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I S
TUYN TNH
NH XUT BN I HC S PHM
M s: 01.01.90/92. H- 2003
MC LC
LI NI U .......................................................................................... 11
CC K HIU .......................................................................................... 15
Chng I: NH THC............................................................................ 18
M U .................................................................................................. 18
1. PHP TH.............................................................................................. 20
1.1. nh ngha php th............................................................................ 20
1.2. Nghch th.......................................................................................... 21
1.3. Du ca php th ................................................................................ 21
2. KHI NIM MA TRN......................................................................... 24
3. NH NGHA V TNH CHT CA NH THC ............................. 26
3.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 26
3.2. Tnh cht ca nh thc ...................................................................... 27
4. KHAI TRIN NH THC.................................................................... 33
4.1. nh thc con - Phn b i s ........................................................... 33
4.2. Khai trin nh thc theo mt dng..................................................... 34
4.3. Khai trin nh thc theo r dng ......................................................... 38
5. PHNG PHP TNH NH THC .................................................... 42
5.1. Tnh nh thc cp 3........................................................................... 42
5.2. p dng php khai trin nh thc theo mt dng hoc mt ct.......... 43
5.3. a nh thc v dng tam gic.......................................................... 44
5.4. p dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc ................................................... 47
5.5. Phng php quy np v phng php truy hi .................................. 49
5.6. Tnh nh thc bng my tnh b ti v my tnh in t .................... 51
6. NG DNG - H PHNG TRNH CRAMER.................................... 55
6.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 55
6.2. Cch gii ............................................................................................ 55
6.3. Gii h Cramer bng my tnh b ti v my tnh in t.................... 58
TM TT................................................................................................. 60
BI TP................................................................................................... 62
VI NT LCH S .................................................................................. 67
BI TP................................................................................................. 113
VI NT LCH S ................................................................................ 121
Chng III: NH X TUYN TNH ..................................................... 123
M U ................................................................................................ 123
1. NH NGHA NH X TUYN TNH - S XC NH MT NH X
TUYN TNH ............................................................................................ 124
1.1. Cc nh ngha.................................................................................. 124
1.2. S xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh .................................................... 128
2. NH V HT NHN CA NH X TUYN TNH......................... 129
2.1. nh ngha v tnh cht..................................................................... 129
2.2. Lin h gia s chiu ca nh, ht nhn v khng gian ngun........... 133
2.3. S ng cu gia hai khng gian cng s chiu ................................ 135
3. CC PHP TON TRN TP CC NH X TUYN TNH HOMK(V, W)............................................................................................. 136
3.1. Php cng hai nh x tuyn tnh ....................................................... 136
3.2. Php nhn mt nh x tuyn tnh vi mt s..................................... 137
3.3. Khng gian vect HomK(V, W) ........................................................ 138
3.4. Tch hai nh x tuyn tnh................................................................. 139
TM TT............................................................................................... 141
BI TP................................................................................................. 143
VI NT LCH S ................................................................................ 147
Chng IV: H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH................................. 148
M u.................................................................................................... 148
1. PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH - PHNG PHP GAUSS............. 149
1.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 149
1.2. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php Gauss (kh dn n
s)........................................................................................................... 150
1.3. Thc hin phng php Gauss trn my tnh in t ........................ 156
2. DIU KIN H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH C NGHIM 159
2.1. iu kin c nghim......................................................................... 159
2.2. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng nh thc ................................ 160
TM TT............................................................................................... 280
1. DNG TUYN TNH, DNG SONG TUYN TNH.......................... 280
1.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 280
1.2. Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh ..................................................... 281
1.3. Lin h gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh i vi hai
c s khc nhau....................................................................................... 281
2. DNG TON PHNG...................................................................... 282
2.1. Dng ton phng ............................................................................ 282
2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng.......................................................... 282
2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh .............................................................. 282
3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC .................... 283
3.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 283
3.2. nh l. ........................................................................................... 283
3.3. Dng phn mm Maple a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc 283
3.4. nh l qun tnh.............................................................................. 284
4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT ........................................................... 285
4.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 285
4.2. C s trc chun .............................................................................. 285
4.3. Khng gian con b trc giao............................................................. 286
4.4. Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln khng gian con................................... 286
4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao ....................................... 286
4.6. Php bin i i xng ..................................................................... 287
4.7. ng dng ......................................................................................... 287
BI TP................................................................................................. 288
1. DNG SONG TUYN TNH............................................................... 288
2. DNG TON PHNG...................................................................... 289
VI NT LCH S ................................................................................ 293
Chng VII: QUY HOCH TUYN ANH............................................. 294
M DU ................................................................................................ 294
1. BI TON QUY HOCH TUYN TNH ........................................... 295
1.1. Mt vi bi ton thc t.................................................................... 295
1.2. Bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh........................................................... 297
LI NI U
thi i ca chng ta, khoa hc v k thut pht trin nh v bo.
Chng i hi ngnh gio dc phi lun lun i mi kp thi p
ng mi nhu cu v tri thc khoa hc ca thanh thiu nin, gip h c
kh nng lao ng v sng to trong cuc sng si ng. Hin nay
chng trnh v sch gio khoa bc ph thng nc ta bt u v
ang thay i ph hp vi i hi y. Trng Cao ng S phm, ci
ni o to gio vin THCS, cn phi c nhng i mi tng ng v
chng trnh v sch gio khoa. V mc ch , b sch gio khoa mi
ra i, thay th cho b sch gio khoa c.
Cun sch i s tuyn tnh bin son ln ny, nm trong khun kh
ca cuc i mi y. N nhm lm mt gio trnh tiu chun chung cho
cc trng Cao ng S phm trong c nc theo chng trnh mi
(chng trnh 2002), i hi khng nhng phi i mi nhng ni dung
kin thc (nu cn) v c phng php ging dy ca ging vin cng
nh phng php hc tp ca sinh vin. Mt khc, qua mt thi gian di
thc hin chng trnh v sch gio khoa c, n nay c th nh gi
nhng u, khuyt im ca n, s ph hp ca n vi trnh u vo
ca sinh vin cc trng Cao ng S phm. Do cun sch bin son
ln ny cng tha hng nhng u im v khc phc nhng thiu st
ca nhng cun sch c.
i tng s dng cun sch ny l sinh vin v ging vin cc
trng Cao ng S phm trong c nc, cc gio vin THCS cn c
bi dng t trnh chun ho. Cun sch cng c th c dng
cho cc trng i hc v Cao ng khc v cho tt c nhng ai mun t
hc mn hc ny.
C s la chn ni dung ca gio trnh ny l yu cu u ra v
trnh u vo ca sinh vin Cao ng S phm hin nay, ng thi
cng cn tnh n vai tr ca mn hc i vi cc mn khoa hc khc
nh Gii tch, Hnh hc, Vt l, Ho hc,v.v.., v to iu kin cho
ngi hc c th hc ln cao hn. C th, gio trnh ny phi trang b
c cho ngi gio vin ton tng lai trng THCS nhng kin thc
cn thit, y , vng vng v i s tuyn tnh ging dy tt nhng
phn lin quan trong chng trnh ton THCS. Tuy nhin, ni dung v
phng php trnh by nhng ni dung y li phi ph hp vi trnh
11
nhn thc v kh nng tip nhn sinh vin. Mt khc, gio trnh ny cng
phi cung cp y kin thc gip ngi c c th hc c nhng
mn khoa hc khc nh ni trn; ng thi p ng mong mun ca
nhng sinh vin c hoi bo nng cao hn na trnh ca mnh. V th,
ni dung cun sch cha ng nhng iu rt c bn m mi sinh vin
cn nm vng, nhng cng c nhng phn khng i hi mi sinh vin
u phi hiu.
