BIO 422 ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR LECTURE NOTES SECOND SEMESTER 2023

What is Animal Behaviour?

The concept of animal behaviour broadly considered, referring to everything animals do,
including movement and other activities and underlying mental processes. It includes all the
ways animals interact with other organisms and the physical environment. It can also be defined
as a change in the activity of an organism in response to a stimulus, an external or internal cue or
combination of cues. Instinct, imprinting, conditioning and imitation
Ethology
Ethology (from Greek: ἦθος, ethos, "character"; and -λογία, -logia, "the study of") is the
scientific study of animal behaviour, and a sub-topic of zoology. Although many naturalists have
studied aspects of animal behavior throughout history, the modern discipline of ethology is
generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Dutch biologist Nikolaas
Tinbergen and Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, joint winners of the 1973
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field
science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines — e.g., neuroanatomy, ecology,
evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular
animal group and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated
animals. The desire to understand animals has made ethology a rapidly growing topic, and since
the turn of the 21st century, many prior understandings related to diverse fields such as animal
communication, personal symbolic name use, animal emotions, animal culture, learning, and
even sexual conduct long thought to be well understood, have been modified, as have new fields
such as neuroethology.
Theory of evolution
Theory of evolution by natural selection and the beginnings of ethology Because ethology is
considered a topic of biology, ethologists have been concerned particularly with the evolution of
behaviour and the understanding of behaviour in terms of the theory of natural selection. In one
sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book, The Expression of the
Emotions in Man and Animals, influenced many ethologists. He pursued his interest in
behaviour by encouraging his protégé George Romanes, who investigated animal learning and
intelligence using an anthropomorphic method, anecdotal cognitivism, that did not gain scientific
support. Other early ethologists, such as Oskar Heinroth and Julian Huxley, instead concentrated
on behaviours that can be called instinctive, or natural, in that they occur in all members of a
species under specified circumstances. Their beginning for studying the behaviour of a new
species was to construct an ethogram (a description of the main types of natural behaviour with
their frequencies of occurrence). This provided an objective, cumulative base of data about
behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and supplement.
Instinct
It is an inborn impulse or motivation to action typically performed in response to specific
external stimuli. It is generally described as a stereotyped, apparently unlearned, genetically
determined behaviour pattern. Like all animals, humans have instincts, genetically hard-wired
behaviours that enhance our ability to cope with vital environmental contingencies, our innate
fear of snake is an example. Other instincts, including denial, revenge, tribal loyalty, greed and
our urge to procreate.
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines instinct as a largely inheritable and unalterable
tendency of an organism to make a complex and specific response to environmental stimuli
without involving reason. For ethologists, instinct means a series of predictable behaviours for
fixed action patterns. Such schemes are only acted when a precise stimulating signal is present.
When such signals act as communication among members of the same species, they are known
as releasers. Notable examples of releasers are, in many bird species, the beak movements by the
newborns, which stimulates the mother's regurgitating process to feed her offspring. Another
well-known case is the classic experiments by Tinbergen on the Graylag Goose. Like similar
waterfowl, it will roll a displaced egg near its nest back to the others with its beak. The sight of
the displaced egg triggers this mechanism. If the egg is taken away, the animal continues with
the behaviour, pulling its head back as if an imaginary egg is still being maneuvered by the
underside of its beak. However, it will also attempt to move other egg-shaped objects, such as a
giant plaster egg, door knob, or even a volleyball back into the nest. Such objects, when they
exaggerate the releasers found in natural objects, can elicit a stronger version of the behavior
than the natural object, so that the goose will ignore its own displaced egg in favor of the giant
dummy egg. These exaggerated releasers for instincts were termed supernormal stimuli by
Tinbergen. Tinbergen found he could produce supernormal stimuli for most instincts in animals,
such as cardboard butterflies which male butterflies preferred to mate with if their stripes were
darker than a real female or dummy fish which a territorial male stickleback fish would fight
more violently than a real invading male if the dummy had a brighter colored underside. Harvard
psychologist Deirdre Barrett has done research pointing out how easily humans also respond to
supernormal stimuli for sexual, nurturing, feeding, and social instincts.[4] However, a behaviour
only made of fixed action patterns would be particularly rigid and inefficient, reducing the
probabilities of survival and reproduction, so the learning process has great importance, as the
ability to change the individual's responses based on its experience. It can be said [by whom?]
that the more the brain is complex and the life of the individual long, the more its behaviour will
be "intelligent" (in the sense of guided by experience rather than stereotyped FAPs).
Learning
Learning occurs in many ways, one of the most elementary being habituation. This process
consists in ignoring persistent or useless stimuli. An example of learning by habituation is the
one observed in squirrels: when one of them feels threatened, the others hear its signal and go to
the nearest refuge. However, if the signal comes from an individual who has caused many false
alarms, its signal will be ignored. Another common way of learning is by association, where a
stimulus is, based on the experience, linked to another one which may not have anything to do
with the first one. The first studies of associative learning were made by Russian physiologist
Ivan Pavlov, his Phenomenon also related to the time and the attractive bell sound that do SAYs
‘to learn makes it away of the food’. An example of associative behaviour is observed when a
common goldfish goes close to the water surface whenever a human is going to feed it, or the
excitement of a dog whenever it sees a collar as a prelude for a walk. The associative learning
process is related to the necessity of developing discriminatory capacities, that is, the faculty of
making meaningful choices. Being able to discriminate the members of your own species is of
fundamental importance for reproductive success. Such discrimination can be based on a number
of factors in many species including birds; however, this important type of learning only takes
place in a very limited period of time. This kind of learning is called imprinting.

