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Chapter 2 ALFC
Chapter 2 ALFC
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the control mechanism needed to maintain the system
frequency. The topic of maintaining the system frequency constant is commonly
known as AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL (ALFC). It has got other
nomenclatures such as Load Frequency Control, Power Frequency Control, Real
Power Frequency Control and Automatic Generation Control.
The basic role of ALFC is:
1. To maintain the desired megawatt output power of a generator matching
with the changing load.
2. To assist in controlling the frequency of larger interconnection.
3. To keep the net interchange power between pool members, at the
predetermined values.
The ALFC loop will maintain control only during small and slow changes in load
and frequency. It will not provide adequate control during emergency situation
when large megawatt imbalances occur. We shall first study ALFC as it applies to
a single generator supplying power to a local service area.
2) Speed governor
3) Hydraulic amplifier
4) Control valve.
1
f
R
(1)
Here the constant R has dimension hertz per MW and is referred as speed
regulation of the governor.
Taking Laplace transform of eq. 1 yields
Pg (s) = Pref (s) -
1
f (s)
R
(2)
Pg = Pref -
1
f
R
(1)
Here the constant R has dimension hertz per MW and is referred as speed
regulation of the governor.
Taking Laplace transform of eq. 1 yields
Pg (s) = Pref (s) -
1
f (s)
R
(2)
1
R
Pref (s)
f (s)
Pg (s)
+
Fig. 2 Block diagram of speed governor
xD dt
(3)
The constant kH depends on the orifice, cylinder geometries and fluid pressure.
The input to xD are Pg and Pv. It is to be noted that for a positive Pg, the
change xD is positive. Further, for a positive Pv, more fuel is admitted, speed
increases, linkage point B moves downwards causing linkage points C and D to
move downwards resulting the change xD as negative. Thus
xD = Pg - Pv
(4)
kH
xD (s)
s
1
Pg (s)
1 s TH
(5)
1
kH
(6)
In terms of the hydraulic valve actuators transfer function G H (s), eq. 5 can be
written as
GH (s) =
Pv (s)
1
=
Pg (s)
1 s TH
(7)
Hydraulic time constant T H typically assumes values around 0.1 sec. The block
diagram of the speed governor together with the hydraulic valve actuator is
shown in Fig. 3.
1
R
Pref (s)
f (s)
Pg (s)
Pv (s)
GH
Fig. 3 Block diagram of speed governor together with hydraulic valve actuator
(8)
The turbine power increment PT depends entirely upon the valve power
increment Pv and the characteristic of the turbine. Different type of turbines will
have different characteristics. Taking transfer function with single time constant
for the turbine, we can write
PT(s) = GT Pv(s) =
1
Pv (s)
1 s TT
(9)
The generator power increment PG depends entirely upon the change PD in the
load PD being fed from the generator. The generator always adjusts its output so
as to meet the demand changes PD. These adjustments are essentially
instantaneous, certainly in comparison with the slow changes in P T. We can
therefore set
PG = PD i.e. PG (s) = PD (s)
(10)
(8)
1
Pv (s)
1 s TT
(9)
PG (s) = PD (s)
(10)
1
R
Pref (s)
f (s)
PG (s) = PD (s)
Pg (s)
Pv (s)
GH
PT (s)
GT
PT (s) PD(s)
f (s)
1
R
Pref (s)
PD (s) = PG(s)
Pg (s)
Pv (s)
GH
PT (s)
GT
PT (s) PD(s)
PT 0 = Pref 0 -
1
f 0
R
(11)
PT 0 = Pref 0 -
1
f 0
R
(11)
Case A
The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size, so large in fact,
that its frequency will be essentially independent of any changes in the power
output of this individual generator (infinite network). Since f0 = 0, the above
eq. becomes
PT 0 = Pref 0
(12)
Thus for a generator operating at constant speed, (or frequency) there exists a
direct proportionality between turbine power and reference power setting.
PT 0 = Pref 0 i.e. when the generator is operating at constant frequency, if the
speed changer setting is INCREASED,(DECREASED) turbine output power will
increase (decrease) to that extent.
Example 1
A 100-MW, 50-Hz generator is connected to infinite network. How would you
increase its turbine power by 5 MW?
Solution
Its turbine power can be increased by 5 MW by simply giving a raise signal of 5
MW to the speed changer motor.