Mn quy hoch tuyn tnh c s dng nhiu kin thc i s tuyn
tnh. Nhiu sch i s tuyn tnh trn th gii xp n nh mt chng
ca mnh di mc "Bt phng trnh tuyn tnh". Trong chng
trnh Cao ng S phm mi ca h o to gio vin dy hai mn, ni
dung ca mn Quy hoch tuyn tnh c gim bt. N cng c xp vo
mt chng trong gio trnh i s tuyn tnh ny.
Cun sch ny gm by chng:
Chng I. Trnh by nh ngha, cc tnh cht ca nh thc v cc
phng php c bn tnh nh thc. l mt phng tin nghin
cu khng gian vect v l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Chng II v chng III. Nghin cu khng gian vect v cc nh x
gia cc khng gian y - nh x tuyn tnh. N l c s ca i s tuyn
tnh. N gip cho vic hon thin l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Chng IV. H phng trnh tuyn tnh. l mt trong nhng
hng m rng ca phng trnh c hc trng ph thng. Vi
chng ny, l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c coi l hon thin.
Chng V. Nghin cu ma trn v mi lin h gia ma trn vi
khng gian vect. Nh n m cc nh x tuyn tnh c nghin cu su
sc hn.
Chng VI. Nghin cu dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng,
mt phn ca l thuyt dng trong i s tuyn tnh nhng li c nh
hng su sc n Hnh hc, Phng trnh vi phn v Phng trnh o
hm ring.
Chng VII: Nghin cu mt s bi ton ca Quy hoch tuyn tnh.
Phn i s tuyn tnh ca cun sch ny c dng chung cho c
hai h o to gio vin ton (h o to gio vin dy mn Ton cng
vi mn th hai, v h o to gio vin dy ch mt mn Ton). Yu
cu i vi mi h c khc nhau. i vi h o to gio vin dy hai
12
14
CC K HIU
Xn
2 ... n
1
(1)
(2)
...
(n)
Sn
Tp hp cc php th trn tp Xn
sgn()
Du ca php th .
i=1
a
jJ
n
Tch a1a2...an.
i =1
j J
A = (aij)(m,n)
A = (aij)n
Ma trn vung cp n.
Matn(K)
Tp hp cc ma trn vung cp n vi cc
thnh phn thuc trng K.
-1
|A|
nh thc ca ma trn A.
Ma trn n v.
~
ij
Aij
M ijll .......jir r
~ i1 ...i r
j1 ... jr
A ij11.......jir r
hng(A)
Hng ca ma trn A.
A+B
AB
Vect i ca .
Vect khng.
A = { 1, 2,..., m}
hng(A
A)
Hng ca h vect A.
() ={ 1 2,..., n}
dimKV
f: V W
f(X)
Imf
f-1(Y)
nh ngc ca tp Y.
HomK(V, W)
Tp hp cc nh x tuyn tnh t V n W.
f+g
gf
16
trc giao vi .
H G
Chun ca .
hchw
|z|
Mun ca s phc z.
x*
Phng n ti u.
Tp phng n ti u.
Ai
Aj
Vect ct th j ca ma trn A.
17
Chng I
NH THC
M U
lp 9, ta gii h phng trnh bc nht hai n bng phng php
cng i s hoc phng php th. Nhng phng php ny gip ta
d dng gii cc h phng trnh vi h s bng s. Nhng ln lp 10,
khi phi bin lun h phng trnh:
ta thy hai phng php trn km tng qut. Song nu dng khi nim
nh thc cp hai th vic trnh by tr nn sng sa, gn gng.
Ta s thy rng khi khi nim nh thc cp n, (vi n l mt s
nguyn dng tu ) c xy dng, th n c mt vai tr rt to ln. N
cn c p dng vo hu ht cc chng trong gio trnh ny; c bit,
n gp phn a vn gii h phng trnh bc nht tr thnh mt l
thuyt. N cn c p dng trong nhiu b mn khoa hc khc nh
Hnh hc, Gii tch, Vt l, Ho hc, v.v...
Chnh v th m ta cn nm vng cc tnh cht ca nh thc v cc
phng php tnh nh thc, lm nhiu bi tp rn luyn k nng tnh
nh thc c th vn dng tt khi hc tp v nghin cu b mn i
s tuyn tnh ny cng nh nhng mn khoa hc khc.
nh ngha nh thc cp n ta cn cc khi nim php th v ma
trn.
Yu cu chnh ca chng ny l:
- Hiu r v nm vng cc tnh cht ca nh thc.
- Nm vng cc phng php tnh nh thc c th tnh thnh tho
nhng nh thc cn thit.
18
i =1
V d : a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 =
, c l xch ma ai, i
i =1
chy t 1 n 7.
Tch ca n s: a1a2a3...an. (n 1), c vit gn l
, v c l
i =1
iI
V d: a1a2a3a4a5 =
, c l pi ai, i chy t 1 n 5.
i =1
19
1. PHP TH
y ta ch dng khi nim php th nh mt phng tin nghin
cu nh thc ch cha nghin cu su v n. hc chng ny bn
c ch cn hiu v nh nh ngha cc dng php th v tnh cht v du
ca n, khng cn nh chng minh.
1.1. nh ngha php th
a) Gi s tp hp Xn = {1, 2, 3,..., n}, ( n 1 ). Mt song nh : Xn
Xn c gi l mt php th trn tp Xn.
Ni ring, song nh ng nht c gi l php th ng nht.
b) Mt php th trn tp Xn c gi l mt chuyn tr hai phn t
i, j thuc Xn nu (i) = j, (j) = i v (k) = k, vi mi k Xn, k i, k i.
N cn c k hiu bi (i, j).
Ni mt cch n gin, mt chuyn tr ch hon v hai phn t no
ca Xn, cn gi nguyn mi phn t khc.
Tp hp tt c cc php th trn tp Xn c k hiu bi Sn.
Php th : Xn Xn c biu din nh sau:
1 2 3 4
trn
3 4 1 2
1.2. Nghch th
nh ngha. Gi s m mt php th trn tp Xn. Vi i,j Xn, i j,
ta ni cp ((i), (j)) l mt nghch th ca nu i <j nhng (i) > (j).
1 2 3
C 2 nghch th l: (2, 1), (3,
2 3 1
1 2 3
c 3 nghch th l: (3, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1).
3 2 1
1), php th 2 =
1.3. Du ca php th
nh ngha. Ta gi php th l mt php th chn nn n c mt s
chn nghch th. c gi l php th l nu n c mt s l nghch
th.
Ta gn cho mi php th chn mt gi tr bng +1, mi php th l
mt gi tr bng -1.
Gi tr ny ca php th c gi l du ca v c k hiu bi
sgn().
Nh vy, theo nh ngha, sgn() =
1 2 3
l mt
V d. Trong v d mc 1.2, ta thy php th =
3 2 1
21
1 2 3
l mt php th
php th l v n c 3 nghch th, cn =
2 3 1
chn v n c 2 nghch th. Do sgn() = -1, sgn() = 1.
Bn c hy t xc nh du ca cc php th 1 v j trong v d 2,
mc 1.1.
H qu 1.
{ } (i) (j)
i, j
1, nu s nghch th l s chn
- 1, nu s nghch th l s l
i j
= . Nhng
1
{ } (i) (j)
i, j
i j
l s m nu ((i),
(i) (j)
H qu 3. Mi chuyn tr u l php th l.
1 2 3 4
1 5 3 4
V d. Xt chuyn tr =
5 6
. Cc nghch th ng
2 6
23
V d. A =
0 3
l mt ma trn kiu (2, 3).
5 7
24
nh ngha 2. Ta gi ma trn
25
a 12
a 12
a 21
a 22
ta gi tng
26
bn c s thy rng:
28
V d.
