Science Uncovered - October 2014 UK PDF

10 HOME TECH INNOVATIONS
BIZARRE
ANIMAL
DEFENCES
Breakthroughs that will radically transform your way of life Turn to p82
Exploding ants, vomiting

birds and lizards that
squirt toxic blood p76
Issue 11 | October 2014 | @SciUnco
HUMANS
NATURE
WHY WE
FORGET
FOSSIL
HOAXES
MOST
New evidence
reveals how
memories really
work p44
From dodgy dinosaurs

to suspect skulls p80
1276
ENGINEERING
DOOMSDAY
SEED VAULT
The underground bunker

safeguarding all plant life p66
METHANE RIVERS, DIAMOND PLANETS, STELLAR

NURSERIES AND MUCH MORE
FACTS INSIDE
+ Why our ears ring after loud noises

+ What lies beneath tectonic plates
+ How heat makes us drowsy
+ Why moonlight is white
E
U
S
IS
D
E
K
C
A
-P
E
C
N
IE
C
S
IS
H
A L SO INSIDE T
TEC HNO LOG Y
HOVERBIKE
LIFTt moStorbOike,FFpart helicoper:
+ Par
you will want one...
HUM ANS
WORLDWIDE
IC
N
EBOLA rPA
virus spreads
+ How this kille

across the globe
HUM ANS
SUGARS HIDDEN
S
NGagiER
D+ TheAdam
ng effects it has on
your brain, your skin and more
+ Turn to page 35 to discover the

pumice-like moon of Saturn with
a totally unpredictable orbit.
WELCOME TO ISSUE ELEVEN

A note from the editor
The scientists and

presenters explaining
the latest breakthroughs
Colin Stuart
Astronomer & author

+ A London-based astronomer
with degrees in astrophysics
and science communication, Colin is a fellow of
The Royal Astronomical Society. On page 30 he
takes us on a tour of the Universes best sights.
Dr Christian Jarrett
Writer & editor
+ A cognitive neuroscientist by
training, on page 44 Christian
explores why we forget, as well as some bizarre
memory phenomena, such as earworms and
the reminiscence bump.
Michael Whiteley
Loughborough University
+ Michael is a research scientist
investigating hydrogen fuel cells.
On page 58, he looks inside the new technology
that will suck CO 2 out of the atmosphere,
potentially reducing global warming.
Prof Brendan Walker

Middlesex University
+ Having originally trained as an

aeronautical engineer, Brendan
is the worlds only thrill engineer. On page 64,
he explains how the worlds biggest engine
which powers container ships works.
Hayley Birch
Science writer & editor

+ With a degree in biology, Hayley
is the co-author of the book Big
Questions in Science. On page 70 she ventures
deep underwater to the hydrothermal vents that
may have been the birthplace of life.
Duncan Geere
Science journalist
+ An expert in all things tech and

environment, Duncan was the
ideal person to uncover the innovations that will
change our homes. On page 82, he explains why
biorhythmic beds are heading your way.
@SciUncovered
Take a guided tour

of our Universe
ave you seen the incredible images of the comet that ESAs
Rosetta spacecraft has been beaming back to Earth? They
are all the more impressive given that the craft is sending
these images 550 million kilometres across space. Our view of space
has also been transformed by some other amazing bits of kit in
the recent past, such as the Hubble Space Telescope. And lets not
forget the Huygens lander that sent us images of the surface of
Titan, one of Saturns moons.
So we thought it was high time we took you on a tour of
wkh#Xqlyhuvhv#qhvw#vljkwv/#dqg#zkr#ehwwhu#wr#dfw#dv#|rxu#
guide than astronomer and regular Science Uncovered
contributor Colin Stuart? Take a look at his 25 most incredible
spectacles in the Universe on page 30.
Closer to home, we also look at the question of how life got started
on our planet. Its something thats far from clear. One idea is that
the building blocks of life came from elsewhere in the Solar System.
Exw/#rq#sdjh#:3/#zh#h{dplqh#wkh#jurzlqj#hylghqfh#wkdw#wkh#uvw#fhoov#
emerged in hydrothermal vents, deep beneath the oceans surface.
Rq#d#qdo#qrwh/#xqiruwxqdwho|#wklv#zloo#eh#odvw#lvvxh#ri#Science
Uncovered. Its been a pleasure producing the magazine for you.
I hope you continue to explore your love of science.
ANDREW RIDGWAY
andrew.ridgway@futurenet.com
@SciUncovered
HOW TO CONTACT US
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Issue 11
October 2014
@SciUncovered
89
The amazing vehicle thats half bike, half copter
54
Krz#grhv#vxjdu#dhfw#
our bodies?
30
25 MOST INCREDIBLE
SIGHTS IN THE UNIVERSE
Coronal mass ejections, Titans
methane lakes, the Cats Eye Nebula
and other must-see cosmic sights.
SPACE UNCOVERED
HUMANS UNCOVERED
30 25 Most Incredible
Sights in the Universe
ENGINEERING UNCOVERED
NATURE UNCOVERED
44 Why we Forget
58 Carbon Capturing
70 The Origins of Life
Take a sightseeing tour of the

cosmos and discover some truly
breathtaking phenomena.
The latest research on how our

brains store memories - and why
they can also fail us at the most
inopportune of times.
The green machine that sucks

carbon dioxide out of the air. Is
this the answer to combating
climate change?
Did life on Earth start in hot

vents at the bottom of the
ocean or could it have come
here from outer space?
38 How the Universe came

into being
42 The United Kingdom joins
the space race
50 The bionic hand with

a sense of touch
54 The hidden dangers
of sugar
64 The largest diesel engine

in the world
66 The doomsday seed vault
safeguarding our plant life
76 The strange ways animals

and plants defend themselves
80 The five greatest fossil
hoaxes of all time
38
44
58
70
@SciUncovered
SPACE
How long will it take for the

Sun to engulf the Earth?
Find out the answer to this question and loads more on page 22
CONTENTS
Issue 11 October 2014
REGULARS
8 Science Shot
Stunning images brought
to life with science.
14 Intelligence
The latest dispatches from
the world of science.
22 Ask a Scientist
Our panel of experts answer
your questions.
94 DIY Science
Build a simple electric motor,
and measure pH with a cabbage.
98 Antimatter
Notes from the bizarre side
ri#vflhqwlf#uhvhdufk1
76
atures t angest defences
66
or s largest eed vault
14
Is a worldwide Ebola crisis imminent?
TECHNOLOGY UNCOVERED
ON THE COVER + Your quick guide to whats inside this fact-packed issue
82 10 Innovations that Will

Revolutionise our Homes
82 10 Home
Tech Innovations
76 Bizarre
Animal Defences
From VR headsets to biorhythmic

beds, our lives are about to
change forever
The home-changing
technologies that will
change the way you live
Exploding ants, projectilevomiting seabirds and

blood-squirting lizards
88 Meet the bike that doesnt

fall over...
89 ..and the bike that glides
through the air
82
30 25 Most Incredible
Sights in the Universe
Celebrate the beauty of the
cosmos, from Saturns rings to
the planet made of diamond
66 Doomsday
Seed Vault
The underground bunker
safeguarding the future
of all plant life
80 Fossil Hoaxes
From Piltdown Man to
Archaeoraptor ancient
treasures that werent
54 Sugars
Hidden Dangers
Why the World Health
Organization says we all
need to cut down now
SCIENCESHOT
Awesome images from Earth and beyond
SCALED UP
Viewed close up, the scaly plumage of the
butterfly comes into view
PHOTO IWAN PRUVIC / SOLENT NEWS
Butterflies may not be a creature you

usually associate with feathers, but thats
simply because youve not been looking closely
enough. This image of a skipper butterfly,
taken by photographer Iwan Pruvic in his
garden in Indonesia, shows the thousands of
tiny scales that cover its body and bear more
than a passing resemblance to feathers. These
scales help the butterfly to fly, as they increase
the amount of lift generated by its wings as
they move through the air. They also act as
insulation, and form colourful patterns that
can act as camouflage.
+ A butterys proboscis.
It is used to suck up food,
such as nectar and pollen
from owers, and is
controlled by its own set
of muscles.
Wkh#dyhudjh#exwwhu|#
lives for 20-40 days
But some have a lifespan of

just a few days, while others
may live for up to six months
SCIENCE SHOT
Images from Earth & beyond
Christie Wilcox
Biologist, University of Hawaii
Are many insects covered

in scales?
All butterflies and moths are covered in

scales its one of the defining traits of
the order Lepidoptera. These scales are
what make moths dusty, for example, and
provide insulation as well as increasing the
lift-to-drag ratio during flight.
SCIENCE SHOT
The Appalachian Mountains

are 480 million years old
Their formation was part

of the construction of the
supercontinent Pangaea
+ The dome, or overshoot,

at the top of the storm cell
is a result of the formations
strongest updraft. Here, an
upwards rotating column of air
pushes up against the top of the
cloud. This formation cant be
seen from the ground.
STORM
BREWING
NASA captures cloud
formation from above
PHOTO NASA / STU BROCE
10
Seen from a height of 19km (12 miles) up, these clouds over the
Southern Appalachian Mountains in the US seem tranquil. But
in fact they form a storm cell, the smallest building block of a storm
system which can consist of just one or many cells. A storm cell is a
mass of air that contains loops of upwards and downwards air
currents moving within it. This rare glimpse of what a storm looks
like from above was taken by NASA from a high-altitude aircraft,
as part of a study carried out with the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration and Duke University into precipitation
over mountain regions.
@SciUncovered
Calcium carbonate is
found in animals shells
In fact, its the main

component in them,
as well as in pearls
SCIENCE SHOT
+ Calcium carbonate is white

the shades here come from
the false colour microscope
technique, which makes
individual elements easier
to pick out.
LOOKING ROSY
Calcium carbonate takes on a floral appearance
PHOTO SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
These calcium carbonate crystals form a
microscopic rose garden. The crystals are
made up of hexagonal plates, which group together
in spherical configuration called varetites. Theyre
incredibly tiny this image was taken using a
scanning electron microscope, and shows a group
of rosette-shaped varetites just 69 millionths of a
metre across. Calcium carbonate is commonly found
in rocks such as limestone, chalk and marble. Its
used in medicine as an antacid to treat heartburn,
and is also used in industry as a building material,
to purify iron ore, and as a water pH regulator in
swimming pools.
@SciUncovered
11
Wax typically
melts at 45C
SCIENCE SHOT
It is made of long chains of

hydrogen and carbon molecules,
which deform with heat
Dr Paul Coxon
Materials scientist,
University of Cambridge
Do any naturally occurring

materials share these properties?
Materials that can change shape and
stiffness are common in nature. A classic
example is a tree leaf, which can fold and
unfold in response to sunlight. It must be
stiff enough to support its own weight but
flexible in order to minimise wind damage.
+ The prototype material is coated

in wax, but the researchers at MIT
plan to replace this with sturdier
substances such as solder in the
future, increasing the strength of
the structures it creates.
12
@SciUncovered
Candles have been

used since 200BC
CHANGING
STATES
The material that can switch
between hard and soft
PHOTO COURTESY OF
THE RESEARCHERS
@SciUncovered
Specimens dating back

to this period have been
found in China
SCIENCE SHOT
Creating a robot that can be squashed to manoeuvre through

tight spaces is a tough task to be of any use, it also needs to
be able to exert force without collapsing. But researchers at
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), in the US, have found
a solution in the form of a wax-soaked, 3D-printed foam structure.
Once set, the wax forms a rigid shell that hold the foam in place. But
once heat is applied by exposing the material to an electric current,
for example it becomes pliable. It is hoped that the material, or
something like it, could be used to produce robots that would be used
in surgery or in search and rescue operations.
13
The latest breakthroughs explained and dissected
+ The composition of the Ebola virus DNA

can be studied using electrophoresis a
technique that involves suspending it in
uid and applying an electric eld.
This contagious viral disease has been

sperading through West Africa, but its
unlikely to take hold in the UK
WORDS BY Mun-Keat
Looi
n 25 March 2014, the

Guinean Ministry of
Health sent out a chilling
communique: Ebola virus disease
was confirmed to have killed 60
people in the countrys southeastern
region. Worse, cases had spread to the
capital Conakry, and reports were
emerging from the borders of
neighbouring Liberia and Sierra Leone.
Ebola, named after the river in the
Democratic Republic of Congo
(formerly Zaire) where it was first
identified in 1976, is a virus of modern
14
26
previous Ebola outbreaks

have occurred
legend. It is notorious for its gruesome

symptoms (vomiting, fever, diarrhoea,
bleeding to death) and a fatality rate of
up to 90%. There remains no vaccine
or cure although DNA-based
vaccines that have been proven
effective in animals have now entered
clinical trials, as have a couple of
experimental drugs, called Zmapp and
TKM-Ebola.
As Science Uncovered went to press,
the current outbreak had claimed over
1,000 lives in West Africa. Yet while
danger remains high in the region,
THE ROUTINE INFECTION CONTROL

MEASURES SET UP WOULD PREVENT
THE DISEASE FROM SPREADING.
Prof David Heymann LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL DISEASES
the risk of infection for those further

away is low.
Ebola comes in five varieties, of
which four are infectious. The current
outbreak is related to the most deadly,
the Zaire strain. But the good thing is
that it doesnt spread through the air,
says Professor David Heymann at the
London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine. Even if you were to meet an
infected person, Heymann says, the
risk of getting it is low unless they
vomit on you or youre in touch with
their body fluids.
Thats an important point. Another
is that those showing no symptoms
even if they are carrying the virus
are not infectious, with the virus
taking between two and 21 days to
cause symptoms. And the virus can
actually be dealt with pretty easily,
with ordinary soap which is why a
@SciUncovered
IMAGE PATRICK WALLET/LOOK AT SCIENCES/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
HOW MUCH OF A THREAT

IS THE EBOLA VIRUS?
The Ebola virus is believed

to be carried by fruit bats
They are commonly eaten

in West Africa, and are
often served grilled
Measuring up to 14,000
nanometres in length, the
Ebola virus is relatively large
INTELLIGENCE
Breakthroughs explained
A BRIEF HISTORY OF
THE EBOLA
VIRUS
1976 FIRST RECORDED OUTBREAK
IN YAMBUKU, ZAIRE
IMAGE CDC/CYNTHIA GOLDSMITH
+ On 26 August, Mabalo Lokela, a head

teacher in Yambuku, Zaire (now
Democratic Republic of the Congo) falls
ill with a haemorrhagic fever, at first
thought to be malaria. By 8 September,
he bleeds to death. A total of 318 cases
and 280 deaths are reported in the
ensuing outbreak.
key part of the control measures is

hand-washing.
There is no reason why Ebola
couldnt arise in the UK, says
Heymann. But if it did, it could be quite
easily dealt with, as weve seen with
other diseases such as Middle East
Respiratory Syndrome, which reached
the UK earlier in 2014. The routine
infection control measures set up,
including protection of health
workers, made sure that the disease
didnt spread any further, says
Heymann. The same would happen
if Ebola came in.
Early-stage Ebola has symptoms,
such as fever, that are similar to the
flu or malaria. But following a few
basic principles can help most
countries deal with diseases such as
Ebola swiftly. First, suspected patients
need to be isolated. Then people
who have been in contact with them
need to be identified known as
contact tracing and the patient and
any contacts put under fever
surveillance, monitoring their
temperature three times a day. And
if they get a fever you would make
sure that their diagnosis was Ebola or
not, says Heymann.
At the same time, he says, hospital
infection controls must be stringent.
Health workers must protect
themselves using the proper
equipment, and ensure that patients
are isolated and that none of the
equipment used on those patients is
used on others.
Because its in hospital settings
that not only do other patients get
infected, the health workers also get
@SciUncovered
55%
is the case fatality
rate of the current
Ebola outbreak
infected, says Heymann. And

often thats how the virus gets into
the community.
So while this is the largest
outbreak of Ebola ever recorded,
robust healthcare systems ensure
that the risk of Ebola infection outside
of West Africa remains low. The
problems in that region seem to have
been born of miscommunication and
bad organisation, with basic health
principles not being followed. This
has been further complicated by
cultural clashes, such as a mistrust of
doctors and the traditional funeral
practice of washing the bodies of the
dead by hand.
Mun-Keat Looi
Science writer & editor

+ Mun-Keat is a senior editor at the
Wellcome Trust. @ayasawada
READER REACTION!
2003 VACCINE TRIALS IN MONKEYS

+ An adenovirus-based vaccine
carrying Ebola proteins is tested on
macaque monkeys. The vaccinated
monkeys prove resistant to the virus
when introduced to it 28 days later.
Trials of adenovirus-based vaccines for
humans are ongoing as of August 2014.
2011 VACCINE FOR MICE

DECLARED SUCCESSFUL
+ A paper in the science journal PNAS
describes an Ebola vaccine that is
effective in mice. Although a human
equivalent has yet to be developed, the
vaccine is promising because it can be
freeze-dried, enabling supplies to be
stockpiled in case of future outbreaks.
How concerned are you about Ebola

spreading to the UK?
Jayne OHarrow
England
Tony Lawes Great

Yarmouth, England
Ann Garside
England
Amy Hartley
via Facebook
I know that the sanitary

conditions we live in
make it far less likely
that the epidemic will
take hold. I am not
worried at all.
Very. The last time we

had such a serious
disease it was a very
bad time and it nearly
destroyed half the
country.
If science wants it in the

UK, there is nothing we
can do.
I dont get why people

are so panicked about it.
Global warming is a lot
worse but no one cares
about that.
JOIN IN THE DEBATE
Log on to one of our community

sites and join the conversation
On Facebook at
facebook.com/SciUncovered
On Twitter at
@SciUncovered
15
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RUQGXVLQ\RXUQHDUHVWVXSHUPDUNHWQHZVDJHQWRUERRNVWRUH
The largest ever seabird

was Pelagomis sandersi
Fossils of the creature, which

had a 6.4m wingspan, were
recently discovered in the US
INTELLIGENCE
FOUR-WINGED DINO
PROVIDES INSIGHT
INTO FLIGHT
Newly discovered creature would

have been a pioneer of air travel
IMAGE EMILY WILLOUGHBY
WORDS BY Dr
Darren Naish
ith no fewer than four

wings and extra-long tail
feathers, a dinosaur thats
just been discovered in China sheds
new light on how they flew. Dubbed
changyuraptor, which means longfeathered thief, its thought this
beasts lengthy feathers would have
played a crucial role in flight control.
The 125-million-year-old dinosaur
Changyuraptor yangi, to give it its full
name was discovered by a team of
Chinese and American researchers in
the Chinese province of Liaoning. It
was a lightly built, long-limbed
predator with serrated teeth and
curved claws. Long, narrow feathers
grew from its arms and hands to form
wings, and also from its legs and feet to
form hindlimb wings.
The longest of the feathers grew
from the end half of changyuraptors
Changyuraptor yangi
lived in China around
125 million years ago
60%
is how much larger
changyuraptor was
than the previous
record-holder for
four-winged dinosaurs,
Microraptor zhaoianus
THE TAIL WOULD HAVE SIGNIFICANTLY

IMPROVED THE FLIGHT CONTROL AND
STABILITY IN THE AIR.
Professor Michael Habib UNIVERSIT Y OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
@SciUncovered
tail, forming a fan-like arrangement.

Some were as long as 30cm the
longest feathers yet discovered in any
dinosaur. The sheer size of the tail
feathers suggests they had an
important aerodynamic role they
might, for example, have helped it to
reduce its speed in order to land safely.
The large tail feathers of
changyuraptor match our expectations
for what the feathers on the tail should
look like if they were used to control
flight or rapid descents, says Michael
Habib, an Assistant Professor in the
Keck School of Medicine at the
University of Southern California, who
was part of the team involved with the
research. The tail would have
significantly improved the flight
control and stability in the air.
The Liaoning province has proven
to be a rich source of feathered
dinosaur fossils over the past decade.
Many of the species boasted feathers

on their hind legs, but over time it
appears evolution abandoned them
in favour of focussing solely on the
more efficient forelimb wings.
Changyuraptors feathers would
have covered its body a body that was
1.3 metres long and would have
weighed 4kg, roughly double the
weight of the average chicken. This
dinosaurs discovery supports the idea
that flight preceded birds, and that
birds inherited the ability from
dinosaurs. Some of todays birds still
boast feathers on their legs, but they
are for insulation rather than flight.
Dr Darren Naish
Palaeontologist & writer

+ Based at the University of Southampton
in the UK, Darren studies dinosaurs and
named one himself Eotyrannus @TetZoo
17
45#ri#wkh#zruogv elj
jjhvw#vflhqwlf glvfryhulhv glvwloohg
02
01
DOGS ARE
JEALOUS TYPES
+ Its something that owners will have
suspected for a long time dogs experience envy.
Researchers at the University of California in San
Diego studied 36 dogs across 14 breeds and
found that they were mostly unresponsive when
their owners read a book, but changed their
behaviour once the owner began to pay attention
to a toy. A quarter of the dogs snapped at the toy,
while only one snapped at the book. Other dogs
barked, wagged their tails or tried to force their
way between the owner and the toy.
This new research backs up an observation by
Charles Darwin in 1871: Everyone has seen how
jealous a dog is of his masters aection, if
lavished on any other creature.
50%
is how much less the Milky

Way weighs than similarly-sized
neighbour Andromeda, according
to scientists at the University of
Edinburgh who used a new
gravity-based method to weigh
it. Andromeda is thought to
contain twice as much
dark matter.
IMAGE NASA
04
Ant colonies have

personalities
AREA COULD BE
03 BRAIN
LINKED TO DEPRESSION
Researchers at University College London have
been studying an ancient, pea-sized part of the
brain called the habenula. Brain scans of volunteers
showed the region activates in response to images
that provoke expectations of bad outcomes.
Earlier animal studies showed that habenula
activity leads to avoidance, as it suppresses the
production of dopamine, which drives motivation.
Its now thought a hyperactive habenula in
people could lead to a pessimistic outlook on life
so a greater understanding of its activity could
lead to new treatments for depression.
18
+ Dierent colonies of ants have their own

personalities, showing variation in traits
such as their tendency to explore. Sarah
Bengston, a PhD student at the University
of Arizona, studied colonies of ants both in
her lab and in the wild, and found that
certain patterns of behaviour tend to go
together. Those colonies that explore more
widely also tend to respond to intruders
more aggressively. The patterns of
behaviour varied depending on where the
colonies were, suggesting environment
plays a role in shaping personality type.
CATCHES
05 ROSETTA
ITS COMET
+ After a decade-long chase thats spanned 405
million kilometres, the Rosetta spacecraft has
rendezvoused with comet 67P/ChuryumovGerasimenko and beamed back fascinating
images of its surface. The next key landmark will
come in November when its lander probe, Philae,
will attempt to reach the comets surface.
Analysing the comets composition should give us
new insights into the early days of the Solar
System, since comets are remnants of debris left
over from the systems formation.
@SciUncovered
INTELLIGENCE
10
40.2 KM
is the new distance record for an

o-Earth land vehicle. NASAs
Opportunity rover on Mars has beaten
the record set by the USSRs
Lunokhod 2 moon rover in 1973.
Opportunity travels around
4.2km a year.
SEALS AFFECTED
06 FUR
BY CLIMATE CHANGE
+ Antarctic fur seals are becoming
smaller and breeding later all
thanks to the eect of warmer
seas on krill, their primary food
source. The British Antarctic
Survey has noticed a 27-year trend
11 MOON IS A
for seal pups to be born with ever

lower body mass. Krill uses
Antarctic sea ice as shelter, feeding
on algae growing underneath it,
meaning that as the ice melts,
theres less for the seals to eat.
08 Tweets
is how much of
your DNA is useful
Vflhqwlvwv#dw#wkh#Xqlyhuvlw|#Ri#
R{irug#zkr#vwxglhg#vlplodulwlhv#
between our genes and those of
rwkhu#vshflhv#eholhyh#odujh#
stretches of our DNA do nothing,
with redundant genes building up
ryhu#ploolrqv#ri#|hduv#ri#hyroxwlrq#
exw#qhyhu#jhwwlqj#fohduhg#rxw1
IMAGE IAN EVENDEN
07
8.2%
SOFTIE AT HEART
deciphered
+ Ever wondered which bird species

is making a racket outside your window at
5am? A team from Queen Mary University of
London may be able to help, after training
software to be able to pick out dierences
between bird calls. Hundreds of bird calls were
analysed using a feature learning technique,
and the system has been proven to be eective
at distinguishing dierent species.
BUMPS
09 FIST
MORE HYGIENIC
Ilvw#expsv#udglfdoo|#uhgxfh#wkh#fkdqfhv#ri#
vsuhdglqj#lqihfwlrxv#glvhdvhv/#vd|#Dehu|vwz|wk#
Xqlyhuvlw|#uhvhdufkhuv#lq#Zdohv1#Wkh|#
phdvxuhg#jhup#pryhphqwv#xvlqj#vwhuloh#
uxeehu#joryhv/#rqh#ri#zklfk#zdv#glsshg#lq#wkh#
edfwhulxp#E. coli1#Ihzhu#edfwhuld#zhuh#
wudqvihuuhg#wr#wkh#rwkhu#joryh#iroorzlqj#d#vw#
exps#ru#kljk#yh/#wkdq#diwhu#d#kdqgvkdnh1
@SciUncovered
+ Our planets gravity heats up a layer

around the Moons core, keeping it
liquid, a new model of the lunar interior
suggests. Researchers in the US and
China created the computer model and
found that a liquid layer between 350
and 500km from the centre could
explain anomalies in the Moons orbit
and gravitational eld. The nding
prompts an intriguing question how
such a soft layer could be maintained
throughout the Moons 4.5-billion-year
history? Its thought heat generated by
Earths gravity may be responsible.
TOMB
12 CHINESE
YIELDS TREASURE
+ Life-sized chariots and treasure made
from gold, silver and bronze have been
discovered in a 2,100-year-old tomb built
for a Chinese king. Archaeologists from
the Museum of Nanjing believe the tomb,
hidden up a mountain in Jiangsu province,
eastern China, was created for Liu Fei,
who died in 128BC. The tomb had already
been looted, but still housed thousands of
artefacts. It would have contained items
the king needed for the afterlife, including
a kitchen. The ndings were reported in
the journal Chinese Archaeology.
19
SCIENCE AT HOME
Explaining the science of your surroundings
THE PHYSICS OF TOYS

How do these objects hold the power to amuse us?
WORDS BY
Dr Michael Banks
SPINNING TOP
DEFYING GRAVITY
USING TORQUE
20
The spinning top, balancing

on a tiny point, appears to
defy the laws of gravity. The
physics behind how it works are
based on angular momentum a
measure of the amount of spin
an object has, taking into account
its speed and mass. The angular
momentum of an object only
changes when you apply a torque
to it (twist it, in other words). So
when the top is set into
motion, a large torque is
applied that imparts
a lot of angular
momentum. In full
flight, the top easily
remains upright
sometimes for minutes
as the torque due to
gravity is not strong enough
to change its movement.
However, as the top slows down
due to air resistance, gravity
begins to take over, and the
upper part of the spinning top
makes a circular motion before
crashing to the floor.
THE SLINKY
WALKING DOWN STAIRS BY
SHIFTING ENERGY
For the uninitiated, a Slinky is a
simple toy consisting of a helical
spring made from plastic or metal. It has
been enjoyed for well over half a century
thanks to its amazing ability to walk
down stairs unaided. While this motion
might look easy enough, the physics
behind it is fairly complex. Every object
has stored, or potential, energy and when
placed at the top of the stairs the Slinky
will, of course, stay perfectly still. But as
you set the spring on its way, by pulling
one end down on to the next stair below,
this potential energy is transferred to
kinetic energy energy due to motion.
As the Slinky coils on the step below, this
kinetic energy shifts like a wave along
its length to the other end. Much like
when you crack a whip, all the energy
travels through to the end of it. This
pulsing energy then makes the Slinky
continue down to the next step and
the process continues.
@SciUncovered
Methylene chloride is used to

ghfdhlqdwh#frhh#ehdqv
Wkh#ehdqv#duh#vwhdphg/#
ehiruh#ehlqj#ulqvhg#
with the solvent
SCIENCE AT HOME
Physics of toys
PAPER AEROPLANE
STAYING AIRBORNE USING AERODYNAMICS
The farthest flight by a paper
aircraft made from a single sheet
of uncut A4 paper currently stands at
69.14m. That mighty feat was achieved
by US television producer John Collins
and his friend Joe Ayoob on 26 February,
2012. For any aeroplane to fly, paper or
otherwise, it must have two things: lift
and stability. After launch, as the plane
moves forward, its wings cut through
the air to generate a small amount of
lift, which counteracts the force of
gravity that pushes it down. As the lift
acts upwards, it is important that the

plane is stable and flies level. A
reduction in speed, from drag, reduces
the lift and gravity begins to take over,
forcing the plane to land. This is one
reason why aeroplanes are pointed at
the front so they cut through the air
better and can stay in the air for longer.
THE DRINKING BIRD

CONVERTING HEAT INTO MOTION
NEWTONS CRADLE
ENERGY CONSERVATION IN ACTION
A toy thats more often found on
shelves in offices than in the
hands of children, it was given the
name Newtons cradle by English
actor Simon Prebble in honour of the
legendary physicist. Swing a ball back
and when hits the first of the four
beneath, it stops immediately. It has
zero kinetic and potential energy. The
law of conservation of energy states
energy cant be created or destroyed
the energy must go somewhere.
Its transferred into ball two, which
then transfers its energy to ball
three, and so on. When the energy
reaches ball five, it doesnt have
another ball to pass its energy to. So
when it compresses under impact (as
its predecessors have done each by
a minute amount) and then returns to
@SciUncovered
its original shape, it pushes on ball

four and swings outwards. The
process is repeated in reverse as ball
five slams into ball four after swinging
into the air.
In a classic episode of The

Simpsons, Homer gets a drinking
bird to do his job, continuously tapping
the Y key on his computer keyboard.
Alas, this would never work, because
Homer doesnt have a cup of water to
hand. This aspect is crucial as the toy is a
simple heat engine that converts heat
energy from the water to mechanical
work. The birds body is filled with
methylene chloride a solvent that
evaporates easily. When the birds beak
dips into a cup of water, the beak absorbs
water and the head is cooled as the water
evaporates. This causes the methylene
chloride vapour inside the birds head to
condense, reducing the vapour pressure
inside it, and sucking liquid up from the
body into the head. This makes it top
heavy, and so the bird tips over. As the
birds head tips back into the water, the
bottom of the tube in the birds body is
lifted out of the methylene chloride.
Vapour travels through the tube into the
head, displacing the liquid in it. When
liquid drains into the abdomen, it lifts the
head. And as water evaporates from the
birds head again, the process repeats.
Dr Michael Banks
Writer and physicist
+ Michael completed a degree in physics

at Loughborough University in the UK before completing
a PhD in experimental condensed-matter physics at the
Max Planck Institute in Germany. @Mike_Banks
21
Your questions answered by those in the know
THE SCIENTISTS
An expanding Sun will

look vast from the
surface of our planet
Our experts answering your

burning questions
1.39
million kilometres is
the diameter of
the Sun
Dr Chris Lintott
University of Oxford
+ A co-presenter on the BBC Four
astronomy show The Sky at Night,
Chris also runs citizen science projects to
investigate galaxy formation, discover new
planets and more. @chrislintott
Christie Wilcox
University of Hawaii
+ While living on Oahu, Christie is
pursuing a PhD in cell and
molecular biology. Her particular interest is the
toxins of venomous ocean creatures such as
the lionfish. @NerdyChristie
Dr Matthew Genge
Imperial College London

+ Not only does Matthew study
asteroids, he has one named after
him too 6626 Mattgenge. A planetary scientist,
hes fascinated by rocks on this planet as well as
those out in space. @rockbloke
SPACE
Dr Kristina Killgrove
University of West Florida
+ Kristina sees dead people

dead Romans, to be precise. As an
anthropologist and archaeologist, she
specialises in studying the bones of Romans to
find out how they lived . @DrKillgrove
Dr Ian Mabbett
Swansea University
+ From the inner workings of steel,
to bold new materials, Ian is an
engineer whose research will change the way we
build. Hes currently studying materials that
generate energy. @Materials_Live
Dr Paul Coxon
University of Cambridge
+ As a materials scientist,
Pauls studies span physics,
energy and X-rays. Hes at the forefront of
research into nanotechnology the science
of the very small. @paulcoxon
GET IN TOUCH
22
When the Sun expands to consume

Earth, how quickly will it happen?
Lara Carroll STEVENAGE, ENGLAND
As the Sun begins to exhaust the
hydrogen fuel at its core, it will
enter a new stage of life as an
enormous red giant. A typical
radius for such a star would be
around 160 million kilometres,
placing Earths present position
within the Sun itself.
But the news isnt totally
apocalyptic Earth may save
itself. As the Sun ages, mass is
converted into energy at a rate of
four million tonnes per second.

