992
600
21.2
590
900
17.5
476
1200
14.4
434
1500
11.9
420
1800
9.8
425
2100
8.2
436
Table 24.4 Deflections and Surface moduli of three-layer structure with stiff base
Back-calculated moduli
E1 = 10071 E2 = 24716 E3 = 501 N/mm
Equivalent depth of the subgrade
heq = h1*(E1/E0)1/3 + h2*(E2/E0)1/3 = 272 + 1101 = 1373; req = 914 mm.
244
2400
7
446
E0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
0
300
Distances
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
Figure 24.4 Surface module plot of a structure with a stiff base layer
The back-calculation results are satisfactory. Convergence is reached a bit slower than in the previous
case. The presence of a rigid layer cannot be detected from the graph. The value of the subgrade modulus
can be estimated from the deflection located at 900 mm of the load (req = 914 mm); the value remains
practically constant for the following deflections.
24.4.3
0.2
0.3
0.5
E
10000
50
500
H
100
300
n/a
Adhesion
1
1
n/a
0
323.8
463
300
190.8
131
600
76.2
164
900
25.7
324
1200
11.3
607
1500
7.4
676
1800
7.2
579
2100
6.9
518
2400
6.3
496
Table 24.6 Deflections and Surface moduli of three-layer structure with soft interlayer
Back-calculated moduli
E1 = 10005 E2 = 50 E3 = 501
N/mm
245
E0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0
300
Distances
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
Figure 24.5 Surface module plot of three-layer structure with soft interlayer
The results are satisfactory. Convergence was reached very fast. The presence of the weak layer can very
well been detected from the graph: low values of the surface modulus between d(2) and d(4). The value of
the subgrade modulus can be estimated from the deflection located at 2100 mm form the load (req = 914
mm). It seems that the principle of equivalent layers cannot been applied in this case, probably because of
the absence of friction at both interfaces of the base course.
24.4.4 Analysis of a two-layer on a subgrade with increasing stiffness with depth
Consider the multilayered pavement system of Table 24.7.
Layer
Surface
Base
Soil1
Soil2
Soil3
Soil4
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
E
10000
3000
50
200
500
1000
H
100
300
500
500
500
n/a
Adhesion
1
1
1
1
1
n/a
Table 24.7 Multi-layer structure on a subgrade with increasing stiffness with depth
Distances
Deflections
E0
0
69.7
2152
300
43.2
579
600
30.6
408
900
20.6
405
1200
12.9
484
1500
7.5
667
1800
4
1042
2100
1.9
1880
2400
0.9
3472
Table 24.8 Deflections and Surface moduli of multi-layer structure on a subgrade with increasing
stiffness with depth
Backcalculated moduli:
E1 = 11241 E2 = 348 E3 = 3455
N/mm
246
E0
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
0
300
Disatances
600
900
1200
1500
1800
2100
2400
Figure 24.6 Surface moduli of multi-layer structure on a subgrade with increasing stiffness with depth
The results obtained with a three layer are entirely incorrect. Convergence was never obtained. The
increase of the subgrade modulus can be detected on the graph from deflection d(4) on. Such an evolution
of the surface modulus indicates that the classical back-calculation procedure (with 3 or 4 layers) cannot
be applied.
(24.7)
where wobs(i) is the deflection observed at a distance r(i) of the load and a(i), b(i), c(i) and d(i) are
coefficients to be determined by a regression analysis based on the set of observed deflections. Equation
(24.7) is the basic equation utilised in the regression analysis. However, the correlation subtending (24.7)
is not of very high quality. Hence, the values of the back-calculated moduli giving computed deflections
as close as possible to the observed deflections are not obtained by one application of (24.7). They have
to be computed in an iterative manner until a pre-required fit between observed and computed deflections
is obtained. The programs differ from each other following the manner how the iterative computations are
organised.
In Chapter 25 well analyse a program that we have developed for practical use.
247
248
2( 1 2 )
pa .
E
E11 = E10
w
2( 1 2 ) pa w11
= E10 11
2 pa w
w10
2( 1 )
10
In practice we assume that the first modulus E1 is proportional to the first deflection, zp(1), that the
second modulus E2 is proportional to the second deflection, zp(2), and that the third modulus E3 is
proportional to the last deflection, zp(np),
E11 = E10
z0 ( 1 )
zp( 1 )
E21 = E20
z0 ( 2 )
zp( 2 )
E31 = E30
z 0 ( np )
zp( np1 )
E10 , E 20 , E30 , z0 ( i )
E11 , E 20 , E30 , z1 ( i )
E10 , E 21 , E30 , z 2 ( i )
E10 , E 20 , E31 , z 3 ( i )
7. Estimation of the moduli by the method of the least squares.
- Introduce the obtained results in Bushs algorithm
Compute the values of the unknown parameters a(i), b(i), c(i) and d(i)
a( i ) =
z1 ( i ) z0 ( i )
log E11 log E10
249
z 2 ( i ) z0 ( i )
log E21 log E20
z 3 ( i ) z0 ( i )
c( i ) =
log E31 log E30
d ( i ) = z0 ( i ) a( i ) log E10 b( i ) log E20 c( i ) log E30
b( i ) =
Replace a(i), b(i), c(i) and d(i) by their values in order to obtain np equations for the deflections
in function of the unknown moduli E1, E2, E3.
Compute the sum of the squared differences between the computed deflections z0(i) and the
observed deflections zp(i).
np
[zp( i ) z0 ( i )]2
1
Minimise the sum and deduce the values of the expected moduli E1, E2, E3.
log E1
=0
log E 2
=0
log E3
=0
8. Compute the deflections zres(i) resulting from the values of the expected moduli and compute the sum
np
of the absolute differences between the measured and the computed deflections
zp( i ) z res ( i ) .