The Proximate/Ultimate Dichotomy Approaches to the Study of Behaviour (Ethology,

Comparative Psychology, Neurobiology)
Remembering, forgetting, thinking, memorizing and levels of memory
Hypothesis Testing in Behavioural Research
Human Behavior: Classification, Characteristics and Causation
Definition Of Behavior
Behavior can be defined as the actions or reactions of a person in response to external or internal
stimulus situation. We understand behavior when we know that what is caused or made the
person do it. We evaluate behavior when we approve or disapprove it. Both understanding and
evaluation is a common reaction that individual engage daily.
Behavior is always the product of two things, one- the nature of individual or organism that
behaves and second- the nature of situation in which the individual find himself. Situation is a
source of stimulus and is always the organism’s response to stimulus from environment.
“Behavior is any activity which can be observed, recorded and measured, this includes first what
living beings or organisms do- that is their movement in space”
Behavior can be viewed in two ways: Overt and Covert behaviour,
The behavior that is visible and what occurs outside of human being is called overt behavior.
Example- playing football and eating something are overt behavior.
While the behavior that is not visible and what occurs inside of human being is called covert
behavior. Example- thinking.
Psychologist Luine express behavior through an equation as –
B=∫ (P x E) where, B= Behavior, ∫=Function, P=Person, E=Environment.
Behavior is a function of people and environment. Environment creates stimulus situation, it is
human nature to respond stimulus situation.
Classification Of Human Behavior
Behaviour is divided into different classes. Classification of human behavior given below-
Molecular And Moral Behavior
Molecular Behavior
The sudden behavior what occurs without thinking something is called molecular behavior.
Example: Abul hits a stick on Kuddus eyes and Kuddus closes his eyes at once. This is molecular
behavior. Unpredictable situation whereas Kuddus has not any preparation to his eyes or face
situation.
Moral Behavior
Moral behavior is the opposite of molecular behavior. When human behavior occurs with a
thinking process is called moral behavior. Example: counter attract.
Overt and Covert Behavior
Overt Behavior
The behavior that is visible and what occurs outside of human being is called overt behavior.
Example: Playing football, eating something is overt behavior.
Covert Behavior
The behavior that is not visible and what occurs inside of human being is called covert behavior.
Example: thinking.

Voluntary And Involuntary Behavior

Voluntary Behavior
The behavior what depend on human want is called voluntary behavior. Human beings always
have control on voluntary behavior. Example: Speaking, walking, writing etc.
Involuntary Behavior
Behavior what occurs naturally is called involuntary behavior.
Example: Movement of heart, taking oxygen and giving up carbon dioxide.
It is possible to control such a behavior by education, training, experience and environment
Characteristics Of Human Behavior
Behavior is any activity which can be observed, recorded and measured. Individual behave with
in an environment, it is human nature to respond stimulus situation created by internal and
external environment. Characteristics of human behavior can be express as under-
Social Rules and Regulations
Human are social beings and obedient to social rules and regulations. Social rules and regulation
drive an individual in a particular way.
Language And Understanding
Human beings express their feelings and emotion and conversation with each other through
language. Interaction of individual and group helps them convey their news and views.
Education And Knowledge
Education is power which enables an individual to acknowledge the difference between right and
wrong. The value of practice in acquiring skill or knowledge common feature of human
behavior. Education and knowledge are important modification of human behavior.
Adaptability
It is human nature to change in order to deal successfully with new situation. Human beings
always face changing environment. Adaptability with changing environment is a common
characteristic of human behavior.
Capacity To Learn Knowledge
Only human being is capable enough to learn knowledge. Human beings can increase their
capacity by acquiring knowledge and experience. This is unique characteristic of human beings.
Drive/Aim
Human beings behave with a view to accomplishing their common aim that drives him to a
particular direction. Drive or aim pursues goal directed behavior.
Human being is great in Behavior and Knowledge
Human being is great in their behavior and knowledge, capable enough to board their knowledge
and experience.
Causation Of Behavior
Behavior is a result of interaction between individual and situation. It is human nature to
response stimulus situation. There is a cause sequence of human behavior. The cause sequence of
human behavior are explain below-
Stimulus Situation
Stimulus may be created by light, sound, job routine, other people action of supervisor and any
aspect of environment in which a person is sensitive.
Organism
When stimulus situation faced by a person then organism automatically start. Organism may be
heredity, maturation, biological needs and many learning such as knowledge, skills, certain needs
attitude and values.
Behavior
Behavior is a result of stimulus situation and individual organism that led to a person to do or
behave. Behavior may be body movement, talking, facial expression, emotional responses and
thinking.
Accomplishment
The latest sequence is accomplishment. Accomplishment occurs when stimulus situation
changes. Further accomplishment may include survival, accident, attract from others.
What is physiology of behaviour?
If psychology is defined as the study of behavior, then physiological psychology (also known as
biological psychology) is the study of the physiological bases of behavior. It differs from many
disciplines of neuroscience, the study of the nervous system, in its emphasis on behavior.
Physiology of behavior covers areas such as behavioral neuroendocrinology,
psychoneuroimmunology, learning and memory, ingestion, taste, social behavior, exercise (as it
relates to behavior), studies related to the mechanisms of psychopathology and studies using
animal models with the purpose of translating the findings to humans.