Case B
Now we consider the network as finite. i.e. its frequency is variable. We do,
however, keep the speed changer at constant setting. i.e. Pref = 0. From eq. (11)
PT 0 = Pref 0 -
PT 0 = 1.
1
f 0
R
(11)
we obtain
1
f 0
R
(13)
The above eq. shows that for a constant speed changer setting, the static
Example 2
Consider 100-MW 50-Hz generator in the previous example. It has a regulation
parameter R of 4 %. By how much will the turbine power increase if the frequency
drops by 0.1 Hz with the speed changer setting unchanged.
Solution
Regulation is 4%. 4% of 50 = 2 Hz. This means that for frequency drop of 2 Hz the
turbine power will increase by 100 MW.
52 Hz
Thus R =
2
= 0.02 Hz per MW
100
0.1 Hz
It is given f 0 = - 0.1 Hz
In eq. (11),
PT 0 = Pref 0 -
50 Hz
0
100 MW
1
f 0
R
PT 0 = -
1
f 0 i.e.
R
PT 0 = -
1
(- 0.1) = 5 MW
0.02
Example 3
Consider again 100-MW, 50-Hz generator in the previous example. If the
frequency drops by 0.1 Hz, but the turbine power remains unchanged, by how
much should the speed changer setting be changed?
Solution
As PT 0 = 0, from eq.(11), PT 0 = Pref 0 Given that
1
f 0
R
we have Pref 0 =
1
f 0
R
52 Hz
0.1 Hz
Pref 0 =
1
x (- 0.1) = - 5 MW
0.02
50 Hz
0
100 MW
Case C
In general case, changes may occur in both the speed changer setting and
frequency in which case the relationship PT 0 = Pref 0 For a given speed changer setting, Pref
1
f 0 applies.
R
= 0 and hence f0 = - R PT 0.
1
f 0 represents a family of sloping lines
R
106
Speed changer is set such that at
100% rated frequency, output is 100%
rated output power.
104
102
100
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
98
96
The thick line shows that corresponding to 100% rated frequency, the output
power is 100 % of rated output. But for the new speed changer setting as shown
by the dotted line, for the same 100% rated frequency, output power is 50 % of
rated output. Hence the power output of the generator at a given frequency can be
adjusted at will, by suitable speed changer setting. Such adjustment will be
extreme importance for implementing the load division as decided by the optimal
policy.
20.
frequency be fr. Then load shared by unit 1 and 2 are P10 and P20. If the economic
division of load dictates the load sharing as
P1 and
P2,
10
21
fr
1
20
P10
P1
P20
P2
the governor
Example
Two synchronous generators operating in parallel supply a total load of 200
MW.The ratings of the machines 1 and 2 are 100 MW and 200 MW. Machines 1
and 2 have governor droop characteristic of 4% and 3% respectively, from no
load to full load. Assume that at full load, machines run at rated speed and the
system frequency is 50 Hz. Calculate the load taken by each machine and the
operating frequency.
Solution
% of rated frequency
% of rated frequency
104
104
103
103
102
102
101
101
100
0
x 100
100
0
PG in MW
200 - x
200
PG in MW
% of rated frequency
% of rated frequency
104
104
103
103
102
102
101
101
100
0
100
x 100
PG in MW
200 - x
200
PG in MW
Let x MW be the load taken by the machine 1. Then the load taken by the
machine 2 is 200-x MW. Both should operate at same speed and frequency.
Equating the common frequency:
104
4
3
x 103
(200 x )
100
200
4
( 72.73 ) = 101.09%
100
50
( 101.09 ) = 50.545 Hz.
100
Example 4
Two generators are supplying power to a system. Their ratings are 50 and 500
MW respectively. The frequency is 50 Hz and each generator is half-loaded. The
system load increases by 110 MW and as a result the frequency drops to 49.5 Hz.
What must the individual p.u. regulation be if the two generators should increase
their turbine powers in proportional to their ratings?
Solution
Generator ratings: 50 MW
Change in load = 110 MW;
500 MW ;
Smaller unit: R = -
Larger unit: R = -
25 MW
250 MW
Initial loadings:
10 MW
- 0.5
- 0.5 / 50
= 0.05 Hz per MW; R = = 0.05 p.u. Hz / p.u.MW
10
10 / 50
- 0.5
- 0.5 / 50
= 0.005 Hz per MW; R = = 0.05 p.u. Hz / p.u.MW
100
100 / 500
The above result teaches us that generators working in parallel should have
same regulation (expressed in p.u. based on their own rating) in order to share
the load changes in proportional to their ratings.
