FEE Manual Sem2

School of Electrical and Communication Sciences
Laboratory Manual
Foundations of Electrical Engineering
Name of student:
_____________________________________
Class: __________________ Roll No: ________
Academic Year: ___________ Program: _________

Laboratory Manual
Subject: Foundations of Electrical Engineering
Course Outcomes: On completion of the course, learner will be able to
CO1: Identify measurement of insulation resistance, variation of temperature, energy
consumption through energy conversion and network theorems.
CO2: Summarize the fundamentals of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction
concepts to solve the numerical.
CO3: Illustrate the concepts of A.C fundamentals and electrostatics.
CO4: Solve expression for impedance, current, power in series and parallel RLC circuit
along with phasor diagram.
CO5: Deduce three phase ac circuits and principles of transformer along with phasor
diagram
CO6: Demonstrate battery and solar energy with applications.
Sr. Mapped
Aim of the Experiment Page No.
No. COs/POs
1. Study of safety precautions, electric shock, first aid for electric
shock and other hazards, and safety rules. Introduction to energy PO6-8
conservation and simple techniques to achieve it.
2. Working and use of multi-meters, measuring instruments -
voltmeter, ammeter, Wattmeter, the importance of earthing.
PO6-8
3. Verification of DC circuits: Kirchhoff Voltage Law (K.V.L) and
Kirchhoff Current Law (K.C.L). (Software OR Hardware)
CO1
4. To verify the Superposition theorem in a DC circuit. (Software
OR Hardware)
CO1
5. To verify the relation between phase and line quantities in three-
phase balanced star-delta connections of load. (Hardware)
CO5
6. To determine efficiency and regulation of transformer by direct
loading test of a single-phase transformer. (Hardware)
CO5
7. To demonstrate different types of electrical protection
equipments such as fuses, MCB, MCCB, and ELCB.
PO6-8
8. To measure the voltage and current of series RL and RC circuits
on AC supply. (Hardware OR Software)
CO4
9. To determine the resonance frequency in series RLC circuit.
(Hardware OR Software)
CO4
10. To measure the insulation resistance of electrical protection
equipment/cable using Megger.
PO6-8
11. Verification of Thevenin’s Theorem in a DC circuit. (Hardware
OR Software)
CO1
12.
Study of Charging and discharge of capacitor and observe the
response of voltage and current on a storage oscilloscope. CO4
(Hardware / Software)
Index
Foundations of Electrical Engineering
Expt. Date of Date of Sign of
Title of the Experiment Grade
No. Performance Assessment Faculty
10
Certificate
This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ___________________________________Roll No:_____
of Div:_____, PRN:___________________ has satisfactorily completed the practical of
the subject Foundations of Electrical Engineering
Faculty Incharge Head of Department Dean

Title:
Experiment No:
Date of Performance: / / Timely Completion: /10
Date of Assessment: / / Presentation: /10
Signature of Faculty:
Total: /20
Safety precautions
Aim: Study of safety precautions, electric shock, first aid for electric shock and other hazards, safety rules.
Introduction to energy conservation and simple techniques to achieve it.
Prerequisite:
(1) Electrical supply characteristics
(2) General safety
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Learning outcomes: At the end of this experiment students will be able to
(1) Be familiar with safety precautions, standard practices while working on electrical installations.
(2) Select and use of electrical measuring instruments.
(3) Specify and select resistance, inductance and capacitance.
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Theory:
[A] Safety Precautions:
It is necessary to observe some safety precautions while using the electric supply to avoid the serious
problems like shock & fire hazards.
1. Insulation of the conductors must be proper & in good conditions.
2. Megger test should be conducted & insulation must be checked.
3. Earth connection should be always maintained in proper condition.
4. For proper protection, fuses must have correct ratings.
5. Always switch off the main switch before replacing a blown fuse.
6. While using any electrical device, put on rubber soled footwear & gloves.
7. Never remove the plug by pulling the wires connected to it.
8. The sockets should be fixed at a hight beyond the reach of the children.
9. Always used insulated screw driver, pilers etc.
10. In case of fire or shock switch off the main supply immediately.
Some general guidelines that can be used to reduce the risk of injury caused by laboratory hazards are as
follows:
1. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.

2. Disconnect the power source before servicing or repairing electrical equipment.
3. When it is necessary to handle equipment that is plugged in, be sure hands are dry and, when possible,
wear nonconductive gloves and shoes with insulated soles.
4. If water or a chemical is spilled onto equipment, shut off power at the main switch or circuit breaker
and unplug the equipment.
5. If an individual comes in contact with a live electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment, cord or
person. Disconnect the power source from the circuit breaker or pull out the plug using a leather belt.
6. Do not make circuit changes or perform any wiring when power is on.
7. Powered equipment can be hot! Use caution when handling equipment after it has been operating.
8. Do your wiring, setup, and a careful circuit checkout before applying power.
9. Do not pull wires out until you are absolutely sure that the circuit is completely dead.
10. All the electrical equipment must be connected to the proper earth line.
(B) Introduction to energy conservation and simple techniques to achieve it.

Energy conservation:
Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used. It may be achieved through
efficient energy use, in which case energy use is decreased while achieving a similar outcome, or by reduced
consumption of energy services. Energy conservation may result in increase of financial capital,
environmental value, national security, personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations
that are direct consumers of energy may want to conserve energy in order to reduce energy costs and
promote economic security. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus
maximize profit.
Energy conservation facilitates the replacement of non-renewable resources with renewable energy.
Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages, and is a more
environmentally benign alternative to increased energy production.
Conservation of Energy at Home:
Here is a collection of some useful tips that can help you with more efficient use of electric energy -
a) Lightning:
This is how you can help conserve electrical energy with respect to the lightning at your home.
1. Turn- off the lights if by opening of the ventilation, sufficient sun light can light up the room.
2. Use fluorescent lights instead of bulbs whenever possible.
3. Reduce usage of high wattage bulb where less light will do.
4. Use compact fluorescent lamps in the open passages, toilets and bathrooms.
Kitchen Appliances:
b) Refrigerator:
There are several devices in a common kitchen which can be made to consume lesser volume of electrical
power if used properly.
1. Open refrigerator door only when necessary and know in advance what exactly you are looking for inside
it.
2. Do not place the refrigerator near heat sources like ovens, gas stove, etc.
4. Deforest your refrigerator if the ice inside gets more than quarter of an inch thick.
5. Regular deforesting helps in conserving power.
c) Ovens, Microwave and Other Small Appliances:
Devices like ovens and microwave can also be made to converse energy by following these tips-
1. Use pots that fit the range of cooking unit, cover the pans and use only a little amount of water. Keep the
cooking range clean and the reflectors in a shiny condition.
2. You can cook many foods in the oven at the same time or make extra.
3. Portion for future meals. Arrange the dishes inside the oven for proper flow of air. Don’t line the racks
with the foil.
4. Use small appliances and the microwave oven as much as possible. They are not only quicker but even
more economical than a cooking range.
5. Do not pre-heat the oven unless your recipe calls for it. Ensure that the oven doors remain closed during
baking period.
6. Keep your microwave oven clean so that the heat is concentrated on the food and not the spills!
d) Washing Machine:
Washing machines can also prove out to be power hungry devices if not utilized correctly. To make better
use of them, follow these tips. . ..
1. Do wash at full load but do not overload the machine, avoid usage of drier unit of the machine so as to
save on electrical energy.
2. Keep the line filter clean.
3. Presoak heavily soiled laundry whenever possible.
4. Use two loads one after another to dry out in the drier. This will help make use of the heat still available
within the drier unit that was produced to dry out the first load.
5. Adjustable water level should be correctly used so as to save on quantity of water used in a wash.
Conclusion :
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LAB ASSIGNMENT
1. One of the main functions of personal protective grounds is to provide a _______ resistance/impedance
path for a short circuit.
A) High
B) Low
C) Smooth
D) Adequate
2. Do not use appliances, if_________
A) damaged
B) wires exposed
C) working properly
D) both a and b
3. Which one of these would require that a device is replaced or repaired?
A) Frayed wire
B) Cracked insulation
C) Broken plug
D) All of the above
4. Gloves should be made of what two materials when dealing with electricity?
A) Cotton and polymers
B) Leather and rubber
C) Cotton and rubber
D) Leather and cotton
5. What shouldn’t be stored near electrical panels?
A) Wood
B) Combustible liquids
C) PVC pipe
D) Magnets
6. __________ all electrical equipment before use.
A. Watch
B. Inspect
C. Label
D. Organize.
Experiment No:
Total: /20
Title: Connection of measuring instruments and working
Aim: Working and use of multi-meters, measuring instruments - voltmeter, ammeter, Wattmeter,
importance of earthing.
Prerequisite:
(1) Electrical supply characteristics
(2) General safety
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(1) Select and use of electrical measuring instruments.
(2) Learn to take accurate readings on analog meters
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Theory:
Measuring Instruments:
1. Ammeter: -
Ammeter is used to measure current in electrical circuit and is required to be connected always in series.
As ammeter resistance is low hence voltage drop across ammeter is low . The current coil of ammeter has
low current carrying capacity using shunt .
Classification or Types of Ammeter-
• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) ammeter.
• Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter.
• Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
• Induction Type Ammeter.
• Digital Ammeter (DAM).
• Depending on type of supply i.e.AC or DC , ammeter is selected .
DC Ammeter are mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure both AC and DC currents, also
Electrodynamometer type thermal instrument can measure DC and AC, induction meters are not generally
used for ammeter construction due to their higher cost, inaccuracy in measurement.
Symbol
0-10A 0-10A
A A
A) DC Ammeter B) AC Ammeter
2. Voltmeter: - Voltmeter is employed to measure the potential difference (Voltage) across any two
points of a circuit. It is connected in the parallel across any element in the circuit. The resistance of voltmeter
is kept very high by connecting a high resistance in series of the voltmeter with the coil of the instrument.
For DC voltmeters PMMC instruments are used, MI instrument can measure both AC and DC voltages,
electrodynamometer type, thermal instrument can measure DC and AC voltages as well. Induction meters
are not used because of their high cost, inaccuracy in measurement. Rectifier type voltmeter, electrostatic
type and also digital voltmeter (DVM) can measure both AC and DC voltages.
Symbol
0-300V 0-100V
V V
A) DC Voltmeter B) AC Voltmeter
3. Wattmeter: -
The measurement of real power (Active power) in AC circuits is done by using Wattmeter.
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical energy)
in watts of any given circuit. Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurement of Active power at
fundamental frequency. It consists of two coils i.e., pressure coil (parallel) and current coil (series). As the
current coil is connected in series with load, it measures the load current and whereas the pressures coil
which is connected across the load is used to measure the voltage across the load. Mainly electro-dynamic
type of wattmeter is used its construction is as follows. The real power in AC circuits is given by expression.
Symbol:
0-5A
0-300V
M L
C V
4. Digital Multimeters
A digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical values—principally voltage (volts),
current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the
electrical/electronic industries. Digital multimeters long ago replaced pointer-based analog meters due to
their ability to measure with greater accuracy, reliability and increased impedance. Digital multimeters
combine the testing capabilities of single-task meters—the voltmeter (for measuring volts), ammeter (amps)
and ohmmeter (ohms). Often, they include several additional specialized features or advanced options.
Technicians with specific needs, therefore, can seek out a model targeted to meet their needs.
Digital multimeter typically includes four components:
• Display: Where measurement readouts can be viewed.
• Buttons: For selecting various functions; the options vary by model.
• Dial (or rotary switch): For selecting primary measurement values (volts, amps, ohms).
• Input jacks: Where test leads are inserted.
Observation Table :
Sr. Meter/ Parmeter Specifications with make