Sn
5 7
5 7
=3
3 9
1 3
V d. Vi n = 2 ta c:
Tnh cht 4. Nu inh thc c hai dng ging nhau th inh thc y
bng 0.
Chng minh. Gi s nh thc D c dng th i ging dng th k.
Theo tnh cht 3, i ch hai dng ny cho nhau ta c D = - D.
Nhng nh thc D cng l nh thc D. Nh vy, D = - D. Suy ra 2D =
0. Vy D = 0.
30
31
V d. Cho nh thc
2 13
.
6 29
(2)
3)
c gi l phn b i s ca M i j...i...j .
1
33
~ 23
M13 =
3 5
l mt nh thc con cp hai ca D;
4 1
2 9
l nh thc con b ca M1323 ;
6 7
A1323 = (-1)
1+3+2+3
2 9
l phn b i s ca M1323 .
6 7
34
sgn(gn
1(1 2(2
Sn 1
sgn(gn
1(1 2(2
Sn 1
35
Gii
1) Khai trin nh thc theo dng th nht ta c:
37
Gii
Chn dng th nht v dng th ba. Hai dng ny cho ta 6 nh thc
cp hai. cho n gin ta vit chng l:
1, 3, cc ct 2, 3 nn A4 = (-1)1+3+2+3 4 5 = 38.
Vy D = M4A4 = (-11)(38) = - 418.
Chng minh nh l. chng minh ta cn k hiu c th hn. Theo
cc k hiu trong nh ngha 4.1, ta phi chng minh:
39
~ j1 ...jr
~ h1 ...h r 1
trong , P1j
~ h1 ...h r 1
h1 ...h r 1
j1 ...jr
40
41
42
Gii
Nhn thy ct th hai c nhiu thnh phn bng 0. Khai trin nh
thc theo ct ny ta khng cn tnh phn b i s ca nhng thnh phn
bng 0. Nh vy,
7
D = (-1)
1+2
(-2) 1
4 2
Gii
Ta cng c th khai trin nh thc ny theo dng hoc ct c thnh
phn bng 0. Tuy nhin nh tnh cht 6, ta c th bin i nh thc
trong mt dng hoc trong mt ct ch cn nhiu nht l mt thnh phn
khc 0. Chng hn, ta s bin i dng th ba. Nhn ct th nht vi 1
ri cng vo ct th hai, nhn ct th nht vi -10 ri cng vo ct th
t, ta c:
43
Gii
Trong ct th nht ta c th gi nguyn s 3, ri trit tiu cc s 2.
Song mun th ta phi nhn dng th nht vi -
2
. Php tnh s phc
3
45
Gii
Nhn ct th t vi - 3 ri cng vo ct th nht, ta c:
Nhn ct th ba ln lt vi 9 v - 2, ri cng ln lt vo ct th
nht v ct th hai:
46
Gii
Cng dng th nht vi dng th hai, ta c:
Gii
47
V d 3. Tnh nh thc:
Gii
Nhn thy cc dng th 4, 5 c tha s chung ln lt l 2, 4. Do :
D. Nh vy, D = D = - D. Suy ra D = 0. Vy D = 0.
V du 4. Tnh inh thc
Gii
Nhn thy cc thnh phn dng th hai bng cc thnh phn tng
ng ca dng th nht cng vi 19. Do , p dng tnh cht 1 ta c:
Gii
Khai trin nh thc theo ct cui ta c:
Hy xt vi trng hp d on kt qu.
Khi :
i =1
50
Vy Dn = (-1)n (n + 1)
i =1
Gii
Khai trin nh thc ny theo dng th nht:
4 5
= 6.
2 4
Ta c D3 = 2 4 5 = 4D2 5
0 2 4
2 5
= 4D2 40 = 24 40 = - 16
0 4
chng trnh my tnh gii nhanh chng nhiu php ton. V c nhiu
chng trnh, cc my tnh c th ci t nhng chng trnh khc
nhau nn trong cun sch ny ch nu ln cch s dng mt vi trong s
nhng chng trnh y lm v d. V nguyn tc, khi mt my tnh
c ci t mt chng trnh no th trong chng trnh y c hng
dn c th vic s dng n. Vi mi chng trnh cng c th ci sch
hng dn s dng km theo. y xin ly my tnh b ti "CASIO fx570MS" v chng trnh ci t vo my tnh in t Mathematica 4.0
lm v d.
a) Tnh nh thc bng my tnh b ti CASIO fx-570MS.
Ch rng my tnh CASIO fx-570MS ch c th tnh c nh
thc cp n 3.
Gii.
Bc 1. To ma trn ng vi nh thc.
Thc hin theo cc tao tc sau:
- a v tp ma trn bng cch bm cc nt theo th t:
MODE MODE MODE 2
Trn ca s ca my tnh hin th ch MAT; ngha l my m tp
ma trn.
- To ma trn:
Bm cc nt SHIFT MAT 1 .
Trn ca s xut hin hai dng: DIM EDIT MAT
1
Bm 1 xc nh s dng v s ct ca ma trn.
Ca s xut hin hai dng: A
52
Bm nt 1 k hiu ma trn A.
Bm 3 =
C Ans
3
4.
=.
Gii
M "Mathematica 4.0".
53
54
55
(ct th j)
V bi = ai1x1 + ... + aijxj + ... + ainxn nn
56
Dj
D
, vi mi j {1, 2, ..., n}
Gii
Ta phi tnh D, v cc Dj.
57
Gii
a v chng trnh "gii phng trnh" ta bm
MODE MODE MODE 1
Ca s xut hin hai dng unknowns? (n)
2
(2 hay 3 n)
58
Bm 3 ( khng nh s n l 3).
Ca s xut hin a1? (c ngha l bo ta nhp h s a1).
Bm 3 =
( nhp h s a1 = 3).
Lp tc ca s xut hin x - 1
Bm tm c y = - 2.
Bm tm c z = 0.
Vy h c nghim (1, - 2, 0).
b) Gii bng my tnh din t
My tnh in t c th gii h Cramer n n vi n l s nguyn
dng tu .
V d. Gii h phng trnh trong v d ca mc 6.2:
Gii
To ma trn ca h phng trnh bng cch nh:
A ={{3, 0, -2, 0},{1, 3, 0, 5},{0, 1, 4, 1},{0, -2, -1, -4}}
(Ch phi dng phm enter tn cng bn phi).
Gii h phng trnh bng cch nh lnh:
LinearSolve[A,{3, 0, -1, 0}] .
Mn hnh xut hin :
Out[] = (1, -2, 0, 1). l nghim ca h phng trnh.
59
TM TT
Ta dng php th m t khi nim nh thc. Mt php th trn
tp Xn = {1, 2,..., ni} l mt song nh.
: Xn Xn, n c vit nh sau:
1, nu l php th chn
- 1, nu l php th l
...........................
a
a i2 ...a ij ...a in tng
i1
...........................
a
n1 a n2 ...a nj ...a nn
|tA| = |A|
suy ra rng mi tnh cht ca nh thc pht biu i vi dng u ng
i vi ct
p dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc ta c th tnh c nh th cp
tu . C nhiu phng php tnh nh thc, trong hai phng php
thng dng nht l phng php khai trin nh thc theo mt dng
hoc mt ct v phng php a v dng tam gic. Tuy nhit cng cn
bit cc phng php khc vic tnh ton c linh hot. H phng
trnh Cramer l mt ng dng u tin ca nh thc l h phng
trnh c dng:
...........................
D = a i1 a i2 ...a ij ...a in 0.
