ENGLISH FOR PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION

2nd YEAR

ETHICS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ............................................................................................................. 3

THE TENSE SYSTEM: MEANS OF EXPRESSING FUTURE ........................................................................................... 4
PUBLIC BUDGETING AND FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION ........................................................................ 7
THE TENSE SYSTEM: PAST PERFECT....................................................................................................................... 8
THE TENSE SYSTEM: REVISION ............................................................................................................................... 9
BUREAUCRACY ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
NUMERALS ............................................................................................................................................................. 12
MODAL VERBS ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS ......................................................................................................................... 17
ACTIVE/PASSIVE VOICE ........................................................................................................................................ 18
NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS .................................................................................................... 21
LANGUAGE FOCUS CONDITIONALS ....................................................................................................................... 21
LANGUAGE FOCUS QUESTION FORMATION ........................................................................................................... 22
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW ...................................................................................................................................... 23
LANGUAGE FOCUS RELATIVE CLAUSES ................................................................................................................ 24
LANGUAGE FOCUS TIME CLAUSES ....................................................................................................................... 25
PUBLIC POLICY ..................................................................................................................................................... 26
LANGUAGE FOCUS THE INFINITIVE ...................................................................................................................... 26
LANGUAGE FOCUS - -ING FORMS............................................................................................................................. 27
THE EUROPEAN UNION....................................................................................................................................... 28
LANGUAGE FOCUS REPORTED SPEECH ................................................................................................................. 30
APPENDIX LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS........................................................................................................ 31
APPENDIX: SUGGESTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 39
FURTHER LANGUAGE STUDY ............................................................................................................................. 39
APPENDIX: EXAMPLE OF AN INFORMAL LETTER / WRITING FORMAL LETTERS / REPORTS ... 41
EXAMPLE OF AN INFORMAL LETTER ........................................................................................................... 41
COMMERCIAL ENGLISH - LETTERS ............................................................................................................... 42
WRITING TECHNIQUES FOR COVER LETTERS, ADVERTS, BROCHURES, SALES LITERATURE,
REPORTS .................................................................................................................................................................. 44
WRITING LETTERS ................................................................................................................................................. 47
WRITING REPORTS - TEMPLATE STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................ 47

Ethics in public administration

Ethics is a branch of philosophy which seeks to address questions about morality, such as what
the fundamental semantic, ontological, and epistemic nature of ethics or morality is (metaethics), how moral values should be determined (normative ethics), how a moral outcome can be
achieved in specific situations (applied ethics), how moral capacity or moral agency develops
and what its nature is.
General business ethics overlaps with the philosophy of business, one of the aims of which is to
determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company's main purpose is to maximize
the returns to its shareholders, then it should be seen as unethical for a company to consider the
interests and rights of anyone else. General business ethics includes corporate social
responsibility or CSR: an umbrella term under which the ethical rights and duties existing
between companies and society is debated. It also covers issues regarding the moral rights and
duties between a company and its shareholders: fiduciary responsibility, stakeholder concept v.
shareholder concept. Ethical issues concerning relations between different companies: e.g.
hostile take-overs, industrial espionage. Leadership issues: corporate governance. Political
contributions made by corporations. Law reforms, such as the ethical debate over introducing a
crime of corporate manslaughter.
In administration is it called bureaucracy? This is a question that is becoming increasingly
pertinent as the days go by. Has the civil service been able to live up to the expectation of the
people who it was appointed to serve? Has it followed the role that the constitution bestowed
upon it or has it usurped a role for itself, which gives it more powers and privileges and a
redefined value system that is conveniently flexible? The answers to these daunting questions are
depressing. The bureaucracy has more or less failed the people as public servants and has also
failed their political counterparts as straightforward advisers on policy formulation.
Perhaps one most important step to be taken is to view critically the existing relationship
between the policy maker and the policy implementer, i.e., the politician and the civil servant.
Unfortunately, the executive arm follows the diktat, said and unsaid, of the political head. Where
the political head is committed to public welfare and takes to heart the oath he swears to uphold
the provisions of the constitution, the executive arm has no option but to follow suit.
(http://www.boloji.com/opinion/0026.htm)

The tense system: Means of expressing future

The verbs in bold in the following sentences express the idea of future.

If our authorities cannot solve our problem, we will address the European Court of Justice.
We are going to start a new business in Holland after the business plan is agreed on by all
parties.

There are several ways in which one can express future in English:
1. will + the short infinitive of the verb: He will come. Will he come?
Yes, he will. No, he will not (wont).
It indicates: a future event/ activity
2. Be going to + short infinitive: I am going to read this book.
It indicates: intention, probability
3. Be to + short infinitive: He is to deliver a speech.
It indicates: a future action very close to the moment of speaking
4. simple present: The train leaves at 9 oclock.
It indicates: a future action, included in a schedule
5. present continuous: We are visiting our subsidiary in London.
It indicates: an arrangement for immediate future

Specific adverbs: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, next month/ week, year, soon, shortly, in
a months time, in three months time, etc.

Put the verbs in brackets in the right future form:

1. We cannot attend the meeting tonight we (visit) our best friends.

2. According to the programme, the trial (start) at 10 oclock sharp.
3. His teachers are sure he (be) a successful lawyer one day.
4. You look very tired. If you want I (finish) the report for you.
5. Its already ten to nine. The witness (be) late.
6. I am simply exhausted. I think I (have) a coffee break.
7. Look out! That file (fall) from your desk and you (have) to put all the papers in order
again.

8. We (attend) the opening session of the conference on Monday. Would you like to join
us?
9. I (win) that contest, whatever it takes!
10. Dont worry about the meeting! I (help) you to prepare the folders.

The tense system: Future Continuous/ Progressive

The verb in bold in the following sentence is in the Future Continuous tense:

Will you be meeting the president of the board tomorrow?

Form: to be (in the future) + verb + ing: I will be writing. Will I be writing? Yes, I will. No, I
wont.

It indicates:
-

a developing action in the future: Tomorrow we will be reading all day long.

Specific adverbs: in a minute, in a second, at one oclock, at noon, tomorrow, this time next
week/ month/ year, all day long, all day tomorrow, all the week through, from two to five, by
then, by that time tomorrow, all the time

an action in progress, related to a conditional or a time clause: When I return,

Tom will be watching TV.

A future action, part of a schedule: What will you be doing tomorrow? I will be
swimming.

A polite way of asking about someones plans: Will you be meeting them tomorrow?

Choose the correct future form of the verb in the following sentences:

1. This time tomorrow they will be debating/will debate the issue in the Parliament.
2. I will have/will be having a look at your report in ten minutes.
3. You should try to find another copy of the report. I will use/will be using it until evening.
4. She cannot handle the correspondence. I will fire/will be firing her.
5. Theres no problem for me to give you a lift to the airport. I will be going/will go that
way anyway.
5

6. Let me break the news to her. I will be meeting/will meet her in the office tomorrow.
7. This time next week our representative will be flying/will fly to London to conclude the
agreement.
8. They will stay/will be staying here until next Friday.
9. Will you use/will you be using the computer this evening?
10. We are deeply sorry for his retirement. We will be missing/will miss him.