3. It will take some time for the control valve in the speed governing system to
act and increase the turbine power. Until the next steady state is reached, the
increase in turbine power will not be equal to P G. Thus there will be power
imbalance in the area that equals PT - PG i.e. PT PD. As a result, the
speed and frequency change. This change will be assumed uniform
throughout the area. The above said power imbalance gets absorbed in two
ways. 1) By the change in the total kinetic K.E. 2) By the change in the load,
due to change in frequency.
Since the K.E. is proportional to the square of the speed, the area K.E. is
Wkin= W0kin (
f 2
) MW sec.
0
f
(14)
PD
MW / Hz
f
(15)
Thus
PT PD =
d
(Wkin) + D f
dt
(16)
Noting that f = f 0 + f
f 0 f 2
f 2
2 f
f
0
0
Wkin = W kin (
)
=
W
[
1
+
+
(
)
]
W
(
1
+
2
)
kin
kin
f0
f0
f0
f0
0
d
2 W 0 kin
(Wkin) =
dt
f0
(17)
d
( f )
dt
2 W 0 kin
f0
d
( f ) + D f
dt
MW
(18)
By dividing this equation by the generator rating P r and by introducing perunit inertia constant
W 0 kin
H =
MW sec / MW (or sec)
Pr
(19)
2H d
( f ) + D f
0
dt
f
pu MW
(20)
2H d
( f ) + D f
0
dt
f
PT PD =
pu MW
(20)
The Ps are now measured in per unit (on base Pr) and D in pu MW per Hz.
Typical H values lie in the range 2 8 sec. Laplace transformation of the
above equation yields
2H
s f (s) + D f (s)
f0
PT(s) PD(s) =
= [
f (s) =
1
2H
sD
0
f
2H
s + D ] f (s)
f0
(21)
i.e.
[ PT(s) PD(s) ]
(22)
(22)
where
Gp (s) =
Kp =
2H
sD
f0
1
D
1/D
=
2H
1 s 0
f D
Kp
(23)
1 s Tp
(24)
Tp =
2H
f0 D
(25)
Equation (22) represents the missing link in the control loop of Fig. 4. By
adding this, block diagram of the primary ALFC loop is obtained as shown in
Fig. 6.
1
R
f (s)
PD (s)
_
Pref (s) _
Pv (s)
Pg (s)
GH
PT (s)
GT
PT (s) - PD (s)
Kp
1 s Tp
Power system
Example 5
Primary ALFC loop parameters for a control area are:
Total rated capacity Pr = 2000 MW
Normal operating load P0D = 1000 MW
Inertia constant H = 5.0 sec.
Regulation = 2.0 Hz / p.u. MW
Assume that the load-frequency dependency is linear, meaning that the load
would increase one percent for one percent frequency increase.
Obtain the power system transfer function.
Solution
P0D
1 % of 1000
10
20
D=
=
=
= 20 MW / Hz =
= 0.01 p.u. MW / Hz
f
1 % of 50
0.5
2000
KP =
Thus
1
= 100 Hz / p.u. MW;
D
Gp (s) =
Kp
1 s Tp
Tp =
2H
2x5
=
= 20 sec.
0
50 x 0.01
f D
100
1 20 s
1
R
Pref (s) = 0 _
f (s)
PD (s)
Pg (s)
Pv (s)
GH
PT (s)
GT
Kp
1 s Tp
For uncontrolled case, (i.e. for constant reference input) Pref = 0 and the block
diagram shown in Fig. 6 can be simplified as shown.
f (s)
- PD (s)
Gp
1
1 GH G T Gp
R
PD (s)
(27)
GP
1
GH GT
R
M
s
Using the final value theorem, we readily obtain from eq. (27),
Gp
f (s) = -
1
1 GH G T Gp
R
PD (s) (27)
lim
f0 =
[ s f (s) ] = -
Kp
M = Kp
1
R
M
1
D
R
Hz
(28)
1
R
p.u. MW / Hz
(29)
M
Hz
(30)
Example 6
Find the static frequency drop for 2000 MW system in the previous example
following load increase of 1% of system rating.