No.
1 Ammeter 1.
2
2 Voltmeter 1.
2
3. Wattmeter 1.
2
4 Multimeters 1.
Conclusion:
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LAB ASSIGNMENT
1. Resistances can be measured with the help of a …………

a) Digital Multimeter
b) voltmeter
c) ammeter
d) all of the above
2. The pointer of an indicating instrument should be ……

a) very light
b) very heavy
c) either 1 or 2
d) neither 1 nor 2
3. Tick the circuit where ammeter and voltmeter are correctly connected……
a)
b)
c)
d) None of these
4. _____________ is connected in parallel in an electric circuit
a) Voltmeter
b) Ammeter
c) Resistance
d) Fuse
5. Digital multimeter is used for _________
a) measuring a.c. and d.c. current, voltage and resistance
b) measuring a.c. current and voltage
c) measuring d.c. current and resistance
d) measuring a.c. voltage and resistance
Experiment No:
Total: /20
Title: Kirchoffs laws
Aim: Verification of dc circuits: Kirchhoff Voltage Law (K.V.L) and Kirchhoff Current Law (K.C.L). (Software
and Hardware)
Prerequisite:
(1) Ohm’s law
(2) Series and parallel combinations of resistances
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(1) State KVL, KCL.
(2) Apply KVL, KCL in given circuits.
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Theory:
(1) Kirchhoff’s current Law (KCL): The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a
circuit equals zero, ∑ I = 0.
Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents
leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the
equation as;
𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 – 𝑰𝟒 – 𝑰𝟓 = 𝟎
(2) Kirchhoff’s voltage Law (KVL): The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path
in a circuit equals zero, ∑ U = 0. That means “in any closed loop network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is
also equal to zero. This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.
Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is
important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage
sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing series circuits.
Apparatus:
Sr. No. Apparatus Specifications

1 Power Supply
2 Resistors
3 Multimeters
4 DC ammter
Theoretical Solution: For KCL and KVL

Please solve theoretical solution on separate ruled page.
Connection Diagram:Draw on separate graph paper

Procedure:
Procedure for KCL:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set a particular value of voltage sources RPS1 and RPS2
3. Note down the corresponding ammeter reading
4. Repeat the same for different voltages
Procedure for KVL:
1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set a particular value of voltage sources RPS1 and RPS2.
3. Note all the voltage reading
4. Repeat the same for different voltages
Observation and Result Table:
KCL Observation Table
Theoretical values
Sr.No. Voltage V1 Voltage V2 I in mA I1 in mA I2 in mA I=I1+I2

1
2
.Practical values
Sr.No. Voltage V1 Voltage V2 I in mA I1 in mA I2 in mA I=I1+I2

1
2
Conclusion:
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LAB ASSIGNMENT
1. Relation between currents according to KCL is
a) i1=i2=i3=i4=i5
b) i1+i4+i3=i5+i2
c) i1-i5=i2-i3-i4
d) i1+i5=i2+i3+i4
2. Solve and find the value of I.
a) -0.5A
b) 0.5A
c) -0.2A
d) 0.2A
3. The basic laws for analyzing an electric circuit are :-

a) Einstein’s theory
b) Newtons laws
c) Kirchhoff’s laws
d) Faradays laws
4. A junction whell two (or) more than two network elements meet is known as a ____________
a) Node
b) Branch
c) Loop
d) Mesh
5. Fill in the blank: The sum of current of all outgoing currents is equal to sum of all _________
Experiment No:
Total: /20
Title: Kirchoffs laws
Aim: To verify Superposition theorem in a DC circuit. (Software and Hardware)
Prerequisite:
(1) Ohm’s law

(2) Series and parallel combinations of resistances
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(1) State Superposition Theorem.
(2) Apply Superposition Theorem in given circuits.
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Theory:
Superposition Theorem
For every electrical circuit, there are two or additional independent supplies like current, voltage or both the
sources. For examining these electrical circuits, superposition theorem is widely utilized.
• Superposition theorem states that in a linear bilateral network containing more than one source, the
current flowing through the branch is the algebraic sum of the current flowing through that branch when
sources are considered one at a time and replacing other sources by their respective internal resistances.
To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the other sources first must be "turned off" (set
to zero)
➢ Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby eliminating difference
of potential. i.e. V=0, internal impedance of ideal voltage source is ZERO (short circuit)).
➢ Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby eliminating current.
i.e. I=0, internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite (open circuit).
This procedure is followed for each source in turn, and then the resultant responses are added to
determine the true operation of the circuit. The resultant circuit operation is the superposition of the
various voltage and current sources.
Apparatus:
Sr. No. Apparatus Specifications

1 Power Supply
2 Resistors
3 Multimeters
Theoretical Solution: For Superposition Theorem
Please solve theoretical solution on separate ruled page.
Connection Diagram: Draw on a separate graph paper
Procedure:
Procedure for Superposition theorem:
1. Give the connections as per the diagram.
2. Set a particular voltage value using RPS1 and RPS2 & note down the ammeter reading
3. Set the same voltage in circuit I using RPS1 alone and short circuit the terminals and note the ammeter
reading.
4. Set the same voltage in RPS2 alone as in circuit I and note down the ammeter reading.
5. Verify superposition theorem
Superposition Theorem
Theoretical values
Sr. Source V1 Source V2 Source V1
No. is acting is acting and V2 are
alone alone acting
I’ I’’ I = I’ + I’’
1
.
Practical values
Sr. Source V1 Source V2 Source V1
No. is acting is acting and V2 are
alone alone acting
I’ I’’ I = I’ + I’’
1
2
.
Conclusion:
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LAB ASSIGNMENT
1. In Superposition theorem, while considering a source, all other voltage sources are?
a) Open Circuited
b) Change its position
c) Short Circuited
d) Removed from circuit
2. Superposition theorem is only applicable in____________ network

a) Linear unilateral
b) Linear bilateral
c) Nonlinear unilateral
d) Nonlinear bilateral
3. In applying superposition theorem, to determine branch current and voltages