The tense system: Future Perfect

The verb in bold in the following sentence is in the Future Perfect tense.

We hope that by 2010 Romania will have become a member of the European Union.

Form: will + have + past participle: I will have managed to deliver the goods. Will I have
managed? Yes, I will. No, I wont.
It indicates:
-

a future action that will take place before a certain moment in the future or before
another future action: We will have met them by 4 oclock tomorrow. // He will
have posted the letter before you have time to complain.

A supposition, referring to the past: They will have found out from newspapers.

Adverbs: by, before, by the time

Use the correct future form of the verbs in brackets:

1. By the time you return they ... (finish) translating the materials for the conference.
2. He ... (file) charges against you before you meet him to apologise.
3. According to the action plan the project ... (end) in December.
4. The Chairman cannot come tomorrow. He ... (see) the President.
5. The witness ... (leave) the premises before you can stop him.
6. She ... (finish) investigating the crime scene by the time the police arrive.
7. Our conference ... (take place) after all participants are informed about the date.
8. Before the end of the year the United States ... (emerge) as the market leader in this
domain.
9. The European Parliament ... (issue) some new regulations after the plenary session.
10. The budgetary proposals of the commission ... (be considered) next week.

Public budgeting and financial administration

Budget (from French bougette, purse) generally refers to a list of all planned expenses and
revenues. It is a plan for saving and spending. [1]A budget is an important concept in
microeconomics, which uses a budget line to illustrate the trade-offs between two or more goods.
In other terms, a budget is an organizational plan stated in monetary terms.

In summary, the purpose of budgeting is to:

Provide a forecast of revenues and expenditures i.e. construct a model of how our business might
perform financially speaking if certain strategies, events and plans are carried out.
Enable the actual financial operation of the business to be measured against the forecast.

The process of calculating the costs of starting a small business begins with a list of all necessary
purchases including tangible assets (for example, equipment, inventory) and services (for
example, remodeling, insurance), working capital, sources and collateral. The budget should
contain a narrative explaining how you decided on the amount of this reserve and a description
of the expected financial results of business activities. The assets should be valued with each and
every cost.

The budget of a company is compiled annually. A finished budget usually requires considerable
effort and can be seen as a financial plan for the new financial year. While traditionally the
Finance department compiles the company's budget, modern software allows hundreds or even
thousands of people in various departments (operations, human resources, IT etc) to contribute
their expected revenues and expenses to the final budget.

If the actual numbers delivered through the financial year turn come close to the budget, this
suggests that the managers understand their business and have been successfully driving it in the
intended direction. On the other hand, if the actuals diverge wildly from the budget, this sends an
'out of control' signal, and the share price could suffer as a result.
Other types of budgeting: Event management budget, Government budget, Personal or family
budget.

The tense system: Past Perfect

Form: had + Past Participle: I went to work after I had finished my lunch. Had I finished?
Yes, I had. No, I hadnt.
It indicates: - a past, completed action that takes place before another past action: He gave me the book when he
had finished reading it.
-

An action finished before a certain moment in the past: I had written the paper by ten o clock.

The Past Perfect is not compulsory when after and before establish the sequence of the actions.
Use the Past Perfect where necessary.
1. The two parties (reach) an agreement when the member of our group made the
suggestion, so he had to accept it.
2. The Parliament (pass) this law a very long time ago.
3. By the time I called the office the secretary (leave).
4. When we wanted to complain about the PR officer being rude, the manager (fire) him.
5. Discrimination (be) a current practice in the company long before she brought up the
issue.
6. They changed their policy after a group of unsatisfied clients (sue) the company.
7. When they arrived the conference (begin) and they did not want to disturb the
participants, so they left.
8. The chairman opened the session after everybody (consult) the agenda.
9. We wanted to help them but by the time we got there they (finish) writing the
recommendations.
10. When she decided to accept the offer it was too late. Someone else (hire) as an assistant
manager.

The tense system: Past Perfect Continuous

Form: to be (in the past perfect) + verb + ing: I had been writing. Had I been writing? Yes, I had.
No, I hadnt.
It indicates: a past action in development before another past action and also continuing that moment: When he
came she had been reading for two hours.
!!!!!!!!!!!!
often used in past perfect and past perfect progressive sentences: when, after, as soon as, before, by the time

e.g. After they had been quarrelling for minutes, I asked them to stop.
We had been waiting for weeks before we got the money.
They had been negotiating for hours by the time I got there.

Choose the correct form of the verb in the following sentences:

1. The staff complained that they had asked/had been asking for better working conditions
for two months.
2. We had hoped/had been hoping to solve our problem easily and were very disappointed
when we couldnt.
3. Our partners had looked forward/had been looking forward to the contract to be signed
and became quite angry when it had been cancelled/had been being cancelled.
4. The whole staff had worked/had been working until the last minute and they had no time
left to decorate the room for the meeting.
5. The newspapers had been publishing/had published a lot of articles on the accident for
weeks when they found out about it.
6. We had been discussing/had discussed all day with our partners and by 10 oclock the
agreement wasnt signed.
7. Our competition had done/had been doing everything they could to attack us and we had
to take steps towards fighting back.

The tense system: Revision

Simple tenses Continuous tenses
Present Simple

Present Continuous/Progressive

used for actions in the present, for things that used for actions or events that are happening or
are always true or that happen regularly, and developing now, for future plans, or to show
for opinions and beliefs

that an event is repeated

I/we/you/they enjoy (do not enjoy)

I am enjoying (am not enjoying)

he/she/it enjoys (does not enjoy)

we/you/they are enjoying (are not enjoying)

he/she/it is enjoying (is not enjoying)

Past Simple

Past Continuous/Progressive

used for completed actions and events in the used for actions or events in the past that were
past

not yet finished or that were interrupted

I was enjoying (was not enjoying)

I/we/you/they enjoyed (did not enjoy)

we/you/they

he/she/it enjoyed (did not enjoy)

enjoying)

were

enjoying

(were

not

he/she/it was enjoying (was not enjoying)

Future Simple

Future Continuous/Progressive

used for actions and events in the future

used for actions or events in the future that will

continue into the future

I/we/you/they will enjoy (will not enjoy)

I/we/you/they will be enjoying

he/she/it will enjoy (will not enjoy)

(will not be enjoying)

he/she/it will be enjoying
(will not be enjoying)

Perfect tenses Continuous tenses

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous/ Progressive

used to show that an event happened or an action was

used for actions or events that started in the past but are

completed at some time before the present

still happening now, or for past actions which only

recently finished and whose effects are seen now

I/we/you/they have enjoyed

I/we/you/they have been enjoying

(have not enjoyed)

(have not been enjoying)

he/she/it has enjoyed

he/she/it has been enjoying

(has not enjoyed)

(has not been enjoying)

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous/Progressive

usually used to show that an event happened or an action

used for actions or events that happened for a period of

was completed before a particular time in the past

time but were completed before a particular time in the

I/we/you/they had enjoyed

past

(had not enjoyed)

I/we/you/they had been enjoying

he/she/it had enjoyed

(had not been enjoying)

(had not enjoyed)

he/she/it had been enjoying

(had not been enjoying)

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous/Progressive

used to show that something will be completed before a

used for actions or events that will already be happening

particular time in the future

at a particular time in the future

I/we/you/they will have enjoyed

I/we/you/they will have been enjoying

(will not have enjoyed)

(will not have been enjoying)

he/she/it will have enjoyed

he/she/it will have been enjoying

(will not have enjoyed)

(will not have been enjoying)

10

Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity, usually in large
organizations and government. As opposed to adhocracy, it is represented by standardized
procedure (rule-following) that dictates the execution of most or all processes within the body,
formal division of powers, hierarchy, and relationships. In practice the interpretation and
execution of policy can lead to informal influence.
Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science referring to the way that the
administrative execution and enforcement of legal rules are socially organized. Four structural
concepts are central to any definition of bureaucracy:
a well-defined division of administrative labor among persons and offices,
a personnel system with consistent patterns of recruitment and stable linear careers,
a hierarchy among offices, such that the authority and status are differentially distributed among
actors, and formal and informal networks that connect organizational actors to one another
through flows of information and patterns of cooperation.