Clearly, over billions of years that
dggv#xs#wr#d#vljqlfdqw#orvv#dqg/#
dv#wkh#Vxq#pryhv#lqwr#lwv#qdo#
stages, the rate of mass loss will
increase further as it begins to
shed its outer layers. Obeying the
laws of orbital motion, Earth will
spiral outwards.
Sadly, our most educated
guess suggests that we wont
travel far enough, and our home
planet will disappear beneath the

solar surface. Theres much
uncertainty about the destructive
timeline, but were sure of one
thing: itll be a gradual process.
The expansion of the Sun will
take place over hundreds of
thousands of years. Just in case,
it might not be a bad idea to have
become a star-faring civilisation
long before we have to worry
about any of this! CL
Email us at
On Facebook at
On Twitter at
science.uncovered@futurenet.com
facebook.com/SciUncovered
@SciUncovered
@SciUncovered
The fastest speed achieved cycling

rq#d#dw#vxuidfh#lv#59;np2k
Equivalent to 167mph,
the record was set by Fred
Rompelberg in 1995
ASK A SCIENTIST
Your questions answered
t
Thanks to its low oxygen content, the
Black Sea has preserved many artefacts
N AT URE
Why do lions
have manes?
Chris Rogers COLWYN BAY, WALES
HUM A NS
Does seawater preserve

artefacts better than soil?
Mdphv#Kduwhog#SCRANTON, US
Dq#dqdhurelf#hqylurqphqw##rqh#odfnlqj#r{|jhq##lv#kljko|#surflhqw#
in preserving organic artefacts such as bone, wood and textiles,
whether on land or sea. Its why shipwrecks in a body of the water like
the Black Sea, which has extremely low oxygen levels, have harboured
many well-preserved artefacts. In an environment that does contain
oxygen, DNA in bones can be preserved if the water has a high mineral
content but will likely preserve longer in a land-based artefact. Metal
is another story. The most prevalent metal used in antiquity was iron,
which corrodes dramatically in seawater. Its why all artefacts recovered
from seawater have to be considered for conservation. Organic objects
can crumble within hours when removed from seawater; iron in a few
days. Even glass and pottery can disintegrate unless conserved. KK
Male lions have manes to

signal to female lions that
theyre high-quality mates,
because the size and colour of
a lions mane correlates with
klv#ryhudoo#wqhvv1#Rqo|#wkh#
healthiest males can support a
large, dark mane because of
its extra physiological burden
especially in the heat. In
fact, the quality of a males
mane not only tells the
females whether theyd make
a good mate, it also lets
potential rivals know just how
hard theyre going to have to
jkw
wdnh ryhu CW
j
jkw wr
wr#wdnh#ryhu1
N AT URE
Whats beneath
tectonic plates?
Helen Bush BY EMAIL
Theres a common
misconception that tectonic
sodwhv#rdw#rq#d#vhd#ri#pdjpd1#
However, the mantle beneath the
plates is actually mostly solid.
Tectonic plates consist of crust
and an underlying layer of rigid
mantle called the lithosphere.
Below these is a malleable layer
of mantle called the
asthenosphere. The main
glhuhqfh#ehwzhhq#wklv#dqg#wkh#
lithosphere is temperature the
hotter, deeper asthenosphere is
fdsdeoh#ri#rzlqj/#d#elw#olnh#vrolg#
asphalt. The asthenosphere melts
to form magma only where it
rises or where water is added. MG
The faster youre
travelling on a bike, the
less likely you are to fall
ENGINEERING
Why can I only balance on

a bike when its moving?
Lucas Bond
MILTON KEYNES, ENGLAND
The most widely held beliefs are

that bicycles are stable because
ri#wkh#j|urvfrslf#hhfwv#ri#wkh#
spinning wheels, rather like the
forces that prevent a childs
spinning top from falling over,
or because the front wheel
trails behind the axis of
steering or both. However,
recent papers have argued that
this is only part of the story. A
bike becomes stable by steering
into a fall and the faster the bike
is travelling, the less steering
@SciUncovered
input is needed to counteract

the inertia of an imminent
fall. Gyroscopic forces and
wudlolqj#hhfwv#zloo#khos#d#elnh#
to steer into a fall, but
researchers have shown that
just by moving the centre of
mass of the frame forward
and above the centre of mass
of the front steering assembly,
they can help a bike to remain
stable even when the two
rwkhu#hhfwv#kdyh#ehhq#
eliminated. IM
23
ASK A SCIENTIST
Solid carbon dioxide

is known as dry ice
It turns back into a

jdv#dw#0:;18#F/#dqg#lv#
used to preserve food
HUM A NS
Why do our ears ring

after a loud night out?
Mike Fordham
BY EMAIL
APOCALYPSE NOW?
WHAT IF EARTHS TEMPERATURE
SUDDENLY ROSE BY 10C?
Extreme global warming would have catastrophic impacts
on our habitats and how we could feed ourselves
What sort of temperature rises
are we seeing at the moment?
Currently, global temperatures
are rising at a rate of around
0.1C per decade so a rise
of 10C would be highly
significant indeeed.
What could cause such a jump?
Such a large temperature rise
would be the result of very large
increases in atmospheric CO2,
says Dr Douglas Crawford-Brown,
director of the Cambridge Centre
for Climate Change Mitigation
Research, in the UK. This in itself
would give rise to plenty of
problems, including increased
acidity in our oceans and the
death of coral reef systems.
If this rise happened, wouldnt
things just feel a bit warmer?
The impact on the UKs weather
would be extreme. There are the
obvious increases in temperature,
with summers and winters both
24
seeing an 8-10C increase in

average temperatures, says
Crawford-Brown. Storm
frequency would almost double
in severity and frequency. Rainfall
would be significantly higher in
winter and significantly lower in
summer perhaps by 50%.
That doesnt sound so terrible
Thanks to the urban heat island
effect, in which heat is stored in
concrete, the temperature
increase in cities would be
greater than the overal 10C.
Cities that are already close to
being uncomfortable due to
temperatures would become
uninhabitable, says CrawfordBrown. And thats not even taking
into account whether you
currently live in a coastal city of
which around half would be lost to
rising sea levels.
How much would sea levels
rise by?
By as much as 10 metres,
although this would take place
over a more gradual period. This
would leave us less space, so wed
also be crammed into a much
smaller area.
Would it affect what crops we
could grow, too?
It would. Crop yield would reduce
by about 50-60% globally, says
Crawford-Brown. We would
probably have to shift to highertemperature crops. These
include tomatoes, peppers and
cucumbers. Lettuce, cabbage and
broccoli are among those that
would struggle.
What about our health overall?
This could actually be larger than
youd expect. We would need to
shift our locations into higher
latitudes, where adverse effects
from cold winters would be
reduced, but adverse effects of
hot summers would increase and
infectious diseases would
increase, says Crawford-Brown.
Estimates suggest something
on the order of 10-30 million
extra deaths per year globally at
this temperature. So while a
warmer planet might sound
appealing during a British
summer, its one wed be wise
to take measures to avoid.
Tinnitus occurs when loud

sounds damage cells in your
ears. Hair cells convert
soundwaves into
neurotransmitters that talk to
auditory nerves. Theyre called
hair cells due to bundles of
hair-like extensions, called
stereocilia, that help them
receive and amplify sound.
Loud sounds can damage the
stereocilia. This alters which
qhxurqv uh/ fdxvlqj |rxu hdu wr
hear sounds that arent really
there. While the ringing is often
temporary, repeated damage to
can lead to hearing loss. CW
ABOVE Ringing ears are associated with damage

to hearing cells, but the eect usually passes
SPACE
Do all things have

gravitational pull?
Graham Ellis BY EMAIL
Any body of matter it doesnt
matter whether its large or
small, as long as it has mass
will exert a gravitational pull.
The force of attraction it exerts
is in proportion to its mass, so
a heavy object will elicit a strong
gravitational pull, while a tiny
thing will only have a small
pull. So you are actually
attracting Earth in a similar way
to how it attracts you, but
because the planet is far more
massive, its attractive force is
much greater. PC
@SciUncovered
A full Moon is about 500,000

times fainter than the Sun
The Moons brightness

varies greatly throughout
the lunar cycle
HUM A NS
Zkr#zhuh#wkh#uvw#
people to travel across
seas by boat?
Alice Hunt SUNDERLAND, ENGLAND
SPACE
Why is moonlight white?

Thomas Betts TUCSON, US
Mostly because its faint. Our eyes contain two
sorts of light-detecting cell rods and cones.
The cones give us colour vision, and the rods
take over in faint light but cant perceive
colour. Theres also the fact that moonlight is
vxqoljkw#uhhfwhg#iurp#d#gxoo/#juh|#vxuidfh1#Dv#
sunlight appears white, we shouldnt be too
surprised that moonlight does, too. CL
Boats have likely been used to navigate short

distances since at least the origin of Homo
sapiens, but seaworthy boats are a comparatively
more recent occurrence. The Pesse canoe,
found in the Netherlands, is the earliest surviving
erdw/#fduerq0gdwhg#wr#;/3730:/843#EF1#Wklv#
|canoe, however, probably wasnt used to cross a
sea. But a discovery of bitumen slabs in Kuwait in
5335#frxog#krog#d#foxh#wr#hduo|#vhdidulqj1#Elwxphq#
is a natural petroleum product that was used to
seal reed-boat hulls to prevent leaks. If these
remains are indeed from a seaworthy vessel,
the earliest physical evidence of travel across
the seas dates to 7,000 BC, when the peoples of
the Indus River valley in modern-day Pakistan
were trading with the Mesopotamians of the
Middle East. KK
N AT URE
Is the core of Earth really bright

orange, like its often depicted?
Abigail Whitley BY EMAIL
The Earths core is made largely from
iron-nickel metal, a substance that is a
steely metallic colour at room
temperature. The core is, however,
buried deep beneath the surface of the
Hduwk dw ghswkv ri pruh wkdq 5/599np
@SciUncovered
and has a temperature greater than

7/333F1 Wkh frorxu ri frro remhfwv lv
controlled by how their surface
uhhfwv dqg devruev oljkw1 Lq frqwudvw/
hot objects release their own light by
a process known as incandescence,
where rapidly moving atoms lose
energy by releasing visible radiation.
Metal typically becomes red hot at
whpshudwxuhv ri pruh wkdq 858F1 Dw
7/333F/ wkh phwdo lq Hduwkv fruh zloo
glow white to blue. The colour of the
core, of course, hardly matters since
5/333np ri vrolg urfn orfnv dzd| rxu
planets inner light. MG
ASK A SCIENTIST
SCIENCE OF SCI-FI
#11: PHASERS
Will we ever end up wielding
Star Treks pocket-sized
energy blasters?
In many ways, the phaser is the ideal

weapon: small enough to fit in a
pocket, immensely powerful, and
capable of non-lethal shots when set
to stun. But what are the chances of
us carrying these blasters in real life?
A phaser is, according to Star Trek
lore, a directed energy weapon akin
to a laser, in other words. The main
obstacles to this are the energy
required, and the fact that laser
beams spread out as they travel.
The latter issue means that as a
laser makes its way through the air
towards a target, it begins to diffuse
and therefore imparts less energy in
one spot. Whats more, lasers require
a huge amount of energy to power
them. In fact, a weaponised laser
would likely require a battery the size
of a truck, so theyd hardly be able to
fit in your pocket. They also generate
a lot of heat, which could pose
challenges for cooling.
Thats not to say that phaser-like
weapons havent been considered
theyre something that the US military
has been investigating for years. Its
Pulsed Energy Projectile (PEP) fires a
very short burst of infra-red energy,
causing an electromagnetic blast
capable of overwhelming targets
nervous systems and knocking them
off their feet. The car-mounted tech
has been ruled unsuitable for use as a
non-lethal weapon, but may still prove
useful for shooting down drones.
25
ASK A SCIENTIST
The average cloud droplet

lv mxvw 315pp dfurvv
HUM A NS
Why does heat make us drowsy?

Damian Stern WINCHESTER, ENGLAND
We, like other mammals, can
handle wide external temperature
changes because we keep our
internal temperature constant
exw wkdw uhtxluhv d vljqlfdqw#
amount of work if were in a hot
climate. Higher temperatures are
SPACE
How do clouds form in areas

of sub-zero temperatures?
Sandra Jones SWANSEA, WALES
Wkh x|/ zklwh dsshdudqfh ri forxgv jlyhv
the impression theyre formed from gas, but
they actually comprise tiny water droplets or
ice crystals. The familiar cumulus clouds,
But they can

form clouds up
wr#5518np#wdoo
tiring, because they force our

bodies to work harder to prevent
our insides from overheating.
From increased circulation to
sweating, the more energy your
erg|#qhhgv#wr#frro#r/#wkh#ohvv#
energy it has for everything else,
which can leave you feeling
drained and lethargic. On top of
that, excessive sweating can lead
to dehydration, which can amplify
your drowsiness. CW
typical of fair weather, are usually at heights of

500 to 1,500m above the ground where
temperature is above the freezing point and
thus largely contain water droplets. The
streaky, high-altitude cirrus clouds, in
contrast, typically form above 5,000m where
the air temperature is sub-zero and contains
mostly ice crystals. Thick stratocumulus
clouds, which can extend from low to high
altitude, contain a mixture of both ice crystals
and water droplets. MG
SPACE
Do any planets orbit multiple stars?
Alpha Centauri A and B

form a triple star system
with Proxima Centauri
the closest star system
to the Sun
Ron Brooks BY EMAIL

They do in fact, single stars like our
Sun might be rarer than their more
gregarious counterparts. Stars form
from enormous clouds of gas and dust
called nebulae, and in these crowded
conditions double, triple and even
larger groups of stars are common. In
recent years, planets have been
discovered in many of these systems,
and occasionally they orbit around
both stars in a system. Theoretically,
its possible for a planet to orbit
comfortably one star for tens of
thousands of years before
transferring across to spend time
around a second star. CL
26
@SciUncovered
Mirages are most

commonly seen in deserts
They often resemble

bodies of water,
such as lakes
T ECHNOLOG Y
What were the earliest forms

of computers?
Margaret Wheeler LIVINGSTON, SCOTLAND
The earliest mechanism that was used
for counting is the abacus. Developed
before written numbers were
invented, the device makes adding
and subtracting amounts easy. Our
earliest physical example of an
abacus-like device is the marble
Salamis Tablet, dating to 300 BC and
discovered in Greece. Its highly likely
that other abacuses predated this but
were made of perishable material.
Based on textual evidence, the
Egyptians, Persians and Greeks began
to use abacuses around 500 BC, and its
even possible that an abacus is
referenced in the earliest Sumerian
wh{wv#+urxjko|#5/833#EF,1#Lq#wkh#
Americas, the Aztec, Mayan and Incan
empires all had counting devices, too.
Another form of ancient computer is
the Antikythera mechanism, found
on a Greek shipwreck dating to
150-100 BC. This device was able to
predict eclipses and positions of
heavenly bodies through its complex
gear mechanism, inscribed with
Greek months of the year and symbols
of the zodiac. Its why the Antikythera
mechanism is often considered the
earliest example of an analogue
computer, even though it wasnt used
for quantity calculations. KK
An inferior mirage seen
in a Libyan desert
N AT URE
What causes the heat shimmer

we see above hot surfaces?
Laurence Porter GRANTHAM, ENGLAND
Wkh#vklpphulqj#hhfw#nqrzq#dv#
inferior mirage that we see in the
air above hot surfaces, like when a
camera pans out in a Formula 1 race,
is caused by a phenomenon of light
called refraction. Under normal
conditions, light travels in straight
lines. When its bent, its said to be
refracted. Refraction occurs when
light travels between substances
zlwk#glhuhqw#uhiudfwlyh#lqglfhv1#D#
refractive index refers to how easily
light passes through that medium in
relation to a vacuum. Water, for

example, has a refractive index of
1.33, meaning that light travels 1.33
times slower in water than it does in
a vacuum. In the case of heat
shimmer, this is hot air rising from
the surface into the surrounding
frog#dlu1#Wkh#vklpphulqj#hhfw#
comes about because air isnt stable
the hot air is rising and moving
about, and as a result the light is
being bent and distorted before it
reaches our eyes. PC
ASK A SCIENTIST
THE 60-SECOND PHD

#10: INTRA-OPERATIVE
RADIATION
How could it revolutionise breast
cancer treatment?
What is it?
Its a new form of radiation therapy for
breast cancer. Instead of the radiation
being delivered externally over multiple
sessions, as is currently commonplace, it is
issued in a single concentrated dose via a probe
that is inserted into the breast.
How will it be used?
The procedure can only be used in
people who have early-stage breast
cancer that has not yet spread. The intraoperative radiation is given to the patient by a
radiologist immediately following tumour
removal, in a dose lasting roughly half an hour.
The aim of this is to kill off any remaining cancer
cells that have not been surgically removed.
What are the benefits?
One of the main benefits of the procedure is that
the radiotherapy is carried out at the same time
as surgery, rather than over the course of 15 or
so separate, daily appointments following it. The
hope is that this will significantly reduce both
inconvenience and distress for patients. Whats
more, as the radiation is more precisely targeted
than in current radiotherapy procedures, there
is less risk of damage to surrounding organs
such as the heart and lungs. It could also save
the UKs National Health Service (NHS) up to
15 million per year.
Are there any side-effects?
As the technique is still fairly new,
scientists dont yet have long-term
data. Studies have shown, however, that
patients who received intra-operative radiation
rather than external beam radiation had a
slightly higher chance of cancer recurring in
the same breast, but overall survival rates
were the same. Patients receiving intraoperative radiation were less likely to develop
skin rashes as a reaction to the radiation.
When will it be implemented?
It has recently been given the
provisional go-ahead from the NHS,
with a final decision due later in the year.
@SciUncovered
27
Sterling silver is a
common alloy
ASK A SCIENTIST
THE BIG QUESTION
IMAGE DAVID PARKER/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
WHAT WILL REPLACE ANTIBIOTICS?

Misuse and overuse of our current
antibiotic spectrum is leading to
widespread antibiotic resistance
in the bacteria we fear most. At
the current rate, superbugs such
as MRSA could become
commonplace. But just because
penicillin or tetracycline may lose
their effectiveness in the fight
against bacterial diseases, it
doesnt mean that we wont have
weapons. The antibiotics of
tomorrow may look very different
than the plant- and fungalderived compounds we commonly
use and abuse today.
Technically, anything that

slows the growth of, or kills,
bacteria is an antibiotic, although
the word has come to be
synonymous with the suite of
drugs we frequently use now. If
todays microbes become
resistant to these drugs, the
most obvious method to manage
the potentially deadly diseases
that bacteria cause will be to find
new drugs. Compounds from
some pretty unexpected sources
could form the next wave of
antibiotics. Novel peptides called
magainins from frogs, or
melittin from bee venom can

shred through the protective
coatings that bacteria need
to survive, and thus may be
harder for microbes to become
resistant against.
Others think that we should
stop focusing on killing bad
bacteria with pharmaceuticals,
and instead focus on the natural
mechanisms that keep them in
check. One way to prevent
bacterial disease would be to
boost our own immune system,
making it better equipped to
fight back. Or we could support
our bodys healthy flora and
fauna that naturally make it
difficult for disease-causing
bacteria to take hold.
And then, of course, there are
more futuristic alternatives. We
may, through genetic engineering,
be able to reprogram viruses to
attack bacterial species that pose
a particular threat to us, or even
design pieces of nanotechnology
that work as microscopic
bacterial assassins. But these are
decades from the market at best,
if they are even feasible.
In reality, the best option isnt
to replace antibiotics its to
ensure that our current arsenal
doesnt become obsolete in the
first place. Careful use of
antibiotics may enable us to
continue using them for decades
and even centuries to come. CW
AND ARE YOU CONCERNED ABOUT ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE?

Daniel Ranson
via Facebook
For all of those that are not

concerned, you should be! Its
a major concern across Western
countries and should be on
everyones minds!
likely your body will react to these

stronger drugs.
Rob Wilson
via Facebook
Very! We are creating those

superbugs ourselves.
Shelley Pope
via Facebook
Lauren Baker
via Facebook
As a whole, Im concerned as the

bugs get more virulent. But on a
personal level, I am of the opinion
that the less unnecessary
medication you take, the more
Very.
28
Kane Archer
via Facebook
Very concerned. If we dont do
something, well
Chelsea Wrigley
via Facebook
I am very worried about it but

me and my family rarely
need antibiotics for anything.
I do think GPs are way too quick
to hand out antibiotics to
people, though.
Richard Whitehurst
via Facebook
Im curious, but as yet not

concerned.
Lw#lv#<518(#vloyhu#dqg#:18(#
copper, which helps to
give the metal strength
ENGINEERING
Why are alloys

better than
pure metals?
]rh#Prdw#BY EMAIL
Pure metals are made of crystals
or grains, and each crystal can be
imagined as an arrangement of
ball bearings, representing the
metal atoms. But if theres a
crystal defect, known as a
dislocation, there may be a gap in
the arrangement that other
atoms can slide into, creating
movement and thus a weakness.
This is a natural occurrence in
all pure metal structures.
Incorporating alloying elements
pdgh#ri#glhuhqwo|#vl}hg#dwrpv#
pins these dislocations and stops
them slipping. IM
T ECHNOLOG Y
Why does air feel

cooler the faster
it moves?
Alex Richards BY EMAIL
The cold feeling of moving air is
due to heat transfer. If the air
around a hot object, such as a
persons head, is stationary then
the heat will transfer to the air
dqg#vorzo|#glxvh#rxwzdugv/#
heating the surrounding
air. If that air is
moving away
from the hot
object, it
carries away
the heat that
has been
transferred
to it and
cooler air
replaces it. In
a person, the
moving air will
also help draw
away evaporated water
from sweat, and so will aid
that cooling, too. IM
@SciUncovered
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Explore our universe and its mysteries
INSIDE THIS
SECTION
38 HOW THE UNIVERSE

CAME TO BE
What happened during
the Big Bang that brought
everything into existence?
42 UKS NEW SPACE RACE

The locations under
consideration for the siting
of a new spaceport.
Fancy heading off on an intergalactic holiday? Here

are the must-see highlights that no trip around
the cosmos is complete without
WORDS BY
30
Colin Stuart
@SciUncovered
Only two spacecraft have

flown past Mercury
These were Mariner

10 in 1974-5 and
MESSENGER in 2011
SPACE UNCOVERED
Universes incredible sights
Titan
The world of methane
lakes and rivers
Weve only ever landed on the
surface of two natural
satellites our own and Titan.
The reason for the interest in
the Solar Systems secondlargest moon is its atmosphere
e
it is the only moon in the
Solar System to boast such a
vljqlfdqw jdv eodqnhw1 Lw dovr
has a intricate river system.
Exw wkh oltxlg wkdw rzv rq
Titan is not water its too
frog iru wkdw1 Lqvwhdg/ lw lv
liquid methane but it carves
coastlines similar to Earths.
24
25
23
Caloris Basin
The scar of an eventful past

Our Solar System has a violent
klvwru|1 Lq wkh frvplf htxlydohqw
of a giant pinball machine, huge
lumps of rock and metal hurtled
around the infant Sun, slamming
into anything in their paths. One
of the more spectacular scars
from this period can be spotted
on Mercury the enormous
Caloris Basin extends 1,550km
(960 miles). The force of the
impact also sent shockwaves
ripping around the planet. When
they met on the opposite side of
Mercury to the crater, they
created a peculiar strip of
grooved terrain.
CME up close
Our Suns most spectacular sight

Our proximity to the Sun makes
it a glorious object to point a
telescope at. Todays telescopes
keep our nearest star under a
careful, watchful gaze. And
sometimes the Sun can put on
the most spectacular of shows.
The magnetic forces inside
twist and curl until the hot
plasma cannot bear the strain
any longer. Suddenly and
explosively the Sun throws
out a billion tonnes of material
@SciUncovered
in a single eruption. The

material rockets away from the
solar surface at a 1.6 million
km/h (one million mph). This is
the majesty of a coronal mass
ejection (CME).
Modern telescopes can
capture the spectacle in high
ghqlwlrq/ dv QDVDv Vrodu
Dynamics Observatory did with
this CME in August 2012. Three
days later, some of the material
arrived at Earth.
22 Europa
The possible home of our neighbours
The question of whether we

are alone in the Universe has
occupied human minds for
centuries. This moon of
Jupiter, decorated with an
impressive hatched pattern, is
perhaps the best place to look
for extraterrestrial life in our
Solar System. The criss-
NASHVILLE, US
crossing lines called lineae

- are cracks in sheets of
21km-thick ice, caused by a
vast ocean of salty water
sloshing around beneath. That
ocean contains twice as much
water as all the oceans, lakes,
seas and rivers of the Earth
put together.
31
Diamond can exist in

pdq|#glhuhqw#frorxuv
SPACE UNCOVERED
21
These include
blue, yellow, brown,
green and pink
Omega
Centauri
Lpdjlqh d sodqhw zkhuh lw

never gets dark. Where the
vwduv#vklqh#vr#hufho|#wkdw#|rx#
could comfortably read Science
Uncovered unaided, even in the
middle of the night. This
would be your reality if you
resided on a world within
Omega Centauri the largest
globular cluster (collection of
stars) orbiting our Milky Way
galaxy. Here, 10 million stars
sit packed together in a
relatively small region of
space. When seen from Earth,
they resemble a swarm of
glvwdqw#uhlhv1
18
20
The Great
Red Spot
Jupiters iconic beauty spot

One of the most famous features
in the Solar System, Jupiters
ruddy bruise is a colossal
anti-cyclonic storm in the
planets southern hemisphere.
Lw#lv#fxuuhqwo|#dv#zlgh#dv#416#
Earths, but recent observations
by the Hubble Space Telescope
suggest it is shrinking (see The
Vanishing Red Spot in issue 10
of Science Uncovered for more).
19
We prize diamond as a precious

substance, but planet
PSR-J1719-1438 b is made of it
PSR-J1719-1438 b
The most valuable planet out there
Orbiting a rapidly rotating pulsar, this world is comprised of carbon
dw#h{wuhph#ghqvlw|#dqg#suhvvxuh1#Lw#lv#hhfwlyho|#d#oxps#ri#gldprqg/#
irxu#wlphv#zlghu#wkdq#Hduwk1#Lpdjlqh#wkh#vsdunoh1#Exw#li#|rx#idqf|#
qlsslqj#ryhu#wr#lw#wr#vpdvk#r#d#fkxqn#wr#vhoo/#|rxoo#kdyh#d#orqj#zd|#wr#
go PSR-J1719-1438 b is 4,000 lightyears, or 3.78421136 1016
kilometres away from our planet.
Horsehead Nebula
A delicate beauty
The theme of naming objects
after Earthly doppelgngers is
a common one. Found in the
constellation of Orion, just
below his famous belt, the
Horsehead Nebula is a cold dark
cloud of gas and dust. The nebula
is normally seen in silhouette
against a pink background of
glowing hydrogen gas.
However, this infrared image,
taken to celebrate the 23rd
birthday of the Hubble Space
Whohvfrsh/#uhyhdov#d#pdjqlfhqw/#
delicate composition. The
sinuous structure is illuminated
by light from a nearby bright star
32
system called Sigma Orionis.