Solution
Load increase M = 1% of 2000 MW
= 20 MW = 0.01 p.u. MW
As in previous example, D = 0.01 p.u. MW / Hz;
= D+
R = 2 Hz / p.u. MW
1
1
= 0.01 +
= 0.51 p.u. MW / Hz
R
2
Therefore f0 = -
0.01
= - 0.0196 Hz;
0.51
Example 7
What would the frequency drop in the previous example if the speed-governor
loop were non-existent or open?
Solution
1
R
Pref (s)
f (s)
PD (s)
Pg (s)
Pv (s)
PT (s)
GT
GH
Kp
lim
s
Therefore f0 = -
[ s f (s) ] = - Kp M = 0
Kp
1 s Tp
+
f (s)
- PD (s)
f (s) = -
1 s Tp
Then f0 =
Kp
1 s Tp
PD(s)
M
s
M
D
0.01
= - 1.0 Hz; or frequency drop = 2 % of normal frequency
0.01
Gp
1
1 GH G T Gp
R
PD (s)
(27)
Finding the dynamic response, for a step load, is quite straight forward. Eq. (27)
upon inverse Laplace transformation yields an expression for f (t). However, as
GH, GT and Gp contain at least one time constant each, the denominator will be a
third order polynomial resulting in unwieldy algebra.
Gp
1
1 GH G T Gp
R
PD (s)
(27)
we get
Kp
f (s) -
1 s Tp
Kp
1
R 1 s Tp
R Kp
M
= s
R (1 s Tp ) Kp
M
s
(31)
Kp
f (s) -
1 s Tp
Kp
1
R Kp
M
= s
R (1 s Tp ) Kp
M
s
(31)
R 1 s Tp
Kp
Tp
s(s
1
R Kp
R Tp
(32)
Kp R Tp
R Kp
A
1
] and noting
M
M
Tp R Kp
R Kp
s
R Kp
R Kp
1
s
1
]
R Kp
R Tp
(33)
R Kp
f(s) = - M
R Kp
1
s
1
]
R Kp
(33)
R Tp
Making use of previous numerical values: M = 0.01 p.u. MW; R = 2.0 Hz / p.u. MW;
Kp = 100 Hz / p.u. MW; Tp = 20 sec.
M
R Kp
R Kp
R Kp
2
102
= 0.01961;
=
= 2.55
R Tp
102
40
f(s) = - 0.01961 [
1
1
]
s
s 2.55
(34)
Alternatively, the above result can be obtained from the reduced block diagram
shown in Fig. 6 a . Then
f (s)
- PD (s)
GP
-
1
GH GT
R
100
1 20 s
+
0.01
s
f (s)
0.5
100
100
0.01
1
0.05
1 20 s 0.01
Thus f(s) = 50
s
1 20 s 50 s
s (20 s 51)
s (s 2.55)
1
1 20 s
=
0.05 1
1
1
1
[
] 0.01961 [
]
2.55 s s 2.55
s s 2.55
(34)
Fig. 7 shows this response. For comparison, the response with the inclusion of
the time constants T H and TT is also shown.
It is to be observed that the primary loop of ALFC does not give the desired
objective of maintaining the frequency constant. We need to do something more
to bring the frequency error to zero. Before discussing the necessary control
which can make the frequency error to zero, we shall shed some light on to the
physical mechanism in the primary loop of ALFC.
(34)
initially frequency reduces at the rate of 0.01961 x 2.55 = 0.05 Hz / sec. The
frequency reduction causes the steam valve to open and result in increased
turbine power. Further, the old load decreases at the rate of D = 20 MW / Hz.
4% of 50
2
=
= 0.001 Hz / MW. Further f0 = - 0.01961 Hz.
2000
2000
Increased generation PG = PT = -
1
0.01961
f0 =
= 19.61 MW
R
0.001
Value of D (Example 5) = 20 MW / Hz
Released old customer load = D x f0 = 20 x 0.01961 = 0.392 MW
These two components add up to 20 MW. Note that the largest contribution is
from new generation.
In the example seen, the frequency drop is 0.01961 Hz for 20 MW. Then the steady
state drop in frequency from no load to full load ( 2000 MW ) will be 1.961 Hz.
dt
(35)
Pref ( s )
KI
F( s )
s
(36)
The gain constant KI controls the rate of integration and thus the speed of
response of the loop.