Behavioral neuroendocrinology
Behavioral neuroendocrinology involves the study of the interactive effects of steroid and
peptide hormones, neuropeptides, cytokines and neurotransmitters on behavior. Behavioral
endocrinology is a branch of endocrinology that studies the Neuroendocrine system and its
effects on behavior. Behavioral endocrinology studies the biological mechanisms that produce
behaviors, this gives insight into the evolutionary past. The field has roots in ethology,
endocrinology and psychology. The neuroendocrine system is an integrated system composed of
neurons, glands and non-endocrine tissues, and the hormones and neurochemicals they produce
and receive collectively regulate physiological or behavioral state.
Psychoneuroimmunology
Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of the interactions among behavioral, neural and
endocrine, and immune processes. The brain communicates with the immune system through
autonomic nervous system and neuroendocrine activity. Example of a psychoneuroimmunology:
People with breast, cervical, or ovarian cancer who reported feeling stressed or lonely had
abnormalities in their immune systems. Communication between the immune system and brain
may impact symptoms that are related to cancer treatment, including fatigue, depression, and
difficulty sleeping.
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is a discipline that has evolved in the last 40 years to study the
relationship between immunity, the endocrine system, and the central and peripheral nervous
systems. In this manner, neurotransmitters, hormones, and neuropeptides have been found to
regulate immune cells, and these in turn are capable of communicating with nervous tissue
through the secretion of a wide variety of cytokines. Of critical importance is the effect of
products of the CNS and nerves on the maintenance of the delicate balance between cell-
mediated and humoral immune responses.
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) is a relatively new field of study that looks at the interactions
between your central nervous system (CNS) and your immune system. The nerves in your brain
and spinal cord make up your CNS, while your immune system is made up of organs and cells
that defend your body against infection. Both systems produce small molecules and proteins that
can act as messengers between the two systems. In your CNS, these messengers include
hormones and neurotransmitters. Your immune system, on the other hand, uses proteins called
cytokines to communicate with your CNS.
There’s plenty of existing research about the effects of stress on the immune system. Many of
these studies focus on the release of cytokines in response to both physical and psychological
stress.
A cytokine is a small protein that’s released by cells, especially those in your immune system.
There are many types of cytokines, but the ones that are generally stimulated by stress are called
pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Under normal circumstances, your body releases pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to an
infection or injury to help destroy germs or repair tissue. When you’re physically or emotionally
stressed, your body also releases certain hormones, including epinephrine (adrenaline). These
hormones can bind to specific receptors that signal for the production of pro-inflammatory
cytokines.
What is an example of physiology behavior?
Chemicals such as serotonin and dopamine affect our appetite, moods and thinking. Imbalance in
neurotransmitters are factors in schizophrenia, depression, autism and Parkinson's disease.
Manic-depressive illness, anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder and anorexia are
other physiological behavior examples.
What are the physiological factors affecting human Behaviour?
Behaviour is affected by factors relating to the person, including: physical factors - age, health,
illness, pain, influence of a substance or medication. personal and emotional factors -
personality, beliefs, expectations, emotions, mental health. life experiences - family, culture,
friends, life events.
Complex and reflex behavior
Complex programmed behavior comprises some steps and is more complex than FAP. If birds
build nests and beavers build dams, they are showing complex programmed behavior. Reflexes
are as well innate behavior. A reflex is an inborn, simple, automatic response by a portion of the
body to a stimulus.
What is a complex behavior?
an activity that requires many decisions and actions in rapid order or simultaneously. Complex
behavior may be made up of several reflexes. For example: walking, running, and jumping are
all learned behaviors, but they involve several reflexes such as those that control balance.
What is a reflex behavior?
Reflex behaviour, in biology, an action consisting of comparatively simple segments of
behaviour that usually occur as direct and immediate responses to particular stimuli uniquely
correlated with them. Reflex action is a sudden and involuntary response to stimuli. It helps
organisms to quickly adapt to an adverse circumstance that could have the potential to cause
bodily harm or even death. Pulling our hands away immediately after touching a hot or cold
object is a classic example of a reflex action. There are different types of reflexes, including a
stretch reflex, Golgi tendon reflex, crossed extensor reflex, and a withdrawal reflex. A
stretch reflex is a rapid monosynaptic response of muscle to maintain posture and equilibrium. A
Golgi tendon reflex triggers a muscle to relax in order to avoid injury.
In our body, interneurons are in the spinal cord. So, when an interneuron participates in a reflex,
there is more than one synapse, and these reflexes are then called complex reflexes.
Two main types of reflexes: Monosynaptic ie contain only two neurons, a sensory and a motor
neuron. Examples of monosynaptic reflex arcs in humans include the patellar reflex and the
Achilles reflex.
Polysynaptic ie multiple interneurons (also called relay neurons) that interface between the
sensory and motor neurons in the reflex pathway.
What is learning and memory?
Learning and memory
Learning and memory are closely related concepts. Learning is the acquisition of skill or
knowledge, while memory is the expression of what you've acquired. Another difference is the
speed with which the two things happen. If you acquire the new skill or knowledge slowly and
laboriously, that's learning. Learning is defined as a process that leads to a relatively permanent
change in behavior.
Biological Theories of Learning and Memory
There are two theories that explain the cellular basis of learning and memory. First, the
Nucleotide Rearrangement Theory states that chemical changes in the body are linked to
learning. Learning and memory enhance in trained rats as their cortical RNA increases. More and
harder training results to lower possibilities of forgetting and memory deterioration. However,
when RNA synthesis is inhibited, memory becomes impaired.
The second biological theory of learning and memory is the Cellular Modification Theory
proposed by Kandel, et.al. It focuses on habituation, sensitization and conditioning in relation to
learning and memory. The researchers found out that the increase in the release of
neurotransmitters result to faster response rates of the sensory-motor neurons synapses. This, in
turn, leads to conditioning and sensitization. However, low levels of neurotransmitters result to
slower synaptic responses, leading to habituation. The synaptic responsivity is facilitated by the
serotonegic interneurons that prolong the closure of K+ ion channels in order to increase action
potential’s duration in sensory neurons.
Hippocampus
The hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe plays important roles in learning and memory. The
clinical studies on Patient H.M in 1953 showed the significant functions of the medial temporal
lobe. Patient H.M. underwent surgical removal of the medial temporal lobes. This resulted to
anterograde amnesia (difficulty of forming new memories) and neologism (forming and/or using
new words). However, procedural memories, semantic memories, speech, reading and writing
were all left unaffected.

