ASNT Fall Conference and Quality Testing Show 2008 [Charleston, SC, November 2008]: pp 242-249.

Copyright 2008, 2011,

American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

Evaluation of Defects in Carbon/Carbon Composites by Using

Thermal Diffusivity Mapping Distribution
Yicheng Peter Pan, Richard A. Miller, Tsuchin Phillip Chu and Peter Filip
Southern Illinois University Carbondale , Department of Mechanical Engineering and Energy Process,
75 B Patrick Ln, Carbondale, IL 62901
(618)453-7039; fax (618) 354-7658; e-mail panyicheng@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
In order to develop new NDE capabilities to determine defects and measure thermal diffusivity in Carbon/Carbon (C/C)
composites at the same time, a study was conducted of NDE methods for identifying subsurface defects in C/C composites
by thermal diffusivity measurement using step heating method. Since traditional NDE methods are effective in inspection
of thin carbon/epoxy composites, but they are not very effective in detecting defects in thick C/C composites. In addition,
there is substantial industrial demand for the nondestructive, rapid, on-line evaluation of the thermal diffusivity of an
entire C/C composite parts surface. Therefore, this paper applied step heating infrared thermography method to do
through-thickness thermal diffusivity measurements and NDE inspection for whole field carbon/carbon disk brake. In this
work a brief description of the theory behind step heating method and a sample application are given. FEA analysis with
the use of ANSYS was also used to compare with the experimental results and found that they were in good agreement with
one another. As the result, this method is capable of evaluating defects in C/C composite materials. With more research, this
method is efficient, economically feasible, easy implementation, and rapid assessment of detecting defects in C/C composite
materials that will be able to be incorporated into a manufacturing process quality control system.

INTRODUCTION
In recent decades, carbon/carbon composites (C/C) have been preferably employed in several different industries [1]. The
main reason is due to the advantages of the composites, such as slight weight, fracture toughness, high strength, and high
stiffness. Besides, high-fatigue resistance and heat resistance up to 3000 K are the important advantages of C/Cs for
high-temperature applications, for instance, race car disk brakes, surfaces of hypersonic vehicles, and refractory tiles
[2-3]. The capability to determine subsurface defects in C/C materials is important to many industries producing and using
C/C composite disk brakes, and an inexpensive and easy to implement and operate method is a crucial component to the
industry [8]. In order to keep the high reliability of C/C materials, most applications use NDE methods to evaluate the
quantitative information about flaw and defect size to serve as an input to fracture mechanics based predictions of remaining
life. The NDE techniques became to mainly important method to detect the reliability and performance of C/C materials.
The traditional NDE techniques, which include eddy current, ultrasonic, X-ray and acoustic emission, etc. have faced
serious impenetrability in NDE of the C/C, due to the unique properties of C/C materials [3-4]. These methods are often not
adequate for detecting flaws and defects at an early stage because of the lack of the space and depth resolution. Moreover, the
traditional NDE methods in detecting flaws and defects in thick and/or multi-layered C/C structures are almost unattainable
[5]. Because of these problems, it is very difficult to monitor the performance, condition and quality of C/C. That is why
the C/C can not be popularized and rarely used in primary structures which require high reliability. In general, many C/C
composite materials are used for their thermal characteristics, as in the case of the C/C brakes and thermal protections for
hypersonic vehicles. Thermal diffusivity, as a fundamental property of the material, is one of the important parameters when
heat transfer phenomenons are involved. The current standard test method by industry is the (ASTM) test method for thermal
diffusivity of solids by the Flash Method, which measures diffusivity at one point. This method also requires the destructive
removal of a small sample for examination, special machinery for surface scanning, and is not suitable for quality assessment
in a manufacturing environment.
The step heating method is an alternative technique to the known flash method, which can measure non-destructively the
thermal diffusivity easily and quickly especial for thick whole scale C/C composite [6]. Additionally, a new method to
potentially detect defects in C/C was discovered. Preliminary results showed that defects areas have lower through-thickness
thermal diffusivity of the carbon-carbon disk brake [7]. Therefore, this paper built the through-thickness thermal diffusivity
measurements and NDE inspection system by using step heating method for whole field carbon-carbon disk brake for
meeting those demands. By utilizing relatively simple infrared thermography equipment, through-thickness diffusivity
measurements can be made quickly. The through-thickness thermal diffusivity mapping of each whole field carbon-carbon
disk brake can be obtained within 10 minutes, simultaneously evaluate the defect in C/C composite by thermal diffusivity
mapping distribution.

