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2007 Electrical Workshop Manual
2007 Electrical Workshop Manual
FOR
ELECTRICAL WORKSHOP
Electrical Workshop
CONTENTS
Part 1 General
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Syllabus
Lab rules
Safety precautions
Electrical engineering - An overview
Electric power supply system
Introduction
Systems of distribution of electrical energy
Systems of wiring
Selection of wiring system
Electrical wiring materials
Part 4 Experiments
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Fan
Electric Mixer
Electric Iron
Refrigerator
Air conditioner
Electric lamps
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Course Contents
List of study and practical exercises for Electrical Workshop:
Ex. No. 1: Study of power supplies and safety devices
Ex. No. 4:
Mini Project
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PC power supply
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All students in the workshop are expected to adhere to the following guidelines.
The students are supposed to come in proper workshop uniform dress. Wearing
shoes in the workshop is compulsory.
Do not fool around in the lab: Take your lab work seriously and behave
appropriately in the laboratory. Be aware of your classmates safety as well as your
own at all times.
To successfully complete the experiments in one lab period, you must come
prepared to the laboratory. You must read the experiment in advance and answer
the pre-lab questions.
Please treat the instruments with care, as they are very expensive.
Return the components to the correct bins when you are finished with them.
Before leaving the lab, place the stools under the lab bench.
Before leaving the lab, turn off the main power switch to the lab bench.
Keep your work area neat and uncluttered- Have only books and other materials
that are needed to conduct the experiment in the laboratory.
Experiment: The student works with a partner and they both take the data on
separate notebooks. The lab instructor will look at the data and sign on your
notebook at the end of the experiment.
Any student missing a lab (not present in the lab) with no proper or reasonable
excuse will get a 0 grade on that specific lab and will have his/her final letter
grade reduced. Any student missing two labs with no proper excuse will
automatically get a failing grade (F).
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Never energize any circuit unless you are sure that no one is
working on the
circuit. Give electric supply to the wiring system only after thorough verification.
Before replacing a blown fuse always remember to put the switch off.
Do not touch switch boards, main switches, holder points etc with wet hands.
Before putting the plug pins in socket put off the plug switch and disconnect the
plug by pulling the plug pin and not by pulling cable.
Take utmost care while handling lamps, lamp holders, switches etc, because these
materials are brittle.
Before beginning work, tie back long hair, and roll up loose sleeves.
Know the location and how to operate shut-off switches and/or circuit breaker
panels. Use these devices to shut off equipment in the event of a fire or
electrocution.
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raceway, often a
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Fuse
Circuit breakers( MCB, MCCB & ELCB)
Earthing.
Basically two types of protections are provided in the power supply system of domestic
consumers.
a. Protection from over current.
b. Protection from leakage current due to failure of insulation or
inadvertent contact with live conductors by the user.
Over current and Short circuit
One type of situation that wiring needs to be protected against is over current. The
electrical wiring is rated for certain maximum current. If you try to pull more
current through it, the wiring will heat considerably. When the wiring heats too
much, it will cause the melting of cable insulation, cause fire if there is something
flammable near cable and even melt the copper conductors in the cable. So
protection is needed to guarantee that in case of something tries to pull too much
current through mains wiring, this cannot happen for any long time until the fuse
blows and stops the current.
Many people are familiar with a "short circuit", which is a type of fault that occurs
when two conductors of an electric circuit touch each other. The current flow
caused by a short circuit is usually high and rapid and is quickly detected and
halted by conventional circuit protective devices, such as fuses or circuit breakers.
Ground faults are one type of problem when the insulation fails.
Protection against over current
Every electrical circuit shall be protected against over current by suitable over current
devices. These devices could be
a. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
b. Moulded Case Circuit Breaker
c. Semi enclosed rewirable fuses
d. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuses
Typical breaking capacities of protective devices are as follows:
HRC fuses
MCB
Rewirable fuses
80 kA
16 kA
1 to 4 kA
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70-100mA
20-30 mA
10mA
1-10 mA
Prickling sensations
However, electrocution should not be viewed in terms of current alone but in terms
of contact voltage. A person gets electrocuted by coming in contact with an object
that has a different potential from his/her own. The difference in potential causes
the current to flow through the body.
The human body has known limits:
- Under normal dry conditions, voltage limit = 50V.
- In damp surroundings, voltage limit
= 25V.
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FUSES
Fuse is a wire of short length having low melting point which gives protection against excessive
current. This excessive current may be due to over load or short circuit. Under normal working
condition the current flowing through the circuit is within safe limit. But when some faults such
as short circuit occurs the current exceeds the safe limit value, the fuse wire gets heated and
melts. This will cause breaking of the circuit. After one fusing operation, fuse wire must be
rewired with the same size wire.
This basic guide will help you decide which fuse to fit to ensure the safe use of your
household appliances.
Appliances up to 700 Watts
Appliances between 700 and 1000 Watts
Appliances over 1000 Watts
= 3 Amp fuse
= 5 Amp fuse
= 13 Amp fuse
1. Rewirable fuse:
This is the cheapest method for protecting a circuit from short circuit. Wires of
different diameters made of lead and tin are used in the circuit. When large current
flows these wires melts and disconnects the faulty circuit from the rest of the supply.
There are different types of fuses. The usual type is the rewirable type in which the
fuse wire is carried in a removable fuse link (Fig. a). The fuse link is made of
porcelain or other suitable insulating material. The fuse carrier is push-fitted to the
fuse base to make the connection through. An advantage of this type is that the
blown fuse wire can be replaced with negligible cost. But there is a chance of
selecting a wrong size of fuse wire. Another disadvantage with rewirable fuse is that
it may sometimes lead to fire hazards, when the fuse wire blows.
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The melting
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It is very reliable.
It has an enclosed fuse wire, therefore no chance its arc doing any
damage to the surroundings.
It has low temperature rise at rated load.
Maintenance free.
It is costly.