Situated in the medial temporal lobe, the hippocampus is responsible for the consolidation of
short-term memory and long-term memory. In particular, the hippocampus is responsible for the
formation of new memories related to experiences events, also known as autobiographical or
episodic memories. Declarative memories, those that can be verbalized more explicitly than
episodic memories, are formed but not stored in the hippocampus. These memories as well as
past events are believed to be stored in the frontal and temporal lobes.
There are two hippocampi in the brain, one in the left hemisphere and the other one on the right.
When one of these hippocampi are damaged and the other one is left intact, the person can still
experience almost normal memory functioning. However, severe damage or removal of both
hippocampi as in the case of Patient H.M. results to anterograde amnesia. A process called long-
term potentiation (LTP) occurs in the hippocampus. LTP refers to the increase in neural
responsivity. Recent research studies proved that LTP is involved in spatial learning.
Mediodorsal Thalamus
The thalamus is referred to as the relay center of the brain. When its mediodorsal region is
damaged, declarative memories are lost. However, procedural memories are left unharmed.
Korsakoff’s syndrome experienced by chronic alcoholic patients may result from damage of the
mediodorsal thalamus. This is the reason why one of the symptoms of Korsakoff’s syndrome is
the loss of declarative memories.
The Relationship Between Learning and Memory
Learning and memory are closely related concepts, and both are fundamental to the human
experience. Just as important as it may be to learn new information, it’s often just as important to
store that information in your memory. Learning involves acquiring new skills and knowledge
and may be a complex process depending on what you are learning. Memory, on the other hand,
involves how the mind stores that information.
Learning and memory maintain a very interdependent relationship that is intellectually complex
and varied. Some people may struggle to learn something new if they experience a problem with
memory formation or memory processing. For those experiencing cognitive challenges related to
learning and memory, there may be therapeutic interventions available as well as techniques for
improving both. Below, you’ll find a guide to learning and memory and techniques for
optimizing cognition.
The Interdependence of Learning and Memory
Both learning and memory are complex functions of the brain. Learning generally refers to the
acquisition of skills and knowledge. Memory, on the other hand, refers to our ability to store
information and recall it later. Research shows that learning and memory exist together in the
three stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding involves learning new information and
storing it in the memory. During retrieval, the brain accesses that information for use. There are a
few different learning methods for acquiring and encoding new skills and knowledge, including
auditory, visual, and kinesthetic. It may be beneficial to use more than one learning method for
complex concepts in academic or professional environments. Educators often design lessons that
involve the use of all three main learning methods to accommodate different learning styles and
maximize the learning potential for learners. In situations where learning or memory are
impaired, it may be necessary to seek the help of a professional. However, anyone who wishes to
improve his or her cognitive abilities can benefit from implementing certain lifestyle changes
and cognitive exercises to enhance their brain function.