1
If the difference is less than an a specified minimum limit, then the obtained values are the best fitting
moduli. If the difference is higher than the limit, start the whole process again from step 2 on, with
the computed values E1, E2, E3 as values for the new seed moduli.
Sometimes the effect of the formula of step 4 for the computation of the alternative moduli can be very
drastic in the sense that the value obtained for one of the moduli can be smaller than 1. The process
becomes then chaotic. Indeed, to compensate for the very low value of one of the moduli, the application
of the least squares method will lead to a very high value for an another modulus and the results become
worse after each loop.
An appropriate test must be built in the program in order to stop the computations when this happens.
Often the reason is as simple as an inappropriate choice of the seed moduli and a modification of some of
them will solve the problem. Sometimes, but seldom, whatever the values of the seed moduli, the problem
keeps going on. This means that the input data are such that back-calculation, with the available tool, will
become impossible.
In fact, back-calculation is an artificial procedure. The multilayer theory is intended to compute stresses
and displacements of a multilayered structure subjected to a load at its surface and whos mechanical and
geometrical characteristics are known. The solutions of the computations are unique and do not give
allowance for interpretation. In contrast, the computations in a backcalculation procedure are
approximates. First because they are based on approximate field data, and secondly because the results
are approximate and vary in function of the chosen algorithm and in function of the before hand specified
convergence limit. To gain insight in the value of the obtained results, we analyse the influence of a series
of factors inherent to the back-calculation procedure in the next paragraphs. The sensitivity is analysed
for a three and a four layer structure.
250
25.2 The sensitivity of the back-calculation procedure for a three layer structure
We analyse the sensitivity to rounding off the values of the measured deflections and the sensitivity of the
procedure in the case of the presence of a weak layer. Furthermore we analyse the influence of fixing one
of the moduli of the structure.
25.2.1 The sensitivity to rounding off the values of the measured deflections
The quality of the results of back-calculation evidently depends on the number of measured deflections
and the values of this deflections. Then the question arises how many deflections are required to define an
adequate deflection basin and in how far the deflection values may be rounded off when taking, for
example, the mean value of three measurements. To analyse this, we consider the 3-layered structure
defined in table 25.1.
Layer
Thickness (mm)
Surface (AC)
Base (Stabilized sand)
Subgrade
Emodulus (N/mm)
100
300
Poissons ratio
10000
3000
500
0.2
0.3
0.5
0
192.3
1650
300
120.9
656
600
83.2
477
900
60.5
437
1200
45.5
436
1500
35.5
447
1800
28.7
461
2100
23.9
474
2400
20.5
474
E1
E2
E3
Fit
Loops
9815
9940
9837
9942
3070
3008
3063
3007
497
500
497
500
0.19
0.02
0.20
0.01
8
7
8
8
We consider the 3-layered structure with a weak base defined in table 25.4.
251
Layer
Thickness (mm)
Emodulus (N/mm)
Poissons ratio
100
200
10000
200
500
0.2
0.5
0.5
Surface (AC)
Sandy material
Subgrade
0
106.6
934
300
72.6
344
600
25.6
488
900
14.2
587
1200
11.6
539
1500
9.8
510
1800
8.3
502
2100
7.1
503
2400
6.2
504
Table 25.5. Deflections in m under falling weight on a structure with weak base
The back-calculation provides next results: E1 = 10021, E2 = 199, E3 = 500. The fit is 0.02 and the
number of required loops is 5. Thus, the presence of a weak intermediate layer seems to have no influence
on the accuracy of the results in the case of a three layer structure.
25.2.3 The influence of fixing beforehand the value of one modulus
To improve the results of the back-calculation, setting one of the moduli to a fixed value can be of
interest. Using the deflections of table 25.2, we investigate the influence of fixing on beforehand the value
of one of the moduli of the structure on the backcalculated values of the other moduli. In Tables 25.6 to
25.8, we consecutively fix the values of moduli E1, E2 and E3. The true values of the fixed moduli are
indicated between quotes.
E1 fixed
12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
E2
2576
2726
2907
3130
3418
E3
503
502
500
499
497
Fit
0.15
0.08
0.03
0.09
0.19
Loops
5
5
6
6
6
E1
7984
8863
10006
11511
13515
E2 fixed
3600
3300
3000
2700
2400
E3
495
497
500
504
508
Fit
0.20
0.11
0.03
0.13
0.30
252
Loops
4
4
4
4
4
E1
E2
E3 fixed
Fit
Loops
18934
14161
10021
6185
3662
1551
2098
2988
5276
13360
600
550
500
450
400
1.78
0.96
0.02
1.19
2.67
7
5
4
7
7
Variation E1
[- 20%, + 20%]
[+ 27%, - 27%]
[- 75%, + 75%]
Variation E2
[+ 14%, - 14%]
[- 20%, + 20%]
[+200 %, -200 %]
Variation E3
[- 1%, + 1%]
[+ 1%, - 1%]
[- 20%, + 20%]
25.3 The sensitivity of the back-calculation procedure for a four layer structure
The study into the sensitivity of the back-calculation procedure is now extended to a four layered
structure. Indeed, experience thought that many problems can arise with such a pavement system. We will
analyse the sensitivity to rounding off the values of the measured deflections, the value of the information
given by the surface modulus, the presence weak interlayer and the influence of fixing beforehand the
value of one modulus and of a fixed bottom..