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ASNT Fall Conference and Quality Testing Show 2008 [Charleston, SC, November 2008]: pp 242-249. Copyright 2008, 2011,
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

In addition, the through-thickness thermal diffusivity measurements may be a new method to potentially detect defects in C/C
that was discovered from previous research. Preliminary results showed that defected areas have lower through-thickness
thermal diffusivity values of the carbon-carbon disk brake. In order to develop new NDE capabilities to determine defects
in C/C composite disk brakes, this study conducts NDE methods for identifying subsurface defects in carbon-carbon C/C
composites by through-thickness thermal diffusivity measurement. This method is capable of evaluating defects in C/C
composite materials. With more research, this method can become efficient, economically feasible, easy implementation, and
rapid assessment of detecting defects in C/C composite materials that will be able to be incorporated into a manufacturing
process quality control system.

METHODOLOGY FOR STEP HEATING METHOD

Step heating method is based on the application of an instantaneous constant heat flux on the front face of the sample and
measurement of the temperature response at the rear face, and then the thermal diffusivity can be obtained by calculation. The
step heating method allows for constant heat flux for a semi-infinite plate, which implies that the heat flow is unidirectional
and normal to the imposed surface. Therefore, incorporated into the step-heating method are ideas proposed in the earlier
works [9]. Substituting step-heating for the laser pulse was used to test samples with relatively large dimensions in
comparison to those used in the flash method [10]. The step heating is a promising photothermal technique for measurement
of thermal diffusivity of solids (steel and insulators) with a relatively small size at ambient temperature from 25-500 C
[11]. The step-heating method can be viewed as an extension of the well known flash method, based on measurement and
analyzing the temperature response at the rear face after application of an instantaneous heat pulse. Another advantage of
the step-heating method is the relatively low intensity of the imposed heat flux compared with that necessary for the flash
heating techniques. The sample is therefore less likely to exhibit a phase transition or decompose as a result of a sudden large
temperature increase at the front face.

Theory Background
The ideal heat transfer model is based on the behavior of a homogeneous, thermally insulated, semi-infinite slab
with uniform and constant thermal properties and density, subjected to a constant heat flux, uniformly applied since
the time origin, over its front face (x = 0) of sample. The transient temperature T = T(L, t) at the rear face (x = L) of
the sample can be obtained by solving the one-dimensional heat conduction equation

wT
wt

w 2T
a 2,
wx

0 d x d l;

t! 0

(1)

With the initial and boundary conditions as below:

T(x, 0) = 0, 0 d x d l
wT ( 0, t )
wx
wT (l , t )
wx

q
 ,
k

(2)

t!0

(3)

t!0

0,

(4)

Where is the through-thickness thermal diffusivity, k is the thermal conductivity and Q is the heat flux. The
expression for the sample temperature as a function of position x = L and time t is:

'T

T ( L, t )  Tr

QL Dt 1
2
  2
2
6 S
k L

n 1

(1) n
n2

 ( nS ) 2

Dt
L2

(5)

Where Tr is the initial reference temperature. Figure 1 shows the thermal response based on this analytical solution.
The observe parameter V is a ratio of rear face surface temperature changes and is defined as:

T1 ( L, t )  Tr
T2 ( L, t )  Tr

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(6)

ASNT Fall Conference and Quality Testing Show 2008 [Charleston, SC, November 2008]: pp 242-249. Copyright 2008, 2011,
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

The secant iteration method is used to determine diffusivity values. For a given measured value of V, the diffusivity () is
varied until the absolute value of the difference of the left and right hand sides of Equation 6 become less then 0.003%. When
this condition is met, the corresponding diffusivity value is taken to satisfy 6.
3.5
3.0

T/(QL/k)

2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

at/L

Figure 1: Analytical solution of temperature rise.