a) all current and voltage sources are shorted.
b) only current sources are open-circuited.
c) only voltage sources are shorted.
d) voltage sources are shorted and current sources are open-circuited.
4. The superposition theorem is used when the circuit contains
a) a single voltage sources
b) active elements only
c) 2 or more voltage sources
d) passive elements only
5. The superposition theorem is used when the circuit contains
a) a single voltage source
b) active elements only
c) a number of voltage sources
d) passive elements only
Experiment No:
Total: /20
Title: Star-Delta Connection of Load
Aim:To Verify the relation between phase and line quantities in three-phase balance star delta
connection of load
Prerequisite:
(1) Different types of supply systems
(2) Types of load
(3) Concept of phasor and phasor arithmetic
(1) Derive the relation of phase and line quantities in the three-phase system with star and delta
connection of load
(2) Differentiate between balanced and unbalanced supply and load.
(3) Calculate power in balanced three-phase star and delta connected load.
Theory:
Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating current electric
power generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type of poly-phase system and is the most
common method used by electrical grids worldwide to transfer power. It is also used to power
large motors and other heavy loads.
A three-wire three-phase circuit is usually more economical than an equivalent two-wire phase circuit
at the same line to ground voltage because it uses less conductor material to transmit a given amount of
electrical power. Polyphase power systems were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris, Mikhail
Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Jonas Wenström, John Hopkinson and Nikola Tesla in the late 1880s.
(A) Line Voltages and Phase Voltages:
The conductors between a voltage source and a load are called lines, andthe voltage between any
two lines is called line voltage. The voltage measured between any line and neutral (two-terminal of a
load of a single phase) is called phase voltage. For example, for a 440Y/230 volt service, the line voltage is
440 Volts, and the phase voltage is 230 Volts.
(B) Three Phase Supply System:
In a symmetric three-phase power supply system, three conductors each carry an alternating
current of the same frequency and voltage amplitude relative to a
common reference but with a phase difference of one third of a cycle
between each. The common reference is usually connected to
ground and often to a current-carrying conductor called the neutral.
Due to the phase difference, the voltage on any conductor reaches
its peak at one third of a cycle after one of the other conductors and
one third of a cycle before the remaining conductor. This phase delay
gives constant power transfer to a balanced linear load. It also makes
it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in an electric motor and generate other phase
arrangements using transformers. The amplitude of the voltage difference between two phases
is √𝟑(1.732...) times the amplitude of the voltage of the individual phases.
(C) In star connected load
If the three start terminals or end points of the three loads are connected together, the result is known
as star connection as shown in following
figure. The common connecting point N, as
shown in fig is known as star point or
neutral point.
𝑽̅ 𝑹𝒀 , 𝑽̅ 𝒀𝑩 , 𝑽
̅ 𝑩𝑹 = Balanced line voltages
(equal in magnitude|𝑽𝑳 | and phase
difference of𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 .
𝑰̅𝑹 , 𝑰̅𝒀 , 𝑰̅𝑩 = Balanced line currents (equal in
magnitude|𝑰𝑳 | and phase difference of𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 .
𝑽̅ 𝑹𝑵 , 𝑽̅ 𝒀𝑵 , 𝑽
̅ 𝑩𝑵 = Balanced phase voltages
(equal in magnitude|𝑽𝒑𝒉 | and phase
𝑰̅𝑹𝑵 , 𝑰̅𝒀𝑵 , 𝑰̅𝑩𝑵 = Balanced phase currents
(equal in magnitude|𝑰𝒑𝒉 | and phase
From above diagram it is clear that phasevalues of currents are equal to line values of currents i.e.
|𝑰𝑹 | = |𝑰𝒀 | = |𝑰𝑩 | = |𝑰𝑳 |and|𝑰𝑹𝑵 | = |𝑰𝒀𝑵 | = |𝑰𝑩𝑵 | = |𝑰𝒑𝒉 |.
|𝑰𝑳 | = |𝑰𝒑𝒉 | i.e. 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔.
From above diagram it is also clear that phase values of voltages are not equal to line values of voltages
i.e. |𝑽𝑹𝒀 | = |𝑽𝒀𝑵 | = |𝑽𝑩𝑵 | = |𝑽𝑳 |and|𝑽𝑹𝑵 | =
|𝑽𝒀𝑵 | = |𝑽𝑩𝑵 | = |𝑽𝒑𝒉 |.
To determine this relation, let balanced supply is
applied to three phase balanced star connected
resistive load. I.e. phase voltages and respective phase
currents are in phase. The same can be represented in
phasor diagram as below.
It shows that
̅ 𝑹𝒀 = 𝑽
𝑽 ̅ 𝑹𝑵 + (−𝑽 ̅ 𝒀𝑵 )
The magnitude of 𝑽 ̅ 𝑹𝒀 can be calculated as
|𝑽𝑹𝒀 |𝟐 = |𝑽𝑹𝑵 |𝟐 + |𝑽𝒀𝑵 |𝟐 + 𝟐|𝑽𝑹𝑵 ||𝑽𝒀𝑵 | 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
|𝑽𝑳 |𝟐 = |𝑽𝒑𝒉 | + |𝑽𝒑𝒉 | + 𝟐|𝑽𝒑𝒉 ||𝑽𝒑𝒉 | 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎
𝟐
|𝑽𝑳 |𝟐 = |𝑽𝒑𝒉 | (𝟐 + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎)
𝟐
|𝑽𝑳 |𝟐 = |𝑽𝒑𝒉 | (𝟑)
|𝑽𝑳 | = √𝟑|𝑽𝒑𝒉 |
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 = √𝟑 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔
(D) In delta connected load
If the start terminals are connected to end terminals of another phase load, the result is known as delta
connection as shown in the following the figure.
𝑽̅ 𝑹𝒀 , 𝑽̅ 𝒀𝑩 , 𝑽
̅ 𝑩𝑹 = Balanced line voltages
(equal in magnitude|𝑽𝑳 | and phase
𝑰̅𝑹 , 𝑰̅𝒀 , 𝑰̅𝑩 = Balanced line currents (equal in
magnitude |𝑰𝑳 | and phase difference of𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 .
𝑽̅ 𝒓𝒚 , 𝑽
̅ 𝒚𝒃 , 𝑽̅ 𝒃𝒓 = Balanced phase voltages
(equal in magnitude |𝑽𝒑𝒉 | and phase
𝑰̅𝑹𝒀 , 𝑰̅𝒀𝑩 , 𝑰̅𝑩𝑹 = Balanced phase currents
(equal in magnitude |𝑰𝒑𝒉 | and phase
From above diagram it is clear that phase values of voltages are equal to line values of voltages i.e.
|𝑽𝑹𝒀 | = |𝑽𝒀𝑩 | = |𝑽𝑩𝑹 | = |𝑽𝑳 |and|𝑽𝒓𝒚 | = |𝑽𝒚𝒃 | = |𝑽𝒃𝒓 | = |𝑽𝒑𝒉 |.
|𝑽𝑳 | = |𝑽𝒑𝒉 | i.e. 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 = 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔.
From above diagram it is also clear that phase values of currents are not equal to line values of currents
i.e. |𝑰𝑹 | = |𝑰𝒀 | = |𝑰𝑩 | = |𝑰𝑳 |and|𝑰𝑹𝒀 | = |𝑰𝒀𝑩 | = |𝑰𝑩𝑹 | =
|𝑰𝒑𝒉 |.
To determine this relation, let balanced supply is
applied to three phase balanced star connected resistive
load. I.e. phase voltages and respective phase currents are
in phase. The same can be represented in phasor diagram
as given.
It shows that
𝑰̅𝑹 = 𝑰̅𝑹𝒀 + (−𝑰̅𝒀𝑩 )
The magnitude of 𝑽 ̅ 𝑹𝒀 can be calculated as
|𝑰𝑹 | = |𝑰𝑹𝒀 |𝟐 + |𝑰𝒀𝑩 |𝟐 + 𝟐|𝑰𝑹𝒀 ||𝑰𝒀𝑩 | 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
|𝑰𝑳 |𝟐 = |𝑰𝒑𝒉 | + |𝑰𝑽𝒑𝒉 | + 𝟐|𝑰𝒑𝒉 ||𝑰𝒑𝒉 | 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎
𝟐
|𝑰𝑳 |𝟐 = |𝑰𝒑𝒉 | (𝟐 + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟔𝟎)
𝟐
|𝑰𝑳 |𝟐 = |𝑰𝒑𝒉 | (𝟑)
|𝑰𝑳 | = √𝟑|𝑰𝒑𝒉 |
𝑳𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 = √𝟑 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔
(E) Power in star and delta connected load
The active power in single-phase load is given by 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ watts.
In star network
Active Power in R phase 𝑷𝑹 = 𝑽𝑹𝑵 𝑰𝑹𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝑹𝑵
Active Power in the Y phase 𝑷𝒀 = 𝑽𝒀𝑵 𝑰𝒀𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝒀𝑵
Active Power in the B phase 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑽𝑩𝑵 𝑰𝑩𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝑩𝑵
Total of three active phase power
𝑷 = 𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒀 + 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑽𝑹𝑵 𝑰𝑹𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝑹𝑵 + 𝑽𝒀𝑵 𝑰𝒀𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝒀𝑵 + 𝑽𝑩𝑵 𝑰𝑩𝑵 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝑩𝑵
For a balanced three-phase load, total active power is given by
𝑷 = 𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒀 + 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝑷 = 𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒀 + 𝑷𝑩 = 𝟑𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
In star-connected load, |𝑰𝑳 | = |𝑰𝒑𝒉 | and |𝑽𝑳 | = √𝟑|𝑽𝒑𝒉 |
Hence for a balanced three-phase load, total active power is given by
𝑽𝑳
𝑷 = 𝟑𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ = 𝟑 𝑰𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
√𝟑
𝑷 = √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
In delta network
Active Power in R phase 𝑷𝑹 = 𝑽𝑹𝒀 𝑰𝒓𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝒓𝒚
Active Power in the Y phase 𝑷𝒀 = 𝑽𝒀𝑩 𝑰𝒚𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝒚𝒃
Active Power in the B phase 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑽𝑩𝑹 𝑰𝒃𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝒃𝒓
Total of three active phase power
𝑷 = 𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒀 + 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑽𝑹𝒀 𝑰𝒓𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝒓𝒚 + 𝑽𝒀𝑩 𝑰𝒚𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝒚𝒃 + 𝑽𝑩𝑹 𝑰𝒃𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅𝒃𝒓
For a balanced three-phase load, total active power is given by
𝑷 = 𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒀 + 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ + 𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
𝑷 = 𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒀 + 𝑷𝑩 = 𝟑𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
In star-connected load, |𝑰𝑳 | = √𝟑|𝑰𝒑𝒉 | and |𝑽𝑳 | = |𝑽𝒑𝒉 |
Hence for a balanced three-phase load, total active power is given by
𝑰𝑳
𝑷 = 𝟑𝑽𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅ = 𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
√𝟑
𝑷 = √𝟑𝑽𝑳 𝑰𝑳 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ∅
Same can be derived for reactive and apparent power.
In summary:
Star Connected Load/ Delta Connected Load
Power
Line Quantities Phase Quantities
Active Power 𝑃 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos ∅ Watts 𝑃 = 3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ cos ∅ Watts
Reactive Power 𝑄 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 sin ∅ VAr 𝑄 = 3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ sin ∅ VAr
Apparent Power 𝑆 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 VA 𝑆 = 3𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼𝑝ℎ VA
Apparatus:
Sr.No. Name of equipment/instrument. Specifications
1 Voltmeter
2 Ammeter
3 3-phase resistive load(Lamp bank)
4 3-phase variac
Procedure:
A. Star Connected Three-Phase System:-
1. Make connections as shown in fig. Connect ammeter and voltmeter of the appropriate
range. Observe voltmeter readings and record them in the tabular form.
2. Verify the relation between phase voltages and line voltages.
3. Record ammeter readings.
4. Verify the relation between phase currents and line currents.
5. Take voltmeter and ammeter readings for different loads and verify the relations between
them.
B. Delta Connected Three-Phase System:-
1. Make connections as shown in fig. Connect ammeter and voltmeter of the appropriate
range. Observe voltmeter readings and record them in the tabular form.
2. Verify the relation between phase voltages and line voltages.
3. Record ammeter readings.
4. Verify the relation between phase currents and line currents.
5. Take voltmeter and ammeter readings for different loads and verify the relations between
them
Observation :
A) For Star Connected Balanced Load
Sr Line Voltages Phase Voltages Line Currents
No VRY VYB VBR VRN VYN VBN IR IY IB
(V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (A) (A) (A)
1
2
Result Table:
Sr. 𝑽𝑳 Observed 𝑽𝑳 = √𝟑𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝑽𝑳 From the Remark
No. Phasor Diagram
1
Sr. Power Calculations

No.
1
2
B)For Delta Connected Balanced Load

Sr Line Current Phase Current Line Voltages
No IR IY IB IRY IYB IBR VRY VYB VBR
(V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V)
1
2
Result Table:
Sr. 𝑰𝑳 Observed 𝑰𝑳 = √𝟑𝑰𝒑𝒉 𝑰𝑳 From the Remark
No. Phasor Diagram
1
Sr. Power Calculations

No.
1
2
Conclusion:
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LAB ASSIGNMENTS
Q1) For a 3-phase load-balanced condition, each phase has the same value of _____
• Impedance • Power Factor
• Resistance • All of the above
Q2)A polyphase system is generated by______?