Consider the 4-layered structure defined in Table 25.10.
Layer
Surface (CRCP)
Base (lean concrete)
Sub-base (sand)
Subgrade
Thickness (mm)
200
200
300
Emodulus (N/mm)
35000
10000
300
50
Poissons ratio
0.2
0.2
0.5
0.5
253
Distances (mm)
Deflections (m)
0
399.4
300
380.9
600
359.6
900
336.4
1200
312.4
1500
288.6
1800
265.6
2100
243.8
2400
223.5
E1
35144
40255
35319
41932
E2
10027
8103
9891
7236
E3
293
415
306
502
E4
50
50
50
49
Fit
0.02
0.21
0.01
0.24
Loops
4
5
4
4
In Table 25.13 we computed de surface moduli for the deflections of Table 25.11.
Distances
Deflections
E0(i)
0
399.4
794
300
380.9
208
600
359.6
110
900
336.4
79
1200
312.4
63
1500
288.6
55
1800
265.6
50
2100
243.8
46
2400
223.5
44
Often a rocky layer is present at a certain depth and the vertical deflection vanishes at the corresponding
level. In structural language one speaks of a so-called fixed bottom. This notion can also recover a
phenomenon of a subgrade with increasing stiffness. Then the depth of the so-called fixed bottom is more
difficult to establish. In Table 25.14, we give the deflections for the structure of Table 25.10 with a
thickness of the subgrade (depth of the fixed bottom) of 5000 mm in the hypothesis of full friction at the
interfaces.
Distances
Deflections
E0(i)
0
248.8
1275
300
230.4
344
600
209.6
189
900
187.3
141
1200
164.4
121
1500
142.1
112
1800
121.0
109
2100
101.3
112
254
2400
83.4
119
Increase of the E0(i) values from deflection d(8) reveals the presence of a fixed bottom. In Table 25.15,
we calculate the depth of the fixed bottom giving the best fit for the backcalculated moduli.
Subgrade thickness
5500
5000
4000
3000
E1
33465
35052
38968
43478
E2
11447
9918
7002
4790
E3
103
309
740
1148
E4
57
50
35
19
Fit
0.06
0.02
0.15
0.28
Loops
6
5
4
4
We consider the 4-layered structure with a weak base defined in Table 25.16:
Layer
Surface (CRCP)
Sandy material
Stabilised sand
Subgrade
Thickness (mm)
200
200
300
Emodulus (N/mm)
35000
1000
3000
50
Poissons ratio
0.2
0.5
0.3
0.5
0
106.7
2973
300
90.0
881
600
74.3
534
900
60.2
439
1200
48.3
411
1500
38.7
410
1800
31.3
422
2100
25.7
441
2400
21.0
461
Table 25.17 Deflections in m under falling weight on a structure with weak base
Increase of the E0(i) values from deflection d(7) on reveals the presence of a weak intermediate layer.
Table 25.18 lists the reference deflections and compare them to the back-calculated deflections.
Distances
Reference deflections
Computed deflections
0
106.7
106.7
300
90.0
90.1
600
74.3
74.1
900
60.2
60.2
1200
48.3
48.4
1500
38.7
38.8
1800
31.3
31.3
2100
25.7
25.5
2400
21.0
21.1
255
E1 fixed
E2
E3
E4
Fit
Loops
42000
38500
35000
32500
28000
7730
8804
10085
11183
13765
410
354
290
238
126
50
50
50
50
50
0.19
0.10
0.01
0.07
0.24
4
5
5
5
6
E1
31511
33224
35201
37498
40178
E2 fixed
12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
E3
180
236
294
355
438
E4
50
50
50
50
50
Fit
0.13
0.06
0.01
0.08
0.16
Loops
5
5
5
5
5
E1
36921
36104
35324
34578
33863
E2
9079
9499
9925
10357
10796
E3 fixed
360
330
300
270
240
E4
50
50
50
50
50
Fit
0.08
0.05
0.02
0.03
0.06
Loops
5
5
5
5
5
E1
23527
28211
35263
50988
80950
E2
18750
15572
9955
4163
610
E3
1
3
298
760
1112
E4 fixed
52
51
50
49
48
Fit
2.51
0.44
0.01
0.64
1.09
256
Loops
12
7
6
7
10
Fixed modulus
E1
E2
E3
E4
Variation E1
[- 20%, + 20%]
[+ 12%, - 12%]
[- 4%, + 4%]
[+ 82%, - 82%]
Variation E2
[+ 30%, - 30%]
[- 20%, + 20%]
[+ 9 %, - 9 %]
[- 91%, + 91%]
Variation E3
[- 49%, + 49%]
[+ 40%, - 40%]
[- 20%, + 20%]
[+186%, -186%]
Variation E4
Constant
Constant
Constant
[- 4%, + 4%]
25.4 The influence of degree of anisotropy and Poissons ratio on the results of a back-calculation
procedure in the case of a semi-infinite subgrade
In most of the cases, the Poissons ratios of the layers and eventually the degree of anisotropy of the
subgrade are not known. Nevertheless their values are required as input values of the process and must be
estimated. Important is to appreciate their influence. We examine the influence based on a three-layered
structure.