The scheme of secant iteration method needs the definition of a value G in Equation 7.

Dt1 1 2
2   2
6 S
T ( L, t1 )  Tr L

T ( L, t 2 )  Tr Dt 2 1 2
2   2
6 S
L

Dt

(1) n ( nS ) 2 L21
e

2
n 1 n

(1)
e
2
1 n

Dt
 ( nS ) 2 22
L

(7)

Assumed values for the diffusivity are systematically substituted into Equation 7 until the absolute value of G becomes
less than 10-5. The secant iteration method is used to determine G. When G is met the restriction, the diffusivity can be
obtained.

EXPERIMENTS AND EXPRIMENTAL SETUP

Material
There were two materials used in this study. Sample one is a non-heat-treated 3-D Ex-PAN Needle Felt Needle stitched
in the z-direction, CVI infiltrated C/C composite disk brake material that was provided by the Center for Advanced Friction
Studies (CAFS). Sample two is heat treated 3-D Ex-PAN Needle Felt Needle stitched in the z-direction, CVI infiltrated C/C
composite disk brake material that are used on aircraft braking systems and provided by certain C/C composite disk brake
manufacturer company (XXX). The samples are shown in Figure 2 and listed in Table 1:

Sample A
Sample B
Figure 2: Image of samples used in experiment.

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ASNT Fall Conference and Quality Testing Show 2008 [Charleston, SC, November 2008]: pp 242-249. Copyright 2008, 2011,
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

Table 1: The samples used in experiment.

Manufacturer

Type

Description

Thickness /Size or
Diameter

Label No.

FEA material properties

CAFS

C/C 3D

Fully processed without heat

treat, no visible defects

T:30 mm
S:114 x 88 mm

CAFS 0001
NHT

XXX

C/C 3D

Fully processed, heat treat,

no visible defects

T:25.4 mm
D:317.5 mm

XXX 0002
HT

Density:1810 kg/m3
Heat Cp: 573 J/kg C
Conductivity:40.9(X)
36.3(Y)24.3(Z)w/m C

Theoretical and Experimental of Diffusivity Measurement

Thermal Diffusivity Prediction by FEA Models
To properly model the effects of the C/C composites of the heat transfer, a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was performed
using ANSYS Workbench 11. The material properties for the 3-D C/C composite materials were found from a donated
non-heat treated needle felt, ex-PAN fiber, CVI carbon matrix Honeywell disk brake. The model simulated a homogeneous
anisotropic material, instead of the true fiber and matrix mix for ease of simulation. The model also used a constant
convective heat loss on the surfaces exposed to air with the constant given as 20 W/m2 C. Also, the heat input was a heat
flux applied to the surface opposite the simulated defect. The heat input was simulated as a heat flux of 1.25 x 104 W/m2.
This heat flux was on for 10 to 160 seconds. The result of FEA was analyzed to determine the thermal diffusivity of all C/C
composite samples.

Heat Flux Measurement and Uniform Check

In order to know the accurate heat flux from the surface of the hood used in the experiments, this research did a simple
measurement. Since all material properties are known for AL 6061-T6, an accurate measurement of the heat flux applied to
the surface of the sample can be determined. The experiment uses the MikroSpecRT infrared camera. An initial temperature
of the rear surface is found using the IR camera and then the Al sample is heated for approximately 150 sec, finally
temperature is recorded at the end of the 150th sec. Heat flux of 1.25 x 104 W/m2 applied to surface for 150 sec. This data
was used in FEA models to determine the heat flux applied to the surface of the samples by the four linear halogen lamps
(500W) positioned in the hood. Furthermore, uniform heat flux was necessary for the step heating method. In order to check
the consistency of heat flux on the surface of the hood, this research did a simple check. Al sheet is heated for approximately
15 sec and then the temperature distribution of the Al sheet, which was painted with dry graphite film, was checked. The
results showed that the standard deviation of the temperature distribution for the Al sheet was 1.8472, which is suitable for
step heating method. Figure 3 shows photos of the actual experimental setup at SIUC.

