Theories of Learning

Classical Conditioning
Learning a conditioned response involves building up an association between
a conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
Classical conditioning basically involves forming an association between two
stimuli resulting in a learned response.
Phase 1: Before Conditioning
The first part of this process requires a naturally occurring stimulus that will
automatically elicit a response.
Salivating in response to the smell of food is a good example of a naturally
occurring stimulus. During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned
stimulus (USC) results in an unconditioned response (UCR). At this point
there is also a neutral stimulus that produces no effect - yet. It isn't until this
neutral stimulus is paired with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.

The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and
automatically triggers a response.

The Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs
naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously
neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a
result of this pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus
and the UCS is formed. At this point the neutral stimulus becomes known as
the conditioned stimulus (CS).

The Conditioned Stimulus

The conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after
becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually
comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS,
presenting the conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response
even in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. The resulting response is
known as the conditioned response (CR).

The Conditioned Response

The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously
neutral stimulus.

Operant conditioning
Operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment
to generate consequences"
Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why
you may occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning.
(Sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of
learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through
operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior.
Operant conditioning is coined to Law of Effect.
According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes
are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes
are less likely to be repeated.
Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise - actions that are
followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and more likely to
occur again in the future.
Skinner distinguished between two different types of behaviors: respondent
behaviors and operant behaviors.
Respondent behaviors are those that occur automatically and reflexively,
such as pulling your hand back from a hot stove or jerking your leg when the
doctor taps on your knee. You don't have to learn these behaviors, they
simply occur automatically and involuntarily.
Operant behavior, on the other hand, is those under our conscious control.
Some may occur spontaneously and others purposely, but it is the
consequences of these actions that then influence whether or not they occur

again in the future. Our actions on the environment and the consequences of
those actions make up an important part of the learning process.
Components of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it
follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:
Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented
after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a
response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as
praise or a direct reward.
Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or
outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or
outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two
kinds of punishment:
1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by
application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or
outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs
when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior
occurs.
In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior decreases.

Social Learning
Individuals can learn by observing what happens to other people and just by
being told about something as well as through direct experiences. This view
that we can learn through both observation and direct experience is called
social-learning theory.
Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is
the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the notion that
internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this
theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not
mean that it will result in a change in behavior.
1. People can learn through observation.
Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have
observed in other people. The children in Banduras studies observed an
adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later
allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the
aggressive actions they had previously observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or
acting out a behavior.
2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and
explanations of a behavior.
3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying
behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media.
2. Mental states are important to learning.
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only
factor to influence learning and behavior. He described intrinsic
reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a
sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions
helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While
many textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories,
Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.
While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in
behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new
information without demonstrating new behaviors.
The Modeling Process

Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the
model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is
successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. The
following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling
process:

Attention:
In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that
distracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on
observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel
aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full
attention to learning.

Retention:
The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning
process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the
ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational
learning.

Reproduction:
Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the
information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed.
Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill
advancement.

Motivation:
Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to
be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled.
Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation.
While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can
observing other experience some type of reinforcement or
punishment? For example, if you see another student rewarded with
extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a
few minutes early each day.

References
Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). Relation of cue to consequence in
avoidance learning. Psychonomic Science, 4, 123-124.
Gustavson, C. R., Garcia, J., Hankins, W. G., & Rusiniak, K. W. (1974). Coyote
predation control by aversive conditioning. Science, 184, 581-583.
Nevid, J. S. (2013). Psychology: Concepts and Applications. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth.
Watson, J. B. & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 3(1), 114.
http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtful-animal/what-is-classicalconditioning-and-why-does-it-matter/

Domjan, M. (2003). The Principles of Learning and Behavior, Fifth Edition.

Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Skinner, B. F. (1935) Two types of conditioned reflex and a pseudo type
Journal of General Psychology, 12, 66-77.
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: B.F. Skinner Foundation.
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Simon &
Schuster.
Thorndike, E. L. (1905). The elements of psychology. New York: A. G. Seiler.
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/a/introopcond.htm

Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of models' reinforcement contingencies on the

acquisition of imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 1, 589-595.
Bandura, A., Ross, D. & Ross, S.A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through
imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
63, 575-82.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.ht
m