E1 = 10000 N/mm
1 = 0.2
h1 = 100 mm
E2 = 3000 N/mm2
2 = 0.3
h2 = 300 mm
E3 = 500 N/mm
3 = 0.5 for n 1
3 = n/2 for n < 1
0
70
300
38
600
26
900
19
257
1200
14
1500
11
In Table 25.25 we present the backcalculated moduli for different values of the degree of anisotropy and
the corresponding computed deflections
n
1
1.5
2
5
0.5
0.2
0
70.0
70.0
70.0
70.0
70.0
70.0
300
38.0
38.0
38.0
38.0
38.1
38.2
600
26.0
25.9
25.8
25.8
25.6
25.2
900
18.8
18.8
18.8
18.8
18.8
18.7
1200
14.2
14.2
14.3
14.2
14.4
14.6
1500
10.0
10.2
10.3
10.2
10.5
10.9
Fit
0.06
0.14
0.16
0.15
0.26
0.47
E1
9920
10580
10732
10536
11932
14247
E2
2924
2732
2693
2753
2386
1949
E3
506
595
656
900
448
377
loops
5
5
5
5
4
5
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
70
70
70
69
67
300
38
39
39
38
36
600
26
27
27
26
25
900
19
20
20
20
19
1200
14
15
16
15
15
1500
11
12
12
12
12
25.5 The influence of Poissons ratio and degree of anisotropy on the results of a back-calculation
procedure in the case of a subgrade of finite thickness
Consider the three-layered structure given below:
E1 = 10000 N/mm
1 = 0.2
h1 = 100 mm
E2 = 2000 N/mm2
2 = 0.3
h2 = 200 mm
E3 = 100 N/mm
3 = 0.5 for n 1
3 = n/2 for n < 1
h3 = 1000 mm
The load is a uniform pressure of p = 1 N/mm on a circular area with a radius a = 100 mm
25.5.1 Influence of the degree of anisotropy on the back-calculated moduli
In Table 25.27 we give the reference deflections for a degree of anisotropy n = 1.
258
Distances (mm)
Deflections (m)
0
115
300
66
600
34
900
13
1200
1
In Table 25.28 we give the backcalculated moduli for different values of the degree of anisotropy and the
corresponding computed deflections.
n
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
0.9
0.8
0.7
0
115.0
115.0
115.0
114.9
114.9
114.9
115.0
115.0
114.9
300
66.0
66.4
66.6
66.7
66.7
66.7
66.0
66.6
66.8
600
33.9
33.1
32.7
32.4
32.4
32.4
33.3
32.7
32.2
900
13.1
13.2
13.2
13.2
13.2
13.2
13.2
13.3
13.4
1200
1.0
2.3
2.9
3.3
3.3
3.3
2.0
2.9
3.7
Fit
0.04
0.53
0.80
0.97
0.97
0.97
0.46
0.80
1.15
E1
9550
12519
14191
15276
15276
15276
12189
14579
16887
E2
2025
1490
1261
1129
1129
1129
1530
1192
923
E3
101
137
161
178
178
178
130
154
174
loops
5
20
30
38
38
38
18
26
59
In Table 25.29, we compute the surface deflections in function of Poissons ratio of the subgrade.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
115
134
141
144
143
300
66
85
93
95
95
600
34
52
59
62
62
900
13
29
35
38
39
1200
1
13
19
22
23
259
260
< 0
shortening
> 0
lengthening
261
2b
pa
p=
J 0 ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )dm
l
(26.1)
w=
pa
kl
J o ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )
dm
4
+
m
1
0
Dz d 2 w
1
+
h 3 dr 2
r
d 2w 1
Dz
= 12
( 2 +
h
dr
r
r = 12
If r = 0, r = =
r +
, hence
2
r 0 = 6
dw
dr
dw
)
dr
d 2 w 1 dw
(
1
+
)
+
3
2
h
r dr
dr
Dz
0 =
r
1 +
1
= r
( 1 ) = [ r ( 1 )]
E
E
2
E
262
(26.2)
0 =
m 2 J 1 ( ma / l )
m 4 + 1 dm
2 kl 3 0
z pa
(26.3)
If r > 0
mJ 1 ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )
dm
rkl 0
m4 + 1
zpa
(26.4)
w=
qa
kl
J o ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )
dm
4
+
m
1
0
(26.5)
2
1
+
r 2 r r
2 w 1 w
+
r 2 r r
kw
+
=0
D
(26.6)
w A = A ker( r / l )
wB = Bkei( r / l )
(26.7)
(26.8)
Out of the four solutions of equation (12.19), we have chosen the ker and kei functions, which tend to
zero at infinity. We call the total solution
wtot =
qa J o ( mr / l )J 1 ( ma / l )
dm
+
A
ker(
r
/
l
)
+
Bkei
(
r
/
l
)
kl 0
m4 + 1
(26.9)
2 wtot
1
M r = D
+
r 2
r
2 wtot
1
+
Tr = D
2
r r
r
wtot
=0
r
wtot
=0
r
(26.10)
(26.11)
The constants A and B are determined from the system equations (26.10) and (26.11).
The equations for stresses, strains and displacement in r = b write
2
Dz wtot
1 wtot
r =
2 +
=0
I r
r r
263
(26.12)
=
with r = 0
2
Dz wtot
1 wtot
I r 2
r r
(26.13)
2 wtot
Dz
(1 2 )
EI
r 2
Dz
1 dwtot
=
(1 2 )
EI
r dr
dw
Dz
u = r =
( 1 2 ) tot
EI
dr
r =
(26.14)
(26.15)
(26.16)
For r = b
u
Dz
1 dwtot
=
=
(1 2 )
b
EI
r dr
(26.17)
R=
=
r0 r0
E
E
(26.18)
The value of R only depends on the geometrical parameters of the structure a/l and b/l. It can be shown
that the value of R is approximately independent of Poissons ratio.
