College of Engineering Pune

Note on Reduction Formulae and Beta and Gamma Functions

1 Reduction Formulae:
Reduction formulae are useful when integral / anti-derivative involves one or more discrete param-
eters. Application of reduction formula reduces the value of discrete parameter by some finite value
each time. Repeated application of such formula may reduce the given integral into an integral
which can be easily evaluated using Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

1.1 Cosine and Sine reduction formulae:

Z
Let Cn = cosn (x)dx (n ≥ 2). Using integration by parts we get
Z Z
n n−1
Cn = cos (x)dx = cos (x) sin(x) + (n − 1) sin2 (x) cosn−2 (x)dx
Z
n−1
= cos (1 − cos2 (x)) cosn−2 (x)dx
(x) sin(x) + (n − 1)
Z
= cos (x) sin(x) + (n − 1) cos (x)dx − (n − 1) cosn (x)dx
n−1 n−2

This implies

nCn = cosn−1 (x) sin(x) + (n − 1)Cn−2

1 (n − 1)
Cn = cosn−1 (x) sin(x) + Cn−2 (1)
n n
Formula (1) reduces power of cosine by 2 on each application.
Z
Example 1.1. Compute cos4 (x)dx.
Z
Let C4 = cos4 (x)dx. We apply (1) to the problem twice

1 3
C4 = cos3 (x) sin(x) + C2
4 4 
1 3 3 1 1
= cos (x) sin(x) + cos(x) sin(x) + C0
4 4 2 2
Z
where C0 = dx = x + c. Thus we get solution as

1 3 3
C4 = cos3 (x) sin(x) + cos(x) sin(x) + x + c
4 8 8
A similar Zderivation can prove the reduction formula for sine function.
Let Sn = sinn (x)dx (n ≥ 2). Then

−1 n−1
Sn = cos(x) sinn−1 (x) + Sn−2 . (2)
n n
1
 If we take integral limits in (1) from 0 to π2 then we get Cn = n−1 n
Cn−2 . Similarly if (2) is
π n−1
integrated from 0 to 2 then we get Sn = n Sn−2 . By repeatedly applying this for n ≥ 2 we get
Z π/2 Z π/2 (
n−1 n−3 n−5
. n−2 . n−4 . · · · 23 .I1 , when n is odd
In = sinn (x)dx = cosn (x)dx = n−1
n
(3)
0 0 n
. n−3 . n−5 . · · · 12 .I0 , when n is even
n−2 n−4

Z π/2 Z π/2 R π/2

where I1 = sin(x)dx = cos(x)dx = 1 and I0 = 0
dx = π2 .
0 0
Formula (3) is called as Wallis Formula.
Z
1.2 Reduction formula for sinm (x) cosn (x)dx:
Z
Let I(m, n) = sinm (x) cosn (x)dx.
Z Z
m n
Then I(m, n) = sin (x) cos (x)dx = sinm−1 (x).[sin(x). cosn (x)]dx. Integrating this by parts
we get

1 cosn+1 (x)
Z
I(m, n) = − sinm−1 (x). cosn+1 (x) + .(m − 1) sinm−2 (x). cos(x)dx
(n + 1) n+1
1 m−1
Z
=− sinm−1 (x). cosn+1 (x) + cosn (x). sinm−2 (x).(1 − sin2 (x))dx
(n + 1) n+1
Z 
1 m−1
Z
=− sinm−1 (x). cosn+1 (x) + n
cos (x). sinm−2 n m
(x)dx − cos (x). sin (x)dx .
(n + 1) n+1

This gives
 
m−1 1 m−1
1+ I(m, n) = − sinm−1 (x). cosn+1 (x) + I(m − 2, n)
n+1 (n + 1) n+1
1 m−1
=⇒ I(m, n) = − sinm−1 (x). cosn+1 (x) + I(m − 2, n) (4)
(m + n) n+m

(4) gives the required reduction formula. Note that formula reduces the value of parameter m by 2
while keeping n value constant. A similar formula can be obtained where value of parameter n is
reduced instead keeping m constant.
Z π/2
Using (4) we can obtain J(m, n) = sinm (x). cosn (x)dx as
0

m−1
J(m, n) = J(m − 2, n). (5)
m+n
Z π/2
Repeatedly applying (5) and using that J(1, n) = 1
n+1
and J(0, n) = cosn (x)dx we get the
0

2
following result.

m−1 m−3
. . m−5 . 3
· · · 3+n . 1
, when m is odd and n may be odd or even.
 n+m n+m−2 n+m−4 1+n






(m−1)(m−3)(m−5)···1 n−1 n−3
· · · 32


J(m, n) = (m+n)(m+n−2)(m+n−4)···(n+2) n
. n−2 m even, n odd.