Ways To Improve Learning and Memory Functions

Enhancing your learning and memory capabilities can help you on your path to academic or
career success. There are several ways to improve these essential cognitive functions.
Sleep
Sleep wields a powerful influence over our physical, mental, and emotional wellbeing. Adequate
sleep is critical to cognition, as sleep is necessary for focus, memory creation, and memory
retrieval. In fact, sleep deprivation can impair learning ability by up to 40%. Committing to
getting a good night’s sleep each night is key for learning and memory. Practice good sleep
hygiene by getting daily exercise, avoiding screens before bed, and keeping a regular sleep
schedule. If you experience difficulties related to falling asleep or staying asleep, it may be worth
consulting with your healthcare provider or a licensed therapist.
Reading
If you struggle with learning and memory, reading may be a useful tool for “training” your brain.
When you read, you engage your brains in various cognitive processes. Just as your body needs
regular exertion through exercise to become stronger, your brain needs regular challenges to
become sharper. By reading regularly, you may be able to enhance cognitive abilities such as
focus and attention, memory, vocabulary and language skills, and creativity and imagination.
Consider finding a book or news publication that appeals to you and spending some time each
day reading in a quiet, distraction-free environment. Over time, you may notice improvements to
your learning and memory.
Exercise
Exercise is a powerful tool for improving learning and memory. Engaging in regular physical
activity can stimulate the growth of new brain cells and improve the connections between them,
which can enhance our cognitive abilities. Exercise has been shown to improve attention,
working memory, and long-term memory. It can also increase the production of brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein that supports the growth and survival of brain cells.
Regular exercise has been linked to a reduced risk of cognitive decline and dementia in older
adults. Even short bursts of exercise can provide immediate cognitive benefits, such as improved
focus and attention. To experience the cognitive benefits of exercise, incorporate physical
activity into your daily routine—even a short walk may be enough to feel sharper.
Mindfulness and Meditation
Mindfulness and meditation may be effective for improving learning and memory. These
practices can help reduce stress, improve attention and focus, and promote emotional regulation,
all of which are essential for optimal cognitive function. Studies have shown that regular
meditation can increase gray matter in the brain, particularly in areas associated with learning,
memory, and executive function. Mindfulness can also improve working memory capacity and
enhance cognitive flexibility, which can help us to adapt to new situations and learn more
efficiently. Consider practicing mindfulness meditation each day and notice if you feel calmer
and more focused as you approach your studies.
Music Training
Learning capacity and memory can also be improved by playing and listening to music. Research
has demonstrated that music’s impact on the brain mirrors exercise’s influence on the body.
Listening to music may also benefit your emotional wellbeing, speech and language skills, and
auditory processing capabilities. Musicians have been found to retain higher amounts of learned
content, have higher IQs, and often have better memory capabilities. Furthermore, music training
has been shown to positively impact children; the best results generally occur if the activity
begins before the age of seven. Try listening to quiet music while you study and see if you notice
a difference in your ability to stay focused. Learning to play an instrument or produce music on a
computer may also be a fun new skill to boost your cognition.
How the Human Brain Learns
Learning is a complex process that occurs in the human brain throughout life. In both children
and adults, learning involves the formation of new connections between the brain’s neurons.
When you learn, these connections multiply and strengthen. These neural changes may result in
the development of new skills, the acquisition of knowledge, or the encoding of a memory.