Pref ( s )
KI
F( s )
s
(36)
For this signal f (s) is fed to an integrator whose output controls the speed
changer position resulting in the block diagram configuration shown in Fig. 8.
f (s)
f (s)
Pref (s)
-
f (s)
1
R
I
s
PD (s)
Pg (s)
PT (s)
GHT
Gp
As long as an error remains, the integrator output will increase, causing the
speed changer to move. When the frequency error has been reduced to zero, the
integrator output ceases and the speed changer position attains a constant value.
Integral controller will give rise to ZERO STEADY STATE FREQUENCY ERROR
following a step load change because of the reason stated above.
Referring to the block diagram of single control area with integral controller
shown in Fig. 8, input to GH T is - [
KI
1
f (s) f (s)
s
R
i.e.
KI
1
+
] f (s). Using this, the block diagram in Fig. 8 can be reduced as
s
R
f (s)
-(
KI
1
)
s R
PD (s)
_
PT (s)
GHT
Gp
- PD (s)
Gp
+
f (s)
KI
1
) GHT
s
R
+
- PD (s)
Gp
f (s)
(
Fig. 10 Reduced block diagram
Therefore
f (s) = -
KI
1
) GHT
s R
Gp
K
1
1 I GHT Gp GHT Gp
s
R
PD (s)
(37)
Gp
1
1 GH G T Gp
R
PD (s)
(27)
f (s)
corresponding to
f (s) = -
Gp
K
1
1 I GHT Gp GHT Gp
s
R
PD (s)
(37)
M
s
lim
s
[ s f (s) ]
(38)
Gp M
= 1
KI
1
GHT Gp
GHT Gp
s
R
Kp M
= s
KI
1
Kp
Kp
s
s
R
=0
(39)
Thus static frequency drop due to step load change becomes zero, which is a
desired feature we were looking. This is made possible because of the integral
controller that has been introduced.
Gp
K
1
1 I GHT Gp GHT Gp
s
R
PD (s)
(37)
s 1 s Tp R 1 s Tp
(40)
R Kp M
s R ( 1 s Tp ) R K I K p s K p
(41)
f (s) = -
R Kp M
s R ( 1 s Tp ) R K I K p s K p
(41)
f (s)
Kp
Tp
s
2
M
R Kp
R Tp
Kp
Tp
s2
KI Kp
Tp
M
Kp
R s KI Kp
Tp
Tp
(42)
f(s) =
Kp
Tp
s
2
M
Kp
(42)
R s KI Kp
Tp
Tp
s
2
Kp
R s KI Kp 0
Tp
Tp
(43)
2
2
b2
c
The nature of the roots depends on
4
b2
c
4
s2
Kp
R s KI Kp 0
Tp
Tp
b2
c = 0 i.e. b2 = 4 c
4
Now, both the roots are real, equal and negative. For this critical case
1
(
Kp
R )2 =
Tp
4 KI Kp
Thus
Tp
KI crit
Kp 2
1
(1
)
4 K p Tp
R
(44)
1
(
Kp
R )2 4 K I Kp
Tp
Tp
i.e.
KI KI crit
(45)
Sub-critical case
When b2 > 4 c the roots are real and negative. For this case, the integral gain
constant KI is given by
1
(
Kp
R ) 2 4 K I K p i.e.
Tp
Tp
KI KI crit
(46)
This case is referred as sub-critical integral control. In this case the solution
contains terms of the type e
1t
and e
2t
In practical system TH and TT will not be zero; but will have small values. When
TH = 80 m sec; TT = 0.3 sec and Tp = 20 sec., dynamic response for different
integral gain constant KI will be as shown in Fig. 12.
7. TWO-AREA SYSTEM
A control area is characterized by the same frequency throughout. This
tantamount to saying that the area network is rigid or strong. In the singlearea case we could thus represent the frequency deviation by the single variable
f. In the present case we assume each area individually strong. Having
interconnected them with a weak tie-line therefore leads us to the assumption
that the frequency deviations in the two areas can be represented by two
variables f1 and f2 respectively.
7.1 MODELING THE TIE-LINE and BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR TWO-AREA SYSTEM
In normal operation the power flows in the tie-line connecting the areas 1 and 2 is
given by
0
P012 =
V1
V2
X
sin ( 1 2 )
0
(47)
where 10 and 20 are the angles of end voltages V1 and V2 respectively. The order
of the subscripts indicates that the tie-line power is defined in direction 1 to 2.