Apply Hookes law in r = 0
r0 = 0 =
r0
(1 )
E
0( r = 0 ) =
It appears, as can numerically be shown, that lim R = 2 .
1
( r = b )
R
(26.19)
b 0
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.05
0.075
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.3
1.872
1.795
-
1.914
1.856
1.797
-
1.937
1.890
1.842
1.746
-
1.950
1.912
1.871
1.787
1.705
-
1.959
1.927
1.891
1.816
1.741
-
1.966
1.937
1.906
1.839
1.770
1.636
1.971
1.946
1.918
1.856
1.793
1.668
264
2b
2a
Figure 26.3. The hollow cylinder subjected to a uniform tensile stress
Because of the axial symmetry, the problem will be solved in polar co-ordinates.
The continuity equation writes
2
1
+
r 2 r r
2
1
+
r 2 r r
=0
(26.20)
4
Make the substitution r = e
r 4
2 3
1 2
1
+
=0
r r 3 r 2 r 2 r 3 r
4
z 4
3
z 3
+4
2
z 2
=0
G 4 4G 3 + 4G 2 = 0
with roots G1,2 = 0, G3,4 = 2.
Hence
f ( z ) = Az + Bze 2 z + Ce 2 z + D
and
= A log r + Br 2 log r + Cr 2 + D
The stresses are
265
(26.21)
r =
+ B( 1 + 2 log r ) + 2C
r2
A
=
+ B( 3 + 2 log r ) + 2C
r2
r = 0
(26.22)
(26.23)
(26.24)
For reasons due to the radial displacements, which will not be developed here, B = 0. The boundary
conditions are
In r = b
A
b2
+ 2C = 0
In r = a
A
a2
+ 2C = S
Hence
A = S
a 2b 2
2C = S
a2 b2
a2
a2 b2
r =
b2
1
a 2 b 2 r 2
Sa 2
b2
1 +
a 2 b 2 r 2
Sa 2
(26.25)
SL
2b
2a
1
1
( SL + ST ) + ( SL ST ) cos 2
2
2
1
1
= ( SL + ST ) ( SL ST ) cos 2
2
2
1
r = ( SL ST ) sin 2
2
r =
(26.26)
(26.27)
(26.28)
The stresses can be divided into two parts. A first part, constant and equal to (SL+ST)/2 are normal
stresses, which can be determined by equation (26.25)
r =
SL + ST a 2
2
a2 b2
b2
1 2
r
SL + ST a 2
2
a2 b2
b2
1 + 2 (26.29)
r
The second part corresponds to an association between the normal stresses (SL - ST)cos2/2
and the shear stresses (SL - ST)sin2/2.
The compatibility equation
2
1
1 2
+
+
r 2 r r
r 2 2
2 1
1 2
+
+
=0
2
2
r 2 r r
r
(26.30)
can be resolved by separation of the variables. It seems appropriated to express the -function as a
trigonometric function and well as f ( ) = cos 2 so that the shear stresses can vanish when the normal
stresses are maximal. Hence, we take
= f ( r ) cos 2
d2
1 d
4 d 2 f
1 df
4 f
cos 2 = 0
+
2
2
2
2
dr 2 r dr
r
dr
r
dr
r
(26.31)
d4 f
dr 4
Make the substitution
2 d3 f
9 d2 f
9 df
+
=0
3
2
2
r dr
r dr
r 3 dr
r = ez
d4 f
dz 4
d3 f
dz 3
d2 f
dz 2
+ 16
df
dz
G 4 4G 3 4G 2 + 16 G = 0
267
=0
(26.32)
G( G 3 4G 2 4G + 16 ) = G( G 2 4 )( G 4 ) = 0
The roots are
G1 = 2
G2 = 2
G3 = 4
G4 = 0
Hence
f ( r ) = Ae 2 z + Ce 2 z + Be 4 z + D = Ar 2 + Br 4 + C
1
r2
+D
and
= ( Ar 2 + Br 4 + C
1
r2
+ D ) cos 2
(26.33)
6C 4 D
cos 2
= 2 A +
+
r 2 2
r r
r4 r2
2
6C
cos 2
=
= 2 A + 12 Br 2 +
2
r
r4
1
2 6C 2D
r =
= 2 A + 6 Br 4 2 sin 2
r r
r
r
r =
1 2
(26.34)
(26.35)
(26.36)
6C 4 D
1
+ 2 = ( SL ST )
4
2
a
a
6C 2D
1
2 A + 6 Ba 2 4 2 = ( SL ST )
2
a
a
2A +
In r = b
6C 4D
+ 2 =0
b4
b
6
C
2D
2 A + 6 Bb 2 4 2 = 0
b
b
2A +
A=
( SL ST )
4
B=0
C=
( SL ST )b 4
4
D=
( SL ST )b 2
(26.37)
2
Adding solutions (26.29), the final expressions for the stresses become
SL + ST
b2
SL ST
3b 4 4b 2
(1
)+
(1+
) cos 2
2
2
r2
r4
r2
SL + ST
b2
SL ST
3b 4
=
(1+
)
(1+
) cos 2
2
2
r2
r4
r =
268
(26.38)
(26.39)
r =
3b 4 2b 2
SL ST
(1
+
) sin 2
2
r4
r2
(26.40)
r =
r
E
r
=
E
r =
2( 1 + ) r
E
Hence
1 SL + ST
E 2
1 b
r2
SL ST
+
4
2
1 + 3b 4b
r4
r2
cos 2
SL + ST
b 2
SL ST
3b 4
1+
1+
cos 2
2
2
r 2
r 4
1 SL + ST
b 2 SL ST
3b 4 4b 2
+
+
r =
(
1
(
1
+
)
1
cos 2
2
4
2
E 2
2
r
r
r
r =
SL ST
3b 4
( 1 + 4 ) cos 2 )
2
r
(26.41)
u = rdr
1 SL + ST
a 2 SL ST
b 4 4b
+
u=
(r
) cos 2
( 1 )r ( 1 + ) +
3
E 2
2
r
r
r
SL ST
3b 4
(1
) cos 2
2
r3
Let =
(26.42)
ST
, one obtains in r = b:
SL
b SL + ST
(( 1 ) ( 1 + )) + SL ST ( 1 1 + 4 ) cos 2
u=
2
E 2
SL ST
( 1 1 ) cos 2 )
2
b
u = [SL + ST + 2( SL ST ) cos 2 ]
E
u=
bSL
[1 + + 2( 1 ) cos 2 ]
E
269
(26.43)
SL
Define the strain as the displacement divided by the initial length (this definition is not that of the theory
of elasticity where the strain is defined for infinitesimal lengths).