• Having three generator windings • Having three generator windings
separated by an 120 electrical angle. separated by 90 degree electrical ngle
• Having two or more generator • None of the above
windings separated by 0 degree
electrical angle
Q3) The sum of balanced load currents of the balanced supply system is
• Infinity • Positive value
• Negative value • Zero
Q4) A 3 wire, 3 - φ supply feeds a load consisting of three equal resistors. By how much
is the load reduced if one of the resistors be removed when the load is in star?
• 25% of the original load • 50% of the original load
• 33.33% of the original load • 66.67% of the original load
Q5) What are the advantage of star and delta connection ?.At low voltage system
which connection is preferred ?
Experiment No:
Date of Assessment: / /
Presentation: /10
Total: /20
Title:Single Phase Transformer.
Aim:To determine efficiency and regulation of the transformer by direct loading of a single-phase
transformer
Prerequisite:
(1) Electromagnetic induction
(2) Construction of single-phase transformer
(3) Voltage and a current ratio of transformer
Learning outcomes: At the end of this experiment student will be able to
(1) Find voltage and current ratio.
(2) Calculate the efficiency of 1 phase transformer at various load condition.
(3) Determine the maximum efficiency point and the load at which it occurs.
(4) Calculate the voltage regulation of the 1 phase transformer at different load conditions.
Theory:
(A) Transformer: regulation and efficiency:
The transformer is a static device which transforms electric power from one ac circuit to another ac
circuit individually. It works on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Direct loading method is used
for testing a transformer. In this method, the transformer is loaded to its full and the efficiency i.e. output
power/input power and the voltage regulation are known.
Voltage Regulationis defined as the change in the voltage across the load from no load tofull load
condition in terms of Full load voltage. At no-load condition full secondary rated voltage is available across
theload but as the load goes on increasing the voltage drop goes on increasing which reduces the voltage
across the load.
The graph of regulation Vs load is a straight line.
𝑵𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 − 𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (%𝑹) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑭𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆
Efficiency:The efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio output powerat secondary to
input power at primary terminals
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚
% 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (%𝜼) = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚
(B) Direct loading method:
Now basically we're talking about knowing the performance of the transformer, i.e, we're trying to find
its efficiency. Finding efficiency is done by two methods, (i) Direct (ii) Indirect
In direct loading method, the transformer is directly connected to the load to find input and output by
metering equipment.
Advantages:
• Simple process,
• no much calculations needed,
• Simple setup
1. Disadvantages:
• It's not economical to do this test on large rating machines as; just for the sake of the test, you
can't waste a large amount of energy.
• You can't get information about the share of different types of losses
• It's a difficult task arrange different kinds for the load (R,L,C) from no load to full load to study
performance at different situations.
Apparatus:
Sr. Name of equipment/

Specifications
No. instrument
1. 1 Ph Transformer – 1 No.
2. Ammeter – 1 No.
3. Ammeter – 1 No.
4. Voltmeter – 1 No.
5. Voltmeter – 1 No.
6. Wattmeter – 2 No.
7. 1 PhVariac – 1 No.
8. Lamp Load
.
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2) Switch ON the supply and apply the rated voltage to the primary side of the transformer and
keep this voltage constant throughout the experiment.
3) Takedown the readings of ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter connected in the primary and
secondary circuit at no-load conditions.
4) Increase the load gradually and take down the reading of all the meter.
5) Take 5 to 6 readings up to full load condition of the transformer.
6) Adjust primary voltage to 230V at each reading.
Circuit Diagram:
Observation Table:
Sr. Primary Primary Wattmeter Secondary Secondary Output power

No. voltage current reading voltage current W2 = V2 I2
V1 (volt) I1 (amp) W1 (watt) V2 (volt) I2 (amp) (watt)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sample Calculation:
Sr. Voltage Current % Regulation % Efficiency
No. Ratio Ratio 𝑉′2 − 𝑉2 𝑊2
× 100 × 100
𝑉2 𝐼1 𝑉2 𝑊1
𝑉1 𝐼2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
.
Graph Paper:
Draw Graph Load current I2 Vs. Regulation and Load current I2 Vs. efficiency
Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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____________
LAB ASSIGNMENT
Q1) Transformation ratio (K) of transformer is _________ /0.5M
• N2/N1 • V1/V2
• E1/E2 • I2/I1
Q2) EMF equation for single phase transformer is /0.5M

• E = 1.11 m f N • E = 4.44 Bm A f N
• E = 1.11 Bm A f N • E = 4.44 m f N
Q3)Efficiency of transformer normally in the range of /0.5M

• 50 to 70% • 80 to 90%
• 60 to 75% • 90 to 98%
Q4) The transformer efficiency will be maximum at /0.5M

• Pcu=Pi • Pcu=2Pi
• Pcu=0.5Pi • Pcu=0.9Pi
Q5) What are the other tests are used to determine the efficiency and regulation of /1M
the transformer? Give the advantages of the same.
Experiment No:
Date of Assessment: / /
Presentation: /10
Total: /20
Title:Electrical Protection Equipments
Aim: To demonstrate different types of electrical protection equipment’s such as fuses, MCB,
MCCB, and ELCB.
Prerequisite:
(1) Electromagnetism
(2) Shock and its effects
(3) Effect of temperature on a current-carrying conductor
(4) Thermocouple
Learning outcomes:At the end of this experiment student will be able to
(1) Elaborate need of protection equipment in electrical systems.
(2) Explain the structure and operation of fuse, MCB, MCCB, and ELCB.
(3) Choose a protective device for a different electrical system with justification
Theory:
The need for Protection:
Electrical power system operates at various voltage levels from a 230V single phase, 415 V to
765 kV three-phase or even more. Electrical apparatus used may be enclosed (e.g., motors) or
placed in open (e.g., transmission lines). All such equipment undergoes abnormalities in their
lifetime due to various reasons. It is necessary to avoid these abnormal operating regions for the
safety of the equipment.
Even more important is the safety of the human person which may be endangered due to
exposure to live parts under fault or abnormal operating conditions. A small current of the order
of 50 mA is sufficient to be fatal! Whenever human security is sacrificed or there exists the
possibility of equipment damage, it is necessary to isolate and de-energize the equipment.
Designing electrical equipment from a safety perspective is also a crucial design issue which will
not be addressed here. To conclude, every electrical equipment has to be monitored to protect
it and provide human safety under abnormal operating conditions. This job is assigned to
electrical protection systems. It encompasses apparatus protection and system protection. This
is generally carried out by using switchgear and protection.
Switchgear is a generic term which includes all the switching devices associated with power
system protection. It also includes all devices associated with control, metering and regulating of
electrical power systems. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner forms switchgear. In other
words, systems used for switching, controlling and protecting the electrical power circuits and
different types of electrical equipment are known as switchgear. The switchgear has to perform
the function of carrying, making and breaking the normal load current like a switch and it has to
perform the function of clearing the fault in the power system. In addition to that, it also has the
provision of metering and regulating the various parameters of electrical power systems. Thus
the switchgear includes circuit breakers, current transformers, voltage transformers, protection
relays, measuring instruments, electrical switches, electrical fuses, miniature circuit breaker,
lightning arresters or surge arresters, electrical isolators and other associated piece of
equipment.
Following are the major protective equipment used in household electrical appliances:
(1) Fuse
(2) Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
(3) Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
(4) Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)
FUSE:
A) Types of Fuses and Applications
In the field of electronics or electrical, a fuse is an essential device used in various electrical
circuits which gives the protection from the overcurrent. It comprises a strip or a metal wire that
dissolves when the heavy flow of current supplies through it. Once this device has functioned in
an open circuit, it ought to rewire or changed based on the type of fuse. A fuse is an automatic
disconnection of supply which is frequently shortened to ADS. The alternative of the fuse is a
stabilizer or circuit breaker, but they have many different characteristics.
B) Why do we require Fuse?
These are used to prevent the home appliances from the high current or overload damage. If we
use a fuse in the homes, the electrical faults cannot happen in the wiring and it doesn’t damage
the appliances from the fire of wire burning. When the fuse gets break or damage, then an abrupt
sparkle happens which may direct to damage your home appliances. That is the reason we
require different types of fuses to guard our home-appliances against damage.
C) Working Principle of Fuse
The working principle of the fuse is “heating consequence of the current”. It is fabricated with a
lean strip or thread of metallic wire. The connection of the Fuse in an electrical circuit is always
in series.
When the too much current is produced due to the heavy
flow of current in the electrical circuit, the fuse gets
soften and it opens the circuit. The extreme flow of
current may direct to the collapse of the wire and
prevents the supply.The fuse can be changed by the new
fuse with an appropriate rating. It can be designed with
the elements like Cu (copper), Zn (zinc), Al (aluminum)
and Ag (silver). They also perform like a circuit breaker for breaking the circuit while the abrupt
fault happens in the circuit. This works like a safety measure or protector for humans from risks.
Like this, the fuse works.
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔)
𝑭𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔)
The selection of a fuse can be done by calculating the fuse rating by using the above formula.
• Write down the voltage (volts) and power (watts) of the appliance.
• Calculate the fuse rating.
• After the result, use the maximum fuse rating. For instance, if the calculated fuse rating
is the maximum fuse rating. For example, if the calculated fuse rating is 7.689 amps, you
can use an 8 amp fuse.
D) Different Types of Fuses:
The fuses are classified into several types based on the application namely AC type
fuse and DC type fuse. Again these fuses are classified into several types. The following diagram
illustrates the electrical fuse types chart based on the AC fuse and DC fuse.
DC Fuse:
DC fuses are available superior in size, and DC supply has a
stable value over 0 volts. So it is tough to remove and
deactivate the circuit. There will be a chance of generation of
an electric Arc between dissolved wires. To conquer this,
electrodes located at better distances. For this reason, the size
of the DC fuse gets amplified.
AC Fuses:The AC fuse is slighter in size and oscillated 50 to 60 times in each and every sec
from least to highest. As a result, there is no scope for Arc generation between the dissolved
wires. For this reason, they can be crammed in a small size. Further, AC fuses are classified
into two parts namely HV fuses and LV fuses. Here LV& HV indicates the low voltage and
high voltage.LV Fuses: The low voltage fuses are divided into five types such as a rewirable,
cartridge, drop out, striker and switch fuses.
Rewirable Fuses: Rewirable fuses are LV fuses, which are
almost used in small applications like wiring in the house,
small-scale industries, and other tiny current applications.
These types of fuses include two essential parts such as a fuse
base, which has two terminals like in and out. In general, this
element is fabricated with Porcelain. Another part of this fuse
is a fuse carrier, which grips the fuse element. This element is
fabricated with aluminum, tinned copper and lead. The main
advantage of a fuse carrier is, we can simply plug and remove
from the base of the fuse without the risk of shock. As the fuse
is damaged due to heavy current, then we can simply
eliminate the Fuse Carrier as well as put back the fuse wire.
Cartridge type Fuses: The cartridge type of fuses has entirely
closed containers and the metal contact as well. The
applications of this fuse mainly include low voltage (LV), high
voltage (HV), and small fuses. Again, these types of fuses are
classified into two types, they are D-type and Link-type fuses.
D-type Cartridge Fuse