Take time to replace the fuse.
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Circuit breakers
MCB and ELCB
MCB is miniature circuit breaker. It is automatic in action. When excessive current passes
through the circuit, handle of MCB will moves down and thus trips the circuit. After one such an
operation we can manually reset the supply by solving the fault in that circuit. Thus rewiring fault
size fuse wire in the case of fuse can be avoided by using MCBs.
ELCB is earth leakage circuit breaker. It protects the circuit from any leakage of current. It
protects the circuit from lightning and thunder.
Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
Miniature circuit breakers are compact devices used in distribution boards for
protection against overload and short circuit. The overload protection is achieved by a
thermal trip mechanism using a bimetallic strip. An electromagnetic trip mechanism
is also incorporated for instantaneous tripping in the event of a short circuit.
When there is a sudden increase in current due to a short circuit, the circuit should
open immediately, but the bimetallic strip does not respond quickly. In this case, the
solenoid attracts the plunger and thus triggers the trip mechanism. After clearing
the fault, the MCB can be switched on manually.
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Fig. below shows the current path in a typical miniature circuit breaker when it is in
the 'on' position. The current passes through a solenoid coil and a bimetallic strip.
When an overload condition persists for a few seconds, the bimetallic strip bends and
triggers the trip mechanism.
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current becomes large enough. The magnetic operation is very fast and is used for
braking fault currents.
In most cases of MCB' s, both types are provided so that overload currents and
short circuit currents are handled with the same degree. It should however be
remembered that the mechanical operation of opening the contacts takes a definite
minimum time, typically 20ms, so that there can never be the possibility of truly
instantaneous operation.
In many installations, MCBs are preferred over fuses mainly because there is no need
of rewiring the fuse wire or replacing the cartridge. MCBs are available in a range of
0.5A
to
63A
normal operating current and for the entire range, the, physical
dimensions are almost identical.
The major advantages of MCBs are
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RCD - Residual Current Device. This is a generic term for the entire range of
RCDs.
RCCB - Residual Current Circuit Breaker. This is basically a mechanical switch with
an RCD function added to it. Its sole function is to provide protection against earth
fault currents.
RCBO- Residual Current Breaker with Over current Protection. This is basically an
over current circuit breaker (such as an MCB) with an RCD function added to it. It
has two functions,
Types of RCD
RCDs can be divided into two categories based on the means by which they detect
and respond to earth fault currents. The two types are Voltage Independent (VI)
and Voltage Dependent (VD). These are sometimes also referred to as
electromechanical and electronic types respectively. The VI type uses the output
energy from the CT to activate a relay which in turn activates a tripping mechanism
causing the RCD to trip. The VD type uses electronic circuitry to detect the earth
fault current and to activate a tripping mechanism causing the RCD to trip. The VI
device derives its operating energy from the earth fault current whereas the VD
device derives its operating energy from the mains supply.
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Earthing
What is earthing /grounding?
Earthing or grounding is the term used for electrical connection to the general mass of
earth. Equipment or a system is said to be 'earthed' when it is effectively connected
to the ground with a conducting object. Earthing provides protection to personal
and equipment by ensuring operation of the protective gear and isolation of faulty
circuit during:
Insulation failure
Accidental contact
Lightning strike
Importance of earthing
Earthing is necessary for proper functioning of certain equipments. Earthing is done
also for preventing the operating personal from hazardous shocks caused by the
damage of the heating appliances. Consider an electric heater connected to the
supply using two-pin plug and socket. If by some chance the heating element
comes in contact with the metallic body of the heater, the body of the heater being
a conducting material will be at the same potential as the heating coil. If a person
comes and touches the body of the heater, current will flow through his body, which
will result in an electric shock.
To avoid unnecessary accident, it is recommended that electric heater be connected
to a 3-pin socket using a 3-core cable. (Note: To see a three-core cable, open a
plug of an electric iron. There will be three wires, red, blue and green. The green
wire connected to the body of the iron is the earth wire) In this case the body of the
electric heater is connected to the green wire of the cable, which is connected to the
earth through the earth terminal. Besides the body of the electric heater, bodies of
hot plates, kettles, toasters, heaters, ovens, refrigerators, air conditioners, coolers,
electric irons etc could be earthed using three pin plugs. The resistance of the path
to the earth terminal through the earth wire is very low. Hence, even if the heating
element comes in contact with the metallic body and a human being comes in
contact with the metallic body, major part of the current will flow only through the
earth wire (usually the green wire in a 3 core cable). Moreover because of the low
resistance path, a large current will flow through the phase wire and the fuse will
blow off. For large current to flow, earth resistance should be low. To achieve this
proper earthing has to be done.
Earthing is classified as:
a.
System earthing
b.
Equipment earthing
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Electrode material.
Electrode size.
Material and size of earth wire.
Moisture content of soil.
Depth of electrode of underground.
Quantity of dust and charcoal in earth pit.
The resistance decreases with the presence of moisture and salt in soil. To increase
the effectiveness of earth, the total earth resistance should be reduced. Efforts
should be made to reduce the resistance contributed by each of above three
components.
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Earth Electrodes
Sodium Chloride
Calcium Chloride
Sodium Nitrate
Magnesium Sulphate
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Pipe Earthing:
Pipe earthing is done by permanently placing a pipe in wet ground. The pipe can be
made of steel, galvanized iron or cast iron. Usually GI pipes having a length of 2.5m
and an internal diameter of 38mm are used. The pipe should not be painted or
coated with any non-conducting material.
Fig. E (1) shows an illustration of a typical pipe electrode. The pipe should be placed
atleast 1.25m below the ground level and it should be surrounded by alternate layers
of charcoal and salt for a distance of around 15 cm. This is to maintain the moisture
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level and to obtain lower earth resistance. The earth lead of sufficient gauge should
be firmly connected to the electrode and it should be carried in a Gl pipe at a depth of
60cm below the ground level. A funnel with a wire mesh should be provided to pour
water into the sump. Three or four bucket of water should be poured in a few days
particularly during summer season. This is to keep the surroundings of the electrode
permanently moist.