...........................
a
n1 a n2 ...a nj ...a nn
Dj
D
61
BI TP
1. PHP TH
1. Tm tt c cc php th ca mi tp sau:
X2 = {1, 2}, X3 = {1, 2, 3}, X4 = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Xc nh du ca mi php th.
2. Vi mi php th sau hy xc nh du ca n, tm php th
nghch o v du ca php th nghch o:
Xc nh cc tch , .
3. DNH NGHA V TNH CHT CA NH THC
3. Cho ma trn A = (aij) cp 4.
a) Trong cc tch sau, tch no c mt trong nh ngha nh thc ca
A:
a13a24a31a33, a12a24a33a41, a14a22a31a43, a11a23a31a42.
b) Xc nh du ca nhng tch ni trn nu n c mt trong nh
ngha nh thc ca ma trn A.
4. Chn cc s j, k sao cho mi tch sau c mt trong nh ngha nh
thc ca ma trn A = (aij) cp 5:
a11a22a3ja4ka54, a12a2ja33a4ka55.
5. Cho ma trn cp ba: A = (aij). Vit cc tch c du "-" cha a13 c
mt trong nh ngha ca nh thc ca A.
6. Cho ma trn A = (aij) cp n. Xc nh du ca tch cc thnh phn
nm trn mi ng cho (c mt trong nh ngha ca nh thc ca A).
7. Bit rng 121, 253, 495 chia ht cho 11. Chng minh rng nh
62
thc :
63
64
65
66
VI NT LCH S
68
Chng II
KHNG GIAN VECT
M U
70
(-r) + r = (-r + r) = 0 = 0 ;
r(- ) + r = r(- + ) = r 0 = 0 .
vect V.
2.3. Tng ca nhng khng gian con
Mnh v nh ngha. Gi s W1, W2,... Wm l nhng khng gian
vect con ca K-khng gian vect V. Khi :
Tp hp W = { 1 + 2 + ... + n| i Wi, {1, 2,..., m }} l mt
khng gian con ca V.
Khng gian ny c gi l tng ca m khng gian con Wi cho v
c k hiu bi W1 + W2 +... + Wm hay
Wi .
i =1
r W.
i=1
76
i=1
Gi s OK khng ng phng vi OI , OJ . Th th { OI , OJ , OK } l
mt h sinh ca V. Tht vy, nh ta bit mi vect OA trong khng
gian u c dng: OA = r1 OI + r2 OJ + r3 OK .
(r1 OI = r1 OA1 , r2 OJ = OA 2 + r3 OK = OA 3
78
= a1(1, 0, 0, 0) + a2(0, 1, 0, 0) = a1 1 + a2 2 .
Vy { 1 , 2 } l h sinh ca W.
Ta hy th thm vect (2, 3, 0, 0) vo h vect { 1 , 2 } v xt
khng gian con W' sinh bi h vect { 1 , 2 , }. Mi = a1 1 + a2 2
+ a W u c th vit thnh:
79
A = { 1, 2,..., m-1, m}
(1)
r1
r
OI - 2 OK . iu ny chng t
r3
r3
ba vect ng phng.
V d 4. Xt khng gian vect R4. H gm ba vect 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0),
2 = (0, 1, 0, 0), = (2, - 5, 0, 0) l ph thuc tuyn tnh, cn cc h
vect { 1 , 2 }, { 1 , }, { 2 , }c lp tuyn tnh.
Tht vy, = (2, -5, 0, 0) = (2, 0, 0, 0) + (0, -5, 0, 0)
= 2(1, 0, 0, 0) (5, 1, 0, 0)
= 2 1 - 5 2
hay 2 1 - 5 2 + (-1) = 0 ; ngha l h { 1 , 2 , } l ph thuc
tuyn tnh v biu th tuyn tnh qua 1 , 2 .
By gi ta xt h vect { 1 , }. Gi s r1 1 + r2 = 0 , ngha l
r1(1, 0, 0, 0) + r2(2, - 5, 0, 0) - (0, 0, 0, 0)
hay (r1, 0, 0, 0) + (2r2, - 5r2, 0, 0) = (r1 + 2r2, - 5r2, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0, 0).
Suy ra:
Nu r 0 th
84
85
88
1) Nu W = { 0 } th dimkw = 0 dimKV.
By gi gi s dimKV = n, dimKW = m > 0. Khi W c mt c s,
chng hn, () gm m vect. V () l h vect c lp tuyn tnh trong
W v W V nn () cng l c lp tuyn tnh trong V. Theo b ,
mc 4.2, dimKW m n = dimKV.
2) Suy ra t h qu, mc 5.1.
nh l 2. Nu U, W l nhng khng gian con ca K-khng gian
vect V th:
dim(U + W) = dimU + dimW - dim(U W).
Chng minh.
Gi s dim U = p, dimW = q, dim(U W) = r v { 1, ,.., r} (1) l
mt c s ca U W. V c s ny l mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh
trong U v trong W nn, theo h qu nh l 1, mc 4.2, c th b sung
thnh c s:
ca U v thnh c s
Th th
ngha l h (4) l mt h sinh ca U + W.
Hn na, h (4) c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, gi s
90
(6)
(7)
91
6. TA CA MT VECT
V c s l mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh ca khng gian vect nn
thi vect ca khng gian u c cch biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua
c s .
6.1. nh ngha
Gi s () = { 1, 2,..., n} l mt c s ca K-khng gian vect V,
V c cch biu din duy nht di dng
92
Vy to ca i vi c s () l (4, - 2, - 4).
iu ny chng t khi i c s th to ca mt vect thay i.
Ta hy xem to ca cng mt vect trong hai c s khc nhau c
quan h vi nhau nh th no. Trc ht, mi lin quan gia hai c s
c din t bi nh ngha sau.
6.2. Ma trn chuyn
nh ngha. Gi s () = { 1, 2,..., n} v { 1, 2,..., 3} l hai c
s ca K-khng gian vect V,
Gii h ny ta tm c:
ij
y j , Vi mi i {1, 2,...,
j=1
n}.
V d. Xt khng gian R3 vi hai c s () v () trong v d mc
6.2. Cho = (- 5, 0 , 1) R3. Hy tm ta ca vect R3 i vi
c s ().
Gii
T v d mc 6.2, ta bit rng ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s
() l:
96
98
2
1.
5
100
101
As
, vi mi s {1, 2,..., r}, vi i c
D
nh chn, ta c
Do ng thc (3) c chng minh.
Vy h vect (2) l mt c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi m vect
dng ca ma trn A. Suy ra hng(A) = r.
Ch . Trong php chng minh nh l trn ta thy nu nh thc con
cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A nm r dng no th r vect dng y
l c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi m vect dng ca ma trn A.
V d: Tm c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi h vect gm cc
vect trong R3:
Gii
Gi A l ma trn m cc vect dng l cc vect cho:
102
Nh vy
1 5
l nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A.
2 1
a) Tm hng(a).
b) Tm c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi a.
Gii
a) tm hng ca h vect, ta phi tm hng ca ma trn
104
Vy hng(A) = 3.
b) V D3 nm ba dng u nn h vect { 1, 2, 3} l mt c s
cn tm.
Cng c th c nh thc cp 3 khc cha D2 v khc 0, chng hn,
Vy hng(A) = 3.
V D nm ba dng: th nht, th hai v th nm nn h vect { 1,
2, 3} cng l mt c s.
7.4. Tm hng ca ma trn bng cc php bin i s cp
Ta cng c th dng mt s php bin i trn ma trn tm hng
ca ma trn.
nh ngha. Cc php bin i sau y c gi l cc php bin
i s cp trn cc ma trn:
1) i ch hai dng (hai ct) cho nhau;
2) Nhn mi thnh phn trong mt dng (ct) vi cng mt s khc
0.