Learning also involves the modification of existing connections between neurons, which can be
facilitated by repeated practice and reinforcement. Through this process, we can develop new
neural pathways that allow us to acquire and retain new information more effectively.
Ultimately, learning is a dynamic process that involves the interaction of various neural systems
and behaviors.

Implicit and Explicit Learning

There are two types of learning: implicit and explicit learning. Implicit learning refers to the
acquisition of knowledge or skills without conscious awareness or intention. Explicit learning, on
the other hand, is the process of acquiring new knowledge or skills through instruction or study.
For example, a child typically learns to talk naturally through listening and mimicking his
caregivers, or implicit learning. However, when an adult learns a new language, they typically
require formal instruction and study, or explicit learning.
Memory Processing and Retrieval
The human memory is just as nuanced and complex as learning and is vital to a person’s ability
to use the knowledge or skills acquired during the learning process. The memory process
involves encoding, storage, and retrieval. Each of these stages is influenced by various factors
such as attention, emotion, and prior knowledge. During encoding, information is initially
processed and transformed into a form that can be stored in the brain. In storage, the information
is maintained over time, and during retrieval, the stored information is accessed and brought
back into consciousness. Successful memory retrieval depends on various factors such as cues,
context, and familiarity. Additionally, the retrieval process can be impacted by stress, sleep, and
or aging. Understanding how memory works and how to enhance memory processes and
retrieval can help individuals use the knowledge and skills acquired through learning more
effectively.
Types of Memory
To understand how the human memory works, it may be helpful to understand the three types of
memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory memory gathers what the human senses pick up on and generally only lasts for a mere
second. An example of sensory memory is when you see an image or read a sentence. Unless the
memory is encoded into your short-term memory a sensory memory will be lost.
Short-term memory has a limited capacity and duration, typically holding information for a few
seconds to a minute before it gets lost or replaced by new information. For instance, if someone
tells you an address, you might repeat it to yourself a few times to keep it in your short-term
memory. However, unless you memorize it by repeating the address several times over the
following days, it will not be transferred to your long-term memory.
Long-term memory is the stage of memory where information is stored for a longer duration,
ranging from a few days to many years or even a lifetime. Information is transferred to long-term
memory through encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Once a memory is stored in long-term
memory, it can be retrieved and used later for various purposes, such as recalling facts, events, or
procedures. An example of long-term memory is remembering your childhood home or your first
day of school.
Reliability of Memory
While the capacity of the human memory might seem limitless, memories are not always
accurate. However, neuroscience research has shown that memory is not as reliable as one might
think. Our recollections can be altered, planted, distorted, or forgotten. People can be convinced
into believing specific facts which aren’t accurate or, conversely, disbelieving information that
turns out to be accurate. Thus, it may be helpful to record or write down information if you think
you may need to access it later.
The Power of Perception
Perception plays a crucial role in learning and memory, as everyone interprets information
differently. This may help explain different viewpoints and opinions among individuals.
Additionally, learning preference and perception vary from person to person, which can impact
how someone learns and interprets information. Personal experiences and relationships with
others are some of the top factors affecting interpretation. For example, someone with a history
of childhood trauma may struggle to trust information or social connection. Someone with a
history of a healthy and happy childhood may perceive the world through a different lens.