For = 0
2u SL
=
=
[1 + + 2( 1 ) cos 2 ]
2b E
(26.44)
L SL
[1 + + 2( 1 )] = SL ( 3 )
=
E
E
L
(26.45)
T SL
[1 + 2( 1 )] = SL ( 3 1 )
=
E
E
T
(26.46)
For =
We define
RL = L = 3
SL
E
T
RT = T = 3 1
ST
E
(26.47)
(26.48)
1
SL
( SL ST ) =
( 1 )
E
E
1
SL
T = ( ST SL ) =
( )
E
E
L =
270
(26.49)
(26.50)
1
T = L + 3 T ( 3 L + T )
8 L
T
L
T
L =
1 L T
+
( L + 3 T
3
8 L
T
L
T
(26.51)
(26.52)
RL = L < 2
SL
E
and
RT = T < 2
ST
E
Hence equations (26.51) and (26.52) underestimate the values of SL/E and ST/E and thus L and T by a
factor R/2. The correct strains then become
2
L
R
2
T' = T
R
'L =
(26.53)
(26.54)
'L = T' = ( r = 0 ) =
2 1
1
4( 1 ) =
( r = b )
R8
R
which corresponds exactly with equation (26.19) established for the first solution.
Through all this chapter, we have assumed that L / L and T / T where the principal strains, hence,
that L and T where the principal directions. In practice this is not necessarily always the case. The
principal strains are then obtained by application of the properties of Mohrs circle on strains measured in
three directions.
271
272
REFERENCES
References
Airy (1862): The Airy stress function. Brit. Assoc. Advan. Sci. Rept.
Barden (1963): Stresses and Displacements in a Cross-Anisotropic Soil. Geotechnique n 13. London.
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Bowman (1958) : Introduction to Bessel Functions. Dover Publications Inc. New York.
Burmister (1943): The Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems and Applications to the Design
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Burmister (1944): The General Theory of Stresses and Displacements in Layered Systems. Journal of Applied
Physics, Vol 16.
Bush (1980): Nondestructive Testing for Light Aircraft Pavements, Phase II. FAA Report FAA-RD-80-9-II,
Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington DC.
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Tome XIX, Fasc 1-2.
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chausses. Bulletin de Liaison Labo P. et Ch. n 102. Paris
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Moscow: Gps. Izd. Lit. po Strait I Arkh. (In Russian).
Prandtl (1921): Uber die Eindringungsfestigkeit plastischer baustoffe und die Festigkeit von Schneiden.
Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik. Vol. 1, N 1. Pronk (1991): Personal communication.
Pronk (1993): The Pasternak foundation. An attractive alternative for the Winkler foundation. Proc. of the 5th
Intl. Conference on Concrete Pavement Design and Rehabilitation. Purdue University. West Lafayette. USA.
Spiegel (1971): Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists. Schaums outline series. McGraw Hill Book
Company. New York.
Stet, Thewessen and Van Cauwelaert. (2001), Standard and Recommended Practices for FWD Evaluation and
Reporting Strength of Airfield Pavement; Standard submitted to NATO for Enquiry, First European FWD
Users Group Meeting, Delft University of Technology, February 2001.
Stet and Van Cauwelaert. (2004). The Elastic Length: Key to the Analysis of Multi-layered Concrete Structures.
5th International CROW Workshop On Concrete Roads. Istanbul, Turkey.
Stet, Thewessen and Van Cauwelaert. (2004). The Pavers System. A Knowledge Sharing Concept in the Design
and Assessment of Road, Airfield and Industrial Pavement. 9th International Symposium On Concrete Roads.
Istanbul, Turkey.
Timoshenko (1948): Thorie de lElasticit. Librairie Polytechnique Ch. Branger. Paris et Lige.
Timoshenko (1951): Thorie des Plaques et des Coques. Librairie Polytechnique Ch. Branger. Paris et Lige.
Timoshenko (1953): Rsistance des Matriaux. Librairie Polytechnique Ch. Branger. Paris et Lige.
Ullidtz (1998): Modeling Flexible Pavement Response and Performance. Polyteknisk Forlag. Narayana Press,
Denmark.
Van Cauwelaert (1977): Coefficients of Deformation of an Anisotropic Body. ASCE Journal of the Engineering
Mechanics Division. New York.
Van Cauwelaert, Cerisier (1982): Bearing Capacity considered as a geotechnical concept. BCRA92. Trondheim.
Norway.
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Doctorat. Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne. Suisse.