This type of fuse is composed with the cartridge, base of the
fuse, adapter ring, and cap. The base of the fuse includes a
fuse cap, which is packed with the fuse ingredient by cartridge
using an adapter ring. It is composed of the cartridge, fuse
base, cap & adapter ring. The fuse base has the fuse cap,
which is fitted with the fuse element with a cartridge through
the adapter ring. The connection of the circuit is finished when
the tilt of the cartridge builds contact through the conductor.
High Rupturing Capacity or Link Type Fuse:

The link type fuse is also known as high rupturing capacity
(HRC) or BS type fuse. In this sort of fuse, the current flow with
fuse element is specified under standard condition.In this BS
type fuse, the flow of current by fuse element is given under
normal condition. The arc which is generated by the fuse
blown is controlled is fabricated with porcelain, ceramic, and
silver. The container of the fuse element is packed with silica
sand. This type of fuse is again categorized into two parts
includes a blade type and bolted type.
Blade and Bolted Type Fuses

The knife type fuse or plug-in type of fuses is designed with
plastic. This type of fuse can be simply changeable in the
electric circuit exclusive of any load.In bolted type fuse, plates
of this fuse are conducting are set to the base of the fuse.
Striker type Fuse

The striker type of fuse is employed for tripping and closing
the electrical circuit. These fuses are having plenty of force as
well as displacement.
Switch type Fuse
Basically, the switch type fuse is enclosed with a metal switch
and also a fuse. These fuses are mainly used in low and
intermediate voltage levels.
HV (High Voltage) Fuses

Generally, HV fuses are used to protect the transformers like
instrument transformers, small power transformer and also
used in power systems. These fuses are normally charged for
voltages over 1500V to 138000V.
The fuse part in HV fuses are fabricated with either copper,
silver or in some cases Tin is used, in order to offer consistent
and steady performance. These fuses are classified into three
types which include the following
Cartridge Type HRC Fuse

The fuse component of the HRC is cut in the helix form which
evades the effect of the corona at the upper voltages. It
includes two fused elements namely low resistance and high
resistance, and that are located parallel by each other. The
low-resistance wires take the usual current which is blown-out
as well as decreases the short-circuit current throughout the
fault state.
Liquid Type HRC Fuse
This type of fuse is packed with carbon tetrachloride also
preserved at both the tops of the caps. Once the error occurs
when the flowing current surpasses away from the allowable
limit, and the element of the fuse is blown-out. The fluid of
the fuse performs as an arc extinguishing standard for the HRC
fuse types. They may be used to protect the transformer as
well as the support protection to the breaker circuit.
Expulsion Type HV Fuse

These types of fuses are extensively used to protect the
feeders as well as transformer due to they’re low-priced. It is
designed for 11kV; also their cracking capability is up to 250
MVA. This type of fuse includes an unfilled open-finished
cylinder designed with synthetic resin-bonded paper. The
elements of the fuse are positioned in the cylinder, and the
tops of the tubes are linked to appropriate equipment at every
finish. The arc generating is blown off in the inside covering of
the cylinder, and the gases thus shaped destroys the arc.
E) Applications of Fuse:
The different types of fuses and their uses have discussed are essential components in all the
electrical circuits. Some of the main applications of fuses in the Electrical and Electronics
field include the following.
• Power Transformers, Electrical Appliances, like ACs (Air Conditioners), TV, Washing
Machines, Music Systems, and many more, Electrical Cabling in Home, Mobile Phones,
Motor starters, Laptops, Power Chargers, Cameras, Scanners, Printers, and Photocopiers,
Automobiles, electronic devices and Gaming’s
F) Advantages of an Electrical Fuse
1) It is the cheapest form of protection, and it does need any maintenance.
2) Its operation is completely automatic and requires less time as compared to circuit
breakers.
3) The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short-circuit
conditions.
4) Its inverse time-current characteristic enables its use for overload protection.
G) Disadvantages of an Electrical Fuse
1) Considerable time is required in replacing a fuse after the operation.
2) The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be correlated with that of the
protective device.
Miniature Circuit Breaker:

Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB) are electromechanical devices which areused to protect
electrical equipment from an overcurrent.MCB is a mechanical switching device which is capable
of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and also making,
carrying for a specified time and automatically breaking currents under specified abnormal circuit
conditions such as those of short circuit. In short, MCB is a device for overload and short circuit
protection.
A) Construction: The construction of
Miniature Circuit Breakers(MCB) is very
simple, robust and maintenance-free. MCB
is replaced by a new one when it is failing
because MCB is not repaired or
maintained.there are three parts of Miniature
Circuit Breakers(MCB) in construction,
1) Frame:the frame is a rigid, strong,
insulated housing in which the other
components are mounted. it is a molded case.
2) Trip Unit: For the proper working of the miniature circuit breaker trip unit is responsible. Two
main types of trip mechanism are provided in Miniature Circuit Breakers(MCB). A bimetallic
strip provides protection against overload current and an electromagnet provides protection
against short-circuit current. trip unit is the main part of the MCB.
3) Operating Mechanism: The operating mechanism of MCB provides with the manual
operation for closing and opening operation of the miniature circuit breaker. It has three-
positions “ON,” “OFF,” and “TRIPPED”.By observing the positions of the switching latch one
can determine the condition of MCB whether it is closed, tripped or manually switched off. If
the MCB is tripped due to over-current or overheating, The external switching latch in the
“TRIPPED” position. When manually switch off the miniature circuit breaker, the switching
latch will be in “OFF” position. the switch is positioned at “ON”, In a closed condition of the
miniature circuit breaker.
B) Working:The principal of operation is simple. functions of Miniature Circuit
Breakers(MCB) is interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuit once a fault is
detected. In simple terms of MCB is a switch, which automatically turns off when the overcurrent
flowing through it.Generally, MCB is designed to protect against overcurrent and over-
temperature faults. There are two contacts one is fixed and the other movable. When the current
exceeds the predefined limit a solenoid forces the movable contact to open (i.e., disconnect from
the fixed contact) and the MCB getting off thereby stopping the current to flow in the circuit.The
MCB is manually turned on to restart the flow of current. This mechanism is used to protect from
the faults arising due to over current.To protect against fault arising due to overheating or
increase in temperature a bi-metallic strip is used. MCBs are generally designed to trip within 2.5
milliseconds when an overcurrent fault arises. In case of temperature rise or overheating it may
take 2 seconds to 2 minutes for the MCB to trip. If the circuit is overloaded for a long time, the
bimetallic strip becomes overheated and deformed. This deformation of bimetallic strip causes,
displacement of latch point.The moving contact of the MCB is so arranged by means of spring
pressure, with this latch point, that a little displacement of latch causes, release of spring and
makes the moving contact to move for opening the MCB. The current coil or trip coil is placed
such a manner, that during short circuit fault the MMF of that coil causes its plunger to hit the
same latch point and make the latch to be displaced. Hence the MCB will open in the same
manner. And it protects the circuit from the overcurrent or overloading.
C) Advantages :
1. With a miniature circuit breaker, it is very simple to resume to the supply. You just need to
push the knob of MCB back to on position. But in case of fuse, the entire fuse wire needs to
be replaced.
2. A miniature circuit breaker is more sensitive to current than a fuse. It detects any abnormality
in the current flow and automatically switches off the electrical circuit.
3. A miniature circuit breaker is reusable and hence has less maintenance and replacement cost.
Whereas a fuse needs to be replaced whenever it goes faulty.
4. In the case of a miniature circuit breaker, the faulty zone of an electrical circuit can be easily
identified.
D) Types of MCB
There are three standard characteristics are available for domestic as well as commercial MCBs
and are given by B, C and D. Each type has its own function.
Type B MCBs are mainly used where switching surges are small or non-
exist and are generally suitable for domestic applications and light
commercial applications. There are no devices with long high starting
current in domestic applications and hence the best suited MCB is type
B.
These are designed to trip at fault currents in the range of 3 to 5 times
the rated current. Suppose if the rated current is 10 A, then the MCB
trips at 30-50 A.
Type C MCBs are designed for high inductive circuits where surge
currents are expected. These are generally used for commercial and
industrial applications where a number of fluorescent lamps being
turned ON or starting of small motors may give high surge currents.
These are less sensitive than type B MCBs and causes reduced
nuisance trips. Type C MCBs are designed to operate or trip at the fault
currents of 5-10 times that of rated current. For 10 A type C MCB, the
operating current range is 50-100 A.
Type D MCBs are designed for heavy industrial applications where