Long-term memory
Long-term memory refers to the transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term
storage in order to create enduring memories. This type of memory is unlimited in capacity and
stable—lasting for years or even a lifetime. Short-term memories can become long-term
memories through a process known as consolidation.
Long-term memory can be further subdivided into two different types: explicit (conscious) and
implicit (unconscious) memory. If you can remember something that happened more than just a
few moments ago, whether it occurred just hours ago or decades earlier, it is long-term memory.
Long term memory is important because it helps us recall major events in our lives. We also use
long-term memory to access the skills and behaviors that we've learned which contribute to our
survival.1
Types of Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory is usually divided into two types—explicit and implicit.
Explicit memories, also known as declarative memories, include all of the memories that are
available in consciousness. Explicit memory can be further divided into episodic memory
(specific events) and semantic memory (knowledge about the world). Examples of this type of
long-term memory include being able to recall your high school graduation or remembering the
year that the U.S. declared its independence.
Implicit memories are those that are mostly unconscious. This type of memory includes
procedural memory, which involves memories of body movement and how to use objects in the
environment. Knowing how to drive a car or use a computer are examples of procedural
memories.
Long-term memories are often outside of the conscious mind. This information is largely outside
of our awareness but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some
memories are relatively easy to recall, while others are much harder to access.
Duration of Long-Term Memory
Through the process of association and rehearsal, the content of short-term memory can become
long-term memory. Long-term memories can last from a matter of days to as long as many
decades.
There are a number of factors that can influence how long information endures in long-term
memory:
The way the memory was encoded in the first place can play a significant role. If you were very
aware and alert when you had the experience, then the memory will probably be a lot more vivid.
The number of times you access a memory can also play a role in the strength and duration of
that memory. Not surprisingly, memories that you recall often tend to stick around and become
much stronger.
Not all long-term memories are created equal. While some memories spring to mind quickly,
others are weaker and might require prompts or reminders to bring them into focus.
Information that is of greater importance leads to a stronger recall. You can usually remember
important events such as your wedding day with much greater clarity and detail than you can
more ordinary days.
How Long-Term Memory Forms
The information-processing model of memory characterizes human memory as being like a
computer. Information enters short-term memory (a temporary store), then some of this
information is transferred into long-term memory (a relatively permanent store), much like
information being saved to the hard disk of a computer.
Memories that are frequently accessed become stronger and easier to recall. Accessing these
memories over and over again strengthens the neural networks in which the information is
encoded, leading to easier recollection of the information.2
When information is needed, it is called forth out of this long-term storage using environmental
cues, much like accessing a saved folder on your computer. However, these saved memories can
be changed or sometimes even lost altogether. Memories that are not recalled often can
sometimes weaken or be replaced by other information.
Long-Term Memory Changes
Studies suggest that memories are not saved in a static state, then pulled up with perfect clarity.
Instead, researchers have found that memories are transformed or changed every single time they
are accessed.
Neurons first encode memories in the cortex and hippocampus. Each time a memory is recalled,
it is then re-encoded by a similar, but not identical, set of neurons.
Accessing memories often helps make them stronger, yet the research has found that this re-
encoding can have an impact on how the information is remembered.3 Subtle details may
change, and certain aspects of the memory may be strengthened, weakened, or even lost
altogether depending on which neurons are activated.
Fragility of Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory can be surprisingly fragile and susceptible to change, misinformation, and
interference. Memory expert Elizabeth Loftus has demonstrated how easily false memories can
be triggered. In one of her most famous experiments, she was able to get 25% of her participants
to believe in a false memory that they had once been lost in a shopping mall as a child.4
Why is long-term memory so susceptible to these inaccuracies? In some cases, people miss
important details about events. To fill in these missing gaps in information, the brain sometimes
fabricates details that seem to make sense.
Older memories can also interfere with the formation of new ones, making it difficult to recall
what actually happened.

How Short-Term Memory Works

Short-term memory is the capacity to store a small amount of information in the mind and keep it
readily available for a short period of time. It is also known as primary or active memory.
Short-term memory is essential for daily functioning, which is why experiencing short-term
memory loss can be frustrating and even debilitating.
Short-term memory is very brief. When short-term memories are not rehearsed or actively
maintained, they last mere seconds.1
Short-term memory is limited. It is commonly suggested that short-term memory can hold only
seven items at once, plus or minus two.2
How Long Is Short-Term Memory For?
Most of the information kept in short-term memory will be stored for approximately 20 to 30
seconds, or even less.3 Some information can last in short-term memory for up to a minute, but
most information spontaneously decays quite quickly, unless you use rehearsal strategies such as
saying the information aloud or mentally repeating it.
However, the information in short-term memory is also highly susceptible to interference. Any
new information that enters short-term memory will quickly displace old information. Similar
items in the environment can also interfere with short-term memories.4
For example, you might have a harder time remembering someone's name if you're in a crowded,
noisy room, or if you were thinking of what to say to the person rather than paying attention to
their name.
While many short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this information allows it to
continue the next stage—long-term memory.
Capacity
The amount of information that can be stored in short-term memory can vary. In 1956, in an
influential paper titled "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two," psychologist George
Miller suggested that people can store between five and nine items in short-term memory.
More recent research suggests that people are capable of storing approximately four chunks or
pieces of information in short-term memory.
For example, imagine that you are trying to remember a phone number. The other person rattles
off the 10-digit phone number, and you make a quick mental note. Moments later you realize that
you have already forgotten the number. Without rehearsing or continuing to repeat the number
until it is committed to memory, the information is quickly lost from short-term memory.
Short-Term vs. Working Memory
Some researchers argue that working memory and short-term memory significantly overlap, and
may even be the same thing. The distinction is that working memory refers to the ability to use,
manipulate, and apply memory for a period of time (for example, recalling a set of instructions as
you complete a task), while short-term memory refers only to the temporary storage of
information in memory.
The Baddeley-Hitch model of working memory suggests that there are two components of
working memory: a place where you store visual and spatial information (visuospatial
scratchpad), and a place where you record auditory information (phonological loop). In addition,
the model suggests there is a "central executive" that controls and mediates these two
components as well as processes information, directs attention, sets goals, and makes decisions.
How Short-Term Memory Becomes Long-Term Memory
Memory researchers often use what is referred to as the three-store model to conceptualize
human memory. This model suggests that memory consists of three basic stores—sensory, short-
term, and long-term—and that each of these can be distinguished based on storage capacity and
duration.6
While long-term memory has a seemingly unlimited capacity that lasts years, short-term memory
is relatively brief and limited. Short-term memory is limited in both capacity and duration. In
order for a memory to be retained, it needs to be transferred from short-term stores into long-
term memory. The exact mechanisms for how this happens remain controversial and not well
understood.
The classic model, known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model or multi-modal model, suggested that
all short-term memories were automatically placed in long-term memory after a certain amount
of time.
More recently, researchers have proposed that some mental editing takes place and that only
particular memories are selected for long-term retention. Factors such as time and interference
can affect how information in encoded in memory.
The information-processing view of memory suggests that human memory works much like a
computer. In this model, information first enters short-term memory (a temporary holding store
for recent events) and then some of this information is transferred into long-term memory (a
relatively permanent store), much like information on a computer being placed on a hard disk.
Some researchers, however, dispute the idea that there are separate stores for short-term and
long-term memories at all.
Maintenance Rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal (or rehearsal) can help move memories from short-term to long-term
memory. For example, you might use this approach when studying materials for an exam.
Instead of just reviewing the information once or twice, you might go over your notes repeatedly
until the critical information is committed to memory.