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transverse soumis des charges rectangulaires souples et rigides en surface. Revue Franaise de Gotechnique
n 28. Paris.
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273
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274
x1 + iy1 = z1 = z2 = x2 + iy 2
if and only if
x1 = x2
y1 = y2
( a + ib ) + ( c + id ) = ( a + c ) + i( b + d )
(A.2)
( a + ib )( c + id ) = ( ac bd ) + i( bc + ad )
(A.3)
Since a complex number is completely determined by two parameters, its real and its complex parts, it
can readily be represented by a point in a Cartesian co-ordinate system: z = x + iy is represented by the
point (x,y) (figure A.1)
y
z = x + iy
z = x + iy = r cos + ir sin
)1 / 2
r = x2 + y 2
= a tan( y / x )
One speaks of the length of the radius vector, r = (x2 + y2)1/2, as the modulus or absolute value of the
complex number z = x +iy. Manipulations of complex numbers in polar form are greatly facilitated by the
introduction of an identity between exponential and trigonometric functions:
ei = cos + i sin
which is easily demonstrated by expanding each of the functions in its series.
Hence we can write
275
(A.4)
We conclude that the exponential function with imaginary exponent obeys the equation
ei = ei( + 2 n )
Accepting the fact that the exponential function for complex and imaginary exponents obeys the same
rules as it does for real functions, we may write
(A.5)
The extraction of roots requires us to take into consideration the ambiguity in representation of a complex
number in polar form. Let us illustrate with the cubic root. We might be tempted to write
We shall take r1/3 to mean the real cube root of the non-negative number r. The expression is a perfectly
respectable cube root of z, but the theory of equations tells us that there should be three cube roots of any
real number, and if we choose = 0 to make z real, we will have only one cube root. We can get around
this difficulty by representing z in the form
z = rei( + 2 n )
Then
z 1 / 3 = r 1 / 3 e i( / 3 + 2 n / 3 )
(A.6)
Exploration of the right side of the equation shows that there are three (and only three) distinct values for
z1/3:
z1 = r 1 / 3 e i / 3
z 2 = r 1 / 3 ei( / 3 + 2 / 3 )
z3 = r 1 / 3 ei( / 3 + 4 / 3 )
Interesting particular values are (with r = 1):
ei = cos( ) + i sin( ) = 1
ei / 2 = cos( / 2 ) + i sin( / 2 ) = i
(A.7)
(A.8)
2 k
2 k
z 1 / n = r 1 / n cos +
+ i sin +
n
n
n
n
This last equation is called De Moivres theorem
Following equations are easily deduced from the definition (A.1)
z1 + z2 z1 + z2
z x+ y
z 1 z 2 z1 z 2
z1 z 2 = z1 z 2
276
(A.9)
2.1. Definitions
If to each of a set of complex numbers with a variable z we may assume there corresponds one or more
values of a variable w, then w is called a function of the variable z, written w = f z).
A function is single-valued if for each value of z there corresponds only one value of w.
If f(z) is single-valued in some region of the z plane, the derivative of z, denoted by f(z), is defined as
f ( z + z ) f ( z )
z
z 0
f ' ( z ) = lim
(A.10)
z = x + iy
(A.11)
w = f ( z ) = + i
(A.12)
We assume that the function is analytic thus that w = f(z) and its derivative dw/dz are both single-valued
and finite.
The derivative of w is given by (A.10). However, unlike real variables, z = x + iy is itself a complex
variable which can approach zero along infinitely many paths.
y
O
N = z + z
= x + x +i(y + y)
M = z = x + iy
x
Figure A 2. Cauchy Riemann conditions
Consider figure A 2. The point N = z + z can approach the point M = z along any of the paths shown. In
particular, let us consider two cases: (1) N tends to M parallel to the x-axis (along NO), thus y = 0 and
z = x; (2) N tends to M parallel to the y-axis (along NQ), thus x = 0 and z = iy. In the general case,
equation (A.10) becomes
( x + x , y + y ) ( x , y ) + i[ ( x + x , y + y ) ( x , y )]
dw
= lim
dz x 0
x + iy
y 0
277
dw
( x + x , y ) ( x , y ) + i[ ( x + x , y ) ( x , y )]
= lim
dz x 0
x
(A.13)
dw
( x , y + y ) ( x , y ) + i[ ( x , y + y ) ( x , y )]
= lim
dz y 0
iy
(A.14)
Recognising that the difference coefficients in (A.13) and (A.14) are partial derivatives with respect to x
and y, we have respectively
dw
=
+i
dz x
y
dw
=
i
dz
y
x
(A.15)
(A.16)
Now, if the derivative dw/dz is to be single-valued, it is necessary that (A.15) and (A.16) be equal.
Hence
=
x y
=
x
y
(A.17)
Equations (A.17) are called the Cauchy Riemann equations. They are the necessary conditions that
w = f(z) be analytic.
3.1 Introduction
The integration of a complex function is a difficult operation that requires the knowledge of the following
series of preliminary steps :
- definition of a line integral:
definition of a simple closed curve: a simple closed curve is a closed curve, which does not
intersect itself anywhere.
integration along a closed curve:
[Pdx + Qdy ] =
Cauchys theorem:
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz = 0
Q P
x y dxdy
Pole of a function: if f(z) = (z)/(z-a)n, (a) 0, where (z) is analytic in a region including
z = a, and if n is a positive integer, then z = a is called a pole of order n.
