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Natalie Wong
Professor Lynda Haas
Writing 39C
1 August 2015
The Domestication of Dogs: A Review of Canine Cognition and Emotion
Since the publication of The Origin of the Species by Charles Darwin in the 19th century,
the early theory of humans as the source behind the domestication of dogs was introduced.
According James Serpell, a Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania,
the discovery of archaeological remains suggest that dogs have been domesticated as early as
14,000 years BP (10). In 1923, Julian Huxley, an evolutionary biologist and Secretary of the
Zoological Society of London, claimed animals [to] have no brains [but] only soul (Mitchell,
Thompson, and Miles 26). During this time, scientific studies of canine cognition or cognitive
ethology had not begun yet. Furthermore, according to Dr. Marc Bekoff, a researcher of animal
behavior and cognitive ethology at the University of Colorado, researchers [at the time] were
almost all skeptics who spent their time wondering if [] animals felt anything (xvii).
Although, scientists have only barely begun studying canine cognition and cognitive ethology,
this topic of study has changed dramatically over the past thirty years. As a researcher of animal
behavior and creator of cognitive ethology, Donald Griffin recognized in 1976 that mental
experiences also include feelings, desires, fears, and sensations such as pain, rage, and
affection (Mitchell, Thompson, and miles 26). In Bekoffs book The Emotional Lives of
Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy, Sorrow, and Empathy and Why They Matter,
he extends Griffins sentiment of mental experiences by commenting how emotions have
evolved as adaptations over time and serve as a social glue to bond animals with one another

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(xviii). This review, following Bekoffs claim, focuses on scientific studies and their results
concerning the history of canine domestication and how it impacts their cognitive abilities and
emotional capacities. I will begin with an unethical experiment conducted in the 1960s by
Christopher Peterson, Steven Maier, and Martin Seligman on animal cognition, and then briefly
explain studies on animal brain structures that permit them to experience emotions. These studies
provide a basis for Bekoffs claim of natural selection as the reason for anthropomorphism-the
attribution of animals with human characteristics-and the role it played in the history of the
domestication of dogs history. I will conclude with a discussion on how the cognitive abilities
and emotional capacities of dogs are important while questioning the ethics and responsibilities
we hold in caring for them, which are reflected in our practices.
One of the earliest experiments concerning animal cognition dates back to 1967; in this
study called The First Learned Helplessness Experiment, psychologists Christopher Peterson,
Steven Maier, and Martin Seligman, demonstrate that experience of emotions is indeed possible
for domesticated canines. In this highly unethical study, the canines are conditioned to accept the
shocks given to them with no way to escape; when the dogs habituate to the pain produced by the
given stimulus, the researcher provides the dogs with the same stimulus and an escape route, and
observe an emotional reaction. The dogs in the experiment, demonstrate the experience of
learned helplessness or the passive acceptance of certain circumstances, which is similar to the
diagnoses of depression in humans (Peterson, Maier, and Seligman 17-19). This experiment
plays a role in diverting scientists focus of animal cognition and animal ethology from why
emotions are felt to how they are felt. From this study, researchers are able to discover that our
primary emotions of fear, anger, surprise, sadness, disgust, and joy are made possible by the
limbic system and the amygdala (Peterson, Maier, and Seligman 91). In addition to finding that

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both these structures are found in all mammals, humans and animals also share similar chemical
and neurobiological systems (Bekoff 10). These breakthrough discoveries are extremely
beneficial for this field of research by enabling researchers to take advantage in incorporating
animals into their experiments when attempting to study humans. Since animals and humans are
alike when it involves the primary emotions, scientists begin to anthropomorphize giving
human characteristics to animals in studies.