Knowing dy/dx = y/x, for small deviations in angles 1 and 2 the tie-line power
changes by an amount
0
V1
P12
V2
cos ( 1 2 ) (1 2)
0
(48)
T0 =
V1
V2
X
cos ( 1 2 )
0
MW / rad.
(49)
P12 = T 0 (1 2) MW
(50)
1 d
f=
;
2 2 dt
i.e. d 2 f dt
Thus 2 f dt
(51)
and hence
f dt
= 2
(52)
P12 = 2 T ( f1 dt 0
dt )
(53)
P12 = 2 T 0 ( f1 dt -
dt )
(53)
2 T0
[ f1 (s) f2 (s) ]
s
(54)
Representing this equation in terms of block diagram symbols yields the diagram
in Fig. 13.
f1 (s)
P12 (s)
+
2 T0
_
1
s
f2 (s)
Fig. 13 Representation of Tie-lone power flow
Tie-line power P12 shall be treated as load in area 1. Similar to power balance eq.
f (s) = Gp (s) [ PT(s) PD(s) ]
(54 a)
1
R
1
Pref 1 (s) _
f1 (s)
PD1 (s)
PT1 (s)
Pg1 (s)
(54 a)
GHT1
f1 (s)
Gp1
_
P12 (s)
1
s
+
0
2T
-1
Pref 2 (s)
Pg2 (s)
PT2 (s) _
GHT2
_
1
R
2
P21 (s)
Gp2
f2 (s)
PD2 (s)
f2 (s)
Similarly we need to add P21 in area 2. Defining the tie-line power in direction 2
to 1 as P21.
P21 = - P12
(55)
i.e.
Pref 1 = Pref 2 = 0
We assume that the loads in each area are suddenly increased by the constant
incremental steps PD1= M1 and PD2 = M2. At steady state, as seen from Fig. 15,
f1
= f2
1
R
1
f 0
PD1 0
f 0
PT1
Pg1 0
GHT1
+
_
D1 f 0
P12 0
Note that
PT1 0 = -
1
1
f0 and PT2 0 = f0
R1
R2
Gp1
+
(56)
1
R
1
f 0
PD1 0
f 0
PT1
Pg1 0
GHT1
_
P12 0
D1 f 0
Gp1
+
1
1
f0 - M1 - P12 0 = D1 f0 and f0 M2 + P12 0 = D2 f0 i.e.
R1
R2
D1 f0 +
1
f0 + P12 0 = M1;
R1
i.e. 1 f0 + P12 0 = M1
(57)
D2 f0 +
1
f0 - P12 0 = M2;
R2
i.e. 2 f0 - P12 0 = M2
(58)
where area frequency response characteristic (AFRC) of each area are defined as
1 = D1 +
1
R1
2 = D2 +
1
R2
(59)
1 f0 + P12 0 = M1
(57)
2 f0 - P12 0 = M2
(58)
Solving the above equations (57) and (58) for f 0 and P12 0 we get
f0 = -
M1 M 2
1 2
P12 0 = - P21 0 =
(60)
1 M 2 2 M1
1 2
(61)
Eqns. (60) and (61) become simple if we assume identical area parameters; i.e.
R1 = R2 = R;
D1 = D2 = D; Then 1 = 2 =
We then get
f0 = -
M1 M 2
2
P12 0 = - P21 0 =
(62)
M 2 M1
2
(63)
M2
Hz
2
P12 0 = - P21 0 =
(64)
M2
p.u. MW
2
(65)
The above two equations tell us, in a nutshell, the advantages of pool operation:
1. The frequency drop will be only half that would be experienced if the areas
were operating alone.
2. 50% of the added load in area 2 will be supplied by area 1 via. the tie-line.
Example 8
A 2000 MW control area 1 is interconnected with a 10000 MW area 2. The 2000 MW
area has the system parameters as
R = 2.0 Hz / p.u. MW; D = 0.01 p.u. MW / Hz
Area 2 has the same parameters, but on a base of 10000 MW. A 20 MW load
increase takes place in area 1. Find static frequency drop and tie-line power
change.
Solution
Let us take 2000 MW as base power.