One of the two stars
poking out along the top of the
cloud is emitting strong
ultraviolet radiation, which is
slowly eroding away the
structure. Astronomers
estimate the nebula has about
yh#ploolrq#|hduv#ohiw#ehiruh#lw#
is gone forever.
@SciUncovered
IMAGE SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
A world of eternal daylight
Halleys Comet
measures 15km by 8km
17
NGC 3603
A stellar nursery in our galaxy
Young blue stars glimmer like
precious jewels in this starforming region of our Milky
Way galaxy, in the Carina
spiral arm. The stars, which
are more massive than the
Sun, are thought to be only
one or two million years old.
That may sound ancient, but
rxu#rzq#Vxq#lv#yh#billion
ears old. Putting that into

human terms, if our Sun was
around 40, the stars in NGC
3603 would be less than a
week old.
The regions stars are
surrounded by the remains
of the gas cloud from which
they were born. Strong winds
and intense ultraviolet
radiation emanating from

the infant stars are starting
to disperse the cloud.
Normally, such frantic regions
are found in other galaxies
so having an example here in
the Milky Way is great for
astronomers trying to
understand the processes
that govern such areas.
The 2014
Hubble
Ultra Deep Field
The view that shows how vast the
Universe is
Every speck, smudge and spot in this
Kxeeoh lpdjh lv dq hqwluh jdod{|1 Lw
contains some of the most distant
galaxies ever observed, which came
into existence only a few hundred
million years after the Big Bang.
Originally captured between
September 2003 and January 2004, this
new version was released in June 2014
and includes ultraviolet and nearinfrared light. But the staggering thing
is that the image only shows a patch of
sky you could cover by holding a grain
of sand at arms length.
@SciUncovered
33
(STSCI), R. WINDHORST (ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY), AND Z. LEVAY (STSCI)
15
IMAGE NASA, ESA, H. TEPLITZ AND M. RAFELSKI (IPAC/CALTECH), A. KOEKEMOER
The most famous chunk of

ice in existence, Halleys
Comet has been seen by
humans for thousands of
|hduv1 Lw lv wkh rqo| vkruw0
period comet visible to the
naked eye, swinging by
Hduwk hyhu| :80:9 |hduv1 Lw
last passed Earth in 1986,
when the Giotto probe was
dispatched to investigate,
and is due to come back
into view 2061.
SPACE UNCOVERED
16
Halleys Comet
The celestial ice show
Despite the comets small size,

its tail extends up to 100 million
kilometres in length
SPACE UNCOVERED
Lqwhudfwlrq#ehwzhhq#
galaxies is quite common
This includes everything

from mild distortion to
galactic cannibalism
13
Sombrero
Galaxy
The Universes glowing halo

Astronomers are a literal bunch.
After all, they named one of the
biggest telescopes in the world
the Very Large Telescope. So
when they saw a distant spiral
galaxy that resembles a widebrimmed Mexican hat, there was
no hesitation over its moniker.
Vhhlqj#wkh#jdod{|#hgjh0rq#rhuv#
a wonderful view of the dust lanes
that sweep around the galactic
centre which is unusually large
for a galaxy of this type.
12
Penguin
galaxy
The avian arrangement
14
Europe at night
Our species mark on the world

Our planet is special. Despite
all of our best astronomical
hruwv/#vr#idu#lw#uhpdlqv#wkh#rqo|#
place in the entire Universe that
we know for certain hosts life.
And that life has been on a
pretty remarkable journey. From
its likely origin deep at the
bottom of the ocean, the many
twists and turns of natural
selection have resulted in an
enormous range of organisms,
plants and animals.
One species in particular
has left an indelible mark on
the Earth, one that is clearly
visible in this awe-inspiring
satellite image of Europe and
North Africa. The electric
34
lighting of every major city

shines like a beacon, alerting
onlookers to the fact that a
technologically advanced
species dwells here. London,
Paris and Madrid particularly
vwdqg#rxw/#zlwk#Qruwkhuq#Lwdo|#
and the Low Countries also
jorzlqj#hufho|1#Urdgzd|v##
the beating heart of our
infrastructure sprawl tentaclelike outwards into the
surrounding countryside.
But its what you cant see
that is arguably the most
lpsruwdqw##wkh#gdun#vwx#
durxqg#wkh#odqg1#Lw#vhhpv#wkdw#
every living thing, from the
smallest bacteria to the
biggest blue whale, needs some

form of liquid water to survive.
Earthly life is so focussed
around water that it is currently
the primary substance we look
for when searching for life
elsewhere in the Universe. We
label alien planets as habitable
because they have the ability to
host liquid water.
Our telescopes have shown
the cosmos to contain many an
impressive visual spectacle. But
while we gaze up into the sky
with awe, we shouldnt forget
how remarkable we would look
if an extraterrestrial species
were looking back down
towards us.
Speaking of galaxies that

resemble things on Earth, they
dont come much more uncanny
wkdq#Dus#4751#Lw#orrnv#vsrrnlo|#
like a penguin guarding one of
khu#hjjv1#Lq#uhdolw|/#lw#lv#wzr#
separate galaxies interacting
with one another. The immense
gravitational pull of the
featureless elliptical galaxy the
egg is sculpting the once spiral
galaxy, known as NGC 2936, into
that strangely avian shape.
@SciUncovered
Saturn has 53
named moons
Lw#dovr#kdv#d#ixuwkhu#qlqh#
provisional moons, whose
h{lvwhqfh#kdv#|hw#wr#eh#frquphg
SPACE UNCOVERED
11
Olympus
Mons
The giant peak of the
Red Planet
Mount Everest looks like a hill
compared to this colossal
structure which climbs 22km
high into the Martian sky.
Three times higher than our
tallest mountain, Marss
extinct volcano Olympus
Mons is the highest peak in
the Solar System, after a
mountain on the large
asteroid Vesta.
9
Hyperion
10
The highly irregular moon
Cats Eye Nebula
A vision of our future

Sadly, one day the Sun will die. Exhausted of its fuel, it will
expand before shaking itself to death. Still, its comforting to
know that when it does, it will leave behind a beautiful cosmic
tombstone similar to this planetary nebula.
A moon of Saturn, Hyperion is

the Solar Systems most
hqljpdwlf vdwhoolwh1#Lwv#
spectacular sponge-like
appearance, reminiscent of a
giant pumice stone, is currently
xqh{sodlqhg1 Lw#lv#dovr#wkh#rqo|#
moon whose axis of rotation
wobbles around unpredictably,
dqg lw zdv wkh uvw#qrq0urxqg#
moon to be discovered.
Arp 273
The distant rose

#Wklv#frvplf#rzhu#lv#iruphg#e|#
a group of galaxies that goes by
the name of Arp 273. Sitting at a
distance of three hundred
million lightyears from Earth in
the constellation of Andromeda,
its beautiful portrait was
snapped to commemorate the
21st birthday of the Hubble
Space Telescope in 2011.
The spiral arms of the top
galaxy known as UGC 1810
are being gradually distorted
into a shape reminiscent of the
swirling petals of a rose thanks
to the gravitational pull of its
@SciUncovered
companion galaxy UGC 1813.

And the heart of UGC 1813
glows with the light from
intense star formation,
potentially triggered by the
reciprocal tug of UGC 1810.
Lw#lv#suredeoh#wkdw#wkh#
smaller galaxy actually passed
straight through its larger
frpsdqlrq/#zklfk#lv#yh#wlphv#
more massive. The shape of the
distortion in the roses petals
suggests that this encounter
was substantial but took
place away from the larger
galaxys centre.
35
The Northern Lights are most

commonly green in colour
SPACE UNCOVERED
A vision of past spectacle

These immense towers are
part of the Eagle Nebula
vwdu idfwru|1 Lpdjhg edfn lq
1995, they quickly became
one of the most famous
astronomical images of all
wlph1 Lqvlgh wkh slooduv/
gravity slowly draws
hydrogen together into
knots that are eventually
sculpted into stars. Except
they dont exist any more.
Astronomers believe a
supernova explosion has
obliterated the pillars, but
we wont observe their
destruction until the light
gets here in 1,000 years.
In the correct conditions,

the Crab Nebula can be
seen using binoculars
6
Northern
Lights
A night-time vision of
wkh Vxqv lqxhqfh
These exquisite dancing
curtains of light are the
result of an interaction
between the Sun and Earth.
As charged particles in the
solar wind distort our
sodqhwv pdjqhwlf hog/
hohfwulf fxuuhqwv rz
through the top layers
of the atmosphere,
triggering aurorae.
5
The Pillars of
Creation
They can also

appear red or
blue, however
Crab Nebula
A dense cloud of beauty
Stars of a similar mass to the Sun

go out with a whimper compared
to the death throes of more
massive stars. The Crab Nebula is
the remnant of such an explosive
ghdwk d vxshuqryd1 Lw h{sorghg
in 1054 with enough brightness
to be seen from Earth by the
naked eye, even during the day.

Deep in the heart of the nebula
sits a pulsar a dense, rapidly
rotating neutron star spitting
out radiation at its poles. One
teaspoon of the neutron stars
material would weigh more than
everyone on Earth put together.
4 Lr
The restless moon
Jupiters third largest moon is the most volcanically

active place in the Solar System. At any one time,
durxqg#53#ri#Lrv#733#yrofdqrhv#vshz#vxoskxu#dqg#
vxoskxu#glr{lgh#633np#lqwr#vsdfh1#Lwv#vxuidfh#ehduv#
the scars of these violent eruptions, decorated with
spectacular shades of green, yellow and red. This
unique landscape is the result of the gravitational
gdqfh#ehwzhhq#Lr/#Mxslwhu#dqg#wkuhh#rwkhu#prrqv##
Hxursd/#Jdq|phgh#dqg#Fdoolvwr1#Lr#lv#frqvwdqwo|#
being pulled around as it orbits; its surface rises
dqg#idoov#e|#dv#pxfk#dv#433p1#Wklv#h{lqj#ghsrvlwv#
d#vljqlfdqw#dprxqw#ri#khdw#lqwr#wkh#prrqv#fruh/#
gulylqj#yrofdqlf#dfwlylw|1#Lw#dovr#udlvhv#prxqwdlqv#
on the surface some of which can be higher than
Prxqw#Hyhuhvw1#Lr#lv#rqh#ri#wkh#irxu#vr0fdoohg#Jdolohdq#
prrqv#uvw#glvfryhuhg#e|#Lwdoldq#dvwurqrphu#Jdolohr#
Jdolohl#lq#49431#Lw#fdq#dfwxdoo|#ehhq#vhhq#wkurxjk#dq|#
small telescope as a star-like object alongside its
giant planet.
36
@SciUncovered
One day on Saturn

lasts 10.7 Earth hours
Lwv#ruelw#wdnhv#idu#orqjhu#wkdq#
Earths though it is equivalent
to 29 of our years
SPACE UNCOVERED
Solar eclipse
A celestial alignment
Truly one of natures
greatest spectacles. When
the Moon slides in front of
the Sun, our star is
hhwlqjo| eorfnhg iurp
view. Eclipses provide the
perfect opportunity to
study the corona the
normally invisible
outermost layer of the Sun.
Double
2 sunset
on Kepler-16b
The real Tatooine
Lpdjlqh#d#sodqhw#zkhuh#|rx#jhw#
two incredible sunsets, not just
rqh1#Nhsohu049e#zdv#wkh#uvw#
circumbinary planet to be
discovered it orbits two stars.
As if that werent enough, the
two stars eclipse one another
roughly every three weeks. The
planet was found by NASAs
Kepler planet-hunting mission.
@SciUncovered
Saturns rings
A stunning sight in our cosmic back yard

There are many wonders that
sit outside of the Solar System,
but the award for the Universes
most spectacular sight goes to
something orbiting our very
rzq Vxq1 Lw mxvw kdv wr eh wkh
glorious rings of Saturn, seen
here at their most incredible
during a Saturnian solar
eclipse. The Sun is behind the
planet in this image, lighting
its intricate ring system from
the back.
Wkh ulqjv zhuh uvw
observed by Galileo in 1612,
although it took until 1655 to
realise what they were. They
can be seen today with a very
modest telescope.
Made of relatively small
chunks of ice, with a smattering
of rock, the pieces range in size
from tiny granules to the size
of a house. There is structure,

too the most obvious feature
is a sizeable gap about halfway
out known as the Cassini
Division. The gravitational pull
of Mimas one of Saturns
moons is the culprit.
Exactly where the rings
came from remains unclear.
The most popular explanation
has them spawned from a
moon. Add all the ring
particles together and they
make up about the same
amount of material found in
Mimas. So the leading idea is
that a moon of similar size
once approached too close to
Saturn, before being torn apart
by the planets strong gravity.
Another persistent mystery
is the dark spokes shadowlike areas that drift around the
rings as Saturn rotates. They

zhuh uvw vslhg e| wkh Yr|djhu#
probes in the early 1980s, and
were spotted again recently by
wkh Fdvvlql sureh1 Lw lv wkrxjkw#
they might be caused by dust
interacting with Saturns
pdjqhwlf hog1
Despite their celebrity,
Saturns rings are not the only
example in the Solar System
Jupiter, Uranus and Neptune
also sport rings. None even
come close to the beauty of
Saturns, however.
Colin Stuart
Astronomer & author

+ A London-based astronomer
and author, Colins first
book, The Big Questions in Science, is out
now. @skyponderer
37
SPACE UNCOVERED
Birth of the Universe
Georges Lematre
was a Catholic priest
When he proposed a primeval atom

in the 1920s, he was accused of bringing
creationist ideas into cosmology
THE BIRTH OF
OUR UNIVERSE
Around 13.8 billion years ago, in a moment too brief to
imagine and at temperatures too high to comprehend,
space and time came into being
WORDS BY
Paul Sutherland
stronomers have come up
with a mind-boggling
picture of how the Universe
began. Wkhlu dqvzhu/ zklfk#wv#
IMAGE NASA
observations of its current behaviour,

is that it simply erupted 13.8 billion
years ago, in an event dubbed the Big
Bang. But while its a powerful image,
the term is actually a misnomer. This
was no explosion within a previously
unoccupied space, but rather a
bursting into existence of everything
space, time, matter and energy all
at the same moment. It is impossible
to ask what happened before the Big
Bang because time simply didnt exist,
and it happened everywhere because
everywhere was within this
unimaginably tiny region.
This bizarre scenario reveals that
the original Universe was an
lqfuhgleo| ghqvh uhedoo/ frqwdlqlqj#
nothing that we might recognise today
d vwdwh wkdw rxu odzv ri sk|vlfv#qg#lw#
impossible to explain. This briefest of
moments is known as the Planck Era,
named after the German theoretical
physicist Max Planck. During that
brief moment, the Universe grew a
trillion times in size in a trillionth of a
second. In less than a millionth of a
second, cosmologists believe that the
temperature plummeted from
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCES
10 billion trillion trillion degrees
Celsius to a relatively cool 10 trillion
degrees Celsius, and the Universe
h{sdqghg#iurp#lwv#lqqlwho|#ghqvh#
start to a diameter of around one
billion kilometres. The fundamental
forces of nature strong nuclear, weak
nuclear, electromagnetic and
gravitational had separated out, too.
The different colours in this

image blue, green, red and
yellow denote areas of different
temperature. These areas once
varied in density and it was in
the denser regions that the first
stars and galaxies were formed.
PLASMA SOUP
From the original bundle of energy
emerged a hot soup of plasma
containing fundamental particles and
antiparticles. Reactions between these
surgxfhg#wkh#uvw#surwrqv/#qhxwurqv#
and other heavier particles and
within 100 seconds, when the
Universe had already grown to many
hundreds of lightyears wide, the nuclei
of virtually all its helium atoms had
formed. Following this incredibly
active start, there followed a period
lasting many thousands of years when
the Universe continued its relentless
expansion it continued to cool, but
everything was still too energetic for
particles to stay together long enough
for any atoms to be produced.
It wasnt until about 300,000 years
after the Big Bang, when temperatures
had dropped to around 2,500C, that
protons and atomic nuclei could
FROM THE ORIGINAL BUNDLE OF ENERGY

EMERGED A HOT SOUP OF PLASMA CONTAINING
FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES AND ANTIPARTICLES.
38
@SciUncovered
The steady state theory

dates back to the 1920s
Lw#zdv#uvw#sursrvhg#e|#Vlu#Mdphv#
Mhdqv1#Eulwlvk#dvwurqrphu#Iuhg#Kr|oh#
was a key supporter of the theory
SPACE UNCOVERED
IMAGES FESTIVAL DELLA SCIENZA FRON GENOVA
THE LAST VESTIGES

OF THE BIG BANG
Mapping the cosmic microwave background has
revealed a great deal about our Universe
+ This image is a temperature map of the cosmic
microwave background (CMB) radiation the nal,
lingering leftovers of the Big Bang itself. By looking at
it, we can see what the Universe looked like 13.8
billion years ago. The CMB is detectable by radio
telescopes as a faint background glow that pervades
the entire Universe, but its only thanks to the WMAP
and Planck spacecraft (see page 40) that
cosmologists can now study it in much ner detail.
ABOVE Sir Roger Penrose suggests patterns found in

CMB data point to collisions with other universes
POTENTIAL FATES
FOR THE UNIVERSE
Our Universe may be one of many, or
could shrink again in a Big Crunch
COSMIC BRUISING?
Some scientists, such as Sir
Roger Penrose (see right), claim
to have detected circular patterns
in the CMB that they suggest are
the aftermath of collisions with
other universes. Other scientists,
however, remain sceptical.
DID YOU KNOW?

NEW EVIDENCE SUGGESTS
WE LIVE IN A MULTIVERSE
+ Problems with our existing models
of the Universe have long led some scientists to
suggest that, just after the Big Bang, there was a very
brief period of super-fast inflation. Recent studies of the
CMB seem to have found evidence of the gravitational
ripples that this would theoretically create and in
most models where inflation occurs, the result is not
just one universe, but millions of bubble universes.
@SciUncovered
+ In the rst half of the 20th Century, a

now-discredited rival steady state theory
for the Universe held that it had always
existed and that new matter was being
continuously created as it expanded.
However, following the detection in 1964
of the cosmic microwave background, or
CMB the faint echo of the Big Bang this
idea was eectively killed o completely.
Since then, new alternatives have
emerged proposing that the Universe is
continually expanding then contracting
in a series of Big Bangs and Big Crunches.
Extensions to this idea suggest that we
could be part of a multiverse, where
separate universes appear and expand
alongside each other like bubbles. In this
model, our entire Universe would be just
one of many universes.
One leading supporter of such a
concept, the British mathematician,
physicist and philosopher of science Sir
Roger Penrose, believes that some
circular features observed in the cosmic
microwave background are likely to be
bruises left by collisions with other
universes. Four such bruises have been
tentatively identied, although they
remain an extremely controversial
proposition. The general view of most
scientists is that the patterns that have
been found in the CMB data dont actually
exist, but that doesnt rule out the
existence of a multiverse see left.
39
SPACE UNCOVERED
combine with electrons to make the

uvw#dwrpv1#Iurp#lwv#suhylrxvo|#
rsdtxh#ru#irjj|#vwdwh/#wkh#uvw#
photons were released in the Universe
a faint glow thats detectable today
as cosmic microwave background
(CMB) radiation. It would still be
hundreds of million years before the
uvw#vwduv#dqg#jdod{lhv#iruphg1#
Although the Big Bang theory
seems to defy rational thought or
common sense, the clues to its truth
are found all around us today, like the
forensic evidence collected at a crime
scene. Nearly a century ago, not long
diwhu#dvwurqrphuv#uvw#uhfrjqlvhg#
that stars exist within galaxies outside
our own Milky Way, it was discovered
that those galaxies were all moving
away from each other. Through a
vshfwurvfrsh/#wkh#qjhusulqwv#ri#
chemical elements were observed to
Iuhg#Kr|oh#lqyhqwhg#
the term Big Bang
Kh#xvhg#wkh#h{suhvvlrq#lq#d#4<7<#udglr#
lqwhuylhz#wr#ghvfuleh#wkh#glhuhqfhv#
between Lematres ideas and his own
be out of their expected position, with

their light shifted towards the red end
of the electromagnetic spectrum.
In the 1920s, American astronomer
Hgzlq#Kxeeoh#zdv#wkh#uvw#wr#suryh#
that many of the fuzzy objects visible
in the night sky were actually external
jdod{lhv1#Kh#odwhu#revhuyhg#wklv#
redshift in 18 galaxies and discovered
the reason for it the shift revealed
that a galaxy was receding. The
greater the shift, the faster the galaxy
was moving away.
Klv#revhuydwlrqv#gholjkwhg#Doehuw#
Einstein, whose general theory of
relativity had predicted that the
Universe must either be expanding or
contracting and, as a result, could not
stay the same size. Einstein had
ggohg#wkh#jxuhv#ri#klv#wkhru|#zlwk#
wkh#frvprorjlfdo#frqvwdqw#wr#w#wkh#
prevailing theory of a static Universe,
exw#Kxeeohv#revhuydwlrqv#vkrzhg#wkdw#
kh#kdg#ehhq#uljkw#lq#wkh#uvw#sodfh1
From the Big Bangs original burst

of energy, the Universe has been
expanding and cooling ever since
CATACLYSMIC FLASH
ABOVE Today, stars form inside nebulae. But the

formation of the first stars was far more complex
Belgian astronomer Georges Lematre

proposed in 1927 that the Universe
began as a single atomic particle he
called it a primeval atom that
began to expand in one cataclysmic
dvk1#Hlqvwhlq#dw#uvw#glvplvvhg#wklv#
idea as abominable, but later came
THE REDSHIFT IN A GALAXYS LIGHT REVEALED

THAT IT WAS RECEDING. THE GREATER THE
SHIFT, THE FASTER THE GALAXY WAS MOVING.
Over the past 100 years, the fields of physics and

cosmology have been fertile ground for great minds
and their theories about the nature of the Universe
40
The Great Debate took place

between astronomers Harlow
Shapley and Heber Curtis in 1920.
Shapley believed spiral nebulae
were objects within our own vast
Milky Way galaxy, while Curtis
correctly argued that they were
other, independent galaxies.
Georges Lematre was a Belgian

astronomer and priest who,
following studies at Cambridge
University and Harvard College
Observatory in Massachusetts,
posited that the Universe was
expanding and estimated the
rate at which it was doing so.
American astronomer Edwin

Hubble surveyed 18 galaxies
using the 2.5m telescope at
Mount Wilson in California. He
determined that they were
receding and that their velocities
increased in proportion to their
distance from us.
@SciUncovered
GETTY IMAGES
THE CONSTANTLY
CHANGING SHAPE
OF THE UNIVERSE
Several spacecraft
have studied the CMB
NASAs WMAP (launched 2001) and

ESAs Planck (2009) supplied most
of the data used in current models
SPACE UNCOVERED
ABOVE As the Universe expands the wavelengths of

light are stretched out, so distant objects look redder
to praise it as a beautiful and

satisfactory explanation of creation.
Lq#4<7;/#Uxvvldv#Jhrujh#Jdprz#
suggested an echo of this event
would remain in the form of
background radiation. Astronomers
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
hyhqwxdoo|#ghwhfwhg#wklv#hfkr#lq#4<97/#
as a residual hiss as they scanned the
sky for faint radio sources. Initially
blamed on bird droppings on the radio
telescope, determining its real nature
earned them a Nobel Prize in 1978.
A recent problem for the theory
has been the detection of temperature
xfwxdwlrqv#lq#wkh#FPE1#Wkhvh#
xfwxdwlrqv#vhhp#wr#frqwudglfw#wkh#
idea that in an expanding Universe,
temperature should appear uniform
throughout at large scales.
Paul Sutherland
Space writer
@SciUncovered
In the US, cosmologist

George Gamow and his student
Ralph Alpher predicted that
the glow from events following
the Big Bang should still be
detectable as background
radiation in the microwave region
of the radio spectrum.
Radio astronomers Robert

Wilson and Arno Penzias noticed
a persistent interference while
using their new antenna at
Holmdel, New Jersey. Ruling out
pigeon droppings, they realised
they had detected cosmic
microwave background radiation.
NASA launched the Cosmic

Background Explorer satellite
(COBE) to measure the diuse
infrared and microwave radiation
generated in the early Universe.
Its observations of this glow were
found to closely match predictions
of the Big Bang theory.
In the early 2000s, NASAs WMAP

satellite and then the European
Space Agencys Planck space
telescope from 2009 to 2013
mapped the cosmic microwave
background in increasing detail.
Planck pinned the age of the
Universe at 13.8 billion years.
41
IMAGES WIKIMEDIA CREATIVE COMMONS
Fred Hoyle, a theoretical

astronomer based in Cambridge,
England, proposed a rival steady
state theory for the Universe
that argued the Universe has no
start or end. Ironically, he came
up with the term Big Bang for
the opposing view, and it stuck.
SERGE LACHINOV
GETTY IMAGES
+ An astronomy and space exploration

writer, Pauls most recent book is Where
Did Pluto Go? He also runs the space and astronomy
news website SkyMania. @suthers
\xul#Jdjdulqv#ljkw#zdv#odxqfkhg#
from Baiknour Cosmodrome
SPACE UNCOVERED
UKs great space race
UKS GREAT
SPACE RACE
STORNOWAY AIRPOR
Located on the Isle of Lewis, thi
used to be mainly used for militar
purposes. Now it is used mostly for
domestic passenger flights.
There are several sites are in the running to

host Britains first ever spaceport, planned to
begin operation in 2018
WORDS BY
Sarah Cruddas
ockets carrying satellites

into space will soon be
taking off from UK soil
perhaps even as early as 2018. Eight
sites for a UK spaceport are now being

considered by the government for the
UK equivalent to NASAs Cape
Canaveral. And it wouldnt just be
satellites. Long-term plans could see
the likes of Virgin Galactic, XCOR
Aerospace and other commercial space
companies launching from Britain.
Compare this with commercial
aviation, says Michael Lpez-Alegri,
former NASA astronaut and president of
wkh Frpphufldo Vsdfhljkw Ihghudwlrq1
100 years ago it was in its infancy, but
look how much has changed.
According to Lpez-Alegri, within
a decade we could see point-to-point
space travel, with spaceports around
the world allowing travel between
cities in record times. However, the
main initial focus for a UK spaceport
would be launching small satellites.
The space industry is worth around
11.3 billion per year to the UK
economy, but the government wants
wkdw jxuh wr eh 63 eloolrq e| 53631
Having a UK spaceport would reduce
the cost of launching UK-built small
The launchpad
is now known as
Gagarins Start
satellites made by companies

such as Surrey Satellite Technology
Ltd (SSTL) in Surrey and Clyde Space
in Glasgow by up to 80%, because
they would no longer have to be
shipped abroad to launch.
A spaceport would help to cement
the UKs place as the micro-sat market
ohdghu/ vd|v Gu Mrkq Sdhww/ gluhfwru#
of navigation and telecommunications
at SSTL. Micro-sats are used for
everything from communications to
vflhqwlf h{shulphqwv e| xqlyhuvlwlhv1
Ixqglqj iru d XN vsdfhsruw zloo#
likely be a combination of government
and commercial investment, with the
US model for Spaceport America in
Qhz Ph{lfr olnho| wr lqxhqfh krz#lw#
is run. The spaceport is leased from
the US government at favourable
terms. The hope is that a UK spaceport
will attract investment from big
commercial space companies.
The recommendations for UK
spaceport locations were made by the
Civil Aviation Authority. Unlike Cape
Canaveral, which hosts vertical lift
rockets, a UK spaceport would need to
support a variety of launch vehicles,
such as ESAs VEGA rocket and Reaction
Engines SKYLON spaceplane.
GLASGOW PRESTWICK AIRPORT