3) Nhn mi thnh phn trong mt dng (ct) vi cng mt s ri
cng vo thnh phn cng ct (dng) trong mt dng (ct) khc.
105
Gii
i ch dng th nht v dng th t cho nhau:
106
Gii
to ma trn nh lnh:
Gii
nh lnh to ma trn:
A = {{-2, 4, 2, 5}, {3, 1, 0, 7},{-1, 9, 4, 17}, {1, 0, 2, 1}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1] ={{-2, 4, 2, 5} {3, 1, 0, 7},{- 1, 9, 4, 17}, {1, 0, 2, 1}}.
lp ma trn chuyn v, nh lnh:
tA = Transpose[A]
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]={{- 2, 3, - 1, 1},{4, 1, 9, 0),{2, 0, 4, 2},{5, 7, 17, 1}}
tm ma trn thu gn, nh lnh:
RowReduce[tA]//1MatnxForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[3]=MatrixForm
109
110
TM TT
Chng II, trnh by khi nim khng gian vect trn mt trng K.
l mt tp hp V m mi phn t gi l mt vect, trn c php
ng hai vect v php nhn mt vect vi mt s thuc K tho mn 8
tiu kin nu nh ngha 1.1.
Mt tp con W ca V c gi l mt khng gian con ca V nu bn
thn W cng l mt khng gian i vi hai php ton cho trong V.
Mun chng minh W l khng gian con ca V ch cn chng minh rng:
1) W , vi , thuc W v r K, ta c + W, r W;
hoc 2) W , vi , thuc W v r, s K, ta c r + s W. Tng
ca m khng gian con W1, W2,..., Wm ca khng gian vect V li l mt
m
i =1
th
k
i
= 0 suy
i =1
ra k1 = k2 =...= km = 0.
Mi khng gian vect u c mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh, gi l
c s ca n. Nu () = { 1, 2,..., n} l mt c s ca K- khng gian
vect V th mi V u c cch biu din duy nht di dng
= a1 1+ a2 2+...+ an n.
Cc s ai c gi l ta ca i vi c s ().
Mt khng gian vect c th c nhiu c s khc nhau. Ta ca
mt vect trong c s ny khc vi ta ca n i vi c s kia. Bit
ta ca i vi c s () c th tm c ta ca n i vi c
111
Th th
112
BI TP
1. NH NGHA V TNH CHT N GIN
1. Dng nh ngha ca khng gian vect chng t rng:
a) Tp s thc R cng vi php cng hai s thc, php nhn mt s
thc vi mt s hu t l mt Q-khng gian vect;
b) Tp s phc C cng vi php cng hai s phc v php nhn mt
s phc vi mt s thc l mt R-khng gian vect;
c) Tp Q[x] cc a thc ca n x trn trng s hu t Q l mt Qkhng gian vect;
d) Vi Q l tp s hu t, R l tp s thc, V = Q x R, cng vi php
cng hai phn t trong V v php nhn mt phn t ca V vi mt s
hu t xc nh nh sau:
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d), r(a, b) = (ra, rb), a, c, r l nhng s
hu t b, d l nhng s thc,l mt Q-khng gian vect.
e) Tp Q ( 2 ) = {a + b 2 | a, b Q}, vi php cng v php nhn
vi s hu t xc nh nh sau:
(a + b 2 ) + (c + d
2 ) = (a + c) + (b + d)
2,
r(a + b 2 ) = ra + r 2 , r Q
l mt Q- khng gian vect.
2. Cc tp sau c phi l R-khng gian vect khng?
a) Tp Q vi php cng hai s hu t v php nhn mt s hu t vi
mt s thc;
b) Tp s phc C cng vi php cng hai s phc v php nhn mt
s phc vi mt s thc;
c) Tp s nguyn Z cng vi php cng hai s nguyn v php nhn
mt s nguyn vi mt s thc;
d) Tp V ni trong bi tp 1d) cng vi php cng v php nhn vi
mt s thc cng xc nh nh th,
e) Tp D cc a thc bc n vi h s thc.
113
( , ) + ( , ) = ( + , + ) , vi mi ,
1
A, 1, 2 B;
k( , ) = (k , k ) , vi mi k K, mi A, mi B.
Chng minh rng V l mt K-khng gian vect.
6. Trn tp A = {a} xc nh php cng v php nhn vi mt s
thc nh sau:
a + a = a, ra = a, vi mi r R.
Chng minh rng A l mt R-khng gian vect...
2. KHNG GIAN CON
7. chng minh rng:
a) Q l mt khng gian con ca Q-khng gian vect R;
b) R l mt khng gian con ca Q- khng gian vect C (C l tp s
phc);
114
Wi l mt khng gian
i =1
con ca V.
14. Cho V l mt R-khng gian vect, V. Chng minh rng tp
R = {r | r R} l mt khng gian con ca V. R c gi l khng
gian sinh bi vect .
15. Gi s U v W l hai khng gian con ca R-khng gian vect V.
115
1 = 1, 2= x - 1, 3 = (x - 1) , 4 = (x - 1)
l hai c s ca P3.
28. Chng minh rng nu { 1,..., 2,..., n} l mt c s ca Rkhng gian vect V th V =
i =1
R i v R i
R j = 0 , vi mi i
j1
117
j1
120
VI NT LCH S
Khi nim khng gian vect xut hin mun hn nhiu so vi khi
nim nh thc. Leibnitz l ngi u tin pht hin ra khi nim nh
thc v cng chnh ng l ngi c cng lao ng k trong vic
xng khi nim khng gian vect. Bt ngun t tng mun dng i
s nghin cu hnh hc, c th, mun dng i s miu t khng
ch nhng lng khc nhau ca hnh hc m miu t c v tr ca cc
im v hng ca ng thng trong hnh hc, Leibnitz quan tm
n cc cp im (tuy nhin, ng vn cha phn bit th t ca hai
im).
Hn 100 nm sau khi Leibnitz qua i, tc l vo nm 1833, cc
cng trnh ca ng v vn ny mi c cng b v ngi ta treo
gii thng cho nhng ai pht trin c tng ca Leibnitz trong
nhng cng trnh ny. Nm 1835, c Mbius thng bo tin ny,
Grassmann, mt gio vin th dc ca mt
trng hc thnh ph Stetin thuc nc
c, vi lng ham m ton hc, sau gn mt
nm lm vic, trnh by cng trnh v mt
cu trc tng t khng gian vect. T nm
1832 Grassmann tm c cc dng vect
ca cc lut trong c hc. ng ch ti
tnh giao hon, kt hp ca php cng cc
vect. Cng trnh ca ng qu tng qut nn
n nm 1840 cc nh ton hc vn khng
hiu c tng ca ng. V th n c t
nh hng. Grassmann gi quyn sch u tin ca mnh cho Gauss
v cho Mbius, nhng Mbius khng c ht v khng hiu c
tng ca Grassmann. Nm 1844, cng mt lc vi Hamilton,
Grassmann a ra khi nim khng gian gin n tuyn tnh, (tc l
khng gian vect n chiu ngy nay) cng vi cc tnh cht ca n. ng
cng nh ngha i lng gin n nh l t hp tuyn tnh, nh
ngha khng gian con v khi nim c lp tuyn tnh ca h vect v c
khi nim m ngy nay gi l c s, s chiu, tch v hng. Vi ln,
Grassmann xin c lm vic trng i hc nhng khng thnh, ln
cui cng m ng b t chi l do Kummer nhn xt rng cc bi bo
ca ng trnh by khng c r rng sng sa. Cho n lc cht ng
121
122
Chng III
NH X TUYN TNH
M U
Ta bit cc tp hp lin h vi nhau bi cc nh x. Gi s A v B
l hai tp hp khng rng, mt nh x t A n B l mt quy tc no
cho ng vi phn t a A mt phn t duy nht f(a) B; f(a) c gi
l nh ca a. nh x t tp A n tp B c k hiu l f: A B. nh x
f c xc nh nu bit nh ca mi aA. Cc nh x c phn loi
thnh n nh, ton nh, song nh.