2. Plate earthing
Ground level
600x600x6.3mm Gl
plate
or
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Wet marshy lands, or lands containing ashes (Avg Resistivity 2400 ohm cms)
Clay, loamy soil, arable land clay
Clay & loam mixed with varying proportion of gravel & sand (Avg Resistivity
15,800 ohm cms)
Damp & wet sands
Dry sand
Gravel & Stones
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House Wiring
Introduction
A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy
from the suppliers meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices
such as lamps, fans and other domestic appliances through controlling and safety
devices is known as wiring system.
The suppliers service cable feeding an installation terminates in what is usually called
the service fuses. In an ordinary house the service fuse is called as service cutout. Such
cutouts including service meters remain the property of the supplier and represent the
furthest point of the supplier responsibility. The point at which the consumer's wiring is
connected into cutout is known as point of commencement of supply or consumer's
terminals. From consumer terminals onwards the supply cables are entirely under the
control of consumer's and so laid out as per his selection. A typical house wiring circuit is
shown in fig. a
fig (a)
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The voltage across all the lamps does not remain the same. The lamps in
the last branch will have least voltage across them on account of voltage
drop in leads,
b) A number of joints are involved in each circuit.
c) Fuses are scattered.
d)
In case of occurrence of fault all the joints have to be located and if some
of these joints are concealed beneath floors or roof spaces, a lot of
difficulties are to be faced. Sometimes a number of such joints are required
to be opened for testing purposes, so damage is caused to installation,
conductors and building.
Methods of wiring
There are two methods of wiring known as
a) joint box system (or Tee system) and
b) Loop-in system
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Disadvantages:
a)
b)
Length of wire or cable required is more and voltage drops and copper
losses are, therefore, more.
Looping-in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.
SYSTEMS OF WIRING
The types of internal wiring usually employed in our country are:
1. Cleat wiring:
In this system of internal wiring the cables used are either VIR or PVC type. The cables
are held by porcelain cleats about 6 mm above the walls or ceiling. The cleats are made
in two halves, one base and the other cap. The base is grooved to accommodate the
cables and the cap is put over it and whole of it is then screwed on wooden plugs
(gutties) previously cemented into the wall or ceiling. Thus the cables are firmly griped
between the two halves of the cleats and secured to the supporting wall or ceiling. The
cleats used are of different sizes and different types in order to accommodate cables of
various sizes and different numbers of cables respectively. The cleats are of three
typesone groove, two grooves and three grooves to accommodate one, two, and three
cables respectively.
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Advantages:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Disadvantages:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Fields of Application:
The wiring of this type is very suitable for temporary installations in dry places. This is
also acceptable where appearance is not so important and cheapness is the main
consideration. This system is not suitable for use in domestic premises.
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Its installation is easy and quick and saving in labor largely compensate
for the extra cost of the cable.
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Disadvantages
a) Good workmanship is required to make a sound job in TRS wiring.
b) This type of wiring cannot be recommended for use in situations open
to sun or rain unless preventive steps are taken to preserve the
insulation of
cables.
Fields of Application
The TRS wiring is suitable for low voltage installations and is extensively used for
lighting purposes everywhere i.e. in domestic, commercial or industrial buildings except
workshop where it is liable to mechanical injury.
This type of wiring is suitable in situations where acids and alkalies are likely to
be present.
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b)
c)
d)
e)
Disadvantages
a)
b)
c)
d)
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Fields of Application
This wiring system is suitable for low voltage (up to 250 volts) installations. It may be
used in places exposed to sun and rain provided no joint is exposed. It may also be used
in damp places with a suitable protective covering. It should not be used in places where
chemical corrosion may occur.. This type of wiring is not very common in use these days
except for some small installations and distribution boards etc.
5. Conduit Wiring
In this system of wiring steel tubes, known as conduits, are installed on the surface of
walls by means of saddles or pipe hooks or buried under plaster and VIR or PVC cables
are drawn into afterwards by means of a GI wire of size of about 18 SWG. In damp
situations the conduits can be spaced from the walls by means of small wooden blocks
fixed below the pipes at regular intervals. In order to facilitate drawing of wires
numbers of inspection fittings are provided along its length. The conduits should be
electrically and mechanically continuous and connected to earth at some suitable point.
The conduits used for this purpose are of two types namely (i) light gauge (or split type)
conduit and heavy gauge (or screwed type) conduit. Light gauge or split conduit with a
seam along its length is used for cheap work. It is not water tight or even damp proof and
is not permitted on medium voltage (i.e. on voltages higher than 250V). Screwed conduit
(solid drawn or with welded seam) is used for all medium voltage (250 V or 600 V)
circuits and in places where good mechanical protection and absolute protection from
moisture is desired. In general the finish of the conduit is black stove-enamelled, there
being a smooth coating of enamel both on the inside and outside surface of the tube.
Galvanized conduit is also employed, especially in damp situation when the conduit is
on the surface but under ordinary conditions buried in walls it offers little, if any,
advantage over good enamelled conduits.
Advantages
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Disadvantages
a) It is very costly system of wiring.
b) Its erection is not so easy and requires time.
c) Experienced and highly skilled labour is required for carrying out the job.
d) Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the insulation
unless the system outlets are properly drained and ventilated.
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Fields of Application
As this system of wiring provides protection against fire, mechanical damage
and dampness so this is the only approved system of wiring for:
a) Places where considerable dust or puff is present such as in textile mills, saw
mills, flour mills etc.
b) Damp situations.
c) In workshops for lighting and motor wiring.
d) Places, where there is a possibility of fire hazards such as in oil mills, varnish
factories etc.
e) Places, where important documents are kept such as a record room.
f) Residential and public buildings, where the appearance is the prime thing. The
recessed type conduit wiring is preferred for residential and public buildings.