1 = 0.01 +
1
= 0.51 p.u. MW / Hz
2
10000
= 2.55 p.u. MW / Hz on a base of 2000 MW
2000
M1 =
20
= 0.01 p.u. MW
2000
f0 = -
0.01
= - 0.003268 Hz
0.51 2.55
P12 0 = - P21 0 = -
2.55 x 0.01
= - 0.008333 p.u. MW = - 16.67 MW
0.51 2.55
Note that the frequency drop is only one sixth of that experienced by area 1
operating alone (0.01961 Hz compare Example 6).
Also note that this frequency support is accomplished by an added delivery of
16.67 MW from the larger area.
It can be seen that the solution for f1(t) and f2(t) are oscillatory. However,
because of system damping, finally they settle at a steady state value. Similarly,
the solution of P21(t) has oscillation at beginning and finally settle at a steady
state value.
(66)
ACE2 = P21 + B2 f2
(67)
( P12 + B1 f1 ) dt
(68)
Pref 2 = - KI2
( P21 + B2 f2 ) dt
(69)
The constants KI 1 and KI 2 are integrator gains and the constants B1 and B2 are
the frequency bias parameters. The minus sign must be included to ensure that,
if there is positive frequency deviation or tie-line power deviation, then each area
should decrease its generation
7.5 STATIC SYSTEM RESPONSE WITH TIE-LINE BIAS CONTROL
The chosen strategy will eliminate the steady-state frequency and tie-line
deviations for the following reasons.
Following a step load change in either area, a new static equilibrium can be
achieved only after the speed-changer commands have reached constant values.
But this evidently requires that both the integrants in eqns (68) and (69) be zero;
i.e.
and
P21 0 + B2 f 0 = 0
P12 0 + B1 f 0 = 0
(70)
i.e. - P12 0 + B2 f 0 = 0
(71)
(72)
Note that this result is independent of the values of B1 and B2. In fact, one of the
bias parameters can be zero, and we still have a guarantee that eq. (72) is
satisfied. Having checked use of the integral controller, let us see how they can be
included in the block diagram.
Laplace transform of Equations (68) and (69) gives
K
Pref 1 (s) = I1 [P12 (s) + B1 f1 (s)];
s
K
Pref 2 (s) = I2 [P21 (s) + B2 f2 (s)]
s
K
Pref 2 (s) = I2 [P21 (s) + B2 f2 (s)]
K
Pref 1 (s) = I1 [P12 (s) + B1 f1 (s)];
s
1
R
1
f1 (s)
f1 (s)
PD1 (s)
B1
+
+
K
I1
s
PT1 (s)
Pg1 (s)
GHT1
+
P12 (s)
1
s
P12 (s)
+
0
2T
-1
-1
P21 (s)
f1 (s)
Gp1
_
Pref 1 (s)
P12 (s)
KI 2
s
Pref 2 (s)
GHT2
_
1
R
2
B2
P21 (s)
PT2 (s) _
Pg2 (s)
Gp2
f2 (s)
PD2 (s)
f2 (s)
f2 (s)
Fig. 16 Block diagram representation of two area system with tie-line bias control
50 MW
6 % speed regulation
Generator 2
50 MW
3 % speed regulation
i) Determine the load taken by each generator for a total load of 80 MW when
the speed changers are set to give rated speed at 100 % rated output.
ii) The speed changer of generator 1 is so adjusted that 80 MW load is
equally shared. Find the output of generator 1 for rated speed its
frequency at no load and the change to be made in the speed changer.
iii) The speed changer of generator 2 is so adjusted that 80 MW load is
equally shared. Determine the output of generator 2 for rated speed,
its frequency at no load and the change to be made in the speed changer.
11. Draw the block diagram representation of uncontrolled single area power
system. Develop the expression for static frequency drop corresponding to
step load increase. Also sketch the dynamic response i) neglecting the time
constants of speed governor and turbine generator ii) including the time
constants of speed governor and turbine generator.
12. The data pertaining to an uncontrolled single area power system are as
follows:
Total rated capacity
= 2500 MW
= 1500 MW
Nominal frequency
= 50 Hz
Inertia constant
= 4 sec.
Governor drop
=4%
13.
19. Develop the expression for static frequency deviation and static tie line
power deviation for two area system subjected to sudden load changes.
From these expressions, justify the advantages of interconnected system.