Nu X A th tp hp
f(x) = {bB | b = f(x) vi mt x no thuc X}
c gi l nh ca X.
Nu Y B th tp hp
f-1(y) = {aA | f(a)Y}
c gi l nh ngc (hay to nh) ca Y; v.v...
By gi, i vi cc khng gian vect, chng to thnh khng ch
bi nhng phn t, m cn c nhng php ton. V th mi lin h gia
chng cng phi c th hin bi nhng nh x c lin quan n cc
php ton y. l nh x tuyn tnh.
Chng ny dnh cho vic nghin cu nh x tuyn tnh, gm:
- Khi nim nh x tuyn tnh hay cc ng cu khng gian vect,
cc dng nh x tuyn tnh nh : n cu, ton cu, ng cu.
- S xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh ( ta s thy rng mun xc
nh mt nh x tuyn tnh ch cn bit nh ca cc vect trong mt c
s).
- Khi nim nh v ht nhn, mi lin quan gia nh, ht nhn vi
123
vi mi , , thuc V v mi r K.
f( ) gi l nh ca .
Nu W = V th nh x tuyn tnh f c gi l mt t ng cu.
V d 1. Gi s V l mt K-khng gian vect. nh x 1v = V V
xc nh bi
1v( ) = , vi mi V
124
a : Rn Rm xc nh nh sau:
125
Theo nh ngha ca nh x a, ta c:
Vy a l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
H qu.
1) nh x f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh khi v ch khi:
f(r + s ) = rf( ) + sf( ), vi mi , thuc V v mi r, s thuc
K.
2) Nu f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh th f( 0 v) = 0 w, y 0 v
v 0 w ln lt l vect khng trong V v W.
Chng minh. 1) Xin dnh cho bn c.
2) V 0 = 0 v, v f l mt nh x tuyn tnh nn
f( 0 v) = f( 0 ) = 0f( ) = 0 w.
nh x gia cc tp hp c phn ra thnh n nh, ton nh, song
nh. Tng ng vi chng, cc nh x tuyn tnh cng c phn thnh
n cu, ton cu v ng cu.
nh ngha 2. Mt nh x tuyn tnh c gi l:
a) n cu nn n l mt n nh;
b) ton cu nn n l mt ton nh;
c) ng cu nn n ng thi l n cu v ton cu.
126
Hn na, vi i ta c th vit:
128
nh ca A.
Tp hp f-1( ) = { V | f( ) B} c gi l nh ngc (hay to
nh+ ca B.
Ni ring, f(V) c gi l nh ca V hay nh ca f v k hiu l Imf
f ( 0 w) c gi l ht nhn ca f v k hiu l Kerf.
1
V d 1. Cho nh x f: R4 R3 xc nh bi:
D thy f l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
T suy ra:
V d 2. nh x g: R4 R3 xc nh bi:
f(a1, a2, a3, a4) (a1, a2, a3).
g l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Img = { (a1, a2, a3) | ai R, i = 1, 2, 3} = R3,
T suy ra
V d 3. Cho nh x h: R2 ~ R3 xc nh bi
f(a1, a2) = (a1, a2, a1- a2).
Bn hy t kim tra rng h l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
T suy ra:
130
V d 4. Xt nh x a: Rn Rm trong v d 6, mc 1.1.
131
Do
Do
Li theo nh l 2.2, Ch.II, f-1(B) l mt khng gian con ca V.
T ta c h qu 1 sau y.
H qu 1. Gi s f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Khi :
1) Imf l mt khng gian con ca W.
2) Kerf l mt khng gian con ca V.
H qu 2. Gi s f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
1) f l mt ton cu khi v ch khi Imf = W.
2) f l mt n cu khi v ch khi Kerf = 0 v.
Chng minh.
1) Hin nhin.
2) Gi s f l mt n cu v Kerf. Khi f( ) = 0 w =
f( 0 v). V f l n cu nn = 0 v. Suy ra Kerf = {v}.
Gi s Kerf = { 0 v}. chng minh f l mt n cu ta phi
chng minh rng nu f( 1) = f( 2) th 1 = 2. Nhng khi f( 1) = f( 2)
ta c
132
Do
133
iu ny c ngha l -
s
j
Kerf.
j1
134
dimKerf = 0 nn
dimV = dimW.
f: V W.
l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
f + g c gi l tng ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f v g.
Chng minh. Tht vy, vi , V v vi r, s k, ta c:
Vy f + g l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
V d. Cho f, g HomK(R4, R2), xc nh bi:
Xc nh f + g. Tm Im(f + g) v Ker(f + g.
Gii
Theo nh ngha, vi = (a1, a2, a3, a4) tu thuc R4, ta c:
136
1
x1 v a4 = x2, th
2
Suy ra
r1 2 r2
r
x - x - 3 P2 th
3
3
3
f: P2 R3.
1f= f,
vi mi f, g, h thuc HomK(V, W), k, 1, 1 thuc trng K.
Ni cch khc HomK(V, W) l mt K-khng gian vect.
Chng minh. Vi cc nh ngha ca hai php ton ni trn, bn c
c th d dng kim tra cc tnh cht ny.
3.4. Tch hai nh x tuyn tnh
Mnh 1. Gi s f: V W, g: W~ Um hai nh x tuyn tnh. Th
th nh x gf : V U xc nh bi (gf)( ) = g(f( )), vi mi V,
cng l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
N c gi l tch ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f v g.
Chng minh. V f v g l nhng nh x tuyn tnh nn vi , V
v vi r, s K, ta c:
Vy
h(f + g) = hf + hg.
140
TM TT
V, W, U l nhng K-khng gian vect.
f: V W, l mt nh x tuyn tnh nu f( + ) - f( ) + f( ),
f(r ) = rf( ) hay
f(r ) + s ) = rf( ) + sf( ) , vi mi , V, mi r, s K.
Nu () = { 1, n} l mt c s ca v th mi h vect { 1,..., n} ca
W xc nh duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V W sao cho f( i) = i,
vi mi i {1,..., n}.
f l mt n cu nu n l mt n nh, l mt ton cu nu n l
mt ton nh v l mt ng cu nu n ng thi l n cu v ton
cu.
f: V W dimV = dimW.
nh x tuyn tnh f to nn mi lin h gia tp cc khng gian con
ca V v tp cc khng gian con ca W.
A l mt khng gian con ca V th
f(A) = { W | = f( ) vi mt A} l mt khng gian con
ca W.
B l mt khng gian con ca W th:
f li) = { V | f( ) B } l mt khng gian con ca V.
Imf = f(V) c gi l nh ca V hay nh ca f, Kerf = f-1{ 0 w} c
gi l ht nhn ca f.
Nu { 1, 2, ,..., m} l mt h sinh ca khng gian vect V th
{( 1), f( 2), ,..., f( m)} l mt h sinh ca Imf.
f : V W l mt ton cu khi Imf = W, h mt n cu Kerf
= { 0 }.
dimV = dimImf + dimKerf.
HomK(V, W) l tp cc nh x tuyn tnh t V n W. Vi f, g
HomK(V, W), k K,
141
f + g xc nh bi: (f + g) ( ) - f( ) + g( ),
kf xc nh bi: (kf)( ) = kf( ), vi mi V.
Nu f : V W v g: f : W U th (gf)( ) - g(f( )), vi mi V.