(m−1)(m−3)(m−5)···1 n−1 n−3
· · · 21 . π



(m+n)(m+n−2)(m+n−4)···(n+2) n
. n−2 2
m even, n even.
(6)
Z
1.3 Reduction formula for tann (x)dx:
Z
Let Tn (x) = tann (x)dx (n ≥ 2). Integrating by parts we obtain
Z
Tn (x) = tann−2 (x). tan2 (x)dx
Z
= tann−2 (x).(sec2 (x) − 1)dx
Z Z
= tan (x) sec (x)dx − tann−2 (x)dx
n−2 2

This implies
1
Tn (x) = tann−1 (x) − Tn−2 (x). (7)
n−1
As
Z power is reduced by 2 with eachZ application of (7), repeated application will obtain T1 (x) =
tan(x)dx for n is odd or T2 (x) = tan2 (x)dx if n is even, which can be easily evaluated.

3
 Special functions like beta and gamma are useful in solving some of the integrations.

2 Gamma Function Γ(α):

Gamma function is an example of a function defined using improper integration. Domain of gamma
function is R − {0, −1, −2, −3, · · ·} though the definition below assumes α > 0. Gamma function
can be extended by using analytic continuation for all negative real numbers as well except for the
negative integers and zero.

Definition 2.1. For α > 0, Gamma function (Γ(α)) is defined as

Z ∞
Γ(α) = tα−1 e−t dt. (8)
0

2.1 Properties of Gamma function:

1. Γ(1) = 1.
Using definition:
Z ∞
e−t t0 dt = − e−t 0 = 1.
 ∞
Γ(1) =
0

2. For α > 0, Γ(α + 1) = α Γ(α)

Using definition and applying integration by parts, we get
Z ∞ ∞ Z ∞
−t α α −t 
α tα−1 e−t dt = 0 + αΓ(α).

Γ(α + 1) = e t dt = t e  +
0 0 0

3. For positive integer n, Γ(n + 1) = n!.

Using property 2 repeatedly,

Γ(n + 1) = nΓ(n)
= n(n − 1)Γ(n − 1)
..
.
= n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · Γ(1)

since Γ(1) = 1 it proves the property.

√
4. Γ(1/2) = π. The proof involves double integrals and we skip it.
π
5. Γ(α)Γ(1 − α) = , 0<α<1
sin(απ)

4
2.2 Equivalent Forms of Gamma Function:
All the forms below can be obtained from the definition by using given substitution.
2
1. Using substitution t = x2 we get Γ(α) = 2 0 e−x x2α−1 dx.
R∞

1/α
2. Using substitution y = tα we get Γ(α + 1) = 0 e−y dy.
R∞

R1
3. Using substitution y = e−t we get Γ(α) = 0 (ln(1/y))α−1 dy.

Example 2.1. Compute Γ(5/2). We use property 2 repeatedly,

√
3 3 1 3 3 π
Γ(5/2) = Γ(3/2 + 1) = Γ(3/2) = Γ(1/2 + 1) = Γ(1/2) = .
2 2 2 2 4

3 Beta Function B(m, n):

Beta function is another example of the function defined by using improper integration but in this
case impropriety is of the second type i.e. integrand becomes unbounded for some values.

Definition 3.1. Beta function is defined as

Z 1
B(m, n) = tm−1 (1 − t)n−1 dt, m > 0, n > 0. (9)
0

3.1 Properties of Beta Function:

1. Symmetry: B(m, n) = B(n, m). Simple substitution of x = 1 − t in the definition will prove
the property.

2. Relation between Beta and Gamma function:

Γ(m)Γ(n)
B(m, n) = .
Γ(m + n)

proof involves double integration and we skip it.

3.2 Equivalent Forms of Beta Function:

All the forms below can be obtained from the definition by using given substitution.
Z π/2
1 p+1 q+1
1. sinp (θ) cosq (θ) dθ = B( , ).
0 2 2 2
Hint: Substitute t = sin2 (θ) in the definition.

2.
1
y m−1 xm−1 + xn−1
Z ∞ Z
B(m, n) = dy = dx.
0 (1 + y)m+n 0 (1 + x)m+n
u
Hint: Substitute y = 1+u
.