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When archaeological evidences were first being discovered, scientists were unaware of
the role anthropomorphism and secondary emotions played in forming the first relationships
between humans and dogs. Serpell indicates in his finding, displayed in Figure 1, that humans
were still hunting, gathering, and foraging when animals were first domesticated, which dated
back to the end of the last Ice Age at 12,000 years
BP (10). Secondary emotions involve consciousness
and thought processing in the cerebral cortex and are
experienced after primary emotions. They may be
caused directly or from complex chains of thinking.
For instance, when one is fearful (primary emotion)
of a threat, anger (secondary emotion) may ensue.
According to Bekoff, anthropomorphism allowed
secondary emotions to assist in the establishment of
a relationship between humans and canines for the
future (xviii). Performing as an evolved perceptual

Fig 1. Burial of a human with a

puppy. (Serpell 11).

strategy shaped by natural selection,

anthropomorphism permits researchers to endeavor

in understanding the cognitive abilities and emotional capacities of canines. Although the history
behind the process of domesticating dogs is uncertain, it is no doubt that anthropomorphism
played a role in allowing the humans to begin developing a bond with domesticated canines as
early as 10,000 years BP (Serpell 10).
Following Serpells thoughts about the relationship between canines and humans, in
2008, Leslie Irvine, a professor of sociology and researcher of animal-human interactions

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demonstrate her agreement in her book If You Tame Me: Understanding Our Connection with
Animals. In order to explain humans first encounter and interaction with canines, she states that
animals were like humans in many ways, but also different enough to be able to explain and
accomplish things that humans could not (Irvine 35). Besides seeing animals as equals, our
ancestors transition into hunter-gatherers was made possible with the aid of the early canines.
Furthermore, Irvine proposes three different theories as to why dogs were domesticated in her
chapter entitled How and Why. The first two theories involve canines hunting and scavenging
abilities, which is beneficial to humans by offering a symbiotic relationship where both humans
and canines live together as well as commensalism, in which one species enjoys a benefit, and
the other is not significantly affected. Humans are not the only ones who profit, because the
emotional aspect formed between canines and humans stimulate the primary emotion of
happiness for dogs (Irvine 14). Unlike the many independent animals we see, bears and tigers to
name a couple, canines are more receptive to humans and socializing as a result of the bond
formed between canines and humans. Lastly, Irvine emphasizes this by supporting the idea of
human beings being drawn to specific physical and social traits by stating: several biological
and behavioral factors predisposed dogs to fit easily within human groups (14-15). Through
Irvines study, we can see that the emotional aspect allowed the strong bond between humans and
dogs to form including the launching of domestication of canines.
Like Irvine, research scientists Brian Hare and Vanessa Woods (2013), Professors of
Evolutionary Anthropology at Duke University, suggest the evolution of human-like social skills
in dogs is a by-product of domestication. Similar results were found in a 2011 study,
Perspective Taking In a Begging Task conducted by Monique A.R. Udell, Nicole R. Dorey, and
Clive D.L Wynne in the article of Can Your Dog Read Your Mind? Understanding the Causes of

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Canine Perspective Taking. This research
demonstrates dogs ability to follow human
actions, [where it] stems from a willingness to
accept humans as social companions, []
combined with conditioning to follow the
limbs and actions of humans to acquire
reinforcement by comparing the performance
of pet domestic dogs indoors and outdoors,
shelter dogs, and wolves (300). Udell et. al.
tested 60 dogs in which they had to choose
between an attentive human or one whose
visual attention is blocked by having the back
turned or having either a book, bucket, or

Fig 2. The Begging Tasks Layout and

Procedure. (Udell et. al 293).

camera covering the eyes. The set up of the experiment allows the researchers to see if dogs

require the interaction or the hand gesture of pointing from a human, in order to conclude if they
will be given food, illustrated in Figure 2. The results of the experiment, demonstrated in Figure
3, reflect how the domesticated dogs are able to make discriminative choices, because they are
based on past reinforcement histories, in which certain human actions or orientations serve as
predictors of reinforcement upon approach (Udell et. al 295). As mentioned earlier in this
review of Irvines theories, Udell et. al supports them by concluding that the canine-human
relationship has been well accepted by dogs for beneficial reasons of survival, food and
emotional coping-petting for stress relief. At the same time, the Udell et. al study endorses
Irvines third theory by exemplifying that domesticated canines are more receptive to interaction

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with humans and enjoy socializing. The socializing behaviors found in canines allow them to
follow tasks given by humans thru various interactions of gestures or commands. Undoubtedly,
the canine-human relationship established as a result of natural selection after humans started
domesticating dogs because it benefited both parties; humans got to pick and breed certain traits
while dogs were able to survive.