142
BI TP
1. NH NGHA - S XC NH MT NH X TUYN
TNH
1. Trong cc nh x sau y, nh x no 1 nh x tuyn tnh?
a) f: R3 R3 xc nh bi f(a1, a2, a3) = (a1, 0, 0),
b) g: R3 R3 xc nh bi g(a1, a2, a3) = (a1, 0, a1-a2);
c) h: R3 R3 xc dnh bi h(a1, a2, a3) = (a1, a2-2 , 0);
d) k: R3 R2 xc nh bi k(a1, a2, a3) = (a1, a2 + a3);
e) l: R3 R2 xc dnh bi l(a1, a2, a3) = (a1, a2a3);
f) P: R3 R2 xc nh bi p(a1, a2, a3) = (a1, 3a2);
g) q: R3 R4 xc nh bi q(a1, a2, a3) = (a1, a1-a2, 0, a2-a3);
h) t: R3 R3 xc nh bi t(a1, a2, a3) = (a1, a1 + a2,a3) ?
2. Trong cc nh x bi tp 1, nh x no 1 n cu, ton cu,
ng cu ?
3. Cho 1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 0), 3 = (0, 0, 1) 1p thnh c s
chnh tc ca R3 v ba vect 1 = (1, 2, 0), 2 = (1, 0, -1), 3 (0, - 2, 2).
nh x tuyn tnh f : R3 R2 c xc nh bi f( i) = i = 1, 2, 3. Tm
nh ca cc vect = (- 3, 0, 5), = (2, 2, - 7), = (0, 5, 0) , = (x1, x2,
x3).
4. Cho cc vect 1 = (2, 3, 1), 2 = (0, 1, 2), 3 = (1, 0, 0), 1 = (1,
1, -1), 2 = (1, 1, 1), 3 = (2, 1 , 2). Chng minh rng tn ti duy nht
mt nh x tuyn tnh f : R3 R3 sao cho f( i) = i. Tm f(1, 0, 0).
5. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R3 R3 tho mn iu kin:
f(1, 1, 0) = (1, -1 0) , f(1, 0, 1) = (2, 0, 1), f(0, - 1, 0) = (0, - 2, 0).
Tm sao cho: f( ) - (3, 0, 0).
6. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V W v h vect a = { 1, 2,..., m}
trong V. Chng minh rng nu h vect {f( 1), ( 2),..., ( m)} c lp
tuyn tnh th h a cng c lp tuyn tnh.
143
VI NT LCH S
Nh ni trong mc vi nt lch s ca chng II, mt trong nhng
ngi sng to ra khi nim khng gian vect l nh ton hc c tn l
Hermann Gunther Grassmann. Sau , Peano, nh ton hc ngi Italia
vo nm 1888, a ra nh ngha tin ca khng gian vect (hu
hn chiu hoc v hn chiu) trn trng s thc vi cc k hiu hon
ton hin i, ng cng nh ngha khi nim nh x tuyn tnh t mt
khng gian ny vo mt khng gian khc. Peano l mt trong s nhng
ngi sng lp phng php tin , v cng l mt trong s nhng
ngi u tin nh gi ng n gi tr ca nhng cng hin ca
Grassmann. Sau t lu, Pinkerle th
pht trin nhng ng dng ca i s tuyn
tnh vo l thuyt hm. iu gip ng
tm hiu c nhng trng hp "lin hp
Lagrange c bit" ca nhng nh x tuyn
tnh lin hp v n mau chng nh
hng n khng nhng vic nghin cu
phng trnh vi phn m c phng trnh
o hm ring. Kt qu ca Pinkerle c
th hin trong cc cng trnh ca Hilbert v
trng phi ca ng v khng gian Hilbert,
v cng c th hin trong cc ng dng
ca chng vo gii tch. Cng nh nh x tuyn tnh, vo nm 1922,
Banach nh ngha khng gian m sau ny mang tn ng; l nhng
khng gian khng ng cu vi khng gian lin hp vi n.
147
Chng IV
H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH
M U
Ni dung gio trnh ton trng Ph thng l cc tp hp s, a
thc, phn thc, hm s v phng trnh, trong c phng trnh bc
nht. mi ch nghin cu cch gii h phng trnh bc nht hai n.
Mt trong nhng phng hng m rng ton hc ph thng l tng
qut ho h phng trnh bc nht. l h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Chng ny s trnh by l thuyt tng qut v h phng trnh ny. Ta
s thy y khng i hi mt iu kin no v s phng trnh, s n.
L thuyt ny rt quan trng v n c hon thin nh khng gian
vect v nh thc. N c nhiu ng dng khng nhng trong nhiu
ngnh ton hc khc nh: i s, Hnh hc; Gii tch; L thuyt phng
trnh vi phn, phng trnh o hm ring; Quy hoch tuyn tnh, m cn
trong nhiu lnh vc khoa hc khc v c trong kinh t.
Ni dung ca chng ny l:
iu kin c nghim ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut,
- Phng php gii;
- H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht;
- Mi lin h gia nghim ca h tng qut vi h thun nht.
cng l nhng vn m bn c cn nm vng. Bn c cn
gii nhiu bi tp c k nng gii cc h phng trnh v c th vn
dng chng trong khi nghin cu cc mn khoa hc khc hoc ng dng
vo thc t.
hiu c cn k l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh, bn c
cn nm vng nhng iu c bn v khng gian vect nh c s, hng
ca h vect, hng ca ma trn. gii c cc h phng trnh tuyn
tnh cn c k nng tnh nh thc.
148
A () =
l dng nh x tuyn tnh ca h (1). Gii h phng trnh (1) cc
ngha l tm tp cc vect c dng = (c1, c2,..., cn) Kn sao cho a( )
= , hay tm a-1( ).
1.2. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php Gauss
(kh dn n s)
trng Ph thng ta bit gii h phng trnh bng phng
php cng i s. Phng php ny da vo nh l sau y v bin i
tng ng h phng trnh.
nh l.
1) Nu i ch mt phng trnh trong h th c mt h tng
ng vi h cho.
2) Nu nhn mt phng trnh vi mt s khc 0 th c mt h
tng ng vi h cho.
150
Gii
Nhn hai v ca phng trnh (1) ln lt vi - 2, - 3 ri cng l lt
vo phng trnh (2) v phng trnh (3), ta c h:
152
Gii
153
Gii
154
1 1
= - 2 0. Do x1, x2 c xc nh duy
0 2
nht bi cc ng thc:
Gii
Bn c hy t tm hiu nhng php bin i sau:
155
Gii
To ma trn b sung B ri thu gn:
{{1, - 5, 4, - 7}, {2, - 9, -1, 4}, {3, - 11, - 7, 17}} //RowReduce//
MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[] =
156
Gii.
{{4, 2, 1, 7}, {1, -1, 1, -2}, {2, 3, - 3, 11}, {4, 1, - 7}}//RowReduce//
MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[] =
Gii
{{3,-1,-1,2,1},{1,-1,-2,4,5}, {1,1,3,-6,-9},
157
{12,-2,1,-2,-10}}//RowReduce//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
{{4,2,1,-3,7},{1,-1,1,2,5},{2,3,-3,1,3},{4,1,-1,5,1}}
//RowReduoe//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[] =
158
Do U. V th tn ti b n s
(c1, c2,..., cn) sao cho = c1 l + c2 2 +... + cn n. Vy h (1) c
nghim.
V d 1. Mi h Cramer u c nh thc |A| 0. Do hng(a) = n.
Ma trn B ch c n dng v |A| cng l nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0
ca B. V th hng(A) = hng(B). Vy mi h Cramer u c nghim.
V d 2. Xt h phng trnh trong v d 3 ca mc 1.3. Cc php
bin i s cp a cc ma trn A v B v dng thu gn sau y:
Gii
Tm hng ca cc ma trn:
1 5 1
nh thc D = 2
0 = 36. Do hng(A) = 3.