51km (32 miles) from Glasgow city
centre, this is the citys second airport
and has seen a significant reduction in
passenger traffic in recent years.
CAMPBELTOWN AIRPORT
Military operations stopped here in
1997, and it has a runway length of
over 3km the longest runway of
any public airport in Scotland.
A SPACEPORT WOULD HELP TO CEMENT

THE UNITED KINGDOMS POSITION AS THE
MICRO-SAT MARKET LEADER.
Dr John Paffett SURRE Y SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY LTD
42
@SciUncovered
Plfkdho#Irdoh/#zkr#dovr#kdv#XV#
flwl}hqvkls/#vshqw#vl{#prqwkv#
there between 1993 and 1994
former RAF base,

he site was handed
over to the army
in 2012.
AF LOSSIEMOUTH
favourite with industry experts.
orth Scotland would be an ideal
location as it already has launch and
aerospace structures in place, says
Robin Sampson, spacecraft sales
anager at Clyde Space.
AF LEUCHARS
nother favourite, this site
lready boasts radar and
ommunication equipment. Its
longest runway is 2,589m.
OTHER SPACEPORTS
AROUND THE WORLD
There are several factors the government

will need to take into account
+ A spaceport would need to be far from any
densely populated areas in case things go
awry, so a coastal location is preferred. The
spaceport would also need to be at a site that
would enable spacecraft to launch in
segregated air space, away from normal air
trac routes. A large runway is also a must,
so the chosen site should either already have
one, or be capable of hosting one.
IMAGE SPACEPORT AMERICA
INLOSS BARRACKS
KEY CRITERIA
IN SELECTING A
SPACEPORT SITE
SPACE UNCOVERED
UKs great space race
SPACEPORT AMERICA
+ Located in the Jornada del Muerto
desert in New Mexico, US, this is the
worlds rst custom-built commercial
spaceport and home to the likes of Virgin
Galactic and SpaceX. It will soon boast a
visitors centre and hotel for a complete
space experience.
IMAGE STAHLKOCHER
Only one UK astronaut

has visited the ISS
SPACEPORT SWEDEN
ocated in the Snowdonia

National Park, Llanbedr Airport
is a former RAF base and now
an operational airport, with a
2,300m runway.
IMAGE NASA/BILL INGALLS
LANBEDR AIRPORT
+ Inaugurated in 2007 and operating out of

Kiruna Airport, this facility will oer launch
infrastructure, satellite communications
and control, and payload integration,
research, test and evaluation facilities.
Kiruna is already a space city, and has been
launching sub-orbital ights since 1957.
BAIKONUR COSMODROME
EWQUAY CORNWALL AIRPORT
he only candidate site in England,
Newquay benefits from uncongested
airspace, as well as one of the longest
runways in the UK (2,744m) able to
support aircraft of any size.
@SciUncovered
+ The worlds rst launch facility, located

in Ukraine, this is where the rst
millionaire space tourists, such as
software exec Charles Simonyi, blasted
o from. Its reported there are plans to
develop space tourism at the site further
with entertainment zones and hotels.
43
The human brain has

around 100 billion neurons
The majority of
these are housed
in the cerebellum
Get beneath the skin of our species
INSIDE THIS
SECTION
+ Connections between
neurons are called
synapses. At these
junctions, messages are
carried between cells
via chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
50 HOW TO BUILD A
BIONIC HAND
This newly developed
prosthesis can restore a
sense of touch to amputees
but how?
54 SUGAR UNCOVERED!
Take a look at exactly
zkdw#wkh#vzhhw#vwx#grhv#
to your body.
44
@SciUncovered
The roundworm has

just 302 neurons
Scientists have been able to accurately

map its neurons, furthering our
understanding of how they connect
HUMANS UNCOVERED
Science of memory
Why we
forget
Our brains store information by creating a complex

web of connections but these can strengthen or
weaken over time, causing our memories to fail us
WORDS BY Dr
n 9 November 2011, the

then-governor of Texas,
Rick Perry, experienced a
very public episode of forgetfulness.
During a TV debate among Republican
Presidential candidates, in front of
millions of viewers, he failed to recall
the third of the government agencies
that it was his policy to abolish.
Despite this being a central pillar of
his campaign, his memory continued
to fail him through 54 agonising
seconds of questioning.
An inability to recall stored
information is one form of memory
lapse. Another is to forget what
kdsshqhg dqg wr uhphpehu fwlwlrxv
events instead. This blunder befell
another US politician in public fashion
in 2008, when a campaigning Hillary
Clinton recalled her visit to Bosnia 12
years earlier. She described a dramatic
duulydo xqghu vqlshu uh/ exw ylghr
footage revealed the calmer truth - a
pleasant welcoming ceremony on the
airport tarmac. Clinton later admitted
that her memory had failed her.
To understand why people forget,
it helps to consider the three stages
@SciUncovered
Christian Jarrett
involved in remembering: the initial
encoding stage, storage in long-term
memory and then retrieval. The more
deeply we think about information
zkhq#zh#uvw#hqfrxqwhu#lw/#wkh#pruh#
robust the encoding process and the
more likely it will be consolidated into
long-term memory. However, often
what is stored long-term is the gist
or meaning of what happened, rather
than a literal representation. Thats
why you can remember the plot from
the last book you read, but quickly
forget the precise wording.
STRONG WEB
In biological terms, memories
are formed through the changing
strength of connections between
neurons. This leads to the creation
of web-like neuronal assemblies
or matrices, in which related
information and experiences are
interconnected. Each memory
matrix includes the context in which
lqirupdwlrq#zdv#uvw#hqfrxqwhuhg/#
which is why recall is often easier
if you can revisit the circumstances
in which the original encoding took
45
HUMANS UNCOVERED
Science of memory
ABOVE Astrocytes the

star-shaped cells
shown above are the
most common cell type
in the human brain
New memories are stored

in the hippocampus
place. Its also why smells and sounds

can be so evocative.
A great deal of forgetting occurs
because the encoding process is
interrupted, and so information
is never transferred to long-term
phpru|#lq#wkh#uvw#sodfh1#Krzhyhu/#
recall can also fail at the retrieval
stage, as happened with Perrys
embarrassing lapse. A common
cause of forgetting at this stage is
interference, and this may be what
Perry experienced. As we trawl the
shelves of our minds, sometimes
information related to what were
looking for is activated more strongly
wkdq#wkh#vshflf#wdujhw#ri#rxu#vhdufk##
DID YOU KNOW?

SOME PEOPLE HAVE SUPER MEMORIES
+ Its only in recent years that psychologists have identified
a minority of people who have hyperthymesia the ability
to recall almost every day of their lives in exquisite detail.
They can tell you what they were doing on almost any given
date. However, a study published last year found that such
people are just as prone to false memories as the rest of
us. This suggests that although more detailed than ours,
their memories are still reconstructive in nature.
46
as happens when a word is on the tip

of your tongue. Its notable that Perry
kept repeating the two government
agencies he had recalled, as if these
were blocking his access to the third.
DIFFERENT PROCESSES
Note that recognition memory is
glhuhqw#iurp#uhfdoo1#Zh#fdq#irujhw#
something in the sense that we are
unable to recall it, and yet the memory
is in there. For instance, you might
not be able to name a school classmate
seen in an old photograph, but if given
a list of names, you would immediately
recognise the correct one. Research
has shown that recognition memory
relies on distinct neural pathways
from the deliberate act of recall.
Remembering is an active,
constructive process. Brain imaging
studies show that recalling the past
involves the same brain regions as
when we imagine the future. This
helps explain Clintons variety of
memory failure. Rather than our
experiences being laid down like data
on a computers hard drive, each act
of reminiscence is a fresh creation.
This leaves our autobiographical
memories highly prone to suggestion
Older memories, however,

appear to transfer to other
parts of the brain
and misinformation. Its incredibly

easy for false information to seep into
the process of remembering, which is
likely what happened with Clintons
idovh#phpru|#iru#wkh#vqlshu#uh1
US psychologist Dr Elizabeth
Loftus has done more than anyone
to demonstrate the power of false
memories. In a seminal study in
1995, she presented participants with
stories of their childhoods provided by
friends and family. Mixed in with true
information was a fabricated account
of a time they were lost in a shopping
mall. Loftus asked her participants to
uhhfw#rq#wkhvh#phprulhv#dqg#surylgh#
more information where possible.
Pdq|#uhdglo|#devruehg#wkh#fwlwlrxv#
incident into their life story, even
embellishing it with further details.
D#glhuhqw#zd|#wr#irujhw#lqyroyhv#
prospective memory, when we try to
remember to do things in the future.
You go upstairs only to realise youve
forgotten what you went up there
for. A 2011 study helps explain why
this happens. Researchers led by Dr
Gabriel Radvansky at the University
of Notre Dame, in the US, instructed
participants to navigate a network
of rooms, picking up and depositing
@SciUncovered
Browsing the internet could

damage our memories
Lgoh#vxuqj#fdq#fdxvh#lqirupdwlrq#
overload, reducing the amount of
recent memories stored
HUMANS UNCOVERED
Science of memory
FOUR BIZARRE
MEMORY PHENOMENA
Some of the weirdest ways in which our memories
can fail us are surprisingly common
INFANTILE AMNESIA
+ The earliest of our
memories are usually
from when we were
aged three or four. What
happens to memories of
our first years? We seem
to forget them from
around age seven. Before that, children can reminisce
about much of what happened. But their memories
are immature, lacking mention of time and place. Its
thought this contributes to the later forgetting.
THE REMINISCENCE BUMP
various objects as they went. The

objects were concealed in boxes after
being picked up. Participants more
often forgot what object they were
carrying when they were quizzed
about it after entering a new room,
compared with being quizzed in the
same room as the object was acquired.
This is because our memories
are structured into chapters, with
physical boundaries such as doorways
sometimes acting as chapter dividers.
Its harder to recall information from a
previous chapter than a current one.
CHOOSING TO FORGET
Yet another way that we forget is by
choosing to. Psychologists call this
process directed forgetting. In 2009,
Dr Peter Delaney and his colleagues
at the University of North Carolina
at Greensboro, in the US, presented
their participants with two lists of
sentences one about Tom, the other
about Alex. Afterwards, half the

participants were told to try to forget
the Tom sentences, while the others
acted as a control group. During a later
memory test, the participants who
previously attempted to erase the Tom
sentences were able to recall far fewer
of those sentences than the control
group, but remembered just as many
of the Alex sentences.
Chronic forgetting can also
be caused by injury and illness.
Consider anterograde amnesia a
condition associated with damage
to the hippocampus in the temporal
lobes of the brain, in which a person
is no longer able to form long-term
phprulhv1#Zkloh#wkhlu#surfhgxudo#
knowledge remains intact (such as
riding a bike), they cant remember
what they had for breakfast, or even
what they were doing a few minutes
ago. If you met them today, they
wouldnt remember you tomorrow.
OUR MEMORIES ARE STRUCTURED INTO CHAPTERS,

WITH PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES SUCH AS DOORWAYS
SOMETIMES ACTING AS CHAPTER DIVIDERS.
@SciUncovered
+ Most people are

better able to remember
autobiographical details
from their teens and early
twenties than from any
other stage of their life a phenomenon called the
reminiscence bump. And its not just that events from
that time are more meaningful. Researchers have shown
that the bump also holds for memories of news events.
EARWORMS
+ Its not just forgetting
thats annoying its
also unwanted memories
that come to mind.
An everyday example
is when a song starts
playing in your head an
earworm. We are most prone when tired or bored, and
songs that we enjoy have the most earworm potential.
THE ZEIGARNIK EFFECT

+ This is the finding, made
by Bluma Zeigarnik in
the 20s, that we better
remember incomplete or
interrupted tasks. The
research was inspired by
her supervisor Kurt Lewin
noticing that waiters at a cafe tended to forget orders
that had been paid for, and remember those that hadnt.
47
HUMANS UNCOVERED
Science of memory
There are two types of

long-term memory
y
These are declarative facts

and anecdotes and procedural
how to carry out actions
Memory and logic

tests such as these are
often used in patients
with dementia
CAN WE USE DRUGS

TO ERASE OUR
UNWANTED MEMORIES?
The chemical means of altering what we can recall
Memories are particularly vulnerable at the moment
they are being recalled. Researchers are exploiting
this fact to develop ways to weaken or erase our
unwanted memories. One experimental approach
is to have a patient take the drug propranolol after
recalling a traumatic memory. This drug blocks the
receptors for stress hormones that would normally act
to entrench the memory. Theres some evidence that
traumatic memories lose their emotional intensity when
propranolol is used in this way. This sounds promising,
but the research also raises ethical issues imagine
if people had the meaning of their memories removed
against their will.
Other researchers are trying to find ways to use
technology to boost our memory abilities. Its early
days, and there could be adverse side-effects, but
several studies have shown that applying weak electrical
currents to specific areas of the brain via the scalp
(using a technique called transcranial direct current
stimulation) appears to boost memory performance.
48
AS PATIENTS TEMPORAL AND FRONTAL LOBES

DECAY, THEY LOSE NOT JUST THEIR NEURONS,
BUT ALSO THEIR KNOWLEDGE ABOUT THE WORLD.
Another condition, known as
semantic dementia, causes patients
wr orvh dffhvv wr vshflf lqirupdwlrq/
while initially retaining superordinate concepts. Shown a picture of
a dog, theyll identify it as an animal
but wont be able to specify that its a
grj1 Wkh ghflw lv pruh wkdq d zrug0
naming problem. A patient might not
only struggle to identify a hammer,
but also to mime the way the tool is
used. As the patients temporal and
frontal lobes atrophy, they lose not
just their neurons, but tragically, also
their knowledge about the world.
Learning more about the
underlying reasons why our memory
fails us will help us to combat the
hhfwv ri glvhdvhv wkdw dhfw lw/ vxfk
as Alzheimers. And its a rapidly
expanding area of science. Earlier this
year, researchers at the University
of Texas mapped the brain activity
ri yhwhudqv vxhulqj iurp srvw0

traumatic stress disorder, using
near-infrared spectroscopy, while
they performed simple memorisation
tasks. The group displayed limited
activity in the prefrontal cortex area of
the brain. Studies such as these, which
help scientists to pinpoint where in
wkh eudlq wkh surfhvvhv idlo lq glhuhqw
instances, will help us to develop
treatments tailor-made for each
disease. And since memory loss can
dlfw hyhq wkh prvw vloyhu0wrqjxhg
politician, its an area of science that
dhfwv xv doo1
Dr Christian Jarrett
Neuroscientist & science writer

+ With a PhD in cognitive neuroscience
from the University of Manchester,
Christian is an associate fellow of the British
Psychological Society. @Psych_Writer
@SciUncovered
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HUMANS UNCOVERED
Building a bionic hand
Blind and deaf people are

often more sensitive to touch
This is thought to be due to the parts

of their brains that would be used for
sight or sound being reassigned
How to build
a bionic hand
A new prosthetic hand developed in Switzerland can give

amputees their sense of touch back. So how does it work?
WORDS BY Zoe
50
Cormier
@SciUncovered
In 1956, psychologist FA Geldard

invented a touch language
ouch is one of our key

sensory windows into the
world. And unravelling
its mysteries is allowing scientists
wr#fuhdwh#duwlfldo#kdqgv#wkdw#fdq#
not only move but also feel, giving
amputees much greater control over
prylqj#wkhlu#qjhuv1
Researchers from the cole
Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne
(EPFL), in Switzerland, recently
demonstrated a metal prosthetic hand
that allows amputees to not only move
wkhlu#duwlfldo#qjhuv/#exw#dovr#ihho#
zlwk#wkhp1#Vhqvruv#rq#wkh#qjhuv#
were permanently wired to electrodes
implanted into nerves on the patients
arm. Blindfolded and wearing
headphones to block out any sounds,
the patient was able not just to pick up
and handle objects but also to identify
their shape and how squishy they were
using sensory feedback.
@SciUncovered
Vibratese was composed of

45 symbols, enabling users to
communicate using touch alone
The absence of sensation when

operating a prosthetic hand is a
limiting factor for many prosthetic
limb users, says Sarah Day of the
National Centre for Prosthetics
and Orthotics at the University
of Strathclyde in Glasgow. This
development is one of several exciting
advances in bioengineering that, when
fully developed, could enhance the
function of upper-limb amputees.
TOUCH TYPES
Being able to feel the objects they
touch as well as move them gives
duwlfldo#olpe#xvhuv#d#idu#juhdwhu#
degree of control, illustrating the point
that touch isnt just a sense. Its a tool,
and one we need to be able to navigate
and manipulate the world around us.
While we think of touch as just
ehlqj#rqh#ri#yh#vhqvhv/#lw#lv#dfwxdoo|#
complex and made up of a variety of
HUMANS UNCOVERED
sensitivities. The skin has the ability

to detect pressure, stretch, vibration,
temperature and pain. Each form of
lqirupdwlrq#lv#ghwhfwhg#e|#d#glhuhqw#
kind of receptor thermoreceptors for
temperature, mechanoreceptors for
pressure, nociceptors for pain, and so
on and each receptor relays its signal
wr#wkh#eudlq#yld#qhuyh#euhv1#
Interestingly, not all types of
nerves transmit their signals at the
vdph#vshhg1#Glhuhqw#nlqgv#duh#
wrapped in varying thicknesses of
myelin, the fatty insulating layer
that enables the electrical signals of
a nerve to travel quickly (just
like the insulation surrounding a
wire). Those transmitting pain
are wrapped in a thinner myelin
sheath, so their information is more
slowly received.
Doo#wkhvh#glhuhqw#dyrxuv#ri#
touch travel from their point of
51
You have far more

wkdq#yh#vhqvhv
HUMANS UNCOVERED
IMAGES OPENSTAX COLLEGE, WIKIMEDIA, PATRICIA TOCCI
ABOVE Amputee Dennis Aabo Srensen is able to

feel an orange, thanks to the metal hands sensors
inception on the outside of the body

wr wkh vslqh/ zlwk glhuhqw qhuyh
bundles entering the spinal cord
through gaps between the vertebrae.
At the top of the spine, these
branch into the centre of the brain,
travelling upwards and outwards to
meet their destination: the primary
somatosensory cortex.
PAIN IN THE BRAIN

This strip on the outer surface of the
brain, which runs across the top of
your head from just behind one ear to
just behind the other, is a map of what
the human body feels through the
vhqvh ri wrxfk1 Glhuhqw sduwv ri wkh
somatosensory cortex correspond to
glhuhqw sduwv ri wkh erg|1
Vflhqwlvwv zhuh uvw deoh wr pds
this and many other regions in the
1950s, through experiments on
epileptics who had gone in for surgery
to remove the part of their brain
responsible for their seizures. There
are no sensory nerve endings on the
surface of the brain, as you have no
need to feel anything inside your skull,
so patients can be kept awake under
PHANTOM LIMBS
local anaesthetic while surgeons

temporarily remove portions of their
skull and locate and cut out the small
part of their brain responsible for their
seizures. Many patients generously
agreed to allow surgeons to use the
unparalleled opportunity to examine
the surface of the brain in otherwise
healthy, normal people.
When the surface of their brain
was gently poked, epileptics would
report what they felt, helping
scientists to deduce the
distribution of function within
the somatosensory cortex. If
the region relating to the foot
was poked, for example, they
would feel a tickly sensation
on the soles of their feet.
How many nerve endings
there are in a given body part
determines the size of the
corresponding zone on the
cortex. The part devoted to the
tongue is huge, as are the lips and
hands, while the areas relating to
the arms, legs and torso are tiny.
Some 60 years after
qhxurvflhqwlvwv#uvw#pdsshg#wkh#
somatosensory cortex, researchers
have gone miles further, wiring
metal hands directly into the nervous
system and enabling people to control
machinery with their minds. Who
knows what else we will discover.
Zoe Cormier
Science writer
+ With a BSc in zoology from the

University of Toronto, Zoe is head of communication
for UK science outreach organisation Guerilla Science.
@zoecormier
Amputees can feel pain in limbs they no longer have but why?
+ More than 60% of people whove undergone amputations

suffer the experience of phantom limb: the illusion that
their arm or leg is still there. While this might sound simply
unsettling, most people with phantom limbs find them to
be extremely painful and unshakeably so, as they cannot
massage or treat the imaginary limb.
Nobody really knows why phantom limbs exist. Its
possible that the brain uses visual input based on seeing
other people to construct an idea of what the missing limb
should look and feel like. Another theory is that the brain
52
Other senses beyond the traditional list

include the ability to feel pain, sensitivity
to temperature and your sense of balance
has a hard-wired map of a limb, even if it doesnt exist

its worth noting that people born without an arm or leg
can also experience phantom limb pain.
The cause remains a mystery, and without
understanding why the sensation of pain is there,
practitioners are unable to treat it. Painkillers,
antidepressants, hypnosis and even acupuncture are all
ineffective for the vast majority of patients. But improving
our understanding of how touch works may help to
produce new treatments.
@SciUncovered
HUMANS UNCOVERED
SENSING THE WORLD WITH

THE NEW PROSTHETIC HAND
How the artificial hand is able to send tactile
feedback to the wearers brain
1 FIRST CONTACT
A fly lands on the tip of a finger. Most prosthetics from

running blades built for speed, to hands that are designed to
look realistic wont be able to detect this, but the sensors
on the fingers of the new sensory hand can.
2 SIGNAL CONVERSION
The signal is converted by a series of computer algorithms
into a language the nervous system can understand.
Biological systems and electrical components use different
forms of electricity, so the signal must be translated before
being sent on to the brain.
3 IMPLANTED ELECTRODE
The signal is sent to an electrode implanted in one of the

nerves of the arm. These electrodes were designed to be
ultra-thin and ultra-precise so that strong and weak signals
from the firm grasp of a handshake to the landing of a fly
could be distinguished.
4 SPINAL CORD
The signal is relayed to the spine via the receptive or
afferent nerves. Once in the spine, the signal is then
relayed to the brain.
5 MESSAGE RECEIVED
The signal is passed to the somatosensory cortex, a strip of
tissue on the outermost surface of the brain. This is a map
of the sensation of touch in the human body different
regions correspond to different anatomical parts.
6 RETURN SIGNAL SENT

This signal is relayed to the motor cortex, a parallel vertical
strip running alongside the somatosensory cortex. This then
relays the signal to the nerves controlling the finger
muscles, instructing them to bend. The signal travels back
down the spinal cord through efferent nerves.
7 SIGNAL CONVERSION
A different set of electrodes implanted in the arm receive
the signal, which then convert the electrical signals of the
nervous system back into the language of the electronic
components in the hand, instructing the fingers to move.
8 ACTION
The fingers move, and the fly is shooed away. Tension in the
artificial tendons that control the fingers is measured, the
signal converted, and the sensation of feeling the fingers
move is relayed to the brain.
@SciUncovered
53
Sugar
Sugar is rotting our teeth, expanding our waistlines
and ravaging our internal organs. Perhaps its time
sugar lost its sweet reputation for good
WORDS BY
CHOCOLATE
MILKSHAKE
50.7g per 500ml bottle
Alice Lipscombe-Southwell ILLUSTRATION BY Andy McLaughlin
ver since WWII rationing

ended in the 1950s, people
have been getting
unhealthier. Back in the 60s and
70s, heart disease was largely blamed
on fatty foods, and the food industry
reacted by launching extensive ranges
of diet and low-fat foods. But taking
fat out of food affects the taste so
sugar was added to make it taste good.
However, one scientist did not leap
on the fat is bad bandwagon. In his
1972 book Pure, White and Deadly,
John Yudkin Professor of Nutrition
at Queen Elizabeth College, in the UK
mused that it was sugar, not fat,
causing levels of heart disease to soar.
His research also led him to believe
that sugar was contributing towards
liver disease, obesity and diabetes.
Yudkin became a hate figure in the
food industry, and was ostracised by
some in the scientific community.
Other researchers became nervous of
writing negatively about sugar, and so
the food industry carried on pumping
sugar into all manner of foods.
MORE, MORE, MORE

Some scientists have described sugar
as being as addictive as cocaine or
heroin. When we consume sugar, we
want more. This is because it causes
our bodies to release dopamine, which
gives our energy levels (and spirits) a
boost. After this comes the familiar
sugar crash, which means we want
more sugar and the cycle continues.
But unlike other drugs, the sweet
stuff is widely available to anyone, of
any age. According to Paul van der

Velpen, head of Amsterdams health
service, sugar interferes with appetite,
which is why some people find it
almost impossible to stop eating
sweets and biscuits even when full.
He has called for mandatory health
warnings on food packaging.
REAPPRAISING SUGAR
In 2009, University of California, San
Francisco pediatrician Dr Robert
Lustig posted a lecture on YouTube
called Sugar: the Bitter Truth, citing
Yudkins theories. The video has had
nearly five million views, and Yudkins
book has since been republished.
However, not everyone agrees
with Lustigs conclusions, nor with
some of his more radical suggestions,
such as banning the sale of fizzy
drinks to minors. In an interview with
the New York Times, Lustig himself
outlined exactly how his views diverge
from those of other leading
nutritionists. And Dr David Katz, head
of the Yale-Griffin Prevention
Research Center, penned a public
rebuttal of Lustigs lecture for the
Huffington Post, arguing that singling
out any single nutrient as evil and
eliminating it from the diet is a fallacy
that can do more harm than good.
But while Lustigs viewpoint may
be extreme, nutritionists do agree
that too much sugar is a bad idea, and
in March 2014 the World Health
Organization recommended that
average daily consumption should be
halved. So one lump or two?
BOLOGNESE
SAUCE
14.4g per
200g portion
BANANAS
12g per 100mg
TURN OVER TO FIND OUT MORE ABOUT GLOBAL