Residue of a function: the residue of a function f(z) at a pole z = a, of order n, is defined by
the formula
1
d n 1
( z a )n f ( z )
n
1
(
n
1
)!
za
dz
a 1 = lim
-
C1
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz
C2
278
dz
C ( z a )n
dz
C ( z a )n
= 2i
=0
if
if
n=1
n = 2 ,3 ,4 ,.....
Residue theorem: if f(z) is analytic in a region except for a pole of order n at z = a and if
C is any simple closed curve in containing z = a, then
C f ( z )dz = 2ia 1
(A.18)
x 2, y 2
f ( z )dz =
(u + iv)(dx + idy )
x1, y1
x1, y 2
x 1, y 2
x1, y1
(A.19)
x1, y1
With this definition, the integral of a function of a complex variable can be made to depend on line
integrals for real functions in the xy plane. Let C be a curve in the xy plane, which connects points A (a1,
b1) and B(a2,b2) (figure A 3).
y
B
b2
A
b1
a1
a2
[P( k , k )xk + Q( k , k )y k ]
k =1
The limit of this sum as n in such a way that all the quantities xk and yk approach zero, if such
limit exists, is called a line integral along C and is denoted by
or
279
(A.20)
(A.21)
f
A
e
E
P
R y dxdy =
b
x=a
b
Y 2( x )
y dy dx
x = a y = Y 1( x )
P( x , y ) Yy 2=(Yx1)( x ) dx
280
= Pdx
C
Similarly let the equations of curves EAF and EBF be x = X1(y) and x = X2(y). One gets
R x dxdy = C Qdy
Adding both result yields
(A.22)
C f ( z )dz = C ( u + iv )( dx + idy )
. f ( z )dz = ( udx vdy ) + i ( vdx + udy )
C
C
C
By (A.22)
C [udx vdy ] = R x y
C [vdx + udy ] = R x y
C f ( z )dz = 0
(A. 23)
f 1 ( z ) = b0 + b1 ( z a ) + b2 ( z a )2 +
where
1
d i 1
bi 1 =
f 1 ( z )z = a
( i 1 )! dz i 1
281
f(z)=
f1( z )
(za)
a n
(za)
a n + 1
(za)
n 1
+ +
a1
(za)
+ a0 + a1 ( z a ) + a 2 ( z a ) 2 +
(A.24)
1
d n 1
( z a )n f ( z )
n
1
z a ( n 1 )! dz
a 1 = lim
(A.25)
the residue of the function f(z) at the pole z = a ,where n is the order of the pole.
For simple poles the calculation of the residue reduces to
a 1 = lim ( z a ) f ( z )
(A.26)
za
A
B
S
P
f ( z )dz = 0
AQPABRSBA
Thus
AQPA
f ( z )dz +
f ( z )dz +
AB
f ( z )dz +
BRSB
But
f ( z )dz =
AB
f ( z )dz
BA
Hence
282
f ( z )dz = 0
BA
f ( z )dz =
AQPA
f ( z )dz =
BRSB
f ( z )dz
BSRB
and
f ( z )dz = f ( z )dz
C1
(A.27)
C2
dz
C ( z a )n
Consider figure A 6.
C
C1
z=a
Let C be a simple closed curve bounding a region having z = a as an interior point. Let C1 be a circle with
radius having a centre at z = a. Since (z a)n is analytic within and on the boundaries of the region
bounded by C and C1. we have by (A.27)
dz
dz
C ( z a )n = C1 ( z a )n
To evaluate this last integral, note that on C1, (z a) = ei and dz = i ei. The integral equals
2
i e i
n in
0 e
d =
n 1
( 1 n )i
e( 1 n )i
=
C ( z a )n n 1 ( 1 n )i = 0
0
dz
if
n1
(A.28)
dz
C ( z a )n
= i d = 2i
(A.29)
Notice that for n = 0, -1, -2, -3, ..the integrand is 1, (z a), (z a)2 and is analytic everywhere inside
C1, including z = a. Hence by (A.23) the integral is zero.
283
f(z)=
a n
( z a )n
a n + 1
( z a )n 1
+ +
a1
(za)
+ a0 + a1 ( z a ) + a 2 ( z a ) 2 +
By integration we have
a n
a n + 1
a1
C f ( z )dz = C ( z a )n dz + C ( z a )n 1 dz + ..... + C ( z a ) dz
+ a0 + a1 ( z a ) + a 2 ( z a ) 2 + .....dz
C
C f ( z )dz = 2 ia 1
(A.30)
C f ( z )dz = 2 i( a1 + b1 + c1 + ....)
284
(A.31)
The author, Frans Van Cauwelaert, graduated in Civil Engineering at the University of Louvain
(Belgium) and obtained a PhD in Technical Sciences at the Federal Polytechnic School of Lausanne
(Switzerland).
Frans can be considered as a nomad and a pioneer in the field of interest of pavement engineering, and
is well known for his unique and rigorous mathematical solutions, and the ability to put advanced
theory into everyday practice. He is also a kind of geographical nomad, having worked in many parts
all over the world: in Western Europe, Central Africa, Middle East and the United States of America.
He must be considered a technical and scientific nomad too, having worked in the field as a young
engineer, in the laboratory, in design and engineering offices and in class rooms as well. He ended his
impressive career as Head of the Department Promotion, Research and Development of the Federation
of the Belgium Cement Industry (Febelcem).
In the early seventies Frans became interested in the field of rational design of pavements and
developed several design programs: for the US Corps of Engineers, for universities, research centres,
contractors and consultants. He is also one of the three musketeers, who started the Pavers Team.
Retired, he finally found the time to reassembled 30 years of study, research and experience in his
book.