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, armed forces, corporations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), hospitals, courts, ministries and schools.
Max Weber has probably been one of the most influential users of the word in its social science
sense. He is well-known for his study of bureaucratization of society; many aspects of modern
public administration go back to him; a classic, hierarchically organized civil service of the
continental type is if perhaps mistakenly called Weberian civil service several different
years between 1818 and 1860, prior to Weber's birth in 1864.

Weber described the ideal type bureaucracy in positive terms, considering it to be a more rational
and efficient form of organization than the alternatives that preceded it, which he characterized
as charismatic domination and traditional domination. According to his terminology,
bureaucracy is part of legal domination. However, he also emphasized that bureaucracy becomes
inefficient when a decision must be adopted to an individual case.

According to Weber, the attributes of modern bureaucracy include its impersonality,

concentration of the means of administration, a leveling effect on social and economic
differences and implementation of a system of authority that is practically indestructible.

11

Weber's analysis of bureaucracy concerns:

the historical and administrative reasons for the process of bureaucratization (especially in the
Western civilisation)
the impact of the rule of law upon the functioning of bureaucratic organisations
the typical personal orientation and occupational position of a bureaucratic officials as a status
group
the most important attributes and consequences of bureaucracy in the modern world

A bureaucratic organization is governed by the following seven principles:

official business is conducted on a continuous basis
official business is conducted with strict accordance to the following rules:
the duty of each official to do certain types of work is delimited in terms of impersonal criteria
the official is given the authority necessary to carry out his assigned functions
the means of coercion at his disposal are strictly limited and conditions of their use strictly
defined
every official's responsibilities and authority are part of a vertical hierarchy of authority, with
respective rights of supervision and appeal
officials do not own the resources necessary for the performance of their assigned functions but
are accountable for their use of these resources
official and private business and income are strictly separated
offices cannot be appropriated by their incumbents (inherited, sold, etc.)
official business is conducted on the basis of written documents

Numerals

Look for these words in the text:

these three phases (par. 1)
for the first the secondthe third (par. 1)

Numerals

Number

Cardinal number

Ordinal number

One

The first

Two

The second
12

Three

The third

Four

The fourth

Five

The fifth

Six

The sixth

Seven

The seventh

Eight

The eighth

Nine

The ninth

10

Ten

The tenth

11

Eleven

The eleventh

12

Twelve

The twelfth

13

Thirteen

The thirteenth

14

Fourteen

The fourteenth

15

Fifteen

The fifteenth

16

Sixteen

The sixteenth

17

Seventeen

The seventeenth

18

Eighteen

The eighteenth

19

Nineteen

The nineteenth

20

Twenty

The twentieth

21

Twenty one

The twenty-first

30

Thirty

The thirtieth

40

Forty

The fortieth

50

Fifty

The fiftieth

60

Sixty

The sixtieth

70

Seventy

The seventieth

80

Eighty

The eightieth

90

Ninety

The ninetieth

100

A/ one hundred

The one hundredth

200

Two hundred

The two hundredth

201

Two hundred and one

The two hundred and first

1, 000

A/ one thousand

The one thousandth

2, 000

Two thousand

The two thousandth

1, 000, 000

A/ one million

The one millionth

2, 000, 000

Two million

The two millionth

13

Mathematical operations: plus +; minus -; divided by :; times, multiplied by *; equals =

The right word order: ordinal number, cardinal number: The first two chapters are useful.
Use: comma for thousands: 1, 000, 000 and point for decimals: 1. 23
Hundred, thousand, million do not get s when accompanied by numerals: five hundred/
thousand/ million BUT: Hundreds of people/ thousands of flowers/ millions of stars

Modal Verbs

Read the following examples from the text:

Later on you may be able (par. 4)
You must enter as an immigrant (par. 5)
The job seekershould be prepared (par. 4)
A college in foreign commerce would definitely help (par. 1)

Modals
May
Form: may// May he?// may not
It indicates:
Possibility: He may come today. (to be possible)
Probability: We may get that contract. (to be probable)
Permission: You may leave. (to be allowed/ to be permitted)

Might
Form: might/ might he// might not
It indicates:
- NOT the past of may BUT a stronger possibility/ probability/ uncertainty: You might be right
(but I strongly doubt).

Must
Form: must// Must he..?// must not = mustnt
It indicates:
necessity/ obligation imposed by the speaker: I must be punctual.
14

invitation, emphatic affirmation: You must see the exhibition.

Probability, logical necessity: He must be at home.
An unexpected/ contrary action: They must annoy us with their problems!

It is replaced by: to have to, to be obliged/ forced/ compelled to.

Should
Form: should// Should you?// should not = shouldnt
It indicates:
obligation: You should be present at the meeting.
Instructions/ advice: He should welcome them at the airport.
Expectation: The business should be profitable.
Past, unfulfilled expectation: They should have discussed the matter in detail.

Ought to
Form: ought to/ ought not to
It indicates:
Moral obligation: You ought to visit him at the hospital
Duty: You ought to write that report.
Not a very strong obligation in the past, present or future: He ought to play chess that day/ now/
to morrow.
Advisability: You ought to organise that meeting as soon as possible.
Necessity: He ought to be present at the conference.
Desirable, not performed action: You ought to have helped them. They ought not to have gone
there alone.
Supposition, probability: You ought to communicate them the decision by now.

Would
Form: would/ would you?/ would not = wouldnt
It indicates:
Polite request: Would you listen more carefully?
Opposition/ resistance/ unwillingness: They would not meet us.
Past habit = used to: I would stay in that chair, drink my tea and read a book.
Invitation: Would you have some more cake?
Refusal (in the negative): I wouldnt accept that.
15

Criticism of somebodys behaviour: She would keep talking without listening to her friends.

Rephrase the following sentences so that they contain one of the modals above:

1. If you cannot find a job in your country, you emigrate to a foreign job-rich place.
2. Dont consider heading overseas to seek work without money in your pocket.
3. Dont go unless you are prepared to accept any job.
4. Sometimes you are forced to accept a monotonous job.
5. There are jobs you didnt accept in your native country.
6. Later on, of course, you will have the opportunity to apply for creative work.
7. The job seeker heading overseas has to take on jobs that have been turned down flat by
natives.
8. To work overseas you need to obtain a work permit.
9. It is advisable you find a job for which no work permit is needed.
10. Women will be able to work au pair. Under this arrangement, any girl is supposed to get
bed and board.
11. Their duty is to act as baby sitters. Their daily activity is to give general household help.
12. Their employers are also obliged to pay them a sum of money.