SUGAR CONSUMPTION AND ITS EFFECTS
54
@SciUncovered
There are many

kinds of sugar
They can be grouped into simple

monosaccharides and more
complex disaccharides
YOGURT
HUMANS UNCOVERED
The truth about sugar
WHY WE CRAVE SUGAR
15.9g per 125g pot
TOMATO
KETCHUP
+ Sugar is impossible to get away from and

springs up even in seemingly healthy foods. But
why do we find it so difficult to resist?
3.7g per tablespoon
COLA
35g per 330ml can
1
DIGESTION
Our body starts digesting food as soon as we take
a bite. Sugar is processed faster than fats and
proteins. Different enzymes digest different
sugars for example, lactase breaks down
lactose, and sucrase breaks down sucrose. Most
sugar digestion occurs in the small intestine.
2
ABSORPTION
Once the sugars have been broken down, they
travel into the bloodstream. Fruit and veg provide
fibre as well as sugar, which slows digestion and
promotes a feeling of satiation, so were less likely
to gorge ourselves. This is why naturally occurring
sugars are not as harmful as added sugars.
3
REACTION
When sugar levels in the blood increase, the
pancreas starts to release insulin. This allows the
sugar to pass into the bodys cells, causing a fall in
blood-sugar levels. If refined sugars have been
eaten, this happens very quickly, causing a rapid
spike in blood-sugar levels followed by a slump.
RECOMMENDED SUGAR
INTAKE FOR ADULTS
25g per day
(World Health Organization)
@SciUncovered
ADDICTION
When this slump takes place, you may reach for a
chocolate bar or fizzy drink to get that high back.
Sugar causes the feel-good dopamine to be
released, giving it addictive qualities. Professor
David Ludwig from Harvard University carried out
MRI scans on patients and found that sugar
activated the same brain areas as cocaine.
55
HUMANS UNCOVERED
IN NUMBERS
27%
of five-year-olds in
England had tooth
decay in 2013
Source: Public Health England
CONSUMPTION OF
COCA-COLA DRINKS
PER PERSON IN 2012
(227ML SERVINGS)
MEXICO = 745
CHILE = 486
PANAMA = 416
USA = 401
ARGENTINA = 364
Glucose and fructose

are monosaccharides
Disaccharides include sucrose (table

sugar) and lactose. But most sugars
are digested in the same way
WHAT SUGAR
DOES
TO
THE
BODY
+ As research builds up a bigger picture of the risks
of high-sugar diets, sugar rather than fat seems to

be emerging as the villain in our shopping trolley
+ In June 2014, UK experts recommended that

consumers halved their recommended daily sugar
consumption from 12 teaspoons (50g) to six teaspoons
(25g). To put that into context, a single Mars bar would
constitute the total sugars allowed for a day. They
reason that this reduction could vastly improve the
nations health and slash the risk of certain illnesses.
HEART
A 2014 study published

in the JAMA Internal
Medicine journal found that added
sugar causes the risk of heart
disease to soar. Adults who
scoffed 25% or more of their
calories as sugar were three
times more likely to be killed by
cardiovascular disease than
those who ate the least sugar.
Source: Statista
11%
OF UK ADULTS CONSUMPTION
OF ADDED SUGAR COMES
FROM ALCOHOL
Source: NHS
1912
WAS THE YEAR BRITAINS FIRST
SUGAR BEET FACTORY OPENED
3
4
DIABETES
Type 1 diabetes is genetic and

unavoidable, but type 2 diabetes can
be caused by lifestyle factors. Diets that are
high in sugar are linked to weight gain, and
being overweight or obese increases the risk
of developing type 2 diabetes. In type 2
diabetes, the body either produces insufficient
insulin, or the insulin does not work properly
due to wear and tear of the pancreas, the gland
responsible for insulin production.
Source: British Sugar
56
@SciUncovered
Sugar isnt the only thing

thats bad for your teeth
Wkh#dflg#lq#}}|#gulqnv#vriwhqv#
tooth enamel even sugar-free
versions cause damage
HUMANS UNCOVERED
3.2
MILLION
PEOPLE IN THE UK ARE
BRAIN
While gobbling down a chocolate bar may

initially perk you up, there is evidence that too
much sugar can have a negative effect on the brain. A
2012 study published bythe Journal of Physiology found
that sugar-laden diets harm cognitive skills.
LIVING WITH DIABETES

Source: Diabetes UK
LIVER
Not a drinker? Dont

feel too smug drinking
lots of sweet drinks may do just
as much harm to your liver as
alcohol. If we devour more sugar
than can be used as energy in our
cells, the excess is stored in the
liver as glycogen and fat. This can
lead, eventually, to non-alcoholic
fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Early
stages are considered harmless,
but if the disease progresses
then inflammation, scarring and
even cirrhosis can occur.
TONNES
BRAZIL = 38.7 MILLION
INDIA = 26 MILLION
TONNES
TONNES
CHINA = 11.5 MILLION
TONNES
THAILAND = 10.1 MILLION
TONNES
USA = 7.2 MILLION
Biggest sugar-producing
nations, 2010-2011
Source: International Sugar Organization
22,700
bees are needed to make
one jar of honey
Source: Omlet.co.uk
5
5
SKIN
As well as making us fat and unhealthy, a sweetfilled diet can also accelerate the ageing process,
leaving our skin looking lacklustre. This is because too much
sugar can cause collagen and elastin to break down, meaning
that skin loses its suppleness and starts developing wrinkles
and a saggy appearance.
59KG
of sugar is consumed per
year by each American
Source: Online Nursing Programs
@SciUncovered
57
See how our future is being built
INSIDE THIS
SECTION
64 DIESEL ENGINEERING
BEHEMOTH
See how the worlds most
powerful diesel engine
powers the largest ships.
66 THE DOOMSDAY
SEED VAULT
Deep in the Arctic, The
Svalbard Global Seed Vault
is safeguarding plant life.
58
@SciUncovered
In 2007, 100 people from

Tegua were evacuated
Global warming caused an

lqfuhdvhg ulvn ri rrglqj
rq wkh Vrxwk Sdflf lvodqg
+ Carbon capturing
Breath of fresh air

Could new technology that sucks carbon dioxide out of the air help to repair our climate?
Michael Whiteley
IMAGE THINKSTOCK
WORDS BY
@SciUncovered
59
+ Carbon capturing
The Arctic could have

ice-free summers soon
By around 2040, global

warming will have caused
a rapid decrease in sea ice
HOW TO CAPTURE CARBON FROM THE ATMOSPHERE

Collecting CO2 on an industrial scale
1 CO2 capture liquid is pumped to the
top of the Air-Contactor and descends
through its corrugated sheets.
2 Large fans push air through the
corrugated plastic sheets.
3 CO2 in the air is captured as it comes
into contact with the capture liquid.
4 Air containing less CO2 exits
through the back of the
corrugated sheets.
IMAGE CARBON ENGINEERING
5 Liquid with collected CO2 is collected in a large tray

and funnelled into a sump.
6 The liquid is then sent to a
central regeneration facility.
7 The regeneration facility extracts
CO2 from the capture liquid before
returning the liquid to the air
capture technology.
limate change has become

an increasing cause for
concern recently. Manmade greenhouse gas emissions,
such as carbon dioxide (CO2), are
qhjdwlyho| dhfwlqj rxu sodqhw1 Zh#
er
are emitting more CO2 than ever
before in fact, carbon dioxide
e levels
are higher than theyve been for
the past two million years,
fdxvlqj whpshudwxuhv wr ulvh1
So, how can we reduce
emissions not only for our
DID YOU KNOW?
CARBON DIOXIDE COULD B E

BLASTED OUT INTO SPACE
+ A scientist at the University off Californi

f ia in the
he US has
has
suggested that we could send a large amount of CO2 into
space to make a dent in the current levels. Professor Alfred
Wongs idea revolves around using the Earths magnetic
field to carry CO2 molecules up and out of the atmosphere.
The molecules like to bond with loose electrons to form CO2
ions; these ions follow the path of Earths magnetic field
which, at the poles, is basically a straight line into space.
60
health, but for the rest of the

biosphere, too?
Wkh#juhhqkrxvh#hhfw#rffxuv#
qdwxudoo|#rq#rxu#sodqhw1#Wkh#Vxqv#
energy penetrates our atmosphere
and is then radiated back from the
Earth, but some of this energy is
Ear
pped by greenhouse gases such as
trap
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous
{lgh1 Wklv#nhhsv#rxu#sodqhw#zduphu#
r{l
han it would be otherwise, helping
th
llw wr#vxvwdlq#olih1#Krzhyhu/#kxpdq#
activities, such as burning fossil
fuels, have increased greenhouse
gas levels to the point where our
g
pllanet is in danger of overheating,
wkuuhdwhqlqj#wkh#olih#wkdw#olyhv#xsrq#lw1
DIRRECT CAPTURE
Zh fdq#uhgxfh#rxu#hplvvlrqv#e|#
switching to renewable energy,
building solar farms and wind
wxuelqhv1#Exw#zkdw#li#zh#frxog#dfwxdoo|#
suck CO2 out of the atmosphere?
Thats precisely what Canadian
company Carbon Engineering is
working on, and it is starting to see
vrph#surplvlqj#uhvxowv1
You may well have heard of carbon
fdswxuh#dqg#vwrudjh#+FFV,#ehiruh1#Wklv#
is the process of removing carbon
glr{lgh#iurp#srzhu#vwdwlrq#hplvvlrqv1#
The CO2 is transported elsewhere and
vwruhg#xqghujurxqg1#Wkh#wurxeoh#lv/#
you need to have the space available
wr#uhwurw#wklv#whfkqrorj|#wr#h{lvwlqj#
srzhu#sodqwv1#Fduerq#Hqjlqhhulqj/#
on the other hand, has developed a
technology that can be placed
dq|zkhuh1#Dlu#fdswxuh#+DF,#gluhfwo|#
extracts CO2 from the atmosphere,
and the technology doesnt need to be
sodfhg#qhdu#wkh#vrxufh#ri#hplvvlrqv1#
Wklv#jlyhv#|rx#wkh#iuhhgrp#wr#qg#dq|#
location you desire even the most
barren, otherwise unusable land
#wr#vhw#xs#wkh#DF#pdfklqhu|1##
Currently, the concentration of CO2
in the air is around 400 parts per
ploolrq#+3137(,/#zklfk#grhvqw#vrxqg#d#
lot, but is plenty enough to cause
frqfhuqv1#Wkh#frqfhqwudwlrq#ri#FR2
coming out of a power plant chimney
lv#durxqg#8048(>#wudglwlrqdo#FFV#
@SciUncovered
Zkhq lw rshqhg lq 4<43/

this US national park
had about 150
+ Carbon capturing
IMAGE CARBON ENGINEERING
Glacier National Park

has only 25 glaciers left
Artists impression of
the carbon capturing
technology being
developed by
Carbon Engineering
technologies are arguably more suited

in this situation as the power plant
frxog#eh#xsgdwhg1#Exw#zkdw#derxw#wkh#
emissions from transport? It simply
wouldnt be feasible to put CCS
technologies on the end of the exhaust
slsh#ri#hyhu|#fdu/#exv#dqg#wd{l1#Wklv#lv#
zkhuh#dlu#fdswxuh#frphv#lqwr#lwv#rzq1
Additionally, traditional CCS looks
at tackling future emissions, whereas
AC can remove CO2 that is already
suhvhqw#lq#wkh#dwprvskhuh1#Wklqn#ri#lw#
dv#d#odujh#dlu#owhu/#fohdqlqj#xs#wkh#
hqylurqphqw#durxqg#|rx1#
MAN VS NATURE
Trees are natures CO2#uhjxodwruv>#wkh|#
take in CO2 and release oxygen (O2,1#
Krzhyhu/#wkh#whfkqrorj|#ghyhorshg#e|#
Carbon Engineering turbocharges this
surfhvv1#Wuhhv#fdq#ghdo#zlwk#durxqg#
500 tons of CO2 per square kilometre,
whereas air capture can process as
much as 500,000 tons of CO2 per
vtxduh#nlorphwuh1#Wkhuhv#dqrwkhu#
dgydqwdjh#ri#wklv#duwlflfldo#fduerq#
glr{lgh#fdswxuh/#wrr1#Wkh#FR2 is
@SciUncovered
converted into the raw material of the

tree as it grows, which means that
when it dies and rots, this CO2 is
re-introduced into the atmosphere at a
odwhu#gdwh1#Krzhyhu/#dlu#fdswxuh#fdq#
lock up CO2 and store it in
xqghujurxqg#orfdwlrqv#lqghqlwho|/#vr#
we dont need to worry about it coming
edfn#lq#d#frxsoh#ri#kxqguhg#|hduv1
In the process of air capture,
atmospheric air is sucked into the
plant via a large fan, where it is
introduced to the heart of the
pdfklqhu|1#Khuh/#wkh#dlu#lv#sdvvhg#
through a tightly packed, honeycombvkdshg#SYF#eorfn1#Hyhu|#vxuidfh#ri#wkh#
PVC block is coated with a CO2
devruehqw#vroxwlrq1#Zkhq#wkh#dpelhqw#
air passes over the solution, its CO2
becomes attached to the liquid,
iruplqj#d#fduerqdwh#vroxwlrq1#Wklv#
solution trickles down to a tray and is
wkhq#froohfwhg/#uhdg|#iru#vwrudjh1#Iurp#
inlet to outlet, this process can remove
xs#wr#;3(#ri#wkh#FR2 from the air, and
as long as the technology is kept
supplied with CO2 absorbent
AN ALTERNATIVE
CARBON CAPTURE PROJECT
The cement industry could soon become much greener
+ Cement production is normally considered to be a large
polluter when it comes to CO2. Currently, it constitutes
5% of global emissions more than the aviation industry.
However, that might soon become a thing of the past.
A new method of producing cement by mimicking nature
could actually absorb CO2.
Corals and other sea creatures use CO2 and seawater
minerals, such as magnesium and calcium, to create
their strong exoskeletons. When these animals die,
they eventually sink to the bottom of the ocean and can
form calcium carbonate. Using this principle, we can
dramatically reduce CO2 emissions from the cement
industry by trying to match what nature does.
The US company, Calera, is developing an innovative
system in which CO2 emissions are captured from
industrial sources. The gas is combined with an alkaline
such as caustic soda and calcium to form a solid,
calcium carbonate-based cement. The CO2 is therefore
captured within the material forever.
61
+ Carbon capturing
San Marino has the most

road vehicles per person
The tiny European republic

boasts over 1,260 vehicles
per 1,000 people
CAPTURING OTHER GASES HARMFUL TO THE ENVIRONMENT
There are many ways to clear up our air

GAS FROM TRASH
METAL SPONGES
A significant percentage
of our waste from
homes and factories is
sent to landfill, where
it decomposes. As the
rubbish breaks down,
landfill gas is produced,
which is a mixture of
methane (CH4) and
carbon dioxide (CO2). This
gas can be captured via
a large cap on the landfill
site, and can be burned
and used to heat homes
or generate electricity. As
well as preventing the gas
from reaching the
atmosphere, bad smells
would be reduced.
Metal Organic
Frameworks (MOF) are
compounds of metal
ions arranged to form
three-dimensional
sponge shapes around
an organic molecule.
These MOFs can trap all
sorts of nasties, such
as sulphur compounds
and volatile organic
compounds. Theyre a
way off from becoming
commonplace, but
researchers are working
on ways to make them
better at filtering and
capturing these gases.
METHANE
ZEOLITES
Another potential way
to capture methane
is to use something
called zeolites, porous
minerals comprised of
silicon, aluminium and
oxygen. CO2 is relatively
easy to capture as it
can be done physically
and chemically, but
methane is quite a
bit trickier. However,
zeolites can adsorb CH4
gas, integrating the
molecules into their
material structure,
and can then be safely
disposed of,
taking the harmful
methane with them.
GAS CONVERTER
BIOFILTERS
Burning fossil fuels in

cars produces carbon
monoxide (CO), which is
poisonous, and nitrous
oxides (NO), which can
cause smog and acid
rain. However, these
can be filtered through
a catalytic converter
in the cars exhaust
system to produce
gases that are less
harmful. NO becomes
inert nitrogen (which
makes up around 79%
of our air) and oxygen,
while CO combines
with oxygen to make
carbon dioxide.
Methane (CH4) is
the second most
concentrated greenhouse
gas in the atmosphere
after CO2 and 16% of CH4
emissions come from
cattle farming. Bacteria
found in woodland
soil are natures way
of keeping this gas in
check. Its estimated
that around 30 million
tons of CH4 per year are
absorbed by bacteria
named methanotrophs
that take in CH4 and use
it to produce carbon to
live. Researchers in the
US are testing biofilter
designs as a greener way
to reduce the amount of
methane in landfill sites.
Landfill sites are smelly,

but the gas they give off
could be captured for
useful applications
solution, it will keep removing CO2

iurp#wkh#dlu#ihhg1
So what happens to the carbonate
solution after the process is complete?
It can be processed to remove the CO2
molecules, and the cleaned solution
can be returned back to the air capture
pdfklqh1#Lw#uhtxluhv#vrph#h{whuqdo#
energy to do so, but any CO2 produced
by the external energy used can also
eh#fdswxuhg#e|#wkh#ghylfh1
Zkhq#wklv#whfkqrorj|#lv#vfdohg#xs/#
IT CAN BE POSSIBLE FOR A LARGE

SLAB AC MACHINE TO PROCESS UP
TO 100,000 TONS OF CO2 PER YEAR.
62
lw#zloo#eh#srvvleoh#iru#d#odujh#vode#dlu#
capture machine to process up to
100,000 tons of CO2 per year,
rvhwwlqj#wkh#htxlydohqw#ri#durxqg#
633/333#fduv#hplvvlrqv1
As the air capture slabs can be
placed anywhere on the planet, they
could be positioned in an area where
there are already renewable energy
installations, such as wind turbines
that could provide them with the
srzhu#wkh|#qhhg#wr#rshudwh1#
Air capture could also be used to
create hydrocarbon-based fuels, such
dv#shwuro#ru#dlufudiw#ixho1#Wklv#fdq#eh#
achieved by combining the harvested
CO2 molecules with hydrogen
generated from renewable electrolysis
ri#zdwhu1#Vr#frpelqlqj#dlu#fdswxuh#
with wind-powered hydrogen

production could create a closed loop
ixho#f|foh1#Zkhq#wklv#ixho#lv#exuqhg#
and CO2 is released, it can be quickly
reabsorbed by air capture, and the
surfhvv#zrxog#vwduw#doo#ryhu#djdlq1
Carbon Engineerings air capture
pdfklqhv#frxog#ehfrph#d#vljqlfdqw#
player in our rush to reduce the CO2
levels in the atmosphere, and the
frpsdq|#krshv#wkh#uvw#sodqw#zloo#eh#
uhdg|#durxqg#534:1
Michael Whiteley
Research scientist
+ Michael Whiteley is a research

scientist at Loughborough University.
His expertise is in green technologies. @MWHFC
@SciUncovered
Packed with practical tutorials and independent advice, discover why

MacFormat has been the UKs best-selling Apple magazine for six years!
* New app subscribers only
Try the new issue of MacFormat

free* in the award-winning app!
macformat.com/ipad
Largest diesel engine
Wkh#uvw#wzr0vwurnh#hqjlqh#
zdv#sdwhqwhg#lq#4;;4
DIESEL ENGINE
BEHEMOTH
Lw#zdv#ghyhorshg#e|#
Vfrwwlvk#hqjlqhhu#
Gxjdog#Fohun
FUEL INJECTION
Fuel is squirted into the engines 14
cylinders at high pressure, using
common rail-direct fuel-injector
technology. It is operated
electronically, rather than mechnically,
offering greater precision.
It follows the same engineering template as a garden

regular but this massive diesel engine can power one
of the worlds largest container ships
WORDS BY
Prof Brendan Walker
he Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-C
14-cylinder, turbo-charged
two-stroke diesel engine
has all the same parts as, and operates
in a very similar fashion to, a
conventional two-stroke diesel engine
from an old lawnmower. But put them
side by side and youll quickly spot the

glhuhqfh vl}h$ Wkh UWD<90F047 lv
the largest reciprocating engine on the
planet, built to power the worlds
biggest ships.
IMAGE WRTSIL RTA96C ENGINE
FUELLING POWER
Wkh phfkdqlvp ri krz d wzr0vwurnh
hqjlqh zrunv lv idluo| vlpsoh= ixho lv
squirted in, mixed with air and
directed into an enclosed cylinder
where its electronically ignited. Hot
jdv iurp wklv frqwuroohg h{sorvlrq
expands, pushing the piston up the
cylinder; the pistons linear motion is
wudqvihuuhg wr d fudqn yld d frqqhfwlqj
urg/ zkhuh lwv wudqviruphg lqwr
circular motion.
D frxsoh ri ydoyhv duh xvhg wr
exhaust the burned gas produced
gxulqj wkh slvwrqv uvw rxwvwurnh/ dqg
ohw lq iuhvk dlu rq wkh vhfrqg edfn
stroke. Further cylinders are
positioned in line so that one cylinder
is always exploding as the others are
lq glhuhqw vwdwhv ri uhfryhu|1 Wkh
uhvxowB D uhflsurfdwlqj hqjlqh wkdw fdq#

frqwlqxrxvo| wxuq ixho lqwr xvhdeoh
urwdwlrqdo srzhu1 Wklv vlpsoh
whfkqrorj| zdv wkh suhihuuhg zd| wr
srzhu yhklfohv lq wkh Hdvwhuq Eorf
zhoo lqwr wkh 4<;3v1
Exw krz derxw srzhulqj uhfrug0
euhdnlqj 54vw0fhqwxu| frqwdlqhu
vklsv/ vxfk dv wkh 4:3/:<70wrqqh/
6<:p0orqj Hppd PuvnB Vxuho| lw
uhtxluhv dq lqqrydwlyh qhz hqjlqh
designed to power such an immense
object through turbulent waters?
Vxusulvlqjo|/ wkh dqvzhu lv qr1
Wkh vklsv ghvljqhuv xvhg wkh vdph
vw|oh ri hqjlqhp rqo| pxfk eljjhu1
Dqg khuhv zkhuh wkh Zduwvlod0Vxo}hu
UWD<90F frphv lq1
Hdfk ri wkh hqjlqhv slvwrqv lv
almost one metre in diameter, with a
vwurnh ohqjwk ri 518p1 Lq mxvw d vlqjoh
uhyroxwlrq/ hdfk ri wkh 47 f|olqghuv
frxog lqdwh 4/;33 edoorrqv1 Zkhq wkh#
engine is working at maximum
shuirupdqfh/ lwv pdnlqj 435
uhyroxwlrqv shu plqxwh wr surgxfh
43;/<53 kruvhsrzhu htxlydohqw wr
wkh srzhu ri ryhu 7/333 wzr0vwurnh
Wudedqw fduv1 Zhljklqj lq dw 5/3;:
wrqqhv/ |rxg qhhg pruh wkdq 43 eoxh
whales to balance the scales, and at
46p kljk dqg 5:p orqj lwv wkh vl}h ri
d irxu0vwruh| dsduwphqw exloglqj1
EACH OF THE ENGINES PISTONS IS ALMOST

ONE METRE IN DIAMETER, WORKING AT 102
REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE.
64
DID YOU KNOW?
CONTAINER SHIPS ARE BUILT TO A

STANDARD SIZE
+ The size of container ships is partly constrained by
the commercial routes they can physically navigate,
and the capacity of the ports they need to visit. Current
New Panamax ships those that can traverse the
newly expanded Panama Canal will soon be dwarfed
by the Malaccamax class. These will be just able to
transport 30,000 containers of cargo between
Malaysia and Indonesia via the Strait of Malacca.
@SciUncovered
Diesel is distilled
iurp#fuxgh#rlo
PRIMED CYLINDERS
As the air-fuel mix explodes on one side of
the piston, pushing it up the cylinder, the
air on the other side is compressed and
used to prime adjacent cylinders for firing.
Other products
include kerosene,
petroleum and naptha
Largest diesel engine
ENGINEERING FOR POWER OTHER MEANS

ON A GRAND SCALE OF POWERING SHIPS
Providing the drive for immense container
ships needs some special tricks
IMAGE WIKI COMMONS
+ The Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-C may use the

same principles as a conventional two-stroke
engine, but there are some extra innovations
in place to keep things running smoothly.
SEVMORPUT
+ The Russian Sevmorput is the only
nuclear-powered container ship in
operation today. Its KLT-40 nuclear ssion
reactor produces a thermal output of 135
megawatts used to generate 215
tonnes of steam per hour, at high
pressure, to power its turbines.
REDUCED FORCES
IMAGE WIKI COMMONS
Unlike in an automotive engine, the

connecting rod attaches via a
crosshead, which runs in a guide
channel. This reduces sideways
forces that can make a piston
lose its shape over time.
E-SHIP 1
All 14 connecting rods attach to a
single 272-tonne crankshaft.
Theres no gearbox just a direct
coupling to the propeller shaft.
What the captain may lack in
refined speed control, they make up
for in engine efficiency on long runs.
+ The German cargo ship E-Ship 1s nine

Mitsubishi engines only produce 3.5
megawatts of power in total, but doesnt
just drive the propellers. Some power is
used to rotate four 27m-tall Flettner rotor
cylinders mounted on the ships deck,
which work as wind sails.
IMAGE GETTY IMAGES
CONNECTING CRANK
AURIGA LEADER
PROTECTIVE COATING
Cylinders are lubricated by regular
injections of special oil, which protects
the cylinders from wear and neutralises
the acids formed during combustion of
sulphurous fuel.
@SciUncovered
+ Transporting cars from Japan to the US,

Nippon Yusens experimental Auriga
Leader is the worlds rst ship to be
partially propelled by solar power.
However, this produces just 0.05% of the
ships propulsion power, so two-stroke
engines may be here for some time yet.
65
Two types of plants

produce seeds
Gymnosperms seeds are exposed

while those of angiosperms are
hidden inside fruits
Frozen tunnels on a remote island within the Arctic Circle

are safeguarding the future of our planets food supply
WORDS BY Ian
Evenden
he St Helena olive lasted

until 2003. It was one of
51 species found nowhere
but the Atlantic island from which it
took its name, and had been extinct
in the wild since 1994. But after
cultivated seedlings and cuttings
succumbed to fungal infections, it
vanished from the world.
If it had hung on a little longer,
it might have made it to remote and
icy Spitsbergen. The largest island
of the Svalbard archipelago is within
the Arctic Circle and home to the
Svalbard Global Seed Vault.
IMAGE INNGANSPARTI KUNST F MARI TEFRE
SIXTH MASS EXTINCTION

Seeds are a vital source of food for
humans, but the variety of species
producing them is in decline. In fact,
the Center For Biological Diversity
has gone so far as to say the planet
is experiencing its sixth mass
extinction. The vault aims to prevent
66
the loss of important species

by keeping them on ice in
Svalbards permafrost.
Its that hard permafrost the
ground is frozen all year round
1,000km from the North Pole that
presented an obstacle to building the
vault. But miners have been digging
their tunnels on the island since
the beginning of the 20th century,
and it was these chilly passages
that attracted the attention of those
looking to safeguard the future of
the worlds food supply.
In the early 1980s, the Nordic
Gene Bank had chosen that place
as security storage for their seeds,
explains Grethe-Helene Evjen, a
special adviser in the Norwegian
governments department of
agriculture, who was involved in the
project from the very beginning.
They were using the old mines
most of the mountains around there
@SciUncovered
A 2,000-year-old seed
still germinated
The date palm, excavated from

the palace of Herod the Great,
was planted in 2005
THE SEED VAULT IS A LONG-TERM SECURITY

BACKUP STORAGE, AND WE FORESEE IT
WILL LAST MANY HUNDREDS OF YEARS.
Grethe-Helene Evjen NORWAYS DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
@SciUncovered
67
Harvester ants
love seeds
Its estimated they eat

more than all mammals
and birds put together
SEEDS IN SVALBARD
IMAGE F MARI TEFRE
Many vital seeds lie deep underground. Here are four
BARLEY
BEANS
POTATOES
MAIZE AND WHEAT
+ Okayama University in Japan

has deposited a collection of
575 barley variants in the vault.
This member of the grass family
is a major cereal crop and is an
important part of many breads,
beers and animal feeds. In 2007
it was the fourth most produced
crop in the world.
+ Beans are one of the oldest

cultivated plants, and 23.2
million tonnes of them were
grown worldwide in 2010. Brazils
government has deposited 519
varieties of bean into the vault
the South American country is
the second largest producer of
beans in the world, after India.
+ Peru has contributed 191

variants of wild potatoes and 65
variants of wild sweet potatoes
to the vault. As the annual diet
of an average person includes
around 33kg of spuds, this is
a major food crop. China is the
worlds biggest producer, but
the plant originated in Peru.
+ The International Maize and

Wheat Improvement Center
has added an astonishing 1,946
variants of maize and 5,964
types of wheat to the vault.
Both cereals are staple foods
across the Earth. Their loss
would sentence millions, if not
billions, of people to starvation.
were home to coal mines but it was

decided by an expert delegation in
2004 it was not safe enough to use
these old coal mines the mountain
is cracking and theres a risk of
explosions from gas in the mines.
So it was concluded a bespoke
vault needed to be built somewhere
there had been no previous mining.
Plus, under Norwegian law, any
important publicly funded building
BELOW The vault has

been built high enough
to be above sea level,
even if the ice caps melt
over a certain size must incorporate

artwork, so the roof of the vaults
entrance tunnel is home to an
illuminated artwork by Dyveke
Sanne that marks its position from a
distance using mirrors and prisms in
the summer and fibre optic cables in
the dark winter months.
The concrete entrance tunnel is
the only visible part of the vault, and
is its most striking feature. Behind it
lies a steel tube, shipped to the island

and sunk into the mountainside.
While the mountain itself is
old sandstone thats considered
geologically stable, the outside rocks
are quite loose, and the tube allowed
access to the solid rock during the
construction, a process known as a
Svalbard tunnel thanks to its use in
the mining industry on the island.
Its still there now, incorporated into
the structure of the complex.
KEEPING IT LOCAL
Construction of the vault was
handled by a building contractor
local to the island, meaning
machinery didnt have to be shipped
over. Plus, expertise in working
in the extreme environment was
readily at hand. We were really
happy they won the contract, says
Evjen. The project was really small
to them. They actually asked us if we
could increase the size of the vault,
as it was easier to build three rooms
than two, to better regulate the
amount of mass in each chamber.
68
@SciUncovered
The worlds smallest seed is

from the epiphytic orchid
A billion of them
would only weigh
one gram
UNDERGROUND VAULTS
More buildings safeguarding our future from below
Each of those three chambers

can store 1.5 million seeds, and
the total storage inside is about
1,000m. Refrigeration units
powered by locally mined coal cool
the vault chambers to -18C. It took
several years for them to get the
temperature down that low, after
construction began in May 2007.
There are no concrete walls down
there, says Evjen. Its just the rock
of the mountain.
[Without refrigeration] its not
a very low temperature, between
-3 and -4C. But even if the
energy supply to the vault proves
insufficient, the temperature inside
the mountain will be low enough to
preserve the seeds. The location was
chosen for the seed vault because its
a long-term security backup storage,
and we foresee it will last many
hundreds of years. The vault is also
high enough to be above sea level
even if the ice caps melt.
COPING WITH THE COLD