5
 Z π/2
Example 3.1. Solve sin5 (θ) cos3 (θ) dθ.
0
We use the first equivalent form with p = 5 and q = 3 and property 2
Z π/2  
5 3 1 5+1 3+1 1 1 Γ(3)Γ(2)
sin (θ) cos (θ) dθ = B( , ) = B(3, 2) =
0 2 2 2 2 2 Γ(5)
 
1 2! 1! 1
= = .
2 4! 24

4 Tutorial 4 (extended):
Q.1] Prove the following reduction formulae and state the values of n for which they are valid. Note
: m,n are nonnegative integers.
Z π
2 −1 n − 1
1. If Un = θ cosn θdθ then prove that Un = 2 + Un−2 . Hence evaluate U4 .
0 n n
3π 2
(Hint : Express θ cosn θ = θ cosn−1 θ cos θ) (Ans : 64
− 41 ).
Z π
2 1
2. If In = cotn θdθ , then prove that In = − In−2 . Hence evaluate I6 .
π
4
n−1
(Hint : Express cotn θ = cotn−2 θ cot2 θ) (Ans : 13
15
− π4 ).
Z π Z π
2 2
n π n
3. If In = x cos xdx, then prove that In = ( 2 ) −n(n−1)In−2 . Hence evaluate x3 cos xdx.
0 0
(Ans : ( π2 )3 − 3π + 6).
Z
4. If In = (ln x)n dx, then prove that In = x(ln x)n − nIn−1 ,.
Z
5. If f (m, n) = xm (1 − x)n dx, then show that

xm+1 (1 − x)n n
f (m, n) = + f (m, n − 1)
m+n+1 m+n+1
Z 1
. Hence show that xm (1 − x)n dx can be expressed as fraction of factorials
0

Q.2] Prove the following :

1
y q−1 y p−1 + y q−1 x4 (1 + x5 )
Z ∞ Z Z ∞
1. Show that β(p, q) = dy = dy. Hence evaluate dx
0 (1 + y)p+q 0 (1 + y)p+q 0 (1 + x)15
(Ans : 1/5005)

2. Prove that β(m, 1/2) = 22m−1 β(m, m); Hence show that
√
π
Γ(2m) 2m−1 = Γ(m)Γ(m + (1/2))
2
.(Note : The Later one is called the Duplication formula of Gamma functions.)

6
 1
m! n!
Z
m
3. Prove that (1 − x1/n ) dx = , m, n are positive integers.
0 (m + n)!
Z 1
4. Prove that Γ(n) = [ln(1/y)]n−1 dy n > 0.
0
1 1
Γ(n)
Z Z
n−1
Hence (a) Prove that a−1
x [ln(1/x)] dx = n . (b) Evaluate x5 [ln(1/x)]3 dx
0 a 0
(Ans : 1/216).
Z ∞ n−1
x π
5. Given that dx = , 0 < n < 1,
0 1+x sin nπ
π 1
Z ∞ √
2π
a) Prove Γ(n)Γ(1 − n) = . b) Evaluate 4
dy (Ans : 4
).
sin nπ 0 1 + y
Z 1
(−1)n n!
6. Prove that xm [ln(x)]n dx = , where n is a positive integer and m > −1.
0 (m + 1)n+1
Q.3] Compute the following.
Γ(6) Γ(5/2)
1. (Ans : 30) 2. (Ans : 3/4)
2Γ(3) Γ(1/2)
Γ(3)Γ(2.5) √
3. (Ans : 16/315) (4) Γ(−5/2) (Ans : −815 π ).
Γ(5.5)
Q.4] Evaluate
Z π the following integrals :
x2
Z ∞
6 5π 2 8
1. x cos xdx (Ans : 32 ). 2. 7/2
dx (Ans : 45 ).
0 0 (1 + x6 )
Z π Z ∞
2 4
4 2
3. sin x cos xdx π
(Ans : 16 ). 4. x4 e−x dx 1
(Ans : 16 Γ( 41 )).
−π
0
Z 21 p Z ∞ c
4
3 3 4 x
5. 3
x ln(1/x)dx (Ans : ( 4 ) Γ( 3 )). 6. x
dx (Ans : (ln c)1 c+1 Γ(c + 1)).
Z0 ∞ 0 c
√ −x3
√
Z ∞ √
−x2 π
7. e dx (Ans : 2 ). 8. xe dx (Ans : 3π ).
0 0

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