16

Nonprofit organizations
A nonprofit organization (abbreviated NPO, also not-for-profit) is any organization that does not
aim to make a profit, and which is not a public body. Whereas for-profit corporations exist to
earn and distribute taxable business earnings to shareholders, the nonprofit corporation exists
solely to provide programs and services that are of public benefit. Often these programs and
services are not otherwise provided by local, state, or federal entities. While they are able to earn
a profit, more accurately called a surplus, such earnings must be retained by the organization for
its future provision of programs and services. Earnings may not benefit individuals or stakeholders[1]. Underlying many effective nonprofit endeavors is a commitment to management.
Twenty years ago, management was a dirty word to those involved in nonprofit organizations. It
meant business, and non-profits prided themselves on being free of the taint of commercialism
and above such sordid considerations as the bottom line. Now most of them have learned that
nonprofits need management even more than business does, precisely because they lack the
discipline of the bottom line. The nonprofits are, of course still dedicated to "doing good." But
they also realize that good intentions are no substitute for organization and leadership, for
accountability, performance, and results. Those require management and that, in turn, begins
with the organization's mission.
In the United States one of the largest Non-Profit Organizations is the Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation, which has an endowment of $38 billion[14], and the Howard Hughes Medical
Institute, which has an endowment of approximately $14.8 billion. Outside the United States,
another large NPO is the British Wellcome Trust, which is a "charity" in British usage. See: List
of wealthiest foundations. Note that this assessment excludes universities, at least a few of which
have assets in the tens of billions of dollars. For example; List of U.S. colleges and universities
by endowment
Measuring a NPO by its monetary size has obvious limitations, as the power and significance of
NPOs are defined by more qualitative measurements such as effectiveness at carrying out
charitable mission and goals.

Some NPOs which are particularly well known, often for the charitable or social nature of their
activities conducted over a long period of time, include Amnesty International, the Better
Business Bureau, Oxfam, Carnegie Corporation of New York, DEMIRA Deutsche Minenrumer
(German Mine Clearers), Goodwill Industries, United Way, Habitat for Humanity, Teach For
America, the Red Cross and Red Crescent organizations, UNESCO, IEEE, World Wide Fund for
Nature, Heifer International, and SOS Children's Villages.
17

However, there are also millions of smaller NPOs that provide social services and relief efforts
on a more focused level (such as Crosswind - Community Outreach Ministry) or the arts to
people throughout the world and in the US. There are more than 1.6 million NPOs in the United
States alone. For more see Wikipedia articles on non-profit organizations

Active/Passive Voice
Look at these examples:

Performances are held everywhere (3)

His photographs were exhibited..were presented (5)
Works that have never been shown (5)
Life couldnt be imagined (6)

Active/ Passive Voice

Rule: to be (any tense required) + the Past Participle of the verb to be conjugated

They give her flowers.

Flowers are given to her.
She is given flowers.

The use of the passive

When the logical subject is obvious or is not important: Goods should be delivered as
soon as possible.
When the object is more important than the logical subject: The manager was informed
on the situation.
When the speaker avoids mentioning the logical subject: The order has already been
placed.
In formal notices: Passengers are requested not to
Newspapers: President sacked because
Processes in science or engineering: The wheel is tested

18

Rules for changing from active into passive

1.

2.

Active

Passive

Subject + tr. Verb + direct object

S (=dir. Obj.) + passive + (by.)

I wrote a report.

A report was written (by me).

Subject + tr. Vb. + Dir. Obj.1 + Dir. Obj. 2

S1(= dir. Obj.1) + passive + Dir.

I asked him a question.

Obj.2 + (by.)
He was asked a question (by me).
S2 (=dir. Obj. 2) + passive + (by)
A question was asked (by me).

3.

Subject + tr. Vb. + Direct object + Indirect S(=dir. Obj.) + passive + ind. Object.
object

The money will be paid to us.

They will pay us the money.

S(=ind. Obj.) + passive + direct

object
We will be paid the money.

4.

Subject + intr. Prep. Vb. + prep. obj.

S (prep. Obj.) + passive + preposition

I rely on Tom.

Tom is relied on.

Ex. to talk to/ about, to send for, to agree

upon, to look at/ after, to explain to, to
speak to/ of, to arrive at, to account for, to
laugh at, to refer to
5.

Subject + verb phrase + prep. object

(prep.

You have to pay attention to the problem.

preposition

Object)

passive

Ex. to put an end to, to take care of, to take The problem must be paid attention
notice of, to make use of, to take hold of, to to.
find fault with, to take possession of, to lose
sight of, to do away with, to put up with

19

Passive constructions:

6.

It is said that
It is believed that
It is understood that
It is reported that
It is expected that.
It is thought that
Intransitive verbs with a passive

7.

meaning: read, eat, wear, wash, act,

sell, open, feel, taste, shut, peel,
perform: Sweets sell well.
Passive forms with to have, to

8.

get: S + have + direct object + past

participle: I had my car repaired.
S + get + past participle: We got
stuck in the traffic.

Verbs that have no passive: escape, fit, get, have, let, like, suit, survive: The skirt doesnt suit
me. They escaped from prison.
Verbs used with the passive: to be born, to be said: He is said to be a good businessman.
Passive Structures:
modals + passive: The meeting can be postponed.
Passive + infinitive + object: with the verbs: advise, believe, expect, feel, forbid, mean,
order, report, request, require, say, teach, understand: They were advised to negotiate the
price.
It + the passive of: agree, announce, discover, expect, hope, suggest: It was suggested
that they would work hard.
Read the following text and change some of the sentences from active into the passive. The italicised words
will help you. Make all the other necessary changes.

Sometimes it is a real adventure not being sure if you have downloaded a virus or if it is only a hoax. You
cannot be sure whether you are alone or not: is there someone else working on my computer or it is only
me? To have more security you have to install a firewall, buy anti-virus programmes and up-date them
regularly. So, you have to spend much money only for preventing a virus-caused break down or hackerattacks. It is annoying not being sure if the money you have spent will prevent all those things or if they
create a new virus and a new way of hacking into computers.

20

Non-governmental organizations
Non-governmental organization (NGO) is a term that has become widely accepted for referring
to a legally constituted, non-business organization created by natural or legal persons with no
participation or representation of any government. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally
or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status insofar as it
excludes government representatives from membership in the organization. Unlike the term
intergovernmental organization, "non-governmental organization" is a term in generalized use
but not a legal definition, in many jurisdictions these type of organizations are defined as "civil
society organizations" or alternative terms.
NGOs vary in their methods. Some act primarily as lobbyists, while others conduct programs
and activities primarily. For instance, an NGO such as Oxfam, concerned with poverty
alleviation, might provide needy people with the equipment and skills to find food and clean
drinking water, whereas an NGO like the FFDA helps through investigation and documentation
of human rights violations and provides legal assistance to victims of human rights abuses.
Language focus Conditionals
Have a look at the following sentences, taken from the text entitled Customers Buy When They
Feel Good.