normal surge currents are very high. These are ideal for electric
welders and site transformers where frequent high surge currents are
expected.
The most common applications of type D MCBs include motors, UPS
systems, X-ray machines, transformers and battery charging systems.
These are designed to trip at 10-20 times the rated current. For 10 A
type D MCB, the operating current range is 100-200 A.
The settings or characteristics of an MCB are fixed in the factory itself by the manufacturer and
they are not adjustable at the user end or at the site. Tripping currents for operation at 0.1 Sec
or less of different MCBs are given below.
e-Resources:
(1) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/6lpH6HFhDik
(2) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/9Xgn40eGcqY
.
Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB):
An ECLB is one kind of safety device used for installing an electrical device with high earth
impedance to avoid shock. These devices identify small stray voltages of the electrical device on
the metal enclosures and intrude the circuit if a dangerous voltage is identified. The main purpose
of Earth leakage circuit breaker (ECLB) is to stop damage to humans & animals due to electric
shock.Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents leaking to
earth from an installation and cut the power and mainly used in TT earthing systems.
There are two types of ELCBs:
1.Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB)
2. Current Earth Leakage Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Current-ELCB).
Voltage-ELCBs have first introduced about sixty years ago and CurrentELCB
was first introduced about forty years ago. For many years, the voltage-operated ELCB and the
differential current operated ELCB wereboth referred to as ELCBs because it was a simpler name
to remember.But the use of a common name for two different devices gave rise to
considerable confusion in the electrical industry.If the wrong type was used on an installation,
the level of protectiongiven could be substantially less than that intended.To ignore this
confusion, IEC decided to apply the term Residual CurrentDevice (RCD) to differential current
operated ELCBs. Residualcurrent refers to any current over and above the load current.
A) Working Principle of Voltage ELCB:Voltage ELCB is a voltage operated device. It has a coil and
if the voltage across the coil exceeds a predetermined
value such as 50 V, the current through the coil will be
sufficient enough to trip the circuit.Voltage ELCB is
connected in between the metallic part of equipment
and the Earth. If we take an example of insulation
failure, then the voltage across the coil of Voltage ELCB
will drive enough current to cut the power supply till
the manually reset.The way to identify an ELCB is by
looking for green or green and yellow earth wires entering the device. They rely on voltage
returning to the trip via the earth wire during a fault and afford only limited protection to the
installation and no personal protection at all.
You should use plugin 30mA RCD’s for any appliances and extension leads that may be used
outside as a minimum.
Advantages of Voltage Operated ELCB
• ELCBs are less sensitive to fault conditions and have few nuisance trips.
• While current and voltage on the ground line generally fault current from a live wire, this is
not continuously the case, therefore there are conditions in which an ELCB can annoyance
trip.
• When installation of the electrical instrument has two contacts to earth, a near high current
lightning attack will root a voltage gradient in the earth, offering the ELCB sense coil with
sufficient voltage to source it to a trip.
• If either of the soil wires become detached from the ELCB, it will no longer install will
frequently no longer be correctly earthed.
• These ELCBs are the necessity for a second connection and the opportunity that any extra
connection to ground on the threatened system can inactivate the detector.
Disadvantages of Voltage Operated ELCB
• They do not sense errors that don’t permit current through the CPC to the ground rod.
• They do not permit an only building system to be simply divided into many sections with
independent error protection because earthing systems are typically used mutual earth,
Rod.
• They may be skipped by outside voltages from something associated with the earthing
system like as metal pipes, a TN-C-S or a TN-S earth mutual neutral and earth.
• As electrical leaky utilizations like washing machines, some water heaters and cookers
might source the ELCB to trip.
• ELCBs present an extra resistance & an extra point of failure in the earthing system.
B) Working Principle of Current ELCB:
The working of Current ELCB is quite interesting but easy. Current operated ELCB is also known
as Residual Current Device, RCD. A Residual Current Device (RCD) has a toroidal iron core over
which phase and neutral windings are wound. A search coil is also wound on the same iron core
which in turn is connected to the trip coil. Figure below shows the constructional detail of RCD
or Current ELCB.Under normal operating condition, the current through the phase winding and
neutral winding are same but both the
windings are wound in such a manner to
oppose the mmfs of each other,
therefore net mmf in the toroidal iron
core will be zero.Let us consider a
condition where earth leakage current
exists in the load side. In this case the
current through the phase and neutral
will no longer be equal rather phase
current will be more than the neutral
current.Thus mmf produced by phase
winding will be more than the mmf
produced by neutral winding because of which a net mmf will exist in the toroidal iron core.
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒎𝒎𝒇 𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝒎𝒎𝒇 𝒃𝒚 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 – 𝒎𝒎𝒇 𝒃𝒚 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
This net mmf in the core will link with the Search Coil and as the mmf is changing in nature
(current is AC), an emf will be induced across the terminals of the Search Coil. This emf will in
turn drive a current through the Trip Coil which will pull (because of current flow through the
Trip Coil, it will behave as an electromagnet and hence will pull the lever to open contact) the
supply contacts to isolate the power supply. Notice that Current ELCB works on Residual Current
that is the reason it is also called Residual Current Device.A RCD / Current ELCB is also provided
with test button to check the healthiness of the safety device. If you carefully observe the figure,
you will notice that, when we press the Test Button, Load and phase winding are bypassed due
to which only mmf because of neutral winding will exist in the core (as there is no opposing mmf
as was the case with both the windings in service) which will cause RCD to trip to isolate the
supply.
e-Resources:
(1) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/zH3gsVOtw2c
(2) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/G6edCysCxeA
.
Molded Case Circuit Breaker:
Moulded Case Circuit Breakers are
electromechanical devices which protect a
circuit from Overcurrent and Short Circuit.
They provide Overcurrent and Short Circuit
Protection for circuits ranging from 63 Amps
up to 3000 Amps.Their primary functions are
to provide a means to manually open a
circuit and automatically open a circuit under
overload or short circuit conditions. The
overcurrent, in an electrical circuit, may
result from short circuit, overload or faulty
design.
Unlike fuse, anMCCB can be easily reset after a fault and offers improved operational safety and
convenience without incurring operating cost.
Moulded case circuit breakers generally have a Thermal element for overcurrent and Magnetic
element for short circuit release which has to operate faster. MCCBs are manufactured such
that end user will not have access to internal workings of the over-current protection device.
Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy-duty electrically insulated plastic, these two halves
are riveted together to form the whole. Inside the plastic shell is a series of thermal elements and
a Spring-loaded trigger. When the thermal element gets too warm, from an overcurrent situation,
the spring trips, which in turn will shut off the electrical circuit.
A) Sizing the MCCB: MCCBs in an electrical circuit should be sized according to the circuit’s
expected operating current and possible fault currents. The three main criteria while
selecting MCCBs are:
• The rated working voltage (Ue) of the MCCB should be similar to the system voltage.
• The trip value of the MCCB should be adjusted according to the current drawn by the load.
• The breaking capacity of the MCCB must be higher than the theoretical possible fault
currents.
B) Types of MCCB:
Type of Operating Operating Application Suitability Surge Installation
MCCB Current Time Current Location
Type B Trips between 0.04-13 Domestic Resistive load Low Sub feeder of
3 and 5 times seconds applications application Distribution board
rated current (lighting and
(In) resistive
elements)
Type C Trips between 0.04-5 Commercial or Inductive load Moderate At

5 and 10 times seconds industrial applications incoming/outgoing
rated current applications of Distribution
(In) Board
Type D Trips between 0.04-3 Commercial or Inductive High At incoming of

10 and 20 seconds industrial capacitive load Distribution
times rated applications applications Board/Panels
current (In) (Pumps, motor,
large winding
motors etc.)
Type K Trips between8 0.04-5 Industrial Inductive and High At incoming of

and 12 times seconds applications motor loads Distribution
rated current with high Board/Panels
(In) inrush
currents.
Type Z Trips between 0.04-5 Highly sensitive Medical Very low At sub feeder of
2 and 3 times seconds to short circuit instruments Distribution board
rated current and are used for for IT equipment.
(In) protection of
highly sensitive
devices such as
semiconductor
devices
e-Resources:
(1) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/xU99YrzClN4
(2) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/8BJm62AVaHY
.
Apparatus:Open model of different types of fuses, model of MCB, ELCB and MCB
Conclusion:____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
LAB ASSIGNMENT
Q1) Fault in the power system can cause /0.5M
• Mal operation of the equipment • Damage to equipment
• Harmful to human being • All of the above
Q2)Which statement is incorrect with respect to fuse /0.5M

• It is the cheapest form of protection, and it does need any maintenance.
• Its operation is completely automatic and requires less time as compared to
circuit breakers.
• Its inverse time-current characteristic enables its use for overload protection.
• Negligible time is required in replacing a fuse after the operation
Q3)_______ MCBs used in motors, UPS systems, X-ray machines, transformers and /0.5M
battery charging systems.
• Type A • Type B
• Type C • Type D
Q4) The net mmf in the core of ELCB is /0.5M

• Mmf of phase winding+ mmf of • Mmfof phase winding-mmf of
neutral winding neutral winding
• Mmfof phase winding x mmf of • Mmfof phase winding / mmf of
neutral winding neutral winding
Q5) To protect your house, which protective equipment you will choose? Also give the /1M
justification of the same.
Experiment No: 8
Total: /20
Title: Design of series RL and RC circuit.
Aim: To design a series RL and RC circuit on AC supply and observe the voltage and current waveforms on
storage oscilloscope.
Prerequisite:
1) Fundamental properties of resistance, Inductance, and Capacitor.
2) Behavior of a pure R, pure L, and Pure C on A.C supply.
3) Concept of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
1) Generate and measure the AC steady-state response of a series RL and RC circuits.
2) Measure the current and phase difference between voltage and current in RL and RC circuits.
3) Draw the waveforms and phasor diagrams justifying the relation between voltage and current.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Apparatus:

Specifications
No. instrument
1. Function generator
2. Oscilloscope
3. Resistor
4. Inductor
5. Capacitor
6. Connection wires.
Theory:
A. Series RL Circuit: If we apply a sinusoidal input to an RL circuit, the current in the circuit and all
voltages across the elements are sinusoidal. In the analysis of the RL series circuit, we can find the
impedance, current, phase angle and voltage drops. In Fig. 1 (a) the resistor voltage (VR) and current
(I) are in phase with each other, but lag behind the source voltage (VS). The inductor voltage (VL) leads
the source voltage (VS). The phase angle between current and voltage in a pure inductor is always
90°.
Figure 1(a): Series RL circuit.

The phase relation between current and voltages in a series RL circuit is shown in Fig. 1(b).
Figure 1(b): Waveforms of current and voltages of RC circuits
Here VR and I are in phase. The amplitudes are arbitrarily chosen. From Kirchhoff s voltage law, the sum
of the voltage drops must equal the applied voltage. Therefore, the source voltage V S is the phasor sum
of VR and VL.
𝑉𝑆 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2
The phase angle between resistor voltage and source voltage is ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝑉𝑅 /𝑉𝐿 ).
where θ is also the phase angle between the source voltage and the current. The phasor diagram for
the series RL circuit that represents the waveforms in Fig. 1(c).
Figure 1(b): Voltage triangle of RL circuits
B. Series RC Circuit: When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to an RC series circuit, the current in the
circuit and voltages across each of the elements are sinusoidal. The series RC circuit is shown in Fig.
2 (a).
Figure 2(a): Series RC circuit.
Here the resistor voltage and current are in phase with each other. The capacitor voltage lags behind the
source voltage. The phase angle between the current and the capacitor voltage is always 90°. The amplitudes
and the phase relations between the voltages and current depend on the ohmic values of the resistance and
the capacitive reactance. The circuit is a series combination of both resistance and capacitance; and the
phase angle between the applied voltage and the total current is somewhere between zero and 90°,
depending on the relative values of the resistance and reactance. In a series RC circuit, the current is the
same through the resistor and the capacitor. Thus, the resistor voltage is in phase with the current, and the
capacitor voltage lags behind the current by 90° as shown in Fig. 2(b).
Figure 2(b): Waveforms of current and voltages of RC circuits
Here, I leads VC by 90°. VR and I are in phase. From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the sum of the voltage drops
must be equal to the applied voltage. Therefore, the source voltage is given by
𝑽𝑺 = √𝑽𝟐𝑹 + 𝑽𝟐𝑪
The phase angle between the resistor voltage and the source voltage is ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 (𝑉𝐶 /𝑉𝑅 ).
Since the resistor voltage and the current are in phase, θ also represents the phase angle between the
source voltage and current. The voltage phasor diagram for the series RC circuit, voltage and current phasor
diagrams represented by the waveforms in Fig. 2(b) are shown in Fig. 2(c).
Figure 2(c): Voltage triangle of RC circuit
Circuit Diagram:
Figure 3: Circuit diagram of series RL circuit Figure 4: Circuit diagram of series RC circuit
Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig
2) Switch ON the power supply
3) Apply required input to the circuit and see the waveform of input and voltage across resistance on
a storage oscilloscope.
4) Note down the voltmeter reading which indicates voltage across the resistance and
inductive/capacitive reactance
5) Measure the angle between the voltage across resistance and supply voltage. It is the phase angle.
6) Switch OFF the power supply and disconnect the circuit.
Observation Table:
Resistance= _______, Inductance=__________, Capacitance=_____.
For RL series circuit.
Sr. Applied Voltage across R, VR Voltage across Current, I

no. Voltages (V) (volts) L, VL (volts) (Ampere)
For RC series circuit.
Sr. Applied Voltage across R, VR Voltage across Current, I

no. Voltages (V) (volts) C, VC (volts) (Ampere)
Calculation values:
For RL series circuit.
Sr. no. Applied Impedance Z= R+ j XL Current, I = V/ |Z| (Amp) Phase angle