CHOICE OF WIRING
The following factors should be considered before selecting a particular type of wiring.
a. Safety: The first and foremost consideration is safety to a person using electricity
against leakage or shock. Where there is a possibility of fire hazard,
conduit wiring is used.
b. Mechanical Protection: The wiring must be protected from mechanical
damage during use.
c. Permanency: The wiring must not deteriorate unduly by action of
weather, fumes, dampness etc.
d. Appearance: The wiring should he good looking.
e. Durability: The wiring must be durable.
f. Accessibility: In wiring system there should be facilities for extension, renewal
or alterations.
g. Initial Cost: The wiring selected should suit the pocket of the owner of the
building.
h. Maintenance Cost: The wiring should have, as far as possible, the lowest
maintenance cost.
The other factors, in addition to above, to be kept in view while making the choice of
is load voltage to be employed, type of building etc.
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wiring
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Tool
Size
Uses
Screw Driver(Smaller
size screw driver is
called Connector
Combination Pliers
10,15,20,30 cms
15,20,25 cms
10 cms
20 cms
5.
Electrician Knife
10 cms
6.
25,40,65,125
W
7.
!/4 kg to 2 kg
8.
'/* kg to 2 kg
9.
10.
30.5 cm &
40.5 cm
10, 15 cm
11.
Hand drill
3,6,12mm
12.
Hacksaw
13.
Measuring Tape
16,20,25,30
cms
10,20mm
14.
15.
3" to 4"
16.
Crimping Tool
1.5,2.5,6mm
2.
3.
4.
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House Wiring
Cables:
The cable or wire used in internal wiring is covered with insulation. The
conductor is covered with insulation so that it may prevent leakage of current
from the conductor and thus minimize the risk of fire and shock.
The wire employed for internal wiring of buildings may be divided into
different groups according to
a. Conductor used
b. number of cores used
c. voltage grading and
d. type of insulation used
According to the conductor material used in cables, these may be divided into two classes
known as copper cables and aluminum cables.
According to the number of cores, the cable consists of, the cables maybe divided into the
classes known as single core cables; twin core cables; three core cables; two core with
ECC (earth continuity conductor) cables etc.
According to voltage grading the cables may be divided into two classes:
(i) 250/440 volt cables
(ii) 650/1,100 volt cables.
According to type of insulation the cables are of the following types:
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House Wiring
rubber insulation depends upon the voltage grade for which the cable is required.
The copper conductor is tinned to provide protection against corrosion due to presence of
traces of sulphur, zinc oxide and other mineral ingredients in the VIR.
2. Tough Rubber Sheathed (TRS) or Cab Type Sheathed (CTS) Cables:
These cables are available in 250/440 volt grades and used in CTS'(or TRS) wiring.
TRS cable is nothing but a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor with an outer
protective covering of tough rubber. These cables are water proof, hence can be used in
wet conditions. These cables are available as single core, circular twin core, circular three
core, flat three cores, twin core with an earth continuity conductor etc. In wiring of a
three pin plug separate earth wire may be used, as it will be cheaper in cost and easy
in installation.
These cables are cheaper in cost and lighter in weight than lead alloy sheathed
cables, described later and have the properties similar to those, of lead sheathed
cables.
3. Lead Sheathed Cables:
These cables are also available in 250/440 volt grades and are used for internal
wiring where climatic condition is not dry and has a little bit moisture. The lead
sheathed cable is a vulcanized rubber insulated conductor covered with a continuous
sheath of lead. The lead sheath provides very good protection against the absorption of
moisture and sufficient protection against mechanical injury and so can be used without
casing or conduit system. It is available as a single core, twin core, flat three core and
flat twin core with an earth continuity conductor.
4. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Insulated Cables:
These cables are available in 250/440 and 650/1,100 volt grades and are used in
concealed wiring system. In this type of cable conductor is insulated with PVC
insulation. Since PVC is harder than rubber so PVC cable does not require cotton tapping
and braiding over it for mechanical and moisture protection.
Since the PVC is thermo-plastic insulation, so it is affected at high temperatures and it
may soften and flow down. These cables cannot be used for giving connections to the
heating appliances, pendant lighting etc. Though the insulation resistance of PVC is lower
than that of VIR but its effect is negligible for low and medium voltages below 600 volts,
5. Weather Proof/Cables
These cables are used for outdoor wiring and for power supply or industrial supply.
These cables are either PVC insulated or vulcanized rubber insulated conductors being
suitably taped (only in case of vulcanized rubber insulated cable) braided and then
compounded with weather resisting material. These cables are available in 250/440
volt and 650/1100 volt grades. These cables are not affected by heat or sun or rain.
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House Wiring
Although TRS cables can be used for outdoor purposes but due to their higher cost,
weather proof cables are generally used for outdoor services.
6. Flexible Cords
A cable containing one or more cores, each formed of a group of wires, the diameter of
cores and of the wires being very small to afford flexibility, is known as flexible cord.
These are used as connecting wires for such purposes as from ceiling rose to lamp
holder, or from socket-outlet to portable apparatus such as radios, fans, lamps,
heaters etc. The flexibility of such wires facilitate in handling the appliances and
prevent the wires from breakage. The flexible cords used for house hold appliances
are available in various pleasing colours, sizes and of various thickness of insulation.
These wires should never be used for fixed wiring.
Switches
A manually operated device used for closing and opening or for changing the
connections of a circuit is known as a switch.
The switches used in internal wiring may be classified in various ways. According to the
type of base material they are classified as porcelain or bakelite switches. According to
colour of base they are either white or black or brown coloured switches. According to
operation required, they are classified as one way, two-way, centre off, double pole etc.
switches.
1. One-way Switch
This type of switch consists of two terminals which can be easily seen from the
back side of the switch as well, without removing the cover. The switch is always
connect* din series with the point (lamp, fan or socket-outlet) to be controlled.