1. Prospective customers will not buy unless they feel good about you, your company and
your product or service.
2. A prospective customer will not buy if they have any doubt that you will deliver exactly
what you promise.
3. Avoid using any claim that sounds exaggerated even if it is true.

In examples 1, 2, and 3 unless, if and even if introduce conditional clauses.

(For details, see suggested bibliography:

Vince, Michael. Advanced Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Unit 8 pp. 41-47
Vince, Michael. Intermediate Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Units 12-13 pp.
49-55
Thomson, A.J., Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Fourth Edition, London: OUP,
1986 pp. 196-205)
21

Fill in the blanks with the required form of the verb given in brackets:

1. Now were lost! If you ___ (take) Mr Learys advice, this ___ (not happen).
2. Dont be afraid! If we ___ (comply with) the terms of the contract, they ___ (not sue) us.
3. Did you enjoy your meal? If you ___ (finish) eating, I ___ (clear away) the plates.
4. If the marketing assistant ___ (not notice) the mistake in the marketing plan, we ___ (not
succeed) in launching the product as planned.
5. Communication skills are essential in this job. All our PR assistants are communicative.
If they ___ (not be) friendly we ___ (lose) half our clients.
6. There was no mistake in his report. If there ___ (be) of course I ___ (correct) it.
7. Im afraid we have to take action. If we ___ (not punish) him this time, he ___ (only
make) more serious mistakes.
8. They cant lend us any money. But I know that if they ___ (have) it, they___ (lend) it to
us.
9. Its always the same! If you ___ (decide) to leave the office early, the boss ___ (call) you
after youve left!
10. Last year we had the lowest turnover in our companys history; but only because of
inflation. If we ___ (take) the inflation rate into account, we ___ (lose) so much money.
Language focus Question formation
Have a look at the following questions, taken from the text entitled What is PEST Analysis?
1. What are attitudes to foreign products and services?
2. Does language impact upon the diffusion of products onto markets?
3. How long are the population living? Are the older generations wealthy?
4. Is the government involved in trading agreements such as EU, NAFTA, ASEAN, or
others?
5. Will government policy influence laws that regulate or tax your business?
Questions may be classified as follows:
yes/no questions

questions with the answer yes or no

wh-questions

questions with what, where, who, whose, which, why, when, how

tag questions

added at the end of a statement; formed by using auxiliaries;

their
meaning depends on whether the statement is positive or
negative, and on intonation
22

Administrative law
Administrative law is the body of law that governs the activities of administrative agencies of
government. Government agency action can include rulemaking, adjudication, or the
enforcement of a specific regulatory agenda. Administrative law is considered a branch of public
law. As a body of law, administrative law deals with the decision-making of administrative units
of government (e.g., tribunals, boards or commissions) that are part of a national regulatory
scheme in such areas as police law, international trade, manufacturing, the environment,
taxation, broadcasting, immigration and transport. Administrative law expanded greatly during
the twentieth century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to
regulate the increasingly complex social, economic and political spheres of human interaction.

Taxation decisions are the decisions based on administrative law that are most often contested in
courts. Civil law countries often have specialized courts, administrative courts, that review these
decisions.
Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed
procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative
law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines
that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to review of
decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards,
and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or
entity.

While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units,
their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of
judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial
review of administrative decisions, it must be noted, is different from an appeal. When sitting in
review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at,
whereas in appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be under question. This difference is
vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.

The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the
administrative action is ultra vires. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing
23

court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law,
following the rejection of the "Patently Unreasonable" standard by the Supreme Court in
Dunsmuir v. New Brunswick), Wednesbury unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and
capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative
law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of
judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts viz. legitimate
expectation and proportionality.

The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were
originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of
mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain Common Law jurisdictions, such as India or
Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen
as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.
Language focus Relative clauses
Have a look at the following sentences taken from the text.
SWOT analysis is a basic, straightforward model that provides direction and serves as a
basis for the development of marketing plans.
When writing down strengths, it is imperative that they be considered from both the view
of the firm as well as from the customers that are dealt with.
Managers who are caught up in developing strengths and capabilities may ignore the
external environment.

The words in bold introduce relative clauses.

Relative clauses can be defining or non-defining. They can be introduced by relative pronouns,
or the relative pronouns can be omitted.

(For details, see suggested bibliography

Vince, Michael. Advanced Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Unit 18 pp. 101106
Thomson, A.J., Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Fourth Edition, London: OUP,
1986 pp. 81-90)

24

Language focus Time Clauses

Many businesses reduce their advertising when they are getting plenty of sales.

In the example above, when introduces a time clause.

Time clauses are introduced by conjunctions of time such as: after, as, as soon as, before,
hardlywhen, immediately, no soonerthan, since, the sooner, till/until, when, whenever, while.

Remember!
We do not use a future form, or a conditional tense in a time clause.

(For details, see suggested bibliography:

Vince, Michael. Intermediate Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Unit 29 Time
expressions p. 115
Thomson, A.J., Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Fourth Edition, London: OUP,
1986 p. 301)

Use as soon as, till, when, whenever, while or as to fill the gaps in the following sentences:
1. Go on ___ you come to a large square with an old statue in the middle. Then turn right
and youll find his house on your left.
2. Well be glad ___ everything is over and we can start working.
3. They were writing the report ___ we were discussing the details of our campaign.
4. ___ they were approaching the building, they realised that they had forgotten the
contract.
5. You can sign the letters ___ I am out. Lets agree on this rule..
6. Peter hasnt arrived yet and I need someone to help me. But you can leave ___ he arrives.
Rewrite the following sentences twice, using no sooner than and hardly when.
I had just sat down but the boss called me to his office.
I opened the file and a minute later someone rang the bell.

25

Public policy
Public policy can be generally defined as the course of action or inaction taken by a
governmental entities with regard to a particular issue or set of issues. Other scholars define it as
a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a
given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives.

In the United States, this concept refers not only to the end result of policies, but more broadly to
the decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions. Public policy is also considered an
academic discipline, as it is studied by professors and students at public policy schools of major
universities throughout the country. The professional association of public policy practitioners,
researchers, scholars, and students is the Association for Public Policy Analysis and
Management.
haping public policy is a complex and multifaceted process that involves the interplay of
numerous individuals and interest groups competing and collaborating to influence policymakers
to act in a particular way. These individuals and groups use a variety of tactics and tools to
advance their aims, including advocating their positions publicly, attempting to educate
supporters and opponents, and mobilizing allies on a particular issue.

In this context, advocacy can be defined as attempting to influence public policy through
education, lobbying, or political pressure. Advocacy groups "often attempt to educate the general
public as well as public policy makers about the nature of problems, what legislation is needed to
address problems, and the funding required to provide services or conduct research. Although
advocacy is viewed as unseemly by some in the professional and research community, it is clear
that public policy priorities are influenced by advocacy. Sound research data can be used to
educate the public as well as policy makers, thereby improving the public policy process."
Language focus The Infinitive
Have a look at the following sentences, taken from the text entitled What is Money? by Roy
Davies.
1. They would probably be less willing to accept them.
2. In complete contrast, a form of money with virtually no tangible properties whatsoever electronic money - seems set to gain rapidly in popularity.
3. These commodities, being widely desired, would be easy to exchange for others and
therefore they came to be accepted as money.