Foam Insulations

Al sheet

IR Camera

AL 6061-T6

sample

Hood with four

500W halogen bulbs
Figure 3: Experimental setup for Al sample.

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ASNT Fall Conference and Quality Testing Show 2008 [Charleston, SC, November 2008]: pp 242-249. Copyright 2008, 2011,
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

Step Heating Infrared Thermography

In order to meet the objectives of this research, the step heating infrared system was setup to determine what experiments
needed to be performed. The experiments were based on the modeling work conducted at Southern Illinois University
Carbondale (SIUC). Experiments were completed using four 500 Watt halogen linear tubes as the heat source and an infrared
camera to determine baseline experimental temperature distribution data. The equipment used in these experiments for
obtaining the thermal images from heated whole field areas on the C/C composite sample was the MikroSpecRT system. The
infrared camera used in these experiments to record the thermal images was a MikroSpecRT thermal imaging camera with a
resolution of 0.06 C at 30 C, a measurement accuracy of + 2 C of reading, and 320 x 240 dpi. The thermal image infrared
camera unit incorporated a black and white or (grayscale) image viewing screen as well as a colored viewing screen for more
refined and sharper imaging. The infrared camera was linked to a Dell computer, which used the MicroSpecRT software
that came with the IR camera. This software allowed for even further rendering and processing of the images. The software
could record in real time and create video recordings or take snap shots as the sample was heated. A model of the test setup
is shown in Figure 4. The measurement process is described as the following: 1. Turn on the light and wait for 10-15 seconds.
2. Open the shutter and start recording the thermal response with the IR camera. 3 After the measurement is complete turn off
the heat flux source.

IR Camera
Control Unit
(Laptop)
Target
Hood

FT/ST
Power Supply

Four Halogen
Lamps

A Transient Thermal Diffusivity Measurements System

Figure 4: Transient thermal diffusivity measurement system.

Through-Thickness Thermal Diffusivity Measurement

To obtain thermal diffusivity values for the C/C materials, the IR camera, samples and hood (with heat source) were used.
Foam insulation was used to create a 1-D conductive heat transfer model. The IR camera was placed on the opposite side
of the heat source. In this experiment, video was recorded at four frames a second for 150 seconds. A region of whole field
C/C composite samples was inspected, and the average temperature was considered. This data was analyzed by throughthermal diffusivity measurements and NDE system to determine the thermal diffusivity of all C/C composite samples. The
system was coded by MATLAB. Due to the data acquisition error, the temperature distribution in time domain is non-linear.
Therefore, polynomial curve fitting is necessary to fit the data trends. The black line is raw data and blue line is curve fitting
line. The temperature profiles selected and extracted were 5 5 pixels regions. In the sample test, the total measurement
time was 150 seconds, in which time the maximum temperature increase of the rear face reaches 33.2-35 C. To verify
that accurate data was collected, it is compared to theoretical sources. The collected data should bear resemblance to the
theoretical temperature time (T-t) curve. Additionally, due to the convergence of Equation 6, when time1/time2 is plotted
against Temperature1/Temperature2 with a fixed interval, the temperature curve should remain below the time curve as in
Figure 5. Once the data was reviewed and determined accurate, hypothetical diffusivity values are generated and tested in
an iterative process. With diffusivity being the only unknown in Equation 6, the hypothetical values are inserted and the left
and right hand sides of the equation are evaluated against one another. This method allows for quick acquisition of the actual
diffusivity value.

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American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

Figure 5: Theoretical temperature time curve and temperature curve for rear surface.

MEASUREMENT RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Both the results from the step heating experiments and that of the FEA results were modeled and setup in the same manner.
Both methods had the same heat flux applied to one surface with all four sides insulted to simulate a perfect insulation. A
convective heat transfer coefficient was determined for a forced convection in the FEA models. Along with those parameters,
the heat flux and amount of time that was recorded was identical for both the experiment and the FEA modeling. There are
two models for each sample created in FEA, that was a defect sample and a non-defect model. The FEA results are shown in
Figure 6 and the values for the diffusivity are calculated by Equation 7. The red line is the measuring profile.