2. Two-way Switch
The switch of this type consists of four terminals, two of them being short-circuited
inside the switch. The switch of this type is usually used for the stair-case wiring or
circuits where one point is to be controlled from two different places.
3. Two-way Centre off Switch
The switch of this type is just like a two-way switch but having three operations. In the
centre it becomes off. Such switches are used when two lamps are to be operated
alternately.
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House Wiring
ii.
Flush Switches
Flush switches, as obvious from their name, are fixed in flush with the wall
and do not project out. These switches are used where high quality
performance and appearance are required.
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Ceiling Rose
The ceiling rose is used to connect the pendant lamps, fans or fluorescent tubes to
the installation through flexible or silk covered wires. These are not used on a
circuit, the voltage of which normally exceeds 250 volts.
Fig26.8 shows a modern form of moulded ceiling rose which includes the earth
terminal and a shrouded terminal for looping in live wire.
Socket-Outlets
The socket-outlets are used to supply electrical connections whenever required for
electrical appliances such as radios, table fans, table lamps, iron, stoves etc. Socketoutlets are of two types two pin type and three pin type. Two pin socket-outlets have
become obsolete now-a-days. The three pin type socket-outlet has got three hollow
terminals in which three pin plugs can easily be inserted but not loosely. Two holes
being of same size, are meant for making connections to the flexible wire of the appliance
and the third hole, which is bigger comparatively, is meant for earth connections. Thus
three holes or sleeves are for live, neutral and earth connections. The three pin socketoutlets are also of two types:
(i) 5 A for table fans, table lamps, radios etc, and
(ii) 15 A for power circuits as heater, stove, iron etc.
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Plugs
Plugs are used to take the supply from the socket-outlets for electrical appliances
such as table lamp, table fan, heater etc. Similar to socket-outlets plugs are also of
two types namely two pin and three pin. Two pin type plugs have become obsolete
now-a-days. Three pin type plugs consist of three pins usually made from brass. To
the two pins which are thin and of same size, flexible wires are connected and then
covered up. To the third pin, which is thicker comparatively, earth wire from the
electrical appliance is connected. Similar to 3 pin-socket outlets 3 pin plugs are also of
two types5 A and 15 A. (see fig. 26.10)
Lamp Holders
As the name indicates the function of lamp holder is to support the lamp and also
to connect it electrically. These are designed for quick removal and replacement of
the lamp. Lamp holders are of many types. A few will be described here.
Lamp-holders may be either of brass or bakelite type with porcelain interior. Brass
holders are more durable but may give shock if connections are poor. Though bakelite
holders are not durable, but do not give shock.
The following are the different types of lamp holders
1. Batten Holders
Such lamp holders are used where the lamp is to he fitted to the roof or to the wall
i.e. it is directly fitted either to batten or to wooden boards. Such lamp holders are
bayonet type i.e. in such a lamp holder the lamp is forced in. turned slightly and left
in position.
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3. Angle Holders
Such lamp holders are used when the lamps are to be fixed directly on the walls and to
give light at an angle. Such lamp holders are available in various fancy designs
and
colors.
4. Slanting Holders
Such lamp holders are used for lamps to be fixed on advertising boards, for flood lights
and for stage lights. Such lamp holders are used along with shades (hand shape shades)
so that light is concentrated on the material displayed and does not trouble the viewer.
5.
Bracket Holders
Such lamp holders are used to give direct light in the room or above a particular place.
These cannot be fixed on the roof or made to hang. Usually these are fixed on the wall.
These may also be used in table lamps.
6. Water Tight Bracket Holders
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Such lamp holders are provided with tubular glasses fixed with water tight cover.
Such lamp holders are used outside the houses and for street lighting where
there is no cover to save the bulb from falling of water over it.
Junction Box
In joint box system of wiring all joints in conductors are made by means of suitable
connectors or joint cutouts in junction boxes. In looping back system of wiring, which is
widely used now-a-days, junction boxes are not required.
Domestic appliances
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Fan
Food mixer
Iron box
Refrigerator
Air Conditioner
Fan
Aim: - To study the working and maintenance of table fan ceiling
fan
Theory:Fan is an essential home appliance nowadays and is available in different style and facilities. Generally used types are table fan and ceiling fan. We can mount the ceiling fan on
the ceiling for providing wind to whole the room. As per IE rule the minimum height from
floor to fan must be2.5 meter. Table fan can be places on tabletop or any flat surface. But
it has minimum space limit compared to ceiling fan.
Construction
Main parts of a ceiling fan are
(a) Winding
(b) Capacitor &
(c) Regulator
Winding of the motor can be done manually or by automated machine. Regulator may be
electronic type or resistance type. Electronic type regulator has negligible power loss and
compact size. But in the case of resistance type, resistances are connected in series with
the circuit; this may cause power loss as heat.
In table fan one permanent split capacitor run (PSC) motor is the heart of a fan. This
motor consists of two windings one as starting winding and other as running winding.
Starting winding of this motor has high resistance and low reactance but running winding
has low resistance and high reactance. One capacitor is connected in series with the
starting winding and whole of this circuit is put in parallel across running winding. In the
case of ceiling fan these two windings are placed in stator in the inner side of the fan.
Rotor has no winding; it is the outer body of the fan. Ceiling fan motor operates just in
opposite manner as compared to general motor. That is actual rotor of the motor is
blocked and the stator is free to rotate. So ceiling fan runs in anticlockwise direction. At
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the same time table fan motor is operated as normal case and so it runs in clockwise
direction. Capacitor connected in series with the starting winding should be value 2.5
micro farad. Pyranel insulated foil paper capacitor is using for this purpose. It helps to
provide a split phase effect from single phase AC supply.
SERVICING
3.
Dismantle the fan from ceiling and remove the cover. Check the
windings, if it is burnt rewind it with proper gauge copper wire.
Number of turns must be equal to the previous winding, because it may affect
the speed of the fan. If starting winding is burnt, it alone can be replaced but in
the case of running winding we want change these two sets of windings.