In conclusion, we are interconnected with dogs and have been for a very long time even
though researches and studies are still trying to discover more about the human-canine
relationship as well as canines
cognitive abilities and emotional
capacities. Canines have successfully
survived as an entire species, all thanks
to the early evolvement and
development of the human-canine
relationship at the end of the
Pleistocene Epoch, 10,000 years BP.
The different physical and behavioral

Fig 3. Results of The Begging Task. (Udell et. al

298).

traits that appeal to everyone is not the

only reason why the human-canine

relationships still remains, but also for canines willingness to interact and coexist with humans.
Although the rate of domesticating dogs and selective breeding purebred dogs is thriving and
increasing, why do we not consider the negative health effects of some of the traits that certain
breeds inherit? According to an article by Kristine Lacoste, a coordinator for Dogs on

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Deployment in New Orleans, a lot of diseases and genetic problems are introduced, such as
blood disorders, skin problems, and cancer (2013). Based on this information, questions about
our treatment towards dogs come to the surface. Why are the unethical practices behind the
business of dog breeding and puppy mills ignored and disregarded? Since humans have
interfered with the dogs natural evolution, we are responsible for them as a species, and ethically
should not treat them as inanimate objects. Even after the studies of canine cognition and canine
ethology, making profit is of more importance than the thoughtless breeding and brutal treatment
of canine emotions, which is senseless. Although it is a presumptuous way of thinking, some see
humans as the sole reasons of canines survival up to today. On the contrary, I believe dogs
should be taken cared of and be ethically bred solely for human characteristic of morality. It has
been proven that dogs are extremely similar to humans when it comes to experiencing both
primary and secondary emotions and developing bonds, hence the unethical practices of puppy
mills should be terminated ultimately.

Works Cited
Bekoff, Marc. The Emotional Lives of Animals: A Leading Scientist Explores Animal Joy,
Sorrow, and Empathy--and Why They Matter. Novato, CA: New World Library, 2007.
Print.
Hare, Brian, and Vanessa Woods. Are We Having a Conversation? The Genius of Dogs: How
Dogs Are Smarter than You Think. New York: Dutton, 2013. 125-44. Print.

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Irvine, Leslie. If You Tame Me Understanding Our Connection with Animals. Philadelphia:
Temple UP, 20044. Print.
Lacoste, Kristine. "Common Health and Behavior Problems in Puppy Mill Dogs" Petful.. 19 Feb.
2013. Web. 28 July 2015.
<http://www.petful.com/animal-welfare/puppy-mill-dog-health-problems/>.
Mitchell, Robert W., Nicholas S. Thompson, and H. Lyn Miles. Anthropomorphism, Anecdotes,
and Animals. Albany: State U of New York, 1997. Print.
Peterson, Christopher, Steven F. Maier, and Martin Seligman. Learned Helplessness: A Theory
for the Age of Personal Control. Oxford University Press, 1995. Web. 14 July 2015.
Seligman, Martin E., Steven F. Maier, and James H. Geer. "Alleviation of Learned Helplessness
In The Dog." Journal of Abnormal Psychology 73.3, Pt.1 (1968): 256-62. APA PsycNET.
Web. 7 May 2015.
Serpell, James. Origins of the Dog: Domestication and Early History. The Domestic Dog: Its
Evolution, Behaviour and Interactions with People. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995. 819. Print.
Udell, Monique A.R., Nicole R. Dorey, and Clive D.L. Wynne. Can Your Dog Read Your Mind?
Understanding the Causes of Canine Perspective Taking. Learning and Behavior. 289302. Springer. Web. 16 July 2015.
<http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-011-0034-6/fulltext.html>