Spoil from the tunnelling was used
to build an entrance terrace for the
complex, while some of it was used
to shore up the harbour, benefitting
Svalbards wider population.
But building in permafrost has
its challenges. The steel tube leaks
in the summer, as melting snow
permeates the tunnel from above.
The floor of the tunnel sits in the
permafrost layer, so that water
immediately freezes again, leaving
a potentially treacherous surface
@SciUncovered
for anyone accessing the vault. The

complex has no permanent staff, and
pumping the water out provides a
short-term solution so visitors dont
get hurt, but investigations into how
to keep it dry are ongoing.
The rock walls and constant low
temperatures mean the future of
our seeds is in good hands. A system
that means only the country or
institution that deposited a sample
can retrieve it again should prevent
the theft of such a precious resource,
and Norways relative stability
means the vault should be there for
centuries to come. Plus, its position
of just a few kilometres from the
islands airport means seeds can
be retrieved quickly if needed. We
have quite a good infrastructure in
Svalbard these days, says Evjen.
Norway is looked at as a stable
country in terms of governance, and
is a quiet place in the world. Were a
trustworthy place.
And if you were worried about
the St Helena olive, dont completely
despair. Although no plants or seeds
survive, a sample of its DNA is in
storage at Kew Gardens vault in
Sussex (see Underground Vaults,
right) its not quite gone yet.
Ian Evenden
Science writer
+ Ian Evenden is a freelance journalist

working in the fields of science,
technology and photography. He has written for
numerous titles and has a keen interest in nature.
+ Hidden under the

Wiltshire countryside
and a secret until 2005,
CGWH is a 97-hectare
complex that was built
37m underground in the
late 50s for the British government to use in the event of
a nuclear war. Blast-proof and self-sucient, the bunker
could house 4,000 people in isolation for three months.
MILLENNIUM SEED BANK

+ Bunkers are rarely used peacefully, but this Sussex vault
complex is home to Kew Gardens seed bank. Its chilled
rooms house the worlds largest collection of seeds over a
billion and expeditions are constantly bringing back more.
IMAGE DAVID ILIFF
IMAGE CREDIT MARI TEFRE SVALBARD GLOBAL SEED VAULT
Inside the mountain,

which is old sandstone
and geologically stable
IMAGE CREATIVE COMMONS CREDIT NJ
CENTRAL GOVERNMENT WAR

HEADQUARTERS
METRO 2
+ Under Moscow, there may be a whole secret rail system.
Rumoured to have been built during the reign of Stalin,
Metro 2s four lines connect government buildings, airports
and a whole underground town. That is, if it even exists.
SENTRALANLEGGET
+ The Svalbard vault isnt Norways only foray into massive
earth-moving. This complex, with a name that translates
as The Central Facility, is the war HQ of the countrys
government and royal family, and takes advantage of being
underneath a mountain, protecting it from nuclear attack.
CHEYENNE MOUNTAIN
+ The Americans started
drilling this complex into the
Rocky Mountains in 1961. The
1.8-hectare grid of tunnels is
accessed through a 1,400m
entrance passage and serves as
an alternative command centre
in the event of a nuclear war.
69
Rediscover our planet and its inhabitants
INSIDE THIS
SECTION
76 THE NATURAL WORLDS

AMAZING DEFENCES
From expelling organs
to breaking bones, some
creatures will go to any
length not to become lunch.
80 FIVE FOSSIL HOAXES

We examine historys
most spectacular cases of
archaelogical forgery.
70
@SciUncovered
The word life is

of Germanic origin
It comes from leib,

which is German
for body
NATURE UNCOVERED
The origins of life
The
origins
of life
How life emerged in the earliest days of the Earth is still

a mystery, but recent research suggests vents at the
bottom of the ocean could have played a key role
Birch
here do bees come from?

On the face of it, its a
straightforward question:
Well, son, when a mummy bee loves
a daddy bee very much... But it was
a problem that plagued the ancient
Greeks no end. As far as they were
frqfhuqhg/ ehhv fdph iurp rzhuv/
or could be conjured by trapping and
killing a bull with the bees emerging
iurp lwv urwwlqj hvk1 Wklv wkhru| ri
spontaneous generation was one that
persisted for centuries and it didnt
vwrs zlwk ehhv1 Hhov dqg vk vsudqj
from mud, cicadas from cuckoo spit;
there was even a type of grub that was
wkrxjkw wr hphujh rxw ri uh1
Rqh ri wkh uvw h{shulphqwv wr
disprove the theory was carried out in
the 17th Century by an Italian doctor
who realised that life could only come
from other life. Francesco Redi placed

pieces of meat in sealed or unsealed
jars, proving that insects only
appeared when the meat was left open
wr wkh dlu/ dqg wkdw lhv suredeo|
what Greek translations refer to as
bees are born as maggots from other
lhv1 Vr wkdw dqvzhuv wkh txhvwlrq/
Where do bees come from? But a
related question still has scientists just
as puzzled as the ancient Greeks.
Life, as Redi insisted, comes from
olih1 Exw zkhuh glg wkh uvw olih frph
from? The bees that made the honey
you spread on your toast they all
came from other bees. But what about
their ancestors? What if you follow the
line of bees all the way back through
evolutionary time to the point where
it converges with those of other
animals? And what if you follow that
Origin of life fact

Theres growing evidence
that all life emerged from
deep sea vents
@SciUncovered
#01
The advent of plants transformed the Earth from its primordial state, meaning that early life thrived in
a completely different atmosphere from todays. As plants photosynthesised using the Suns energy,
they pumped out the oxygen that now fills the air and sea.
71
IMAGE RICHARD BIZLEY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
WORDS BY Hayley
NATURE UNCOVERED
The origins of life
The Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt

is home to Earths oldest rocks
It is located in
northern Quebec
province, in Canada
EARTHS AGE REVEALED

Weve found several clues over the years
ROCK FORMATIONS
Hydrothermal vents on
the seafloor create some
very unusual conditions
RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE DATING

+ Over millions of years, one radioactive element in a
rock will decay into another, as when uranium decays
into lead. For example, it takes 704 million years for
uranium-235 to become lead-207, so scientists can use
the proportions of each radioactive element to calculate
the age of the rock.
olqh doo wkh zd| edfn wr wkh uvw vlpsoh

life forms to inhabit our planet four
eloolrq |hduv djrB Wkh uvw fhoovB
If you look at it that way, Where
do bees come from? isnt such a
dumb question any more. In fact,
answering it would give us clues to our
own origins, as well as those of every
living thing on this planet.
SOUP AND SPONGE
OUR BEST ESTIMATE

IMAGES THINKSTOCK
+ Not all the rocks on Earth are the same age some
are young at just a few million years old. By contrast,
the oldest rocks on the planet, discovered in 1999 in
Canada, are over four billion years old, giving us our best
estimate of the Earths age. But it could be even older.
72
Like the ancient Greeks, scientists

studying lifes beginnings have had
to use their imaginations. Darwin
imagined life emerging in some
warm little pond and, in the 1950s,
US chemists Stanley Miller and Harold
Urey imagined the building blocks
ri olih wkh uvw rujdqlf prohfxohv
iruplqj lq d dvk ri oljkwqlqj/ dv

storms raged above the primordial
soup of the ancient oceans. Lightning
supposedly provided the energy
needed to kickstart life on Earth.
Today, though, these notions are
regarded as old hat, as evolutionary
elrfkhplvw Gu Qlfn Odqh h{sodlqv1
The question is, once youve made
these building blocks, what happens
qh{wB Wkhuh kdv wr eh vrph gulylqj
force which makes them concentrate
and react and join together, and I dont
see where that is in a soup.
Lane is based at University
College London, and is one of a small
number of scientists carrying out
h{shulphqwv ghvljqhg wr suryh wkdw
life could have begun in the depths
Origin of life fact
#02
In 2000, an Australian researcher found the remains of thread-like microbes in 3.2-billion-year-old

fossilised deep-sea vents called black smokers. The microfossils are some of the oldest ever
discovered and hint at early life around such vents.
@SciUncovered
IMAGE OAR/NATIONAL UNDERSEA RESEARCH PROGRAM (NURP); NOAA
+ In the 18th Century, a wealthy chemist called James

Hutton became one of the first scientists to write about
geological processes shaping the planet in his book
Theory of the Earth. He had visited Siccar Point on the
coast of Scotland and saw sandstone formations that
told of millions of years of slow geological change.
Our knowledge of early sharks

is based largely on their teeth
The animals leave little trace

in the fossil record because
theyre mostly cartilage
NATURE UNCOVERED
The origins of life
Q&A DINA
PASINI
Tests on the panspermia idea that life came from another planet
show that interplanetary transport is possible
Where does panspermia
assume life came from?
There are several candidates in the
Solar System. In early Mars history
the conditions were ripe for life to
develop, so its completely feasible that
life could have developed there and
then come to Earth. Or it could have
originated from outside of the Solar
System entirely.
How would life get from one planet
to another?
Rqh#h{sodqdwlrq#frxog#eh#li#wkhuh#zdv#
an impact into the ocean and then lots
of water with organisms in it was shot
into space a sort of ice asteroid.
IMAGE THINKSTOCK
You tested whether microalgae that

duh#xvhg#dv#vk#irrg#frxog#vxuylyh#
entry into the Earths atmosphere.
Why these organisms?
Well, we wanted something that
would be easy to grow and only needed
sunlight and some basic nutrients,
so that if it ever did get to another
planet, it would be able to survive in a
zkroh#udqjh#ri#glhuhqw#hqylurqphqwv#
zlwkrxw#wrr#pxfk#hruw1#
Krz#pdq|#vxuylyhgB
Zhuh#uxqqlqj#h{shulphqwv#wr#
quantify the percentages. At the
moment, all we can say is that some
ghqlwho|#vxuylyhg#dqg#wkdw#pruh#
survived in the low-speed shots than
in the high-speed shots. The highspeed shots were 6.9 kilometres a
vhfrqg1#Wkhvh#h{shulphqwv#vlpxodwhg#
a planet similar to Earth.
But how do they withstand

these impacts?
Were not 100% sure, but it does seem
wkdw#wkh#ohvv#elrorjlfdoo|#frpsoh{#
the organism is, the more chance
it has of surviving. Saying that,
Lyh#mxvw#uxq#vrph#h{shulphqwv#
using little [animals] called
tardigrades, which are
composed of 40,000 cells, and
some of them have survived.
You also showed microalgae can
vxuylyh#ehlqj#iur}hq##dv#lq#wkh#
mrxuqh|#wkurxjk#vsdfh##iru#d#frxsoh#
of weeks. But wouldnt it take much
longer to reach Earth?
Li#|rx#wdnh#wkh#h{dpsoh#ri#Pduv/#wkh#
average time for a body to go from
Mars to Earth is about 16 million
years. But once its frozen, theres no
decay. So if it survives one week it
should be able to survive one year or
100 years or one million years.
So your experiments show that
sdqvshupld#frxog#kdyh#eurxjkw
life to Earth?
They certainly show that its possible
to go from one planet to another
whether life came to Earth or whether
it came from Earth and went to
another planet.
But if thats what happened,
then it doesnt really tell us how
olih#ehjdq1#Lw#mxvw#pryhv#wkh#
problem elsewhere
Thats right: it puts the problem on
someone else to solve!
Origin of life fact
#03
Its a mystery how the very earliest life passed on its information from one generation to another. DNA is too
complex and needs to partner with equally complex proteins to copy itself, so the first genetic molecules
must have been simpler and self-replicating. But how do you make a self-replicating molecule?
@SciUncovered
Could life be
transported through
space? Theres new
evidence it could
Dina Pasini
University of Kent
+ Based at the Centre for Astrophysics and
Planetary Science, Dinas PhD research is focused
on whether life could have originated elsewhere and
been brought to Earth.
73
The origins of life
Tubeworms near hydrothermal

vents can grow one metre per year
Proteins are as vital to

life as DNA, and have
been around just as long
MANUFACTURING PROTEINS
Scientists have been reverse engineering proteins
to see what their antecedents would have looked like
IMAGE INKS0002/WIKIMEDIA
+ DNA deoxyribonucleic acid is often referred to as

lifes blueprint. It is common to all living things, so it
must have arrived on the scene pretty early. But there
are other molecules that have been around for as least
as long: proteins.
You might know proteins as the molecules that make
up our muscles, but theyre more than that. Theyre the
general dogsbodies within all of our cells, and there are
lots of them all with their own responsibilities. They
fetch and carry smaller molecules, take messages to
other cells, defend their own from germs and even help
make new DNA. So without them, early life wouldnt have
got very far. Theyre made from simpler sub-units called
amino acids that could have formed through chemical
processes in the primordial oceans.
Being able to look at the structures of primordial
proteins could tell us a lot about what tasks they might
have performed and what early cells were like. But
four-billion-year-old proteins arent preserved in the
fossil record. So scientists have been trying to reboot
them in the lab, working backwards from proteins found
in modern cells. In 2013, Spanish and US researchers
resurrected ancient proteins based on information
gleaned from the descendants of evolutionarily ancient
proteins called thioredoxins. Thioredoxins are found
across all domains of life, suggesting they may have
been present in some of the very earliest organisms.
By making the proteins in the lab, the researchers
were able to look at their 3D structures as it turned
out, their modern counterparts hadnt changed shape
much and see how they fared in various environments.
The old thioredoxins were sturdy molecules capable of
surviving in harsh conditions, like the acidic oceans from
which we think they might have emerged.
74
Thats a faster rate than

almost anything else
living in the oceans
Cracks on the seafloor are

indicative of a faulted
terrain from which hot
water can emerge
THERE ARE HYDROTHERMAL VENTS ALL OVER THE

SEA BED, BUT ACCORDING TO LANE, THESE ONES
PROVIDE THE PERFECT CONDITIONS FOR FIRST LIFE.
of the ocean but not, as Miller and
Xuh| dujxhg/ lq d dvk ri oljkwqlqj1
His research focuses on a region in
the middle of the Atlantic known as
Lost City. Discovered in the year 2000,
Orvw Flw| lv d hog ri k|gurwkhupdo
vents chimneys pouring hot water
into the ocean. The water is heated by
rocks in the Earths mantle beneath
wkh vhdrru1 Wkhuh duh k|gurwkhupdo
vents all over the sea bed but
according to Lane, these ones provide
wkh shuihfw frqglwlrqv iru uvw olih1
The temperature, the acidity and the
chemistry of the water are just right.
FAKING AN ANCIENT OCEAN

Unfortunately, the bottom of the
Atlantic Ocean is not the easiest place
wr vhw xs d vflhqwlf h{shulphqw
and even if it was, the condition of
the water has changed in the last
four billion years. So in Lanes lab,
researchers are making something
resembling a four-billion-year-old
Orvw Flw| yhqw wkdw wv lqwr d jodvv mdu1
Its a simple reactor and we can put
lq krw dondolqh xlg dqg frro dflglf

xlgv/ vlpxodwlqj wkh rfhdq/ vd|v
Lane. Basically we can control the
chemistry thats going on and then
measure whats being produced.
Their chemistry is not dissimilar
to that which Miller and Urey once
used to simulate their primordial
vrxs/ wkh lpsruwdqw glhuhqfh
being that theres no electrical spark
representing lightning. Instead,
theres a ceramic sponge, depicting
the porous rock of the Lost City vents.
It is in these pores that Lane thinks
life on Earth began. Here, hydrogen
in the warm alkaline water bursting
forth from the vent would have met
fduerq glr{lgh lq wkh dflglf zdwhu ri
the ocean. Ordinarily, the two wont
react but in these peculiar conditions,
Lanes research shows they can come
together to make organic chemicals
the building blocks of life.
So from natural geochemical
processes, a basic form of metabolism
could have emerged. Whats enticing
about this theory is that unlike
Origin of life fact
#04
The chemist Stanley Miller was a hoarder. After his death in 2007, colleagues found boxes in his lab
containing vials of samples from almost every experiment he ever did, including his famous
primordial soup experiments on the origins of life.
@SciUncovered
IMAGE IFE, URI-IAO, UW, LOST CITY SCIENCE PARTY; NOAA/OAR/OER;

THE LOST CITY 2005 EXPEDITION
NATURE UNCOVERED
Bacillus subtilis is a largely

harmless bacteria
It only causes illness in

people with compromised
immune systems
NATURE UNCOVERED
The origins of life
lightning hitting soup, theres a

constant driving force in the water
from the vent and, as Lane points out,
wkh glhuhqfh lq dflglw| ehwzhhq wkh
vent water and seawater has a parallel
in cellular life. All cells are more
acidic outside than they are inside,
and these vents also are more acidic
outside than they are inside. This is
what leads him to believe that a Lost
City metabolism could have become
trapped inside fatty envelopes that
iruphg#wkh#uvw#fhoov1#
DIVIDE AND CONQUER

This, however, leaves other questions
unanswered. How, for instance, did
wkhvh#uvw/#vlpsoh#fhoov#uhsolfdwh#wr#
pdnh#qhz#rqhv/#zlwkrxw#wkh#frpsoh{#
machinery of a modern cell? Cell
elrorjlvw#Surihvvru#Mh#Huulqjwrq#
recently found a possible solution.
He discovered that under certain
circumstances, bacterial cells can
replicate by a much simpler process.
Errington and his team at
Newcastle University werent even
thinking about early cells when they

made their discovery. They were
studying cell division in Bacillus subtilis,
a common bug found in our guts. They
realised that when the bacteria were
stripped of the tough, outer walls and
left with only thin membranes, they
vwduwhg#wr#surgxfh#h{wud#pdwhuldo#iru#
these membranes, which became
warped, until eventually bits would
slqfk#r#wr#irup#qhz#exeeohv#ri#olih1#
Wkh#zkroh#wklqj#lv#h{wuhpho|#phvv|#
but as long as a chromosome ends up
enveloped inside an intact membrane,
then its a viable cell, says Errington.
Bacterial cells have had cell walls
for billions of years, and Errington
argues that these protective shells
may have been important in allowing
bacteria to spread so successfully into
every nook and cranny on the planet.
Exw#klv#h{shulphqwv#klqw#dw#krz#wkh#
earliest bacteria and perhaps the
yhu|#uvw#fhoov#wkdw#wkh|#hyroyhg#iurp#
could have divided without them,
albeit in a pretty disorderly fashion.
The fact that modern cells can revert
Origin of life fact
#05
One of the most Earth-like planets yet discovered is called Kepler-69c. The planet circles a Sun-like
star, around 2,700 light years away. It was spotted by NASAs Kepler space telescope and is
considered a good candidate for life elsewhere in the Universe.
@SciUncovered
to this simplistic replication mode

suggests the ability has been kept as a
back-up mechanism.
Meanwhile, other scientists,
including Nobel-winning biologist
Professor Jack Szostak at Harvard
Medical School, have been making
duwlfldo#fhoov#ru#surwrfhoov#wkdw#
represent early lifeforms and have
established that these can divide by
similar budding processes. Now the
Qhzfdvwoh#whdp#lv#wu|lqj#wr#jxuh#
out how they can work together to
answer some of the most fascinating
questions about how life began.
The trouble with origins of life
theories, though, is that they can
never be proved. Can we use our
imaginations and think about these
early cells emerging from a Lost
City at the bottom of the ocean? We
can, but perhaps we can also learn
from the Greeks and their bees
anything we imagine now may seem
preposterous to our descendants.
ABOVE Bees come from

other bees but where
the very first life forms
came from is a harder
question to answer
Hayley Birch
Freelance science writer

+ Hayley co-wrote the book Big
Questions in Science, and received
the Richard Gregory prize for science communication.
@gingerbreadlady
75
IMAGE THINKSTOCK
IMAGES NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION (UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON/WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION)
LEFT & BELOW The vents at Lost City differ from

the more common black smokers, producing more
methane and hydrogen and less carbon dioxide
NATURE UNCOVERED
Incredible defences
The Texas horned lizard is

also called horned frog
This is because of
its squat body and
rounded nose
INCREDIBLE DEFENCES
FOUND IN NATURE
The natural world is cruel and full of terrors. But around the planet,
species are devising creative defences against the predators that
want to turn them into a tasty snack
WORDS BY
THE DESERT LIZARD THAT

SHOOTS
BLOOD
FROM
ITS
EYES
Only the toughest survive in Texas
ABOVE Horned lizards
have many defences to
stop themselves turning
up on the menu
76
In the south-western deserts of

the United States, tasty morsels
are far and few between, which makes
the Texas horned lizard a coveted snack
for the regions predators. The lizards
dwwhqhg erg| dqg prwwohg vnlq phdq
that, for the most part, it can avoid
detection by lying still against the sand.

But even if its rumbled, the reptile has
an impressive array of defence
mechanisms. Its covered from head to
tail in tough spines, and is capable of
lqdwlqj lwv erg| zlwk dlu/ fdxvlqj lw wr
eordw xs olnh d sxhuvk/ wkhuhiruh
choking the animal thats eating it.

But if all these tricks fail, the Texas
horned lizard has one last line of defence
it can squirt up to a third of its blood
volume out the corner of its eyes. The
stream of blood is laced with toxins that
possibly originate from the venomous
ants that make up the bulk of its diet.
The jet of blood is capable of travelling
over a metre, and while it doesnt prove
fatal for the recipient, it usually confuses
the predator long enough for the spiky
lizard to make a sharp getaway.
@SciUncovered
Fulmars are not

a seagull species
Although they look like

gulls, they are actually
related to albatrosses
NATURE UNCOVERED
Incredible defences
Fulmar adults are

immune to the fishy
vomit, so can be
sprayed by their
offspring without
suffering ill effects
THE SEABIRD THAT DOUSES

PREDATORS WITH VOMIT
Fulmars dont believe in a warm welcome

Seagulls are a much-maligned
urban pest. But perhaps we should
be thankful that we dont often get the
chance to get up close and personal with
another seabird, the fulmar. If we did,
there is a good chance that wed end up
with a face full of stinking vomit.
The fulmar derives its name from the
old Norse words ful-mar, or foul gull.
This is a reference to the birds ability
wr#wkurz#xs#d#euljkw#rudqjh/#rlo|/#vk|#
secretion when threatened by predators.
Fulmar chicks already have this ability
zkhq#wkh|#uvw#kdwfk1#Wkh#fklfnv#xvh#
this party trick to defend themselves
from predatory birds who swoop in when
the fulmar parents have left the nest

unattended in the search for food.
While the smell of the orange sick is
disgusting, this isnt what deters avian
predators. The oil in the vomit causes the
tiny barbs that hold the birds feathers
together to matt and separate, rendering
wkhp#lqfdsdeoh#ri#ljkw1#Zruvh#vwloo/#
the damaged feathers are no longer
waterproof, meaning the predators
drown when they crash land on water.
Adult fulmar feathers are immune to the
yrplwv#hhfwv/#zklfk#lv#xvhixo#ehfdxvh#
it takes newborn chicks a number
ri#zhhnv#wr#jxuh#rxw#wkh#glhuhqfh#
between friend and foe.
THE ANTS THAT TURN

THEMSELVES INTO BOMBS
These insects are so protective of their colony
that theyll lay down their lives to save it
@SciUncovered
down the entire length of the insects

body. When the soldier ants decide to go
for the nuclear option, they aggressively
contract all their abdominal muscles,
causing the gland walls to rupture.
The corrosive contents will then spray
from the front of the insects head.
The substance is very sticky as well
as corrosive, which means that any
unfortunate victims get tangled up
and stuck fast in the toxic glue,
immobilising them and halting the
assault in its tracks.
As these kamikaze ants have control
over the timing of the explosion,
they are able to lure the unfortunate
victim a safe distance away from any
food-gathering colony members before
deciding to pull the trigger.
ABOVE Soldier ants will

blow themselves up to
kill any intruders
IMAGES NOEL TAWATAO
For some insects, such as ants, the

survival of the individual means
nothing it is the survival of the colony
that is all-important. It is quite common
to see ants go into battle against much
larger intruders in order to save the
frorq|/ exw ihz dqwv duh dv vhohvv dv wkh
soldier ants of Camponotus saundersi, a
species of carpenter ant that lives in
Malaysia and Brunei. When the ant
colony is under attack, these brave
vroglhuv vdfulfh wkhpvhoyhv e| wxuqlqj
themselves into walking biological
bombs, killing both the intruders and
themselves in the process.
A soldier ant can perform this
suicidal feat thanks to two enormous
jodqgv oohg zlwk srlvrq1 Wkhvh ehjlq
at the ants mandibles (jaws) and run
RIGHT The poison

glands of a soldier ant
run from the jaws all
the way down the body
77
NATURE UNCOVERED
Incredible defences
Some amphibians grow

spines in breeding season
These appear on the males

thumbs and help them grip the
females during mating
THE PLANTS THAT KNOW

WHEN THEYRE BEING EATEN
Mouse-ear cress can transform its taste
Spiky lizards and exploding ants
make for hazardous meals. But
youd think that if you decided to make
dinner out of a plant, your victim would
have little chance but to sit there and
take it, right? Wrong. Some plants, such
as the mouse-ear cress (Arabidopsis
thaliana) can hear when they are being
eaten and can launch a defence against
their attackers.
In a 2014 study, researchers at
the University of Missouri, in the US,
recorded the sound of caterpillars
chewing on leaves and used speakers
to play the noise to A. thaliana plants.
The speakers were designed to play the
munching noise as a vibration, rather
than as airborne sound. A second set of
plants was allowed to grow in silence.
It was found that the plants exposed
to the chomping sounds produced higher
levels of glucosinolates chemicals
wkdw#fdwhuslooduv#qg#glvwdvwhixo1#Wkh#
experiment proved not only that plants
can tell when theyre being eaten by
monitoring vibration levels of their
leaves, but also that they were able
to distinguish these types of hostile
vibrations from other common sources
of movement, such as the wind or
non-threatening insects. Since there
is considerable overlap between these
various noise frequencies, it seems the
plants method of acoustic recognition is
more sophisticated than simply listening
out for a particular pitch. Uncovering
how these little plants detect and read
the various vibrations is the teams
next task. Were trying to think about
the plants acoustical environment and
what it might be listening for, then use
wkrvh#yleudwlrqdo#vrxqgv#wr#jxuh#rxw#
zkdw#pdnhv#d#glhuhqfh/#vd|v#Gu#Uh{#
Cocroft, who took part in the study.
Mouse-ear cress can detect the

munching of caterpillars and
react accordingly
THE FROG THAT MAKES CLAWS

OUT
OF
ITS
OWN
BROKEN
BONES
This unusual amphibian has a novel way of
defending itself against predators
78
hypothesised that the frogs claws

will retract passively over time as the
damaged tissue repairs itself. Because
the amphibian is so elusive, the full
range of functions of this unique ability
is as yet unknown. Some scientists
believe the frog could also choose to
liberate its claws when it needs to
improve grip while climbing.
ABOVE The regions locals hunt the frogs using

spears so they dont get stabbed with the claws
IMAGES GUSTAVOCARRA
A VIA WIKICOMMONS, J. GREEN
The Central African frog species

Trichobatrachus robustus is also
known as the horror frog, which is the
uvw#foxh#wkdw#shfnlvk#suhgdwruv#xvxdoo|#
regret eyeing up this small amphibian as
a potential meal. The horror frogs main
weapons are two bony claws on its hind
legs which, in their default state, are
hidden beneath connective tissue and
{hg#wr#d#pxvfoh1#Zkhq#wkh#vshflhv#lv#
threatened or grabbed, it sharply
contracts the muscle, pushing the sharp
tip of the claw downwards through the
sdg#ri#wkh#wrh1#Hhfwlyho|/#lw#gholehudwho|#
breaks its own feet in order to create a
set of pointy claws.
Once the sharpened bones have
breached, it appears that the frog has
no known way to retract them again
although a number of biologists have
The hairs on the frogs body are thought to

help it absorb oxygen from the water
@S
@
Sci
ciU covered
ciUn
IMAGES DANIEL SCHWEN
Sea cucumbers are

echinoderms
Wkh|#duh#uhodwhg wr vwduvk/ vhd

urchins and brittlestars. In Asia,
sea cucumbers are a delicacy
THE CATERPILLAR THAT WARDS