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When
Eb = V-IaRa
N V-IaRa/
From the above equation it is clear that the speed of Dc motors can be controlled;
By varying flux per pole. This is known as flux or field control method.
In food Mixers tapped field control method is used for varying the
speed. In this method the number of turns of the series field winding
can be changed by short circuiting a part of it as shown in figure.
We know that the flux produced by the winding depends upon the
ampere turns (i.e. Ise x No. of turns). As the number of turns is
reduced, the speed of the motor increased (N 1/ ).
Servicing
1. Mixer produces spark and smoke
Check wires and connections
Check the brushes and replace it, if it gets damaged. We can by the same
brushes from the market for replacing
2. Mixer is not working.
Check the cable and winding
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Check the overload relay. Replace it if it gets damaged. This over load relay can be buy
from market.
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Aim: - To study the principle of working and servicing of electric iron box
Working principle:Electric iron boxes are very essential home appliance used for ironing garments.
Nowadays this iron boxes are available at different forms with types of facilities.
Generally used two types are as follows.
A. Ordinary
B. Non automatic type
The parts of an ordinary non automatic type iron boxes are chromium plated sole plate, Nichrome
heating element with mica covering, One single plate (Pressure plate) to cover the heating
element, Chromium plated case and ebonite handle.
When supply is given to nichrome heating element it will heated up and the sole plate
touching with it also gets heated. This nichrome element is mica sheet in order to insulate
electricity and conduct heat easily. The iron box body should be earthed well, since there is a usual
chance for electric shock. While using this ordinary iron box we have to switch off it frequently in
order to prevent over heating; because there is no control for heating of element. The heating
element is fitted between sole plate and pressure plate tightly, to prevent air contact. Ebonite
handle of the iron box is used to move it without heating or electric shock to body. Power rating of
this type iron box is around 450 W.
This type of iron box has a thermostat switch and is connected in series with line. Thermostat
controls the temperature, prevent over heating of Iron box and avoid damage of heating element.
The required temperature for different types of garments can be obtained by adjusting the
thermostat knob provided on the iron box body.
Thermostat is a thermal switch which operates automatically due to the variation of heat
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produced around it. Thermostat consists of two contacts, one as fixed contact and other as
moving contact. The movable contact of thermostat consists of a bimetal which is normally in
contact with another strip of metal having fixed contact.
When supply is given to iron box the current starts to flow through the contacts and the temperature rises. This increment in temperature causes the contacts of bimetal strip to bent and opens.
It will cause to stop the flow of current through heating element. While ironing when temperature
reduces than pre fixed value bimetal strip regains its normal position and the circuit again completed. An indicator lamp of 3.8 V is connected in the circuit on the handle of iron box to
indicate the working. Automatic iron boxes are now available in light weight form with power
rating 750 W.
Servicing
1.
2.
Iron box has no enough temperature when knob is placed at one position.
3.
Shock on body
Check the continuity of earth wire to body. If it does not get continuity dismantle the
cover and connect earth wire properly.
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Refrigerator
Introduction:
Refrigeration systems are used for maintaining low temperature say from 20 degree
Celsius down to very low temperature, as those required for food prseveration,
industrial applications, laboratories etc.
The Purpose of Refrigeration: The fundamental reason for having a refrigerator is
to keep food cold. Cold temperatures help food to stay fresh longer. The basic idea
behind refrigeration is to slow down the activity of bacteria (which all food contains)
so that it takes longer for the bacteria to spoil the food.
Refrigeration: It is the process of removing heat at a low temperature level and
rejecting it at a relatively higher temperature level. By its nature heat flows from a
body at a higher temperature to another at a lower temperature.
Refrigeration is accomplished by various methods such as vapour compression
system, absorption system, steam jet refrigeration cycle. The vapour compression
cycle is used in most house hold refrigerators.
Refrigerant: Refrigerants are heat carrying medium, which during their cycle in the
refrigeration system absorb heat at a low temperature level and discard the heat so
absorbed at a higher level.
The various components of a vapour compression refrigeration system are:
Evaporator
Refrigerant
Compressor
Condenser and
Throttling device(capillary tube)
Thermostat
Fan
Motor
Evaporator or Heat-exchanging pipes:- Coiled set of pipes inside the unit.The
process of heat removal from the substance to be cooled or refrigeration is done in
the evaporator.
Refrigerant:- Refrigerants are heat carrying medium, which during their cycle in
the refrigeration system absorbs heat at a low temperature level and reject it at a
higher temperature level.
Freon: Which is commonly used refrigerant in vapour compression refrigerator
system. Freon (F) is trade name given to gas, which is mixture of chlorine, fluorine
and carbon. Freon-12, Freon-22, and Freon-114 are extensively used for domestic
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Air Conditioner
An air conditioner removes heat and moisture from the air by passing it over a cold
surface. When warm, moist "inside" air is blown across the surface of the unit's
cooling coil, the air temperature drops and the water vapor in it condenses making
the air cooler and drier and therefore more "comfortable."
Room air conditions are installed on windows or wall openings. The assembly
incorporates a refrigeration unit, and double shaft fan motor with fans mounted on
both sides of the motor, one on the evaporator side and other for the air cooled
condenser. The room (or cooling) side and the outdoor (or heat rejection) side of the
unit are separated by an insulated patrician within the casing.
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This continues over and over and over until the room reaches the temperature you
want the room cooled to. The thermostat senses that the temperature has reached
the right setting and turns off the air conditioner. As the room warms up, the
thermostat turns the air conditioner back on until the room reaches the comfortable
temperature.
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Driving system
Moving System
Braking System
Recording mechanism
Series magnet:
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b.
Shunt Magnet
Moving System:
It consists of a light aluminium disc mounted on a vertical spindle. The aluminium
disc is positioned in the air gap between series and shunt magnets, The spindle is supported
by a cup shaped jewelled bearing at the bottom end and has a spring jewel bearing at the
top end. Since there is no control spring the disc makes continous rotation under the
action of deflecting torque.