26

In examples 1, 2, and 3 the infinitive is used.

(For details, see suggested bibliography:

Vince, Michael. Advanced Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Unit 19 pp. 107114
Vince, Michael. Intermediate Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Units 38-39 pp.
157-166
Thomson, A.J., Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Fourth Edition, London: OUP,
1986 pp. 212-228)

Language focus - -ing Forms

Have a look at the following sentences from the text:

1. High risk investing is exactly like gambling in fact it is gambling. (noun/gerund)

2. As we shall see, this risk taking then often leads to devaluation of foreign currencies.
(noun/gerund)
3. Compounding this problem is the fact that speculators trade against other countries
currencies.
4. It is not comforting to know that the type of risk taking prevalent in the LTCM case is
increasing.
5. Banks are supposed to manage risks to prevent themselves from going insolvent or losing
market confidence. (verb + - ing form)

(For details, see suggested bibliography:

Vince, Michael. Advanced Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Unit 19 pp. 107114
Vince, Michael. Intermediate Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Units 38-39 pp.
157-166
Thomson, A.J., Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Fourth Edition, London: OUP,
1986 pp. 228-239)

27

The European Union

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic community of twenty-seven member
states, located primarily in Europe. It was established in 1993 by the Maastricht Treaty, adding
new areas of policy to the existing European Community. With almost 500 million citizens, the
EU combined generates an estimated 30% share of the world's nominal gross domestic product
(US$16.8 trillion in 2007).
The EU has developed a single market through a standardised system of laws which apply in all
member states, guaranteeing the freedom of movement of people, goods, services and capital.It
maintains a common trade policy, agricultural and fisheries policies, and a regional development
policy. Fifteen member states have adopted a common currency, the euro. It has developed a role
in foreign policy, representing its members in the World Trade Organization, at G8 summits and
at the United Nations. Twenty-one EU countries are members of NATO. It has developed a role
in justice and home affairs, including the abolition of passport control between many member
states under the Schengen Agreement.
EU operation is a hybrid of intergovernmentalism and supranationalism. In certain areas it
depends upon agreement between the member states. However, it also has supranational bodies,
able to make decisions without the agreement of members. Important institutions and bodies of
the EU include the European Commission, the European Parliament, the Council of the
European Union, the European Council, the European Court of Justice and the European Central
Bank. EU citizens elect the Parliament every five years.
The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community formed among six
countries in 1951 and the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Since then the EU has grown in size through
the accession of new member states and has increased its powers by the addition of new policy
areas to its remit. The Treaty of Lisbon, signed in December 2007 and intended to be ratified by
the end of 2008, is planned to amend the existing treaties to update the political and legal
structure of the union.
One of the first successful proposals for European cooperation came in 1951 with the European
Coal and Steel Community. This had the aim of bringing together control of the coal and steel
industries of its member states, principally France and West Germany. This was with the aim
that war between them would not then be possible, as coal and steel were the principal resources
for waging war. The Community's founders declared it "a first step in the federation of Europe",
28

with the hope that this would enable Europe to pursue the development of Africa. The other
founding members were Italy, and the three Benelux countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, and
Luxembourg.In 1973 the European Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland and the
United Kingdom. Norway had negotiated to join at the same time but a referendum rejected
membership and so it remained outside.The first direct, democratic elections of members of the
European Parliament were held in 1979. They were the first European elections to be held,
allowing citizens to elect 410 MEPs to the European Parliament, and also the first international
election in history.Greece, Spain and Portugal joined in the 1980s. The Schengen Agreement in
1985 created largely open borders without passport controls between most member states
Austria, Sweden and Finland joined in 1995.The European Union is composed of 27 independent
sovereign countries which are known as member states: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. There are three official candidate countries,
Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Turkey; the western Balkan countries
of Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia are officially recognised as
potential candidates. Kosovo has been granted similar status.
The European Commission acts as the EU's executive arm and is responsible for initiating
legislation and the day-to-day running of the EU.
The European Parliament forms one half of the EU's legislature. The 785 Members of the
European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years. Although
MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their
nationality. Each country has a set number of seats.
The Council of the European Union forms the other half of the EU's legislature.
Highest-ranking political leadership in the EU is provided by the European Council, which is
composed of one representative per member state plus the President of the Commission. The
member states choose as their representative either the head of state (e.g., the president) or the
head of government (e.g., the prime minister). The European Council meets on at least four
summits a year, and is lead by the representative of the rotating presidency. The European
Council should not to be mistaken with the Council of Europe, an intergovernmental institution
independent from the EU.
The judicial branch of the EU consists of the European Court of Justice (ECJ)

29

Language focus Reported Speech

Have a look at the following sentences:
1. They said they had bought a new car.
2. I told you I would be at the meeting.
3. They asked if we wanted to sell the business.
4. He wanted to know why he had to pay so many taxes.
5. The Chief Accountant suggested we finish the paperwork as soon as possible.
6. Tom advised travelling by plane.

These sentences report what someone said/ asked/ ordered etc.

(For details, see suggested bibliography:

Vince, Michael. Advanced Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Unit 16 pp. 89-95
Vince, Michael. Intermediate Language Practice, London: Heinemann, 1994, Units 10-11 pp.
41-47
Thomson, A.J., Martinet, A.V. A Practical English Grammar. Fourth Edition, London: OUP,
1986 pp. 269-288)

Report the following commands, requests and suggestions:

1. Type these letters and post them till tomorrow.

2. Dont forget to pay the telephone bill.
3. Dont leave before you finish your work!
4. Will you arrange a meeting for tomorrow?
5. Speak more quietly, please.
6. Would you mind waiting for a minute?
7. Please, work more carefully.
8. Will all those in favour raise their hands?
9. Lets visit the car Trade Fair tomorrow, shall we?
10. You must attend that interview.

30

Appendix List of Irregular Verbs

Infinitive

Past Simple

Past Participle

arise

arose

arisen

awake

awoke

awoken (US also awaked)

be

was/were

been

bear

bore

borne (US also born)

beat

beat

beaten (US also beat)

become

became

become

begin

began

begun

behold

beheld

beheld

belie

belied

belied

bend

bent

bent

bet

bet, betted

bet, betted

bid

bid, bade

bid, bidden

bind

bound

bound

bite

bit

bitten

bleed

bled

bled

bless

blessed, blest

blessed, blest

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

breed

bred

bred

bring

brought

brought

broadcast

broadcast

broadcast

(US also broadcasted)