Voltages (V) difference in deg,
Φ=tan-1 (XL/R)
For RC series circuit.
Sr. no. Applied Impedance Z= R- j XC Current, I = V/ |Z| (Amp) Phase angle

Voltages (V) difference in deg,
Φ= - tan-1 (XC/R)
Result Table:
For RL series circuit

Sr. Active Power, P=VI Cosφ (W) Reactive Power, Q=VI Sinφ (VAr) Apparent Power, S= VI (VA)
No.
For RC series circuit

Sr. Active Power, P=VI Cosφ (W) Reactive Power, Q=VI Sinφ (VAr) Apparent Power, S= VI (VA)
No.
Conclusion:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Lab Assignments
1. The overall impedance of the RL circuit, Z= ______________.

2. If the frequency of applied AC voltage source is doubled, the power factor of the series RL circuit
_________.
3. An AC voltage is connected across a pure inductive circuit of inductance 2 mH. If the supply
voltage is V=200 sin (100t), then find the current in the circuit. [ ]
i. 1000 sin (100t)
ii. 1000 sin(100t-π/2)
iii. 100 sin(100t-π/2)
iv. None of these.
4. If the frequency of the applied AC potential is increased in the RL circuit, the impedance of the
circuit will ______________.
5. Time constant of a capacitive circuit is defined as the time taken by the voltage to rise to ____ times
final value of the voltage.
6. In a series circuit, current leads voltage by 900 , what type of circuit is this? [ ]
i. RL series circuit
ii. Pure Capacitor
iii. Pure inductor
iv. RC circuit
Experiment No: 9
Total: /20
Title: To derive resonance frequency and analyze resonance in series RLC circuit.
Aim: The objective of the experiment is to study the electrical characteristics of a series RLC circuit.
Prerequisite:
4) Response of a series RL, series RC to AC supply.
5) Concept of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
4) Derive the formula of resonance frequency.
5) Total voltage of the series RLC circuit, and the phase difference between voltage and current values.
6) Understand the variation in inductive reactance and capacitive reactance with frequency.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Apparatus:

Specifications
No. instrument
2. Oscilloscope
3. Resistor
4. Inductor
5. Capacitor
Theory: Consider a RLC circuit in which resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in series across a
voltage supply. This series RLC circuit has a distinguishing property of resonating at a specific frequency called
resonant frequency. The circuit shown in figure 1 containing inductor and capacitor, the energy is stored in
two different ways.
i. When a current flow in an inductor, energy gets stored in magnetic field.
ii. When a capacitor is charged, energy gets stored in static electric field.
Figure 1: Series RLC circuit.

The magnetic field in the inductor is built by the current, which is provided by the discharging capacitor.
Similarly, the capacitor is charged by the current produced by collapsing magnetic field of inductor and this
process continues on and on, causing electrical energy to oscillate between the magnetic field and the
electric field. In some cases, at certain frequency called resonant frequency, the inductive reactance of the
circuit becomes equal to capacitive reactance which causes the electrical energy to oscillate between the
electric field of the capacitor and magnetic field of the inductor. This forms a harmonic oscillator for current.
In RLC circuit, the presence of resistor causes these oscillations to die out over period of time and is called
damping effect of resistor.
Variation of Inductive Reactance Vs Frequency:
Figure 2: Graph of Inductive Reactance Vs Frequency
We know that inductive reactance XL = 2πfL means inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency.
When the frequency is zero or in case of DC, inductive reactance is also zero, the circuit acts as a short circuit;
but when frequency increases; inductive reactance also increases. At infinite frequency, inductive reactance
becomes infinity and circuit behaves as open circuit. It means that, when frequency increases inductive
reactance also increases and when frequency decreases, inductive reactance also decreases. So, if we plot a
graph between inductive reactance and frequency, it is a straight line linear curve passing through origin as
shown in the figure 2.
Variation of Capacitive Reactance Vs Frequency:
Figure 3: Graph of Capacitive Reactance Vs Frequency
It is clear from the formula of capacitive reactance XC = 1 / 2πfC that, frequency and capacitive reactance are
inversely proportional to each other. In case of DC or when frequency is zero, capacitive reactance becomes
infinity and circuit behaves as open circuit and when frequency increases and becomes infinite, capacitive
reactance decreases and becomes zero at infinite frequency, at that point the circuit acts as short circuit, so
the capacitive reactance increases with decease in frequency and if we plot a graph between capacitive
reactance and frequency, it is a hyperbolic curve as shown in figure 3.
Inductive Reactance and Capacitive Reactance Vs Frequency:
Figure 4: Inductive Reactance and Capacitive Reactance Vs Frequency
From the above discussion, if we plot a single graph of inductive reactance vs frequency and capacitive
reactance vs frequency, then there must occur a point where these two graphs cut each other. At that point
of intersection, the inductive and capacitive reactance becomes equal and the frequency at which this two
reactance’s become equal, is called resonant frequency, fr.
At resonant frequency, XL = XL
At resonance f = fr and on solving above equation we get,
At resonance in series RLC circuit, two reactance’s become equal and cancel each other. So in resonant series
RLC circuit, the opposition to the flow of current is due to resistance only. At resonance, the total impedance
of series RLC circuit is equal to resistance i.e Z = R. Before series resonance i.e before frequency, fr capacitive
reactance dominates and after resonance, inductive reactance dominates and at resonance the circuit acts
purely as resistive circuit causing a large amount of current to circulate through the circuit.
Resonant Current:
Figure 6: Variation of Current in Series RLC Vs Frequency
In series RLC circuit current, I = V / Z but at resonance current I = V / R, therefore the current at resonant
frequency is maximum as at resonance in impedance of circuit is resistance only and is minimum.
The above graph shows the plot between circuit current and frequency. At starting, when the frequency
increases, the impedance Zc decreases and hence the circuit current increases. After some time, frequency
becomes equal to resonant frequency, at that point inductive reactance becomes equal to capacitive
reactance and the impedance of circuit reduces and is equal to circuit resistance only. So at this point, the
circuit current becomes maximum I = V / R. Now when the frequency is further increased, ZL increases and
with increase in ZL, the circuit current reduces and then the current drops finally to zero as frequency
becomes infinite.
Circuit Diagram:
Figure 7: Circuit diagram of series RLC circuit
Procedure:
Step 1: Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 1 using a resistor, a inductor and capacitor.
Step 2: Switch ON the A.C. power supply.
Step 3: Set the input peak to peak voltage.
Step 4: Change the input frequency step by step in small steps by adjusting the frequency knob on
function generator (Hz to kHz)
Step 5: Measuring the voltage across the resistor, inductor and capacitor.
Step 6: Keep a record of every measurement and calculation.
Step 7: Switch OFF the power supply and disconnect the circuit.
Observation Table:
Peak to peak Voltage, Vp-p =______, Resistance= _______, Inductance=__________, Capacitance=_____
SL.No. f (Hz) VR VL VC I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Graph: Plot the frequency versus Current in the series RLC circuit.
Figure 8: Graph of frequency and Current in Series RLC circuit
Conclusion:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Lab Assignments
1. Resonance occurs when ________ and the imaginary part of the transfer function is _____.
2. At resonance the impedance of the circuit is equal to the _________ value.
3. At _____ frequencies the series circuit is capacitive as: XC > XL, this gives the circuit a leading
power factor.
4. At _____ frequencies the series circuit is inductive as: XL > XC, this gives the circuit a lagging
power factor.
5. Define impedance offered by inductance in an AC circuit.
6. Define impedance offered by capacitance in an AC circuit.
7. What are the applications of LCR resonant circuits?
8. A coil of resistance 50 ohms and inductance 0.1 Henry is connected in series with a capacitor of 50
μF. A source of voltage 230 V, 50 Hz is connected across the series combination. Calculate the
following:
i. The total impedance in the circuit.
ii. Current flowing through the circuit.
iii. Power factor of the circuit and its nature, and
iv. The power consumed by the circuit.
Experiment No: 10
Total: /20
Title: Use Megger for measurement of insulation resistance.
Aim: To measure the insulation resistance of electrical protection equipment/cable using megger.
Prerequisite:
1. Concept of resistance.
2. Nature of different conducting and insulating materials.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Measure the insulation resistance of a cable with the help of Megger.
2. Justify effect of physical parameters on insulation resistance of a cable.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Apparatus:

Specifications
No. instrument
1. Cable
2. Megger or Mega-Ohm-Meter
Theory: Megger is a portable instrument which is used to measure insulation resistance of the electrical
machinery or system. It can be battery operated or mechanically operated (hand crank dc generator) and
gives a direct reading in mega-ohms. For this reason, it is also called as mega-ohm meter.
The device enables us to measure electrical leakage in wire, results are very reliable as we shall be passing
electric current through device while we are testing.
Circuit Diagram of Megger:
It consists of a hand driven DC generator and a direct reading ohm meter. There are two coils PC (coil A)
and CC (coil B) which are fixed together at some angle and are free to rotate about a common axis
between the poles of a permanent magnet. The coils are connected in the circuit by means of flexible
leads (or ligaments) which exerts no restoring torque on the moving system.
Figure 1: Circuit Diagram of Megger
Megger is a DC generator. It consists of three terminals.

i. Line terminal,
ii. Guard terminal, and
iii. Earth terminal.
In the above circuit, the guard is connected on top of an insulator, the line terminal is connected to the
conductor, which is to be tested, and the earth pin is grounded.
Higher resistance = Higher Insulation = No current flow.
Procedure:
Safety Precaution: For testing of the insulation, it is necessary to ensure that there is no leakage current
through the insulation used i.e. keep the main switch in off state and load in off position where cable under
test is connected.
Measurement of Insulation Resistance Between Earth and Conductor:
1. Keep all fuse-links, switches, and lamps in position.
2. The main supply should be off
3. Connect the one main leads of Megger either to phase or neutral conductor and other to the earth
continuity conductor of the system
4. Rotate the hand-driven Megger with constant speed to ensure required rated voltage injection and
note down the readings of insulation resistance.
Measurement of Insulation Resistance Between Conductors:
1. Keep all fuse-links, switches, and lamps in position
2. The main supply should be off.
3. Connect the one main leads of Megger either to any conductor of a cable and other to another
phase of the cable.
4. Rotate the hand-driven Megger with constant speed to ensure required rated voltage injection and
note down the readings of insulation resistance.
Observation Table:
Measurement of insulation resistance between earth and conductor
Sr. Value of insulation

Connection terminals Remarks
No. resistance (Megger reading)
Measurement of insulation resistance between conductors

Sr. Value of insulation
Connection terminals Remarks
No. resistance (Megger reading)
Conclusion:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Lab Assignments
1) What is megger?
2) What are different ranges of resistance?
3) What is the value of resistance if we short the two terminals of Megger?
4) Write the applications of a Megger?
5) Write the necessity of earthling for any electrical circuit.