Braking system:
A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminium disc as showin the Fig.
forms the braking system. When the aluminium disc moves in the field of the braking
magnet, flux is cat and currents are induced in the disc. The direction of induced current is
such that it opposes the rotation (lenz's law). Thus braking torque is produced. Since
the induced current is proportional to the speed of the disc (N) therefore braking torque (T ) is
proportional to the disc speed (ie) T. x N.
The position of braking magnet is adjustable and therefore, braking torque can be adjusted by
shifting the magnet to different radial positions. If the braking magnet is moved towards the
centre of the disc, flux cut the disc is less which reduces the induced current and thus the
braking torque is reduced. Hence by the inward movement of the magnet, braking torque
decreases but the speed of the disc increases and vice-versa.
Recording mechanism
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Working:
When the energy meter is connected in the circuit, the current coil carries the load
current and pressure coil carries the current proportional to the supply voltage. The
magnetic field produced by the series magnet (series coil) is in phase with the line
current and magnetic field produced by the shunt magnet (pressure coil) is in
quadrature with the applied voltage (since the coil is highly inductive). Thus a phase
difference exist between the fluxes produced by the two coils. This set up a rotating
field which interacts with the disc and produces a driving torque and thus, disc starts
rotating. The number of revolutions made by the disc depends upon the energy
passing through the meter. The spindle is geared to the recording mechanism so
that electrical energy consumed in the circuit is directly registered in kWh.
The speed of the disc is adjusted by adjusting the position of the braking
magnet. For example, if the energy meter registers less energy than the energy
actually consumed in the circuit. Then, the speed of the disc has to be increased
which is obtained by shifting the braking magnet nearer to the centre of the disc and
vice-versa.
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Electric lamps
A brief on electric lamps
The first ever practical model of the incandescent lamp was invented in 1879. Since
then, there has been series of developments in the area of light source and lighting
technology. The first incandescent lamp was made with a carbon filament with a useful
light output of only three lumens per watt. A long time has gone by since then and today
there are about 200 thousand different types of demands keeping in view the wattage,
size, applications, etc. It includes about 40,000 types of incandescent lamps alone.
Lamp differ from each other in terms of luminous flux, light, the colour of the light, their
colour rendering characteristics, size and energy consumption. Broadly, different types
of lamps can be classified as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Incandescent Lamps
Incandescent lamp has a history of over a century. The design of the lamp has changed
many times, but still it remains to be the most popular type due to its simple construction,
easy replacement and cheap cost. Incandescent lamps are available in wattage rating upto
1500W.
Construction
Fig.a illustrates the construction of a general lighting service (GLS) lamp. Incandescent
lamps work on the principle that visible light and infrared radiation are emitted as a result
of heating of the filament wire by a current passing through it. These emissions become
noticeable above 500C. Tungsten is usually used as the filament material since it has
high melting point. The diameter of the filament wire is determined by the operating
current and the length of the filament by the operating voltage. For normal voltages, the
length will be too much and a coiled coil arrangement is adopted to accommodate the
long filament wire. The filament is mounted on leads that carry the current.
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To reduce the effect of vibration, additional filament supports are also employed. The
filament assembly is usually housed in a pear shaped glass bulb. The bulb diameter
for 25W, 40W, 60W and 100W coiled coil type lamps is 60 mm. The size of the bulb
is decided by the maximum limit for cap temperature. For the same wattage if the
bulb size is reduced, the cap temperature will increase and eventually result in failure
of mounting accessories.
Inside the lamp it may be vacuum or a filling of inert gas like argon or krypton with a
small percentage of nitrogen. The choice between vacuum and gas filling is made
after considering the following factors. Vacuum reduces heat loss and therefore helps to
get the highest temperature of the filament and hence more light output. But it also
increases the evaporation rate of tungsten, reducing its life. Filling with an inert gas
reduces evaporation of the filament material, but conducts heat away from the
filament, reducing the temperature and the light output. Generally vacuum is used for
low wattage lamps (15W or below) and gas filling for higher power lamps.
Performance
Incandescent lamp is the most widely used lamp because of its cheap cost and simple
usage. It is available in a wide range of voltage and wattage ratings and do not
require any additional accessories for starting or normal operation. They have
excellent colour rendering index and are used as automobile lamps, panel lamps etc.
in addition to general lighting purposes.
The major disadvantage of the incandescent lamp is its low efficacy. A typical 40W
lamp may have an efficacy of around 10 lumens/watt only. Compared to other types
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Construction
The construction of a standard fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig. c. It consists of a
glass tube of around 36 mm diameter and a length of 1200 mm. The inner surface of
the tube is coated with a fluorescent powder - usually phosphor coating. Tungsten
wire electrodes with bi-pin cap are provided at both ends. There is an electrode
shield around each electrode to reduce the blackening of the tubes due to deposition
of evaporated tungsten. The tube is filled with an inert gas such as argon to a
pressure of 1.5 to 5 mm of mercury. A small drop-let of mercury is also introduced into
the tube. During normal operation this mercury vaporizes and helps to maintain the
discharge.
Operation
Fluorescent lamps are designed for switch start operation. A typical switch start
circuit is shown in Fig. c. The starter consists of two bimetallic contacts, housed in a
small glass bulb filled with a noble gas at low pressure. The contacts are positioned
with a narrow separation between them. When the normal voltage is applied, it
creates a glow discharge between the bimetallic contacts and due to heating they
bend towards each other. The contacts touch each other for one or two seconds and
the current path is completed through the inductive ballast and the filament
electrodes. This current results in preheating the electrodes. As the bimetallic contacts
touch, the glow discharge stops and now the contacts cool down and leave apart to
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open the circuit. The sudden break of current will induce a high voltage (600-1500V)
in the ballast and is applied across -the tube, which in turn trigger the discharge
through the tube. The capacitor, which is connected across the starter contact, is
provided to reduce the radio interference due to switching operations. The starter has
no function once the lamp is started.