(US also broadcasted)

build

built

built

burn

burnt, burned

burnt, burned

burst

burst

burst

buy

bought

bought

cast

cast

cast

catch

caught

caught

choose

chose

chosen
31

cling

clung

clung

come

came

come

cost

cost, costed

cost, costed

cut

cut

cut

deal

dealt

dealt

dig

dug

dug

dive

dived, (US also dove)

dived

draw

drew

drawn

dream

dreamed, dreamt

dreamed, dreamt

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

dwell

dwelt, dwelled

dwelt, dwelled

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feed

fed

fed

feel

felt

felt

32

Infinitive

Past Simple

Past Participle

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

flee

fled

fled

fly

flew

flown

forbid

forbade, forbad

forbidden

forecast

forecasted, forecast

forecasted, forecast

foresee

foresaw

foreseen

forget

forgot

forgotten

forgive

forgave

forgiven

forsake

forsook

forsaken

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

got, (US also gotten

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grind

ground

ground

grow

grew

grown

hang

hung, hanged

hung, hanged

have

had

had

hear

heard

heard

hide

hid

hidden

hit

hit

hit

hold

held

held

hurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

kneel

knelt, kneeled

knelt, kneeled

knit

knitted, knit

knitted, (US also knit)

know

knew

known

lead

led

led

learn

learned, (UK also learnt)

learned, (UK also learnt)

leave

left

left

lend

lent

lent

let

let

let

lie

lay, lied

lain, lied
33

light

lit, lighted

lit, lighted

lose

lost

lost

make

made

made

mean

mean

meant

meet

met

met

mislead

misled

misled

misspell

misspelled,

misspelled,

(UK also misspelt)

(UK also misspelt)

mistake

mistook

mistaken

misunderstand

misunderstood

misunderstood

mow

mowed

mown, mowed

overcome

overcame

overcome

overdraw

overdrew

overdrawn

oversee

oversaw

overseen

overtake

overtook

overtaken

overthrow

overthrew

overthrown

34

Infinitive

Past Simple

Past Participle

overwrite

overwrote

overwritten

partake

partook

partaken

pay

paid

paid

plead

pleaded, (US also pled)

pleaded, (US also pled)

preset

preset

preset

prove

proved

proved, proven

put

put

put

quit

quit, quitted

quit, quitted

read /ri d/

read /red/

read /red/

rewrite

rewrote

rewritten

rid

rid

rid

ride

rode

ridden

ring

rang

rung

rise

rose

risen

run

ran

run

saw

sawed

sawn, (US also sawed)

say

said

said

see

saw

seen

seek

sought

sought

sell

sold

sold

send

sent

sent

set

set

set

sew

sewed

sewn, sewed

shake

shook

shaken

shed

shed

shed

shine

shone

shone

shoe

shod, (US also shoed)

shod, (US also shoed)

shoot

shot

shot

show

showed

shown

shrink

shrank

shrunk

shut

shut

shut

sink

sank

sunk

sit

sat

sat
35

slay

slew, slayed

slain

sleep

slept

slept

slide

slid

slid

smell

smelled, (UK also smelt)

smelled, (UK also smelt)

sneak

sneaked, (US also snuck)

sneaked, (US also snuck)

sow

sowed

sown, sowed

speak

spoke

spoken

speed

sped, speeded

sped, speeded

spell

spelled, (UK also spelt)

spelled, (UK also spelt)

spend

spent

spent

spill

spilled, (UK also spilt)

spilled, (UK also spilt)

spin

spun

spun

spit

spat, (US also spit)

spat, (US also spit)

split

split

split

36

Infinitive

Past Simple

Past Participle

spoil

spoiled, spoilt

spoiled, spoilt

spotlight

spotlighted, spotlit

spotlighted, spotlit

spring

sprang

sprung

stand

stood

stood

steal

stole

stolen

stick

stuck

stuck

sting

stung

stung

stink

stank, (US also stunk)

stunk

strike

struck

struck, (US also stricken)

string

strung

strung

strive

strove, strived

striven, strived

swear

swore

sworn

sweep

swept

swept

swell

swelled

swollen, swelled

swim

swam

swum

swing

swung

swung

take

took

taken

teach

taught

taught

tear

tore

torn

tell

told

told

think

thought

thought

thrive

thrived, (US also throve)

thrived, (US also thriven)

throw

threw

thrown

thrust

thrust

thrust

tread

trod, (US also treaded)

trodden, (US also trod)

undergo

underwent

undergone

underwrite

underwrote

underwritten

understand

understood

understood

undertake

undertook

undertaken

undo

undid

undone

unwind

unwound

unwound

uphold

upheld

upheld

upset

upset

upset
37

wake

woke

woken

wear

wore

worn

weave

wove, weaved

woven, weaved

wed

wedded, wed

wedded, wed

weep

wept

wept

wet

wet, wetted

wet, wetted

win

won

won

wind

wound

wound

withdraw

withdrew

withdrawn

withhold

withheld

withheld

withstand

withstood

withstood

write

wrote

written

38

Appendix: Suggested Bibliography

***

Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary (London: Collins ELT, Harper

Collins Publishers, 2003)

Budai, L., Gramatica englez teorie i exerciii (Bucureti: Teora, 2001)

A.J. Thomson, A.V. Martinet, A Practical English Grammar (London: Oxford University
Press, 1996)

Vince, M., Advanced Language Practice (London: MacMillan Heinemann ELT, 1994)

Vince, M., Intermediate Language Practice (London: MacMillan Heinemann ELT, 1998)

Further Language Study

THE TENSE SYSTEM

Michael Vince Advanced Language Practice

Tense consolidation Units 1 4 (pp. 1-24)
Progress Test (pp. 25-29)

Michael Vince Intermediate Language Practice

Units 2 9 (pp. 3-36)
Problems, Errors and Consolidation (p. 37)

A.J. Thomson, A.V. Martinet A Practical English Grammar

The present tenses (pp. 152-162)

39

The past and perfect tenses (pp. 161-179)

The future (pp. 180-194)

GERUND/INFINITIVE

Michael Vince Advanced Language Practice

Unit 19 (pp. 107-113)

Michael Vince Intermediate Language Practice

Units 38 39 (pp. 152-165)

A.J. Thomson, A.V. Martinet A Practical English Grammar

The infinitive (p. 212-227)
The gerund (pp. 228-233)
Infinitive and gerund constructions (pp. 234-238)

ACTIVE/PASSIVE

Michael Vince Advanced Language Practice

Units 6-7 (pp. 30-40)

Michael Vince Intermediate Language Practice

Units 15 16 (pp. 58-63)

A.J. Thomson, A.V. Martinet A Practical English Grammar

The passive voice (pp. 263-268)

MODALS

Michael Vince Advanced Language Practice

40

Units 11-12 (pp. 59-70)

Michael Vince Intermediate Language Practice

Units 17 18 (pp. 64-71)

A.J. Thomson, A.V. Martinet A Practical English Grammar

May and can for permission and possibility (pp. 128-133)
Can and be able for ability (pp. 134-136)
Ought, should, must, have to, need for obligation (pp. 137-146)
Must, have, will and should for deduction and assumption (pp. 147-149)

Appendix: Example of an informal letter / Writing formal letters /

Reports

Example of an informal letter

2nd May
Dear John(,)
Thanks for your last letter and the nice photos................
.....................................................................................................................
Sorry, but I have to finish.
Hope to hear from you again.
Take care.
Peter

tips:

41

- the date: top right hand corner (day/month-BE - or month/day-AE)

- comma after name not necessary, but begin after that with a CAPITAL letter

- ending: Take care, Cheers, Yours, Love, then a comma and your name

Commercial English - Letters

You write to

How to begin the letter

Dear

Sir/Madam

(BE)