OFF PREDATORS WITH ITS
SMOKERS BREATH
Toxic nicotine is as distasteful

to animals as humans
The nicotine-laced diet of

tobacco hornworms keeps them
safe from any predators
NATURE UNCOVERED
Incredible defences
Its been proven beyond all

reasonable doubt that tobacco is
bad for humans. And its toxic for many
animals, too, including insects.
Therefore, scientists have long been
edhg dv wr krz wkh wredffr kruqzrup
caterpillar of North America could get
away with making the tobacco plant
such a large part of its diet.
In 2013, a team of researchers at
the Max Planck Institute in Germany
attempted to uncover the insects
secrets. They studied a group of
hornworms that were fed exclusively on
tobacco plants that had been genetically
engineered to contain almost no
nicotine. The team found that these
caterpillars were far more susceptible
to being eaten by wolf spiders than
normal. Why? It turns out that tobacco
hornworm larvae contain high levels of
a protein called CYP6B46, which helps
them detoxify plant material. But a
small amount of the consumed nicotine
is retained, shifted into the bloodstream
and then vented out through holes in
the skin, causing a toxic nicotine fog to
vkurxg wkh fdwhusloodu wkdw zduqv r
would-be predators.
THE SEA CREATURE THAT

SQUIRTS ITS INTERNAL
ORGANS AT ATTACKERS
Sea cucumbers arent as defenceless as they look
IMAGES BROCKEN INAGLORY VIA WIKICOMMONS
ABOVE These marine

animals are more
closely related to
starfish than your
garden cucumber
LEFT Some species

launch sticky filaments
part of their
respiratory system
that entangle
their attacker
@SciUncovered
Out in the open ocean, your

backside can be your biggest ally.
Take the pygmy sperm whale, for
instance. When startled, it excretes a
reddish-brown syrupy liquid from its
rear end and then swirls the gunk
around itself. This conceals the
mammals location behind a thick haze
of faecal fog, therefore allowing it to
swim to safety. Certain sea cucumber
species, however, protect themselves
zlwk d frpsohwho| glhuhqw nlqg ri erzho
movement. When it is attacked by a
predator, the marine invertebrate expels
many of its internal organs out through
its anus. The exact combination depends
on the species of sea cucumber and the
time of year, but often includes the
gonads, some respiratory organs and,

invariably, its intestines.
The sea cucumber can do this on
demand because its body contains a
special type of connective tissue that
the animal can toughen or soften at will.
When threatened, the sea cucumber
will deliberately contract its muscles
to induce an internal rupture, causing
its organs to eject from the anus. The
various organs distract the predator long
enough for the sea cucumber to make
its escape. The lost body parts take up to
six weeks to regenerate, which is quick
enough for the animal to survive their
loss. In the mean time, the sea cucumber
can choose to asexually divide, with both
sides regenerating the lost organs.
79
People have been faking

fossils for thousands of years
NATURE UNCOVERED
Fake fossils
Carved fossils were placed

alongside the real thing as decor
in Roman and Maltese temples
fake fossils that

duped the experts
Hoax fossils have been around for a long time and have included false early humans as
well as dubious dinosaurs. Here are five of historys most prominent fakes
WORDS BY Matthew
Bolton
FALSE FOOTPRINTS
SUSPECT SKULL
1. THE PALUXY TRACKWAYS
IMAGE DILL TOM/FLICKR
In the limestone bed of the Paluxy

River in Texas, many dinosaur
footprints have been found, including some
created in a chase involving sauropods and
a theropod. When what appeared to be
human footprints were found in the river
bed, some considered it evidence that
humans and dinosaurs existed together.
There are several theories surrounding
the creation of the mysterious human-like
footprints, but at least some were definitely
faked by locals, who etched the prints out

of the rock to sell them and make a living
during the Great Depression of the 1930s.
Other tracks have been shown to simply
not conform to any likely human stride,
and some scientists have suggested
that the human-like prints are actually
misunderstood dinosaur tracks. Most of
the fakes were spotted by looking at
cross-sections of how the footstep
affected the stone around it.
2. CALAVERAS SKULL
In 1866, a human skull was found
deep in a mineshaft in Calaveras
County, California. The gravels in which it
was found had been buried by lava over a
million years earlier, making it the oldest
human skull ever found. It was sent to
Harvard professor Josiah Whitney, who
declared that it proved man lived in the
Pliocene epoch, alongside mastodons.
Suspiciously, though, this ancient
skull looked uncannily like one belonging
to a Native American. The circumstances
around its discovery were investigated,
as was the skull itself. It turned out
that several people admitted to having
obtained the skull from a nearby burial
site and planted it in the mine as a
practical joke. In 1992 carbon dating was
carried out on the skull, demonstrating
conclusively at last that it was, in fact,
only around 1,000 years old.
Some of the Paluxy prints

come from dinosaurs, but
the human ones are fake
80
@SciUncovered
There are several suspects

in the case of Piltdown Man
Fossilisation was not understood in the 18th Century,

so Beringer concluded the fossils were of divine origin
3. BERINGERS
LYING STONES
Professor Johann Beringer was a
physician who studied fossils, and
on one of his searches in 1725, he found
some truly remarkable ones. The fossils
were of insects, small birds, reptiles and
amphibians, with inscriptions in Hebrew
and Babylonian, among other languages.
Fossils were barely understood at the
time, and Beringer believed the fossils to
be of divine provenance. He wrote a book
to publish his findings, at which point
two of his colleagues came forward and
admitted to having carved and planted
the fossils hed found, to punish him
for being arrogant and hostile towards
them. Beringer, however, suspected they
were simply jealous of his discovery, and
wanted to block his books publication
and his success.
Inevitably the hoax became known
after Beringer published his work, leaving
him crushed. He ultimately took his
scheming colleagues to court, and all
three ended their careers in disgrace.
@SciUncovered
NATURE UNCOVERED
Fake fossils
FAKE HUMAN
The Piltdown Man consisted of
fragments of skull found in a
Surrey gravel bed in 1912. The shape of
the skull was human-like, and evidence
such as tools and animal fossils nearby
suggested the existence of early humans.
The skulls discoverer, Charles Dawson,
and the then keeper of geology at the
Natural History Museum, Arthur Smith
Woodward, declared it to be a
500,000-year-old human ancestor.
But as more early human fossils
were found, it became clear that the
Piltdown find didnt fit in with any of
them its features were wrong. New
fluorine tests meant the remains could
be analysed: they turned out to be under
50,000 years old and a combination of
human and ape remains the lower jaw
of an orangutan, to be exact. It was a
rigorous hoax that had been carried out
with great care. We still dont know for
sure who was behind it, and 100 years on,
we probably never will.
Piltdown Mans skull is the cranium of a human and
the lower jawbone of an orangutan
COMPOSITE CREATURE
IMAGE PAIS/WIKI
IMAGE THE TRUSTEES OF THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, LONDON
IMAGE WRZBURGERLGENSTEINE/WIKI
INSCRIBED FINDS
One is Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.

Charles Dawson and Arthur Smith
Woodward are also prime suspects
The Archaeoraptor fossil seemed almost too good to be

true and ultimately, it turned out that it was
5. ARCHAEORAPTOR
Like many successful hoaxes,
Archaeoraptor worked because it
made sense even if it was ultimately too
good to be true. This fossil was
supposedly unearthed in China in 1997
and illegally smuggled into the US, where
it was thought to represent a missing
link between dinosaurs and birds a
feathered dinosaur that would have been
capable of flying. The problem was that
the remains had been pieced together by
a Chinese farmer whod assembled it
from various fragments because
complete fossils were worth more.
That it wasnt a single real fossil was
ascertained fairly quickly. It transpired
that the fossil was built from the front
part of the skeleton of an ancient bird.
and the tail of a bird-like feathered
dinosaur, Microraptor. Archaeoraptor may
not have been a malicious hoax, but it
caused plenty of embarrassment.
Matthew Bolton
Science journalist
+ Matthew Bolton has pursued a keen

interest in palaeontology since I was
shoulder high to a Deinonychus.
@matthewbbolton
81
Learn how science shapes our creations
INSIDE THIS
SECTION
88 THE BIKE THAT

DOESNT FALL OVER
The training device that
can teach you to cycle in the
space of an afternoon.
89 INTRODUCING THE
HOVERBIKE
Half bike, half helicopter
0##wklv#vfl0#vwdsoh#lv#qdoo|#
becoming a reality.
82
@SciUncovered
10 home innovations
10
INNOVATIONS
THAT WILL
REVOLUTIONISE
OUR HOMES
Todays advances are paving the way for

our future homes to become high-tech hubs
where the walls change colour to reflect our
mood, our clothes monitor our temperature
while we sleep, and the contents of our
recycling bins can be transformed into
replacement handles for our ovens
WORDS BY Duncan
@SciUncovered
Geere
83
10 home innovations
Solar panels work best

rq#vrxwk0idflqj#urriv
They recieve more sunlight in the

northerm hemisphere. Below the equator,
qruwk#0idflqj#lv#ehvw
ecyc
g3 p
te
Star Treks replicators are

d#orqj#zd|#r/#exw#
6G0sulqwlqj#whfkqrorj|#lv#
likely to appear in your
home sooner rather than later. 3D
printing, for the uninitiated, involves
fuhdwlqj#wkuhh0glphqvlrqdo#remhfwv#
from a digital model. There are many
glhuhqw#phwkrgv/#exw#wkh#prvw#
frpprq#lqyroyhv#exloglqj#remhfwv#
from the base up by placing successive
layers of plastic.
You can use 3D printers to create
everything from toys and games to
spare parts for household appliances.
Zkhq#d#nqre#euhdnv#r#|rxu#vwryh/#
you can download a pattern from the
web and print a replacement
especially handy if the manufacturer
no longer produces that model. You
wont even have to buy the material,
either. RecycleBot, a waste plastic
extruder developed by Dr Joshua
Pearce of Michigan Technological
University, shreds waste plastic such
as empty shampoo bottles or milk
fduwrqv#lqwr#vsdjkhwwl0olnh#vwudqgv#ri#
plastics than can be used as raw
material for 3D printers.
10
3D printers are becoming a

more common sight in our
homes, but you could soon be
feeding them with waste plastic
Microgeneration
and smart grids
Powering Britain from a few centralised
nuclear and coal plants dotted around the
frxqwu| lvqw yhu| hflhqw 0 orqj0glvwdqfh
power lines and transformers shed up to
15% of the energy that passes through them. But what
if we could put a miniature power plant in every home?
Homes that record usage in real time, letting you see
how much youre using, and enabling power companies
to distribute electricity to where its needed. In Britain,
the government has pledged to install smart meters in
all homes by 2020, saving 6.2 billion a decade.
Thats the basic concept behind microgeneration
0 xvlqj whfkqrorjlhv vxfk dv wklq0op vrodu sdqhov dqg
vpdoo0vfdoh zlqg wxuelqhv1 Dv urriwrs vrodu sdqhov
become commonplace, more and more people can
surgxfh wkhlu rzq hohfwulflw| dw krph rvhwwlqj/ dqg
on some days completely replacing, the amount of
power they pull from the national grid. The power is
generated much closer to where its being used,
minimising losses in transmission.
84
Smart meters in your home will enable you to

keep track of your energy usage in real time
@SciUncovered
One sleep cycle lasts

up to 120 minutes
Wkh#uvw#f|foh#diwhu#|rx#idoo#
asleep, however, averages
:30433#plqxwhv
10 home innovations
Biorhythmic beds
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The bed is where
we spent a
vljqlfdqw#
percentage of our
time, but modern beds arent
doo#wkdw#glhuhqw#iurp#wkrvh#ri#
wkh sdvw1 Dv d uhvxow ri oljkw
pollution and increased screen
use, many of us are getting far
less sleep than we need with
consequences for our health.
But we now know more
than ever about the science of
sleep. The cyclical nature of
sleep is better understood, and
there are already apps that can
monitor your sleep and wake
Kitchens of the future could

be set up to automatically
order groceries when
youre running low
Rooms that match your mood

Pretty soon your
toaster, fridge and
microwave are going
to be talking about
you behind your back.
More and more gadgets now
come with the ability to know
where they are and connect to
|rxu krphv Zl0Il qhwzrun
accessing the web, but more
importantly each other. This
Internet of Things (IoT) could do
pruh wkdq mxvw wxuq rq |rxu
frhh pdfklqh ehiruh |rx zdnh
up. Your scales could spot that
youre gaining weight and change
your shopping order to include
more vegetables. Your windows

could automatically open, close
or darken depending on the
weather. Your wallpaper could
respond to what your stereo plays.
In 2012, there were about
hljkw eloolrq zhe0frqqhfwhg
ghylfhv 0 pruh wkdq rqh shu
person on Earth. But by 2020,
that total is expected to be 75
eloolrq1 Krzhyhu/ pruh zhe0
connected devices mean more
zd|v iru d kdfnhu wr lqowudwh
your home, and more ways for
governments to spy on citizens.
Iru LrW wr vxffhhg/ lw dovr qhhgv wr
be an internet we can trust.
you when youre in the lightest

skdvh#0#vr#|rxuh#ohvv#jurjj|1
But the future holds an
even better nights rest.
Several companies are racing
wr#fuhdwh#vpduw#s|mdpdv#zlwk#
optic and conductive sensors
woven into the fabric. These
garments could keep an eye
on vital signs during the
night, and automatically
dgmxvw urrp whpshudwxuh ru
light levels. Meanwhile,
advanced materials could
allow us to regulate the rigidity
of our mattresses and
xqhvv ri rxu sloorzv1
Advanced pyjamas could help you to
sleep by altering room temperatures
in line with your vital signs
Electric cars
Electric cars are not a
new technology.
They were in
widespread use in
the late 1800s, but advances in
internal combustion engines and
mass production of petrol almost
wiped them out in the early 20th
Century. Since 2008, however,
vljqlfdqw lpsuryhphqwv lq
battery and power management
technology combined have made
them viable once more.
Doprvw hyhu| pdmru fdu
manufacturer now has an
electric model, and Elon Musks
Tesla Motors has built a name for
lwvhoi vhoolqj edwwhu|0srzhuhg
sports cars. But most electric
yhklfohv duhqw vr dvk|/ whqglqj
towards small city cars.
Special charging stations

such as these are required to
power up an electric car
@SciUncovered
The biggest hurdles to are

range and recharge time. While a
combustion engine can be
refuelled in moments at a petrol
station, electric cars take time to
recharge and there are relatively
few charging stations in most
countries. This makes them
ehwwhu0vxlwhg wr vkruw mrxuqh|v/1
But electric car technology
sits comfortably alongside
plfurjhqhudwlrq1 D odujh edwwhu|
in your garage can be depleted
during the evening when youre
less likely to drive somewhere,
then recharged by rooftop solar
panels the following morning
ehiruh |rx ohdyh iru zrun 0
reducing both the cost and the
carbon emissions associated with
operating a car.
85
10 home innovations
Sergey Brin funded in

vitro meat research
Wkh#Jrrjoh#fr0irxqghuv#lghqwlw|#
dv#wkh#surmhfwv#edfnhu#zdv#rqo|#
uhyhdohg#lq#Dxjxvw#5346
Growing plants in soil could

become a thing of the past
thanks to aeroponics
IMAGE DIRK WIERSMA/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
We could soon be eating

meat that hasnt come
directly from an animal
Ode0jurzq phdw
The meat industry
isnt sustainable. Not
only is it 20 times
ohvv hflhqw dv d
source of protein than crops, but
d phdw0fhqwulf glhw uhvxowv lq 83
times more carbon emissions
wkdq d phdw0iuhh rqh1
Luckily, more than 30
laboratories around the world are
working on in vitro meat. Stem
cells taken from animals can be
grown in a petri dish into strips
ri pxvfoh euh1
While the process still
requires an input of living stem
cells, under ideal conditions
these cells could then continue

surgxflqj phdw lqghqlwho|1 Wkh
technology is likely to be used
uvw wr uhsodfh fkhds phdw lq
chicken nuggets and burgers, but
vitamins could then be added.
Taste tests so far have been
promising, with food critics
describing the consistency of a
burger produced by Dutch
researchers in 2013 as perfect,
doehlw ohvv mxlf| wkdq wkh uhdo
thing. But the technology will
likely still take at least a decade
to become commercially viable
0 wkh exujhu frvw durxqg
200,000 to produce.
Vegetables that grow

without soil
Want some greens to
go alongside your
ode0jurzq exujhuB Lq
the future, therell be
vegetables growing in thin air in
your kitchen all year round.
Dhursrqlfv lv d whfkqltxh iru
growing plants without the use
of soil. The roots are enclosed in
a dark box and periodically
vsud|hg zlwk d qxwulhqw0ulfk
water solution, while the leaves
remain accessible above.
The technique has many
hfrorjlfdo ehqhwv ryhu
traditional plant cultivation. The
environment can be controlled
quite easily, meaning that the

sodqw lv nhsw shvw0 dqg glvhdvh0
free so pesticides and herbicides
are unnecessary. It also uses
substantially less water and
fertiliser. Some studies have
shown yields hundreds of times
that of traditional farming.
Iroorzlqj ghfdghv ri vwxg|/
including many experiments on
the International Space Station,
its now relatively cheap and easy
to set up a system of your own.
You can either buy a kit from one
of the many online retailers, or
build your own with a plastic tub,
some PVC tubing and a sprayer.
Duwlfldo lqwhooljhqfh
Wkh whup duwlfldo
intelligence was
coined in 1955, but
its fascinated
humanity for far longer. Now,
krzhyhu/ zhuh qdoo| pdnlqj
it a reality.
Companies have been using
dvshfwv ri duwlfldo lqwhooljhqfh
lq khdowkfduh/ gdwd0plqlqj/
logistics and other areas for
decades, and this is slowly
appearing in our homes. The
Xbox Ones Kinect and the
iPhones virtual assistant Siri
both use algorithms that have
hphujhg iurp DL uhvhdufk1
This research is also
lqwhuwzlqhg zlwk wkh hog ri
urerwlfv1 Jrrjohv vhoi0gulylqj
86
cars are not

yet in the
hands of
consumers,
but have been
driving on
US roads for
several years. The
Roomba robotic vaccuum
fohdqhu dqg lwv odzq0przlqj
equivalents keep our carpets
and gardens neat, and the US
military is testing robotic pack
mules that can traverse 80% of
the same terrain as a human
while carrying 180kg of kit.
Over the coming decades,
wkhvh dssolfdwlrqv ri DL dqg
many more will only become
pruh frpprq1 Doo wkdwv
required is the
Internet of Things
connectivity that enables your
devices to communicate with
each other and the wider web.
Once your toaster, lights and TV
come with internet connectivity,
a Siri for your home is no more
complex than that on your phone.
Xbox Ones Kinect motion tracker relies

heavily on articial intelligence research
@SciUncovered
Idfherrn#erxjkw#Rfxoxv#
VR in March 2014
The cost of the virtual

reality company was
$2 billion
10 home innovations
Digital art
In the home of the
future, art wont be
a thing of the past
0 exw wkh zd| zh
display it may well be
gudpdwlfdoo| glhuhqw1 Vhyhudo
vwduw0xs frpsdqlhv duh
working on technology that
will enable you to change
whats on your walls at the
lfn ri d vzlwfk1
Dq Dxvwuldq ghvljq vwxglr/
Vwuxnw/ lv xvlqj surmhfwruv wr
map the surface of walls,
allowing animations to take
into account the contours of the
surface that theyre displayed
across and creating wallpaper
that moves. This wallpaper
can actually respond to
whats taking place in the
Fancy changing the art on your walls with a few

button-presses? Its not too distant a possibility
Virtual and
augmented reality
1
One of the most

enduring images from
the early 90s is that
of a teenager, wearing
a bulky headset and a pair of
joryhv/ h{shulhqflqj uvw0kdqg
the thrill of virtual reality (VR).
The technology has overpromised
and underdelivered for years, but
its now undergoing a revival.
Excitement is building around
a product called the Oculus Rift. a
headset thats been designed
vshflfdoo| iru ylghrjdphv1 Lwv
kljk0uhvroxwlrq/ orz0odwhqf| dqg
kdv d yhu| zlgh hog ri ylhz/
solving many of the problems of
its predecessors. Hardware
partners are now starting to
develop accessories such as
omnidirectional treadmills to
enhance the experience.
But in the home of the future,
its likely that VR systems will be
xvhg iru pruh wkdq mxvw jdplqj
0 doorzlqj |rx wr zdon durxqg
the set of a movie, for example.
@SciUncovered
VR technology can also be

overlaid on the real world known
as augmented reality. With a pair
ri prglhg jodvvhv/ vxfk dv
Google Glass, you could get
directions, transport info or social
media beamed directly on to your
eyeballs. Were about to see the
world in a whole new way.
urrp 0 vxewo| vkliwlqj lwv

designs in reaction to
movement, noise levels or even
conversation topics.
Digital photo frames
kdyh |hw wr wdnh r lq dq|
substantial fashion, but a much
larger version of the same basic
concept has successfully raised
almost $787,000 (469,000)
on Kickstarter. The EO1,
created by a US company called
Hohfwulf Remhfwv/ lv d
8;0fhqwlphwuh kljk0ghqlwlrq
screen with a matt coating,
which comes mounted in a
wooden frame. Inside, theres

a computer that interfaces with
the web, enabling you to
control whats displayed from
your smartphone using a
dedicated app.
That means its easy to
change whats on your walls
ghshqglqj rq |rxu prrg 0
vrphwklqj dydqw0jdugh li
youre trying to impress a date,
or a more classic piece when
your grandparents come
round for dinner. Most
notably, the company is
recruiting artists to create
slhfhv#ghvljqhg#vshflfdoo|#
for the EO1, so if the idea takes
r wkhq lw frxog vsdun d
vljqlfdqw uhqdlvvdqfh lq
digital art.
The Oculus Rift enables

users to play videogames
in high-denition 3D
Duncan Geere
Geologist, Imperial College London

+ Duncan is a freelance science and
technology journalist and has recently
gained an MSc in Environmental Science from the
University of Gothenburg, Sweden. @duncangeere
87
Self-balancing bicycle
Gyroscopes are used in

spacecraft navigation
They work even in zero gravity, making

them perfect instruments for tracking
changes in a crafts orientation
THE BIKE THAT

DOESNT FALL OVER
Meet the training aid that aims to teach beginners
how to ride a bicycle in a single afternoon
WORDS BY
Daisy Dunne
tabilising wheels have fallen

out of favour as a cycling
learning aid in recent years,
because while they teach children how
to sit on a bike, they dont teach them
how to balance one. Other methods,
IMAGE JYROBIKE INC
such as bikes without pedals or good

old-fashioned trial and error, yield
quicker results but it can still take
weeks of scrapes and bruises before
kids get the hang of it. But now one
company says it can help kids crack
bike-riding in just one afternoon.
M|urelnh lv wkh zruogv uvw
self-balancing bicycle. Its Auto
Balance system works by exploiting
the fact that the faster you ride a bike,
the easier it is to balance. This
is because when a bike
travels at high speeds, the
rotating discs of the wheels
become natural gyroscopes - and
this is the force that keeps the bike
xsuljkw1 Qhzwrqv uvw odz ri prwlrq
states that an object in motion

continues to move at a constant speed
along a straight line unless it is acted
upon by an unbalanced force such as
a lean or jolt. On a stationary or
slow-moving bike, a wobble-causing
force such as a jolt might push the top
of the wheel left and the bottom of the
wheel right. But when the wheel is in
motion, the top and bottom spin
round rapidly, correcting the wheels
balance and ensuring you stay upright.
This is why learning to go fast is such
an important part of mastering riding
a bike but this is contrary to the
instincts of nervous beginners.
The Jyrobikes tech will allow even
wkh vorzhvw ri ulghuv wr ehqhw iurp
wkh j|urvfrslf hhfw1 Lwv
iurqw zkhho lv wwhg
with a motorised
|zkhho wkdw lv
weighted
ABOVE Jyrobike is said to help kids

learn cycling skills more quickly, as
well as enabling those with motor
skill disabilities to ride a bicycle
88
BELOW Inside the Control

Hub on the front wheel,
a spinning disc provides
stability for novice riders
around the wheels rim. It can be set to

wkuhh glhuhqw vshhgv/ dqg zkhq lw
spins independently of the bikes
movements, it allows the bike to
ehqhw iurp wkh vhoi0fruuhfwlqj
properties of a wheel travelling at high
speed, even if the bike itself is
trundling along at a pedestrian pace.
Dv wkh ohduqhu jurzv lq frqghqfh/
they can reduce the speed of the
|zkhho lqfuhphqwdoo|/ xqwlo
eventually they can ride the bike
without assistance. The Jyrobikes
tyres are also thicker than standard
bike tyres, in order to further increase
the bikes stability.
The team behind the bike claim
the key to quick learning
is practising steering
and pedalling
together, which
stabilisers
dont allow.
Whats
more, its
hoped that
this
approach
pd| rhu
children
with motor
skill disabilities
the chance to ride a
elnh iru wkh uvw wlph1
@SciUncovered
Wkh#uvw#txdgfrswhu#
was built in 1907
However, the Breguet-Richet

Gyroplane only managed a
maximum altitude of 0.6 metres
Flying bicycle
AND THE BIKE THAT

GLIDES THROUGH THE AIR
This agile fusion of bike and helicopter will be our eye in the sky in situations
where its not practical to deploy a full-sized copter
James Witts
he dreams of sci-fi fans

around the world are set to
become reality thanks to
Malloy Aeronautics. The UK-based
hqjlqhhulqj up lv rq wdujhw wr fuxlvh

into the slipstream of Luke
Skywalkers Speeder Bike with the
Hoverbike a technological hybrid
between motorbike and helicopter.
The Hoverbike is propelled by four
urwruv dqg fdq eh rzq pdqqhg ru
unmanned, via remote control.
Third-scale prototypes have been
developed, with the aim of raising
enough funds to develop and produce
the full-sized version.
This is an entirely new form of
aircraft, so its hard to put a date on
when itll be available to the public,
says Grant Stapleton, director of
Malloy Aeronautics. But were
looking to keep the price down to the
cost of a mid-range saloon car.
The Hoverbike works on the same
principles that keep tandem-rotored
helicopters such as a Chinook in the
air. Four overlapping protective carbon
@SciUncovered
ducts house propellers, all linked by a

Nhyodu0uhlqirufhg fduerq0euh iudph
with a foam core. This gives it strength
while also keeping the weight down.
The counter-spinning rotors cancel
out each others forces, keeping the
yhklfoh vwdeoh lq ljkw1
Its powered by a twin four-stroke
engine and is controlled by
asymmetrically employing the rotors.
Speed up the rear rotors and the craft
tilts and moves forwards. Speed up the
front ones and it does the opposite.
The full-sized version of the
Hoverbike will be three metres long,
dqg lw zloo fduu| xs wr d 5:3nj wdnh0r
weight. Its predicted static hovering
height is three kilometres. The small
size and lightweight materials will
lead to myriad commercial uses, such
dv fdwwoh pxvwhulqj ru uvw0uhvsrqghu
emergency services in mountainous or
treacherous terrain, where it would be
impractical to send a larger, more
unwieldy vehicle.
As with all airborne vehicles, the
development from unmanned to
ABOVE The scale model

of Hoverbike includes
instructions to 3D-print
Buster, its cameratoting robot pilot
pdqqhg ljkw zloo eh vxemhfw wr

stringent safety guidelines. Initial
tests will be conducted by remote
control. Manned tests will follow, with
the Hoverbike tethered to the ground.
Safety, however, is an ongoing
concern. The current prototype cannot
autorotate in the case of an engine
failure. Building ballistic parachutes
into the frame of the bike, however,
may prove a practical solution to
the problem.
The prototypes cutest touch is
Buster. The robot, with space in its
khdg wr w d Jr0Sur fdphud/ shufkhv
on the frame and the Hoverbike comes
with instructions for buyers to
3D-print their own.
WERE LOOKING TO KEEP THE

PRICE DOWN TO THE COST OF
A MID-RANGE SALOON CAR.
IMAGE MALLORY AERONAUTICS
WORDS BY
Grant Stapleton MALLOY AERONAUTICS
89
EXPLORE
SCIENCE
YOURSELF
WHAT MATTERS
Your one-stop guide to the month in science
INSIDE THIS
SECTION
does it matter, anyway? This talk

brings together directors and
screenwriters to discuss the
challenges of writing science for
a mainstream cinema audience,
and how to turn researchers and
scientists into compelling and
engaging characters.
AFTERHOURS:
SCIENCE UNCOVERED
Data from the Large