Like other discharge lamps, fluorescent lamps are also having a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance. This means the resistance of the tube decreases when
temperature is increased, resulting in increase of current. Therefore the ballast is
essential during normal operation also to regulate the lamp current. When the ballast
is connected in series with the circuit, it regulates the lamp current. The capacitor
across the supply line is for power factor improvement.
When there is a discharge through the lamp, it produces radiations mainly in the
ultraviolet region. This radiation is converted to visible radiation by the phosphor
coating on the inner side of the glass tube.
Performance
The luminous efficiency of the fluorescent lamp is around 75 lumens/watt, which is
much higher than incandescent lamps. The colour rendering index of this lamp is in
the rage of 50-60 and this is sufficient for normal domestic or commercial lighting.
Fluorescent tamps have an expected life varying from 6000 to 20000 hours. One
disadvantage with this lamp is that the power factor of the circuit is low (around
0.5), but this problem can be solved to some extent by connecting a capacitor across
the supply.
Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) are now becoming very popular. It is a smaller
type fluorescent lamp that is even more energy efficient. CFLs are available in wattage
ratings of 5W, 7W, 9W, 11W, 13W, 18W, 23W etc. and usually they come with an
adapter having a cap similar to the incandescent lamp cap so that the lamp can
directly be fixed into an ordinary lamp holder. The adapter contains necessary circuits
for startup and normal operation of the lamp. The principle of operation is very similar
to ordinary fluorescent lamps, but uses a thin tube. The tube may be U shaped or
having multiple folds. The light output of an 11W CFL is equivalent to that of a 60W
incandescent lamp. This means the energy saving by the use of CFLs is enormous.
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The arc tube is made of quartz and is capable of withstanding high temperature and
pressure. Inside the discharge tube there are two main electrodes placed at both
ends and an auxiliary electrode near to one of the main electrodes. The tube
contains a mixture of mercury vapour and an inert gas - usually argon. Initially,
when the voltage is applied there will be no discharge between the main electrodes,
but the same voltage is available between the auxiliary electrode and the main
electrode next to it. Since the gap between these two electrodes is less, it triggers a
discharge between them. A series resistance limits this discharge current. The heat
generated by this discharge evaporates more mercury and within a few minutes,
the discharge starts between the main electrodes, giving its full brightness.
The radiations produced by the tube include ultraviolet and infrared rays in nearly
equal proportions. The ultraviolet rays are converted to visible radiation by the
phosphor coating on the outer envelope.
Being discharge type, mercury vapour lamp also has a negative temperature
coefficient of resistance. Therefore an equipment to regulate the current is necessary.
A ballast connected in series with the lamp serves the purpose.
Performance
There are different types of mercury lamps available and the efficacy and colour
rendering index vary from type to type. The highest efficacy is around 60
lumens/watt, but with colour rendering index of around 20 only. Certain types of MV
lamps have higher colour index at the expense of efficacy.MV lamps are generally
used for street lighting and some commercial exteriors where colour rendering is
not important. These lamps have long life (upto 20000 hours).
4. Metal Halide Lamps
Metal halide lamp is a modified form of mercury vapour lamp. In this lamp,
metals other than mercury are also added to the discharge tube. Due to the
spectral contribution of these metals, light emission occurs over a wide range of
visible spectrum and hence the colour rendering index and efficacy are considerably
increased. Commonly used metals are sodium, scandium, gallium thallium, indium
etc. The selection of metals and the composition are dependant on the type of emission
required.
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The metals are usually used in the form of their halide salts - hence the name metal
halide. The halide group includes fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine but in most
commercially available lamps, only iodine compounds are used, like sodium iodide,
scandium iodide etc.
Metal halide lamps are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The power rating
is in a range of 40 - 1800W. One typical construction is very similar to mercury
vapour lamps as shown in Fig (d).
Another commonly used type of metal halide lamp has both the leads connected to a
bi-pin cap as shown in Fig (e). The arc tube is made from high quality silica. The
electrodes used are of tungsten and the filling for the arc tube consists of argon,
mercury and metal halides appropriate for the emission required.
Performance
Metal halide lamps have efficacy in the range of 60-80 Im/W and a colour rendering
index of 70-85. That means both the efficacy and colour rendering are better than
mercury vapour lamps. Due to this reason, many users now prefer metal halide
lamps over mercury vapour lamps. Metal halide lamps are widely used as projector
lamps, for television and film shooting etc.
Sodium Vapour Lamps
Sodium vapour lamp is also.a discharge lamp. The discharge tube of this lamp
contains a mixture of sodium vapour and an inert gas usually neon. At normal
temperature, the sodium inside the tube shall be in solid state and therefore do not
contribute to discharge. The inert gas is added as a 'starting gas' and the initial
discharge shall be due to the presence of this gas. The radiation produced by sodium
lamp is predominantly a monochromatic yellow coloured radiation at 589 nm
wavelength. This wavelength has a speciality that it is very near to the peak of the
eye sensitivity curve.
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Above figure shows the construction of a low pressure sodium vapour lamp. The
vapour pressure of sodium is about 0.1 Pa for this type. The discharge tube is a U
shaped glass tube. The inside of the arc tube is coated with a sodium resistant glass
layer. At the two ends of the tube, there are coiled electrodes. When the lamp is not
burning, the sodium will be in solid state deposited on the inner side of the tube. At
startup the lamp functions like a neon lamp with a characteristic pink colour. As the
temperature builds up, the sodium vapourises and starts radiating yellow light. The
lamp shall give it full brightness within a few minutes.
There is an outer envelope for the lamp and the space between the discharge tube and
the envelope is vacuum. Vacuum is necessary to reduce the heat loss from the
discharge tube. It is also important to maintain the temperature of the discharge
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