20. Two uncontrolled interconnected power systems, A and B, each has a
speed regulation of 5 Hz / p.u. MW and stiffness D of 1.0 p.u. MW / Hz (on
respective capacity bases). The capacity of system A is 1500 MW and of B is
1000 MW. The two systems are interconnected through a tie line and are
initially at 50 Hz. If there is a 100 MW load change in system A, calculate the
change in steady state values of frequency and tie line power.
21. What do you understand by tie-line bias control?
22. Draw the block diagram representation of uncontrolled two-area system.
Explain how this could be modified to include the tie-line bias control.
23. Draw the block diagram representation of two area system with tie-line bias
control.
D = 0.05 p.u. MW / Hz
Taking 5000 MW as the base, find the steady state frequency change and the
change in tie-line power flow from area 1 to 2 when
i)
ANSWERS
7. 3 MW
9. 80 MW;
8. 0.12 Hz
240 MW;
36.6667 MW
45 MW;
52.7 Hz
60 MW;
51.8 Hz
50.015625 Hz
- 19.53125 MW;
83.3333
;
1 13.3333 s
13.
50.5 Hz
- 0.0984 Hz;
0.46875 MW
0.015625 (1 e- 3.2 t) Hz
125
1 20 s
24. i) - 0.00625 Hz
- 6.875 MW
ii) - 0.00625 Hz
13.125 MW
iii) - 0.00625 Hz
3.125 MW
iv) 0.00625 Hz
6.875 MW
- 40.02 MW;
40.02 MW
SOLUTION
1.
ii) It must be able to supply the ever changing load demand at all time.
iii) The power supplied should be of good quality.
iv) The power supplied should be economical.
v) It must satisfy necessary safety requirements.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Draw the schematic diagram of speed changer and speed governor and mark the
linkages and linkage point movements.
6.
f
51.8
PT 0
40
; PT 0 = 1.6 MW
2.5
0.1
?
0.1
PT
50
0
40
OR
PT 0 = -
PT 0 = -
1
f 0
R
R=
2.5
= 0.0625 Hz / MW;
40
f 0 = 0.1 Hz
0.1
= - 1.6 MW (decrease in turbine power)
0.0625
7.
Draw the complete block diagram of uncontrolled single area ALFC loop.
1
R
Pref (s)
f (s)
PD (s)
Pg (s)
Pv (s)
GH
PT (s)
GT
Kp
1 s Tp
52.5
51.5
PT
50
0
200
200-x
150
52.5
PT
50
2.5
200
x 51.5
1.5
150
(240 x ) ;
PG2 = 88.89 MW
2.5
X 151.11= 50.6111 Hz.
200
1.5
150
X 75 = 50.75 Hz
2.5
200
PG1 = 50.75; Thus PG1 = 140 MW. However, to satisfy the total load
of 240 MW, PG1 must be 165 MW. This is achieved by giving RAISE command of 25
MW.
D=
0.005143
Tp =
0.5
2H
f D
0
2x 4
50 x 0.01029
1
D
1
0.01029
= 97.18 Hz / p.u. MW
Kp
1 s Tp
97.18
1 15.55 s
1
R
Pref (s)
PD (s)
Pg (s)
Pv (s)
GT
GH
PT (s)
Kp
1 s Tp
f (s)
- PD (s)
This can be reduced as
+
Gp
Thus f (s) = 1
1
GH GT
R
G G Gp
R H T
Gp
1
PD (s)
f (s) = -
GP
1
GH G T Gp
R
M
and hence
s
M
s
Kp
1
Kp
R
M = -
M
D
1
R
Hz
Fig. shows the configuration of EMS / SCADA system for a typical power system.
Planning
and
analysis
functions
Energy Management
System (EMS) Functions
CONTROL
CENTER
Communications
Network
CORPORATE
OFFICES
RTU
Substation
RTU
IED
IED
Monitored Devices
Fig. EMS / SCADA system configuration
RTU
In general case, changes may occur in both the speed changer setting and frequency in
which case the relationship PT 0 = Pref 0 -
1
f 0 applies.
R
For a given speed changer setting, Pref 0 = 0 and hence f0 = - R PT 0. In a frequencygeneration power graph, this represents a straight line with a slope = - R.
For a given frequency, f
1
f 0 represents a family of lines with slope -R,
R