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Figure 6: (a) FEA result for sample 1 in defect and (b) no defect and (c) sample 2 in defect and (d) no defect.

Comparison Between FEA Results and Step Heating Experimental Results

Figure 7 shows the FEA results and the experimental results for sample one. The diffusivity was measured every 2 mm across
the sample for a total of 50 points. In FEA, the through-thickness thermal diffusivity was 0.15746cm2/s for non-defected

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ASNT Fall Conference and Quality Testing Show 2008 [Charleston, SC, November 2008]: pp 242-249. Copyright 2008, 2011,
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

samples shown as a yellow line in Figure 7. For the defected sample, the thermal diffusivity value varies from
(0.15746-0.1056 cm2/s) and is shown as a light blue line in Figure 7 and defected areas have lower thermal diffusivity
distribution. In experiments, the range of thermal diffusivity at non-defected area is from 0.14645 to 0.121 cm2/s and is
shown as a dark blue line in Figure 7. In the defected areas, thermal diffusivity is significant changed and ranges from
0.14645 to 0.08978 cm2/s and is shown as a pink line. Both the FEA results and the experimental results have the same trend
of thermal diffusivity mapping distribution. Also, defected areas have lower through-thickness thermal diffusivity values in
the C/C sample. The results from the experiments have a lower thermal diffusivity than the FEA results, this could be due
to the environment in which the experiment were created in, or could be contributed to the sample in the experiment not
being perfectly insulated on the sides and hood was not seal up, where in the FEA models the four sides of the sample are
perfectly insulated. This would explain the small drop in thermal diffusivity due to convection around the boundaries. In
addition, the results from the experiments have a higher thermal diffusivity on the sides. This is contributed by the sample in
the experiment not being perfectly insulated on the sides due to gaps between the sample and the foam insulator. This would
explain the small increase in thermal diffusivity in sides.
cm^2/s

Thermal Diffusivity VS position

0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02

Defect area
FEA No defect

No defect area

0
0

20

40

mm

60

80

100

Figure 7: Thermal diffusivity mapping for Sample 1.

Thermal Diffusivity vs Angle

cm^2/s
0.3
0.25
0.2

measurement
FEA Defect
FEA No Defect

0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Theta (Degrees)

Figure 8: Thermal diffusivity mapping for Sample 2.

For the second experiment, the diffusivity was measured around the circumference of the circle at every 30 degrees. Figure 8
shows the FEA results and the experimental results for sample two. The FEA results follow the experimental data relatively
close, with the detected thermal diffusivity change being slightly lower than the predicted FEA results. Results of the FEA
models, showed a through-thickness thermal diffusivity of 0.26 cm2/s for non-defect sample, and is shown as a yellow line

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ASNT Fall Conference and Quality Testing Show 2008 [Charleston, SC, November 2008]: pp 242-249. Copyright 2008, 2011,
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, OH.

in Figure 8. For the defected sample, thermal diffusivity varies from (0.26-0.08745 cm2/s) and is shown as a pink line. In
experiments, the range of thermal diffusivity is from 0.213 to 0.089 cm2/s. In the defected area, the thermal diffusivity is
significant less. The abrupt change in diffusivity values between 90 and 150 degrees could be indicative of a defect within
the material between those two locations. Upon inspection of the disk, a crack through the material along the side section is
easily visible.

CONCLUSION
The results from the experiments conducted at SIUC show that the step heating method can rapidly determine the thermal
diffusivity values of a whole field C/C composite disk brakes. This method can detect the defects in C/C disk brakes by
using thermal diffusivity mapping distribution. The through-thickness thermal diffusivity mapping of each whole field
C/C composite can be obtained within 10 minutes. It could be with in 5 minutes if the system uses an automatic control to
measure the thermal diffusivity. Step heating as a method, is a cheap and cost efficient method for the use of measuring
thermal diffusivity and determining defects in C/C samples. With a higher resolution IR camera, step heating as a means of
measuring thermal diffusivity and determining defects in C/C disk brakes can be very effective.

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