(AE)
an

unknown Dear Sir or Madam (BE)

firm/person (BE) (AE) (AE)

To whom it may concern
(AE)

How to end the letter

Yours faithfully (BE)

Yours truly (AE)

Truly yours (AE)

Yours faithfully (BE)

a woman whose name

you don't know

Dear Madam (BE) (AE)

Yours truly (AE)

Truly yours (AE)
Yours faithfully (BE)

a man whose name you

don't know

Dear Sir (BE) (AE)

Yours truly (AE)

Truly yours (AE)
Yours sincerely (BE)

a person whose name Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms Fisher

you know

(BE) (AE)

Very truly yours (AE)

Sincerely (yours) (AE)

42

(With) Best wishes (BE) (AE)

Yours (BE)
a person you know
personally

Dear Ann/John (BE) (AE) Love (BE)

All the best (AE)
Kindest/Best regards (AE)

Example of a formal letter

MICHAEL WARRENS LTD - 78 Court Street - Nottingham - UK

Mrs

Sara

Fisher

Manager
18 St. James Avenue
Bournemouth HB3 4LN
Our

ref:

4th October 2001

US

HK

1082

Your ref: SP / T
Dear Mrs Fisher,
Your order
We are pleased to acknowledge your order no. 202 dated 1st October 2001. Your
order is already dealt with. We will inform you when the consignment is ready for
delivery.
Please do not hesitate to contact us if you require further information.
We thank you for your custom and again look forward to being of service to you in
the future.
Yours sincerely,

43

M Warrens (Mr)
Enc

The envelope

The position of the address is the same like in the letter. Steet, Road and Avenue can
be written in abbreviations (St), (Rd) (Av).
The postcode/zip code you write under the town
Write the name of the country in CAPITAL LETTERS.
Example:
Mr

Michael

Warrens

Software
78

Court

St

Nottingham
WQ1

6P0

UNITED KINGDOM

Writing techniques for cover letters, adverts, brochures, sales literature,

reports
Writing letters, reports, notes and other communications are important skills for business
and personal life. Good letters help to get results, where poor letters fail. People judge

44

others on the quality of their writing, so it's helpful to write well. Here are some simple
tips for writing letters and communications of all sorts:
Generally, whatever you are writing, get to the main point, quickly and simply. Avoid
lengthy pre-ambles. Don't spend ages setting the scene or explaining the background etc.
If you are selling, promoting, proposing something you must identify the main issue (if
selling, the strongest unique perceived benefit) and make that the sole focus. Introducing
other points will distract and confuse.
Use language that your reader uses. If you want clues as to what this might be imagine
the newspaper they read, and limit your vocabulary to that found in the newspaper.
Use short sentences. More than fifteen words in a sentence reduces the clarity of the
meaning. After drafting your communication, seek out commas and 'and's, and replace
with full-stops.
Write as you would speak - but ensure it's grammatically correct. Don't try to be formal.
Don't use old-fashioned figures of speech. Avoid 'the undersigned', 'aforementioned',
'ourselves', 'your goodselves', and similar nonsense. You should show that you're living in
the same century as the reader.
As to how informal to be, for example writing much like normal every day speech (I'd,
you'd, we've, etc.) bear in mid that some older people, and younger people who have
inherited traditional views, could react less favourably to a writing style which they
consider to be the product of laziness or poor education. Above all it is important to write
in a style that the reader is likely to find agreeable.
Avoid jargon, acronyms, technical terms unless essential.
Don't use capital letters - even for headings. Words formed of capital letters are difficult
to read because there are no word-shapes, just blocks of text. (We read quickly by seeing
word shapes, not the individual letters.)

45

Sans serif fonts (like Arial, Helvetica and this one, Tahoma) are modern, and will give a
modern image. Serif fonts (like Garamond, Goudy and this one, Times), are older, and
will tend to give a less modern image.
Sans serif fonts take longer to read, so there's a price to pay for being modern. This is
because we've all grown up learning to read serif fonts. Serif fonts also have a horizontal
flow, which helps readability and reading comfort. (Serif fonts developed before the days
of print, when the engraver needed to create a neat exit from each letter.)
Avoid fancy fonts. They may look clever or innovative, but they more difficult to read,
and some are nearly impossible.
Use 10-12 point size for body copy (text). 14-20 point is fine for main headings, bold or
normal. Sub-headings 10-12 bold.
Any printed material looks very untidy if you use more than two different fonts and two
different point sizes. Generally the fewer the better.
If your organisation stipulates a 'house' font then use it.
If your organisation doesn't then it should do.
Black text on a white background is the easiest colour combination to read. Definitely
avoid coloured backgrounds, and black.
Avoid background graphics or pictures behind the text.
Italics are less easy to read. So is heavy bold type.
If you must break any of these font rules, do so only for the heading.
Limit main attention-grabbing headings to no more than fifteen words.
In letters, position your main heading between two-thirds and three-quarters up the page.
This is where the eye is naturally drawn first.

46

Use left-justified text as it's easiest to read.

Avoid fully justified text as it creates uneven word spaces and is more difficult to read.
Remember that effective written communication is enabling the reader to understand
your meaning in as few words as possible.
writing letters
Generally if you can't fit it all onto one side of a standard business sheet of paper, start
again.
Whether writing a letter of complaint, introduction, or proposition - you must keep it
brief.
If your letter can't be read and understood in less than 20 seconds it has limited chances
of success. It used to be 30 - this time limit gets shorter every year.
Think about the purpose of your letter. It will rarely be to resolve something completely.
It will more often be to establish a step along the way. So concentrate just on that step.
For example - letters of introduction should not try to sell a product. They should sell the
appointment.
writing reports - template structure
Typical structure template for writing a report:

Title, author, date.

Contents.

Introduction and Terms of Reference (or aims/scope for report).

Executive Summary (1-2 pages maximum) containing main points of evidence,

recommendations and outcomes.

Background/history/situation.

47

Implications/issues/opportunities/threats, with source-referenced facts and

figures evidence.

Solution/action/decision options with implications/effects/results, including

financials and parameters inputs and outputs.

Recommendations and actions with input and outcomes values and costs, and
if necessary return on investment.

Appendices.

Optional Bibliography and Acknowledgements.

Map out your structure before you begin researching and writing your report.
Ensure the purpose, aims and scope of the report are clearly explained in your terms of
reference.
The executive summary should be be very concise, summarising the main
recommendations and findings. Provide interpretation of situations and options. Show the
important hard facts and figures. Your recommendations should include implications,
with values and costs where applicable. Unless yours is a highly complex study, limit the
executive summary to less than two sides of standard business paper.
The body of the report should be divided into logical sections. The content must be very
concise. Use hard facts and figures, evidence and justification. Use efficient language big reports with too many words are not impressive. The best reports are simple and
quick to read because the writer has properly interpreted the data and developed viable
recommendations.
Do not cram lots of detail, diagrams, figures, evidence, references etc., into the main
body of the report. Index and attach these references as appendices at the end of the
report.
Where you state figures or evidence you must always identify the source.
Show figures in columns. Try to support important figures with a graph.

48

If it's appropriate to acknowledge contributors then do so in the introduction or a separate

section at the end.

49