Chunking
Chunking is one memorization technique that can facilitate the transfer of information into long-
term memory. This approach involves organizing information into more easily learned groups,
phrases, words, or numbers.
For example, it will take a large amount of effort to memorize the following number:
65,495,328,463. However, it will be easier to remember if it is chunked into the following: 6549
532 8463.
Mnemonics
Easily remembered mnemonic phrases, abbreviations, or rhymes can help move short-term
memories into long-term storage. A few common examples include:
ROY G BIV: An acronym that represents the first letter of each color of the rainbow—red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet
I before E, except after C: A rhyme used to remember the spelling of common words
Thirty days hath September...: A poem used to remember how many days are in each month
Another mnemonic strategy, which dates back to around 500 BCE, is the method of loci. The
method of loci involves mentally placing the items you are trying to learn or remember around a
room—such as on the sofa, next to a plant, or on the window seat. To trigger your memory, you
then visualize yourself going to each location, triggering your recall for that information.8
Memory Consolidation
Memory consolidation is the process in which the brain converts short-term memories into long-
term ones. Rehearsing or recalling information over and over again creates structural changes in
the brain that strengthen neural networks. The repeated firing of two neurons makes it more
likely that they will repeat that firing again in the future.
What Is Considered Short-Term Memory Loss?
For most of us, it's pretty common to experience an episode of memory loss occasionally. This
can look like missing a monthly payment, forgetting the date, losing our keys, or having trouble
finding the right word to use from time to time.
If you feel like you're constantly forgetting things, it can be irritating, frustrating, and
frightening. Short-term memory loss may even make you worried that your brain is too reliant on
devices like your smartphone rather than your memory to recall information.
What Is Short-Term Memory a Symptom of?
Mild memory loss doesn't always indicate a problem, and certain memory changes are a normal
part of aging. Short-term memory loss can also be caused by other, non-permanent factors,
including:
Alcohol or drug use
Anxiety
Depression
Grief
Fatigue
Medication side effects
Sleep deprivation
Stress
If you are concerned about memory lapses or any other brain changes, talk to your healthcare
provider. They can give you a thorough exam to determine what might be causing your
symptoms and recommend lifestyle changes, strategies, or treatments to improve your short-term
memory.
Short-term memory plays a vital role in shaping our ability to function in the world around us,
but it is limited in terms of both capacity and duration. Disease and injury as well as increasing
reliance on smartphones can also have an influence on the ability to store short-term memories.
As researchers continue to learn more about factors that influence memory, new ways of
enhancing and protecting short-term memory may emerge.
Orientation in Animal Behaviour
Orientation is the position of the animal with reference to gravity or resource. This is the position
the animal maintains in order to reach the resource. Orientation is a response in which an
organism takes up a particular position in relation to a stimulus. It is simply the ability to face the
right direction. Movement to particular direction is orientation. It consists of taxis and kinesis.
Orientation can be defined as special adjustment of animals in response to various stimuli. It
involves single animal. Orientation is of two types. Orientation in Behaviorism is mentally
directing attention or physically directing the body towards a stimulus of some kind, such as light
or a noise. Orientation can essentially be described as a response to a stimulus.
taxis and kinesis
Kinesis is the undirected movement in response to a stimulus, which can include orthokinesis
(related to speed) or klinokinesis (related to turning). Taxis is the directed movement towards or
away from a stimulus, which can be in response to light (phototaxis), chemical signals
(chemotaxis), or gravity (geotaxis)