Experiment No: 12
Total: /20
Title: To study the charging and discharging of a capacitor.
Aim: The objective of this experiment is the study of charging and discharging of a capacitor by measuring
the potential difference (voltage) across the capacitor as a function of time.
Prerequisite:
6) Fundamental of Capacitor.
7) Concept of charge, current, and voltage.
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
7) Determine the experimental value of the capacitance of the capacitor.
8) Derive charging and discharging voltage, current in RC circuit connected to DC supply.
9) Define time constant and elaborate the significance of the same.
Apparatus:

Specifications
No. instrument
2. Oscilloscope
3. Resistor
4. Capacitor
6. Digital Voltmeter
Theory:
RC Charging Circuit:
When a voltage source is applied to an RC circuit, the capacitor, C charges up through the resistance, R.
Figure 1: RC Charging Circuit.

Let us assume above, that the capacitor, C is fully “discharged” and the switch (S) is fully open.
These are the initial conditions of the circuit, then t = 0, i = 0 and q = 0. When the switch is closed
the time begins at t = 0 and current begins to flow into the capacitor via the resistor.
Since the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, ( Vc = 0 ) at t = 0 the capacitor appears to be a
short circuit to the external circuit and the maximum current flows through the circuit restricted
only by the resistor R. Then by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), the voltage drops around the
circuit are given as:
The current now flowing around the circuit is called the Charging Current and is found by using
Ohms law as: i = Vs/R.
RC Charging Circuit Curves:
Figure 2: Waveforms of current and voltages of RC charging circuits
The capacitor (C), charges up at a rate shown by the graph. The rise in the RC charging curve is
much steeper at the beginning because the charging rate is fastest at the start of charge but soon
tapers off exponentially as the capacitor takes on additional charge at a slower rate.
As the capacitor charges up, the potential difference across its plates begins to increase with the
actual time taken for the charge on the capacitor to reach 63% of its maximum possible fully
charged voltage, in our curve 0.63Vs, being known as one full Time Constant, ( T ).
This 0.63Vs voltage point is given the abbreviation of 1T, (one time constant).
RC Time Constant, Tau

τ= R C
This RC time constant only specifies a rate of charge where, R is in Ω and C in Farads.
Since voltage V is related to charge on a capacitor given by the equation, Vc = Q/C, the voltage and
current across the capacitor ( Vc ) at any instant in time during the charging period is given as:
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 /R 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
Where:
Vc is the voltage across the capacitor
Vs is the supply voltage
e is an irrational number presented by Euler as: 2.7182
t is the elapsed time since the application of the supply voltage
RC is the time constant of the RC charging circuit
RC Discharging Circuit
When a voltage source is removed from a fully charged RC circuit, the capacitor, C will discharge back
through the resistance, R.
Figure 3: RC Discharging circuit.

As we saw in the previous tutorial, in a RC Discharging Circuit the time constant ( τ ) is still equal to the value
of 63%. Then for a RC discharging circuit that is initially fully charged, the voltage across the capacitor after
one time constant, 1T, has dropped by 63% of its initial value which is 1 – 0.63 = 0.37 or 37% of its final value.
Thus the time constant of the circuit is given as the time taken for the capacitor to discharge down to within
63% of its fully charged value. So one time constant for an RC discharge circuit is given as the voltage across
the plates representing 37% of its final value, with its final value being zero volts (fully discharged), and in
our curve this is given as 0.37Vs.
Figure 4: Waveforms of current and voltages of RC discharging circuit

For a RC discharging circuit, the voltage and current across the capacitor ( VC ) as a function of time during
the discharge period is defined as:
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 (𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )
𝑖(𝑡) = − 𝑉𝑠 /R 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
Where:
VC is the voltage across the capacitor
VS is the supply voltage
t is the elapsed time since the removal of the supply voltage
RC is the time constant of the RC discharging circuit

Circuit Diagram:
Figure 3: (a) An RC circuit with a two-pole switch that can be used to charge and discharge a capacitor. (b) When the switch is
moved to position A, the circuit reduces to a simple series connection of the voltage source, the resistor, the capacitor, and the
switch. (c) When the switch is moved to position B, the circuit reduces to a simple series connection of the resistor, the capacitor,
and the switch. The voltage source is removed from the circuit.
Procedure:
A. During Charging the capacitor:
7) Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3(b).
8) Switch ON the power supply.
9) Set the required input voltage.
10) Switch on RC series circuit.
11) Note down the voltmeter reading which indicate voltage across the capacitance with respect to
time.
12) Note down reading till voltage is constant across capacitor.
13) Switch off the power supply.
B. During Dis-charging the capacitor:

1) Take the charged capacitor of previous case.
2) Switch ON the capacitor across resistance for discharging.
3) Note down the voltmeter reading which indicate voltage across the capacitance with respect to
time.
4) Note down reading till voltage is zero across capacitor.
Observation Table:
During Charging:
Resistance= _________, Capacitance=________.
Initial voltage= ___________,
Time constant= _______________.
Sr. Time Voltage Calculated Voltage across

no. (sec) across Capacitor,
capacitor, VC 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )
(volts)
During DisCharging:
Resistance= _________, Capacitance=________.
Initial voltage= _________,
Time constant= _______________.
Sr. Time Voltage Calculated Voltage across

no. (sec) across Capacitor,
capacitor, VC 𝑉𝐶 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠 (𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )
(volts)
Conclusion:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Lab Assignments
1.The unit of the Capacitance is _______.

a) Kelvin c) Coulomb
b) Farad d) Siemen
2.What is the formula _______ to find the charge stored in capacitor ?

a) Q=C/F c) Q=CF
b) Q=CV d) Q=FV
3.The unit of a charge is __________.

a) Pascal c) Farad
b) Coulomb d) Henry
4.A 2 μF, a 4 μF, and a 10 μF capacitor are connected in series. The total capacitance is less than
a) 2 μF c) 10 μF
b) 4 μF d) μF
5.The charging time constant of a circuit consisting of a capacitor is the time taken for the charge in the
capacitor to become __________ % of the initial charge.
6.While discharging, what happens to the current in the capacitive circuit?
a) Decreases linearly c) Decreases exponentially
b) Increases linearly d) Increases exponentially
7.While discharging, what happens to the voltage in the capacitive circuit?
8.While charging, what happens to the voltage in the capacitive circuit?
Program Outcomes
Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis, and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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School of Electrical and Communication Sciences

Foundations of Electrical Engineering

Class: __________________ Roll No: ________

Academic Year: ___________ Program: _________

Faculty Incharge Head of Department Dean

1. Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.

(B) Introduction to energy conservation and simple techniques to achieve it.

c) Ovens, Microwave and Other Small Appliances:

Sr. Meter/ Parmeter Specifications with make

1. Resistances can be measured with the help of a …………

2. The pointer of an indicating instrument should be ……

4. _____________ is connected in parallel in an electric circuit

Sr. No. Apparatus Specifications

Theoretical Solution: For KCL and KVL

Connection Diagram:Draw on separate graph paper

Sr.No. Voltage V1 Voltage V2 I in mA I1 in mA I2 in mA I=I1+I2

Sr.No. Voltage V1 Voltage V2 I in mA I1 in mA I2 in mA I=I1+I2

1. Relation between currents according to KCL is

3. The basic laws for analyzing an electric circuit are :-

Aim: To verify Superposition theorem in a DC circuit. (Software and Hardware)

(1) Ohm’s law

Sr. No. Apparatus Specifications

Connection Diagram: Draw on a separate graph paper

5. Verify superposition theorem

2. Superposition theorem is only applicable in____________ network

3. In applying superposition theorem, to determine branch current and voltages

Sr. Power Calculations

B)For Delta Connected Balanced Load

Sr. Power Calculations

Q2)A polyphase system is generated by______?

Sr. Name of equipment/

Sr. Primary Primary Wattmeter Secondary Secondary Output power

Q2) EMF equation for single phase transformer is /0.5M

Q3)Efficiency of transformer normally in the range of /0.5M

Q4) The transformer efficiency will be maximum at /0.5M

D-type Cartridge Fuse

High Rupturing Capacity or Link Type Fuse:

Blade and Bolted Type Fuses

Striker type Fuse

HV (High Voltage) Fuses

Cartridge Type HRC Fuse

Expulsion Type HV Fuse

Miniature Circuit Breaker:

Type D MCBs are designed for heavy industrial applications where

Type C Trips between 0.04-5 Commercial or Inductive load Moderate At

Type D Trips between 0.04-3 Commercial or Inductive High At incoming of

Type K Trips between8 0.04-5 Industrial Inductive and High At incoming of

Q2)Which statement is incorrect with respect to fuse /0.5M

Q4) The net mmf in the core of ELCB is /0.5M

Sr. Name of equipment/

Figure 1(a): Series RL circuit.

Figure 1(b): Waveforms of current and voltages of RC circuits

Figure 1(b): Voltage triangle of RL circuits

Figure 2(a): Series RC circuit.

Figure 2(b): Waveforms of current and voltages of RC circuits

Figure 2(c): Voltage triangle of RC circuit

Sr. Applied Voltage across R, VR Voltage across Current, I

For RC series circuit.

Sr. Applied Voltage across R, VR Voltage across Current, I

Sr. no. Applied Impedance Z= R+ j XL Current, I = V/ |Z| (Amp) Phase angle

For RC series circuit.

Sr. no. Applied Impedance Z= R- j XC Current, I = V/ |Z| (Amp) Phase angle

For RL series circuit

For RC series circuit

Class: __________ Roll No:

Academic Year: ___ Program: _