Hadron Collider still has
many secrets to reveal
EVENTS
MYSTERIES OF
MATTER AT THE LHC
94 DIY SCIENCE
Build a simple electric motor,
and measure pH with a cabbage.
96 GREY MATTER
Test your knowledge of science
facts with our challenging quiz.
98 ANTIMATTER
Why scientists have been
oplqj#dqlpdov#kdylqj#d#zhh1
90
LOCATION The Royal Institution

DATE 26 September
TIME 7.50pm
PRICE 17 (standard), 11 (concessions),
free to members and Fellows
WEBSITE rigb.org
2015 will see the Large Hadron
Collider whir back into life with
almost double the collision
energy of before. Having proven
the existence of the elusive Higgs
Boson elementary particle, the
huge particle accelerator is now
cranking up the power in an
attempt to replicate the
experiment at higher energies,
creating particles with more
mass and furthering our
understanding of what makes
these peculiar particles tick. This
talk from Dr Pippa Wells will
examine some of the lingering
questions around the project,
including why gravity is weaker
than the other fundamental
forces, and the possible origins
of dark matter.
SCIENCE
ON SCREEN
LOCATION The Royal Institution
DATE 17 September
TIME 7pm
PRICE 12 (standard), 8 (concessions),
6 (associates)
WEBSITE rigb.org
From Back to the Futures Doc
Brown to Jurassic Parks Dr Alan
Judqw/ fwlrqdo vflhqwlvwv duh wkh
enabler of many an outlandish
movie plot. But how accurate are
the words that tumble out of
their mouths and how much
LOCATION Natural History Museum

DATE 26 September
TIME Doors open at 3pm
PRICE Free
WEBSITE nhm.ac.uk
This might be the last ever issue
of Science Uncovered, but our name
will live on with the NHMs (in no
zd| doldwhg,#vhfrqg#dqqxdo#
Afterhours extravaganza, which
takes place on European
Researchers Night. The event
features over 200 activities,
including the chance to meet TV
presenter and anthropologist
Professor Alice Roberts, and to
take a sneak peak at next years
exhibitions, including Coral
Reefs: Secret Cities of the Sea.
EDITORS CHOICE EVENTS
THE BRITISH SCIENCE FESTIVAL

DATE: 6-12 September HOST: britishscienceassociation.org
This September, the heart of England hosts a seven-day

programme of talks, workshops, exhibitions and tours that take
you right to the heart of what makes science so endlessly
fascinating. Among other things, youll get a chance to study
prehistoric fossils and cancer cells under the microscope, and gain
an engineers perspective on the new high-speed railway line that
will connect London to Birmingham and beyond. The truly bold
can even drop in for a snake-handling session
@SciUncovered
EXPLORATORIUM
What matters
SCIENCE FOLLOWSHIPS
Who to follow on
Twitter to expand
your knowledge
Serious Matters
Urjhu Kljkhog
CUrjhuKljkhog
PROFILE: Ex-editor of New
IMAGE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM
Scientist turned Executive of

the Science Museum, Roger
Ab`a^e] aZg]ib\dl
interesting news stories from
Z\khll ma^ [hZk] h_ l\b^g\^'
The Natural History

Museums Afterhours event
offers plenty of scope for
hands-on learning
BOOKS
THE COPERNICUS
COMPLEX
AUTHOR
Caleb Scharf
PUBLISHER
Allen Lane
PRICE 16
OUT Now
In 1543,
Qlfrodxv#Frshuqlfxv#zdv#wkh#uvw#
person to suggest that Earth
went around the Sun plunging
humanity into an existential
crisis. Now, astrophysicist Caleb
Scharf again ponders Earths
vljqlfdqfh/#dv#kh#frqvlghuv#wkh#
unlikely circumstances that
allowed life to thrive on the edge
of nothingness. Drawing on
everything from our microscopic
mitochondria to the improbable
ordering of the cosmos, Scharf
argues that we should once again
embrace the idea that our planet
is truly special.
@SciUncovered
SEX, DRUGS AND

ROCK N ROLL
AUTHOR
Zoe Cormier
PUBLISHER
Profile Books
PRICE 9.99
OUT Now
Guerrilla
Science founder and occasional
Science Uncovered contributor Zoe
Cormier takes us on a trippy tour
through the science of
hedonism and the hedonism of
science, and the surprising
origins of many a good time. The
hallucinogenic drug LSD, for
example, was originally
developed to ease the pain of
childbirth. And we humans are
far from the only thrillseekers on
this planet, as we discover when
Cormier takes us on a tour
through the animal kingdoms
guilty pleasures such as goats
that practise oral sex, and the
internal mechanics of the
echidnas four-headed penis.
DISCOVERY: CHAMPION
OF THE SHUTTLE FLEET
AUTHOR
Valerie Neal
PUBLISHER
Smithsonian
Series
PRICE 20
OUT Now
Between 1984 and 2011, the
vsdfh#vkxwwoh#Glvfryhu|#hz#
more than 30 successful
missions, far surpassing the
qxpehu#ri#ljkwv#pdgh#e|#dq|#
rwkhu#vkxwwoh#lq#QDVDv#hhw1#
Spending a total of 365 days in
ruelw/#Glvfryhu|#zdv#wkh#uvw#wr#
rescue and return satellites, and
wkh#uvw#wr#shuirup#d#edfnls#lq#
space. Using breathtaking photos
from both inside the craft and
beyond, Valerie Neal follows the
historical missions of the shuttle
in chronological order, and
details the numerous crews that
commanded the ship and the
vflhqwlf#dgydqfhphqwv#wkh|#
achieved onboard.
SAMPLE TWEETS:
Congrats to Maryam
Plu}dnkdql/ wkh uvw ihpdoh
Fields winner.
Hummingbirds edge out
helicopters in hover contest
Xqh{shfwhg qg= vwhp fhoo
factories inside teeth
Laughing Matters
AsapSCIENCE
@AsapSCIENCE
PROFILE: Ma^ <ZgZ]bZg RhnMn[^
l\b^gmblml ihlm Z ]Zber
concoction of science
pbmmb\blfl% chd^l Zg]
h&ma^&pZee _Z\ml'
SAMPLE TWEETS:
Spiders are the original

hipsters. They were web
designers before the internet.
In your lifetime, you will
surgxfh hqrxjk vdolyd wr oo
two swimming pools.
Guess what? Cat pee glows
under black light. Just in case
you were wondering.
A star walks into a black
hole, but doesnt seem
phased. The black hole says,
I dont think you understand
the gravity of this situation.
91
EXPLORATORIUM
What matters
GLOBAL CATASTROPHES:
A VERY SHORT
INTRODUCTION
AUTHOR
Professor Bill
McGuire
PUBLISHER
Oxford University
Press
PRICE 7.99
OUT Now
When Science Uncovered needs
an expert on disaster and
destruction, Bill McGuire is the
go-to guy. In this pocket-sized
book, he toys with a range of
natural end-of-the-world
scenarios, including the
possibilities of another Ice Age,
joredo#rrglqj/#d#nloohu#
earthquake or the long overdue
eruption of one of the planets
many dormant supervolcanoes.
Assessing both the possibility of
such an event and humanitys
RADIO/PODCASTS
chance of surviving it, McGuire

presents you with the perfect
conversation starter for awkward
uvw#gdwhv#ru#idplo|#jdwkhulqjv1####
TV
LANDS OF THE
MONSOON
CHANNEL BBC Two (TBC)
DATE Mid-October (TBC)
TIME TBC
DETAILS 5x 50 mins
BOTANIST
THE LIVING WORLD

CHANNEL BBC Radio 4
DATE Sundays
TIME 6.35am
DETAILS 22 mins
Set to air on BBC Two in October,

wklv#qhz#yh0sduw#vhulhv#zloo#orrn#
at the dramatic impact that the
monsoon season can have on a
uhjlrq1#Prqvrrqv#dhfw#dqlpdo#
and human populations alike and
wklv#vhulhv/#ophg#rq#wkh#Lqgldq#
subcontinent and in Southeast
Dvld/#zloo#orrn#dw#krz#glhuhqw#
human societies have developed
ways of coping with extreme
weather conditions.
BECOME AN INSTANT
This Radio 4 show focuses on a

glhuhqw#uduh#dqlpdo#hdfk#zhhn/#
from the guillemots of Skomer to
wkh#Juhhq#Kdluvwuhdn#exwwhulhv#
of the Pentland hills. Tom Heaps
upcoming expedition to the
Caicos Islands to visit the
endangered rock iguanas sounds
like it should make for a
particularly interesting
adventure and if waking up at
Local botanic gardens

are a great place to
start discovering plants
Couldnt stand biology at school? Forget

about photosynthesis and discover foodproviding, disease-curing botany
If you like getting outdoors, a visit to your local
universitys botanic garden is a great way to start
your education. If youre near the University of
Bristol, head to the gardens Bee and Pollination
Festival on 6-7 September to learn about the
animal-plant relationship behind a third of the
worlds food. Readers in London might instead
head for Kew Gardens; its historic glasshouses are
home to numerous extraordinary plant species.
You can further your expertise by catching
EEF#Udglr#7v#Sodqwv=#Iurp#Urrwv#wr#Ulfkhv#rq#
iPlayer. Each 15-minute episode explores stories
from the botanic world. Alternatively, tune in to
TED.coms Plantastic! series, and keep an eye out
for free lectures from UK plant-loving societies.
In London, hear experts explain how medicines
are made from plants at the Royal College of
92
the crack of dawn on a Sunday to

listen to it doesnt appeal, then
dont forget you can always track
it down on iPlayer later on.
YEARS OF LIVING
DANGEROUSLY
CHANNEL None (podcast)
DATE No fixed day
TIME No fixed time
DETAILS 2-5 mins
Climate change is probably the
biggest threat facing civilisation
today, yet many people are still
content to ignore the problem.
Wklv#kljk0suroh#ylghr#srgfdvw#
hopes to change that by drafting
in celebrities including Jessica
Alba, Matt Damon and even
Arnold Schwarzenegger. Its a
vslq0r#iurp#d#vkrz#ri#wkh#vdph#
name thats been broadcast on US
cable network Showtime, but is so
far unavailable in the UK (although
wkh#uvw#hslvrgh#lv#rq#\rxWxeh,1#
The podcast and the show make a
compelling argument that we
should all be doing more to
change our eco-unfriendly ways.
APPS
WOLFRAMALPHA
FROM Wolfram Research
FORMAT iOS
PRICE 1.99
OUT Now
Physicians on 29 September, or explore the
parasitic lifestyle of climbing plants at The
Linnean Society on 22 October. Near Shropshire
or Exeter? Attend an October talk from The
Carnivorous Plant Society to learn about the
bizarre feeding habits of bug-chomping plants.
Sometimes, when youre

scouring the web, Google just
wont cut it. Want a quick
comparison for the Mass of Earth?
According to WolframAlpha,
thats 18 times the mass of the
Moon. This unique search engine
curates information for you,
@SciUncovered
EXPLORATORIUM
What matters
TED TALK CHOICE
Its the puncture that causes

risk and its an issue thats
still with us.
Qlnrodl#Ehjjs curious mind could
have solved one of the most deadly
hazards in surgery
ABOVE WolframAlpha is a search engine that
puts information into context for you
rather than just delivering a list

of links, and this app puts its
srzhu#dw#|rxu#qjhuwlsv1#Li#|rx#
want to wow your pub buddies,
its worth adding this one to your
home screen.
GEOLOGY SAMPLE
COLLECTOR
According to the US Food and Drug

Administration, the most dangerous step in
keyhole surgery isnt repairing a valve or
wdnlqj#d#elrsv|/#lwv#wkh#uvw#lqflvlrq#dqg#wkh#
use of trocars. Trocars come in many shapes
dqg#vl}hv#exw#dw#wkhlu#khduw#wkh|uh#wkh#vdph=#d#
medical device comprising an obturator (a metal or

plastic sharpened tip), a cannula (hollow tube) and a
seal. Theyre used in surgeries like abscess drainage
but, engineer Nikolai Begg argues, theyre outdated.
Its the puncture that causes risk. Thats what
Dr HC Jacobaeus said back in 1912, says Begg. He
shuiruphg#wkh#uvw#odsdurvfrslf#vxujhu|#rq#d#
human, and its an issue thats still with us.
Between 1997 and 2002, for example, the FDA
received more than 1,300 reports of trocar-related
laparoscopic injury, including over 30 deaths.
Its a predicament Beggs looking to solve with
his updated trocar. When the tip of the device
punctures the tissue, the pressure activates a
spring-loaded mechanism that retracts the blade
within 0.04 seconds, before it can do any damage to
internal organs. Its a simple but ingenious
engineering trick that could save many lives.
Zdwfk#wkh#wdon#dw=#elw1o|24mQn39h#
Nikolai Beggs improved

surgical equipment could
save many lives worldwide
FROM Major Forms

FORMAT Android
PRICE Free
OUT Now
If you have an interest in
geology, this app for Android
devices is a must. It lets you log all
|rxu#qgv#dqg#vxssruwv#yrlfh#
recordings, videos, text notes and
GPS data. You can upload your
data easily and share it with other
rock fans, and the digital strike
and dip tool, for on-the-spot
topological measurements, is a
nifty feature too.
ABOVE Find out what youre stomping on with

the iGeology app from NERC
@SciUncovered
WEBSITES
WHATS THAT STUFF?

WEBSITE pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/
stuff.html
HOST CHEMICAL & ENGINEERING NEWS
#Zkdwv#Wkdw#VwxB#grhv#h{dfwo|#
what the name suggests: it
presents you with a host of
everyday items, and explains
what theyre made from, and
how. From lipstick and chewing
gum to sandpaper and even new
fdu#vphoo/#lwv#idfw0oohg#dqg#
entertainingly written. New car
smell, by the way, is made from
alkanes and substituted benzenes,
along with a few aldehydes and
ketones. So now you know.
WEATHERSPARK
WEBSITE weatherspark.com
HOST DEAR LAKE VENTURES, INC
Li#|rx#qg#wkdw#|rxu#fkhhu|#orfdo#
weathermans teatime report isnt
quite comprehensive enough for
you, then this website certainly
will be. Enter your location and
youll be presented with a
veritable barrage of information,
with maps, graphs and charts
showing you information such as
average temperature, pressure,
humidity and so on. You can even
travel back in time, and get
meteorological data going back as
far as the 1990s. Run by two chaps
in California, its an incredible
resource for weather watchers
across the globe.
DVD & BLU-RAY
HUMAN UNIVERSE
FORMAT DVD
PRICE TBC
OUT 10 Nov
CLASSIFICATION TBC
Professor Brian Cox returns
zlwk#wklv#yh0sduw#vhulhv/#vkrzq#
on TV earlier in the year. Human
Universe examines the biggest
questions facing science, and
humanity as a whole, using
stunning photography and CGI
to tell the story of our evolution,
and to try and answer some of
the biggest conundrums. As ever
with Coxs shows, expect a blend
of wide-eyed enthusiasm and
mind-expanding science.
93
in association with
DIY SCIENCE
TWEET US YOUR
PICS
+ VIDEOS!
@SciUncovered
Build and experiment at home
THIS MONTH
The best home

experiments
This experiment
uses the same
method real
submarines use
to dive and
surface
Iru rxu qdo lvvxh/ zh dvnhg wkh Ur|do

Institution to share its top three makes
WORDS BY
Andy Marmery
Cartesian diver
WHAT YOU NEED...
A plain, round two-litre drinks bottle, a biro
cap, some small nuts, Blu-Tack, a chopstick,
a bucket of water.
Build time:
4 MINS
WHAT TO DO...
1.
Using your chopstick,

poke a little ball of
Blu-Tack into the biro cap,
so that it completely blocks
the small hole at the end,
making an airtight seal.
2.
ILLUSTRATIONS TOM HOVEY
Now attach a nut to

the cap by pushing it
over the little tail until it
zhgjhv lq sodfh1 Wu| wr rdw
it in the bucket of water tail
down, so you trap a pocket
of air inside the cap. If it
rdwv zlwk dq| ri wkh fds
above the waterline, add
more weight another nut,
94
or a little Blu-Tack. If it
sinks, try a smaller nut or
remove the nut entirely.
The goal is to make the cap
barely buoyant, so it slowly
rises when submerged and
hardly breaks the surface
zkhq rdwlqj1
3.
When you have it

uljkw/ oo wkh erwwoh wr
the rim, put your diver in
and screw the cap on tight.
Now squeeze the bottle
hard the diver should
vlqn/ wkhq rdw edfn xs
when you release.
HOW IT WORKS
By squeezing the bottle, you
pressurise the water within it, and
also the pocket of trapped air in the
diver. The air responds to this
pressure change by contracting in
volume, and drawing a little more
water into the diver. This makes it
less buoyant, so it sinks.
@Sci
ciU
Un
nco
covere
ered
d
EXPLORATORIUM
DIY science
Homopolar motor
WHAT YOU NEED...
D-size battery, 30-40cm copper wire
(thin enough that you can bend it
easily, but enough to hold its shape
when bent), neodymium disc magnet
about 2cm in diameter.
HOW IT WORKS
The battery makes an
hohfwulf fxuuhqw rz
through the wire. This
jhqhudwhv d pdjqhwlf hog/
which interacts with the
hog iurp wkh pdjqhw dqg
makes the wire spin.
WHAT TO DO...
1.
Put the magnet on the bottom

ri wkh edwwhu| wkh dw elw
where it will attach itself to the
battery case.
2.
Now make a coil out of the

copper wire. The end of the
Cabbage pH indicator
WHAT YOU NEED...
A red cabbage, kitchen knife, chopping
board, a saucepan of water, a sieve, a jug,
drinking glasses, vinegar, lemon juice,
bicarbonate of soda, toothpaste, other
condiments and cleaning products.
Build time:
30 MINS
wire needs to
make a contact
with the nodule on
the top of the battery, and
stand vertically up from it. The
rest of the wire needs to bend over
and form a coil running around
the battery two or three times
without touching it. The other end
of the wire needs to touch the side
of the magnet.
3.
The whole coil needs to balance,

supported only by its contacts
with the top of the battery and
the magnet. This will take a lot of
tweaking of the shape, but once
youve got this right, the coil should
start to spin spontaneously. It
might not look like it, but this is an
electric motor!
Very acidic solutions will turn the

cabbage water red, while strong
alkalis will turn it green
the water in a jug. You should have

vrph#oryho|#ghhs#sxusoh#+pd|eh#hyhq#
eoxh,#fdeedjh#zdwhu1
Build time:
3.
Pour a little cabbage water at

a time into drinking glasses,
and start testing it with your
household items. You should see
some amazing colour changes from
the various chemicals!
10 MINS
WHAT TO DO...
1.
Urxjko|#fkrs#kdoi#d#uhg#fdeedjh#
and add it to the pan of water
so that the cabbage is well covered.
Bring it to the boil on a hob and
simmer for 20 minutes or so, then
wxuq#r#wkh#khdw#dqg#ohw#lw#frro1
2.
Once cool, strain the cabbage

with a sieve, being sure to catch
@SciUncovered
HOW IT WORKS
Uhg#fdeedjh#+dv#zhoo#dv#orwv#ri#rwkhu#
yhjhwdeohv#dqg#rzhuv,#frqwdlq#d#
pigment called anthocyanin, which
is a fantastic pH indicator and so
can be used to test the acidity or
alkalinity of all sorts of things.
95
GREY MATTER
Test your science knowledge with our quiz
The newly discovered
dinosaur Changyuraptor
is unusual because it has four
of what?
What is the average volume
of blood in an adult human?
A 1960 earthquake in
Valdivia, Chile was most
powerful earthquake ever
recorded. What was its
magnitude on the Richter scale?
Au is the chemical symbol
for which metal?
Name this
plant, often used
in cosmetics.
What is the only living

thing that can be seen
from space?
What is the name given
to the speeds at which
Concorde travelled, breaking
the sound barrier?
20 July 2014 marked the

45th anniversary of which
feat of human accomplishment?
How many vertebrae are
there in the human spine?
True or false: the Moon is
gradually moving away
from Earth?
IMAGE NASA
Wkh#uvw#odz#ri#
thermodynamics states
that energy cannot be what?
Which type of
cell is this?
What is the average length
of the human tongue?
In the human digestive
wudfw/#zklfk#frphv#uvw##
the small or the large intestine?
Zklfk#zdv#wkh#uvw#
planet to be discovered
using a telescope?
In engineering, what is the

strongest geometric shape?
Which metal is responsible
for the red colour of blood?
What is the chemical that
causes you to cry when
chopping onions?
What is the
name of this Solar
System body?.
96
HOW DID YOU DO?
WHERE DO YOU LIE ON THE STAR

SPECTRUM?
0-5 Brown dwarf
6-10 Red dwarf
11-15 Main sequence
16-19 Blue-white star
20 Blue supergiant
ANSWERS
1 Aloe vera. 2 Wings. 3 Five litres. 4 9.5.
5 Gold. 6 The Great Barrier Reef.
7 Supersonic. 8 The first Moon landing.
9 33. 10 True at the rate of 3.78cm a year.
11 Created or destroyed. 12 Uranus.
13 Great bustard. 14 Triangle. 15 Iron.
16 Sulphuric acid. 17 Io. 18 Nerve cell.
19 10cm. 20 Small intestine.
Which species is the

khdylhvw#ljkwhg#elug#rq#
the planet today?
@SciUncovered
EXPLORATORIUM
Grey Matter
Uncover more...
Wklv#pd|#eh#wkh#qdo#lvvxh/#exw#|rx#fdq#frqwlqxh#
exploring science with these great bookazines...
MEGA STRUCTURES
Discover the most extreme
engineering projects ever
undertaken. From the Panama
Canal to the Burj Khalifa, and
from self-driving cars to the
International Space Station, we
h{soruh#wkh#qhvw#h{dpsohv#ri#
humanitys ingenuity.
ISSUE 11 | OCTOBER 2014

Future Publishing Ltd, Quay House, The Ambury, Bath BA1 1UA
Email: science.uncovered@futurenet.com
Web: www.science-uncovered.com
Facebook: www.facebook.com/SciUncovered
EDITORIAL
Editor: Andrew Ridgway, andrew.ridgway@futurenet.com
Deputy editor: Alex Dale, alex.dale@futurenet.com
Art editor: Rob Crossland, robert.crossland@futurenet.com
Production editor: Emma Davies, emma.davies@futurenet.com
CONTRIBUTORS
Michael Banks, Hayley Birch, Matthew Bolton, Zoe Cormier, Paul Coxon,
Sarah Cruddas, Russell Deeks, Daisy Dunne, Richard Edwards, Ian Evenden, Mat
Gartside, Duncan Geere, Matthew Genge, Tom Hovey, Christian Jarrett, Kristina
Killgrove, Chris Lintott, Mun Keat Looi, Alice Lipscombe-Southwell, Andy
McLaughlin, Ian Mabbett, Magictorch Ltd, Andrew Marmery, Darren Naish, NASA,
Claire Rees, Will Salmon, Penny Sarchet, Science Photo Library, Colin Stuart,Paul
Sutherland, Brendan Walker, Laura Walker, Andy Watt, Michael Whiteley, Christie
Wilcox, James Witts
ADVERTISING
Advertising sales manager: Sasha McGregor, sasha.mcgregor@futurenet.com
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Sales co-ordinator: Penny Hemmings, penny.hemmings@futurenet.com
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Paper controller: Lorraine Rees, lorraine.rees@futurenet.com
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MANAGEMENT
Group art director: Steve Gotobed
Head of Science Uncovered: Ian Robson
Creative director: Bob Abbott
Transformation director: Jim Douglas
Content & marketing director: Nial Ferguson
JUNIOR SCIENCE
Young minds are enquiring
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body, nature, space, dinosaurs,
experiments and more.
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AL ED
E CO SM OS RE VE
SE CR E TS OF TH
HE UNIVERSE
ONDERS OF T
PRESENTS W
WONDERS OF
THE UNIVERSE
HOW DID WE
HERE?
GETmany
scientists
Why
to
believe that life came
space
Earth from outer
80
1
PAGES
LOWING
ING
OF MIND-B
D BAFFL
S
FACTS AN
MYSTERIE
COVER
K
SEE BACMORE
FOR
TS
ROBOT ASTRONAU
WEIRD SCIENCE
A STAR IS BORN
ET
T TA & THE COM
FROM ? s ROSE
R MYST ERIE S
HOLE S COM E
OTHE
ACK
BL
AND
GY
DO
MOR E!
PLUS ! WHE RE
TER, DARK ENER
MUC H, MUC H
ISS s DARK MAT
FORM EDs AND
s LIFE ON THE
AR SYST EM WAS
s HOW OUR SOL
ALIEN HUNTING
EARTHS EVIL TWIN
S RE VE ALED
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PR NTED
IN THE UK
9 99
@SciUncovered
8/13/14 5:34 PM
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H{soruh#wkh#Vrodu#V|vwhp/#qg#
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97
BIZARRE RESEARCH THAT MAKES YOU THINK
WE CAN SEEK OUT LAWS IN BIOLOGY THAT

ARE AS UNIVERSAL AS LAWS OF PHYSICS.
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ylghr iru udwv dqg d exfnhw iru frzv1 Wkh
biggest and the smallest animals were most
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farm animals and pets were easier.
Surely big animals take much longer?

Youd imagine so. After all, an elephants bladder
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dqlpdov wdnh wkh same time derxw 53 vhfrqgv
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How does that work?

Its all down to the length of the animals
urethra. In larger animals with larger bladders,
the urethra tends to be longer, too. This means a
greater gravitational force acts on the urine, and
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urethra were constant across all animals, Hu
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So what happens in smaller animals?
What was the experiment?
How could the research be used?
Scientists from Georgia Institute of Technology,

in the US, pointed video cameras at numerous
zoo animals while they had a wee. They wanted
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ranging in size from a bat to an elephant
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animals to gain insight on the evolution of a
particular form or function, says Assistant
Professor David Hu, a mechanical engineer on
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biology that are as universal as laws of physics.
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length of a tube, be it a urethra or anything else
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a liquid may be used to help design better water
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Did they use video for every animal?

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also studied YouTube clips. In all, the urination
antics of 32 animals were studied. Some of
the techniques employed in the research were
98
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frphv rxw lq vpdoo gursv1 Fdslooldu| irufhv wkh
tendency of water to travel along a narrow tube
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STUDENTS CHALLENGED TO SIT QUIETLY

+ Its a common belief that students are quite happy doing
nothing, but a scientist at the University of Virginia, in the US,
has found just the opposite. Subjects were asked to sit with
no external stimulus for 15 minutes, but offered the chance
to self-administer electric shocks to relieve the tedium. Many
preferred to give themselves a jolt more particularly men, of
whom two-thirds opted for the shock. One of the male subjects
opted for a remarkable 190 shocks.
@SciUncovered
ILLUSTRATION BY ANDY WATT
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while they urinate
9000
9001

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10 HOME TECH INNOVATIONS

Exploding ants, vomiting

Issue 11 | October 2014 | @SciUnco

From dodgy dinosaurs

The underground bunker

METHANE RIVERS, DIAMOND PLANETS, STELLAR

+ Why our ears ring after loud noises

TEC HNO LOG Y

+ How this kille

+ Turn to page 35 to discover the

WELCOME TO ISSUE ELEVEN

The scientists and

Astronomer & author

Prof Brendan Walker

+ Having originally trained as an

Science writer & editor

+ An expert in all things tech and

Take a guided tour

If you have any questions or comments

Science Uncovered magazine,

Email the team

70 The Origins of Life

Take a sightseeing tour of the

The latest research on how our

The green machine that sucks

Did life on Earth start in hot

38 How the Universe came

50 The bionic hand with

64 The largest diesel engine

76 The strange ways animals

How long will it take for the

Issue 11 October 2014

82 10 Innovations that Will

From VR headsets to biorhythmic

Exploding ants, projectilevomiting seabirds and

88 Meet the bike that doesnt

Awesome images from Earth and beyond

Butterflies may not be a creature you

But some have a lifespan of

Images from Earth & beyond

Biologist, University of Hawaii

Are many insects covered

All butterflies and moths are covered in

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The Appalachian Mountains

Their formation was part

+ The dome, or overshoot,

In fact, its the main

Images from Earth & beyond

+ Calcium carbonate is white

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It is made of long chains of

Do any naturally occurring

+ The prototype material is coated

Candles have been

Specimens dating back

Images from Earth & beyond

Creating a robot that can be squashed to manoeuvre through

The latest breakthroughs explained and dissected

+ The composition of the Ebola virus DNA

This contagious viral disease has been

n 25 March 2014, the

previous Ebola outbreaks