Gii
Tm hng ca cc ma trn:
Ta thy nh thc
Vit h ny di dng:
Gii
Nu a 1, a - 2 th D 0, h cho l mt h Cramer.
Dx = - (a -1)2(a+1), Dy = (a 1)2, Dz = (a2-1)2.
H c nghim duy nht:
164
cn ma trn b sung B =
2
1
1
1
2 c nh thc cp ba
Vy h v nghim.
H phng trnh
a( ) = 0
(2).
l n - r vect thuc S.
Ma trn m cc dng l nhng vect ny c nh thc con cp n - r
167
2
5
x3 = . Nghim ring tng ng
3
3
168
l (0,
2 5
, , 1).
3 3
Vy h nghim c bn l:
1 2
= 2.V dimS = 2 nn
0 2
Bin i ma trn A:
169
H nghim c bn l:
k
j
=B
j=1
Gii
To ma trn cc h s, nh lnh:
A={{3,-1,-1,2},{1,-1,-2,4},{1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1]={{3,-1,-1,2},{1,-1,-2,4},{1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}}
Gii h phng trnh, nh lnh:
LinearSolve[A,{1,5,- 910}]
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]-{-2,-7,0,0}
l mt nghim ring ca h cho.
Tm h nghim c bn ca h thun nht lin kt, nh lnh:
NullSpace[A]
Mn hnh xut hin h nghim c bn ca h thun nht:
Out[3]={{1,5,0,1}, {-1,-5,2,0}}.
Mun tm nghim tng qut ca h cho ta ch vic ly tng ca
mt nghim ring ca h cho vi mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h nghim
c bn ca h phng trnh thun nht lin kt:
(x1, x2, x3, x4) = (-2, -7, 0, 0) + c3(-1, -5, 2, 0) + c4(1, 5, 0, 1) = (-2-c3+
c4, -7- 5c3 + 5c4, 2c3, c4).
Ch : Nu quan st nghim tng qut y vi nghim tng qut
v d 2, mc 2.2, ta thy chng khc nhau. Song nu thay c3 y bi c3
=
1
c3 th ta c cng thc nghim tng qut v d 2, mc 2.2. Hn
2
Gii
To ma trn cc h s.
A={{3,-17-1,2},{1,-1,-2,4},{1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1]={{3,-1,-1,2},{1,-1,-2,4},{1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}}
Gii h phng trnh, nh lnh:
LinearSolve[A,{1,5,-9,10}}]
Mn hnh xut hin:
LinearSolve: nosol: Linear equation encountered which has no
solution
Out[2]=linearsolve[{{3,-1,-1,2},1,-1,-2,4~1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}},{1,5,9,10}].
iu ny c ngha rng h v nghim. S d h v nghim l v
hng(A) = 2, cn hng(B) - 3.
173
TM TT
Chng ny trnh by l thuyt v h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
V phng din l thuyt, nh cc kin thc v khng gian vect v
nh thc, chng ny cho ta bit: h c nghim khi v ch khi hng(A)
= hng(B), trong A l ma trn cc h s ca h phng trnh, B l ma
trn b sung.
Trong trng hp h c n n, nu hng(A) = hng(B) = n th l h
Cramer, n c nghim duy nht; nu hng(a) = hng(b) - r < n th h c
v s nghim m gi tr ca cc n ph thuc vo n - r n t do. Khi ,
nu cho mi n t do mt gi tr xc nh ta c mt nghim ring nu
coi mi n t do nh mt tham s th ta c nghim tng qut.
V phng din thc hnh, ta c hai cch gii h phng trnh tuyn
tnh: phng php Gauss kh dn n s v phng php dng nh thc.
Khi dng phng php nh thc ta ch cn gii h phng trnh gm
nhng phng trnh ng vi cc dng ca nh thc con cp cao nht
khc 0. Cc n t do l nhng n m h s nm ngoi nh thc con cp
cao nht khc 0 y.
H phng trnh tuyn tnh m cc h s t do bng 0 gi l mt h
phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht. H ny lun lun c nghim v
hng(A) = hng(B). Tp S cc nghim ca h thun nht n n l mt
khng gian con ca khng gian Kn. Nu hng(A) - r th dims = n - r. Nu
bit mt nghim ring ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh th nghim
tng qut ca n bng nghim ring cng vi nghim tng qut ca
h thun nht lin kt.
174
BI TP
1. H PHNG TRNH TUYNTNH PHNG PHP GAUSS
1. Gii h phng trnh bng phng php Gauss
175
c nghim .
6. Chng minh rng vi mi gi tr ca a, b, c h phng trnh
176
178
179
1 1
3 3
2
3
180
VI NT LCH S
Phng trnh tuyn tnh v h phng trnh tuyn tnh l nhng bi
ton c nht ca i s. Ngay t bui s khai ca ton hc ngi ta
gii nhng bi ton bng mt php nhn hoc mt php chia, tc l tm
nghim ca mt phng trnh dng ax = b. Vic gii cc phng trnh
bc nht c cc nh ton hc Babilon c Hilp bit n. Cc tc
phm ton hc ca iphng l nh cao ca nhng thnh tu nghin
cu ton hc thi k ny (th k th ba trc cng nguyn). Sau
nhng vn v phng trnh li c pht trin bi cc nh ton hc n
nh Ariabkhata (th k th Vi), Bramagupta (th k th VII) v
Khaskara (th k th XII). Ngi ta cng thy nhng bi ton v phng
trnh bc nht Trung Quc t th k th II trc cng nguyn.
Ni tm li, phng trnh tuyn tnh c bit n t rt sm. Tuy
nhin n li pht trin kh mun, v ngi ta coi rng a mt phng
trnh tuyn tnh v dng ax = b th ch cn bit quy tc chuyn B hng
t v ny sang v kia v rt gn cc s hng ng dng l , v mun
gii h nhiu phng trnh tuyn tnh th ch cn kh dn cho n khi ch
cn mt n. Do trong mt thi gian di n hu nh khng pht trin.
L thuyt v h phng trnh tuyn tnh sau ny c pht trin l do
nhng nhu cu v tnh ton, chng hn phi xc nh phng trnh ca
mt ng cong i qua nhng im cho trc. V th lc u ngi ta
ch bit n nhng h phng trnh c s phng trnh bng s n; v
nu c xut hin nhng h phng trnh m s phng trnh khc s n
th ngi ta coi rng bi ton t ra nh th l bi ton ti. Ngc li,
nh c i s tuyn tnh ni chung v h phng trnh tuyn tnh ni
ring m Hnh hc gii tch c hon thin n mc mu mc.
Nh c nh thc a ra bi Leibnitz (1646-1716), Cramer (17041752), v khng gian vect c xng bi Grassmann v Hamilton
(1805-1865) v khi nim ma trn c hnh thnh bi nh ton hc Anh
J. Sylvester (1814-1897) m l thuyt phng trnh tuyn tnh ngy cng
c hon thin. Cramer trnh by li gii bi ton xc nh ng conic
i qua 5 im cho trc bi vic gii mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh nh
nh thc (tuy nhin khi cha c tn gi nh thc). Nh phng php
ca Cramer m sau ny vo nm 1771, Vandermonde (1735-1796), nh
ton hc Php, thit lp cng thc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn
181
182
Chng V
MA TRN
M U
Ta bit ma trn gp phn vo vic nghin cu l thuyt h phng
trnh tuyn tnh. By gi ta tip tc tm hiu ma trn su hn na; c
bit nghin cu mi lin h gia ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh. Ta s thy
rng, ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh lin h mt thit vi nhau. Khi c
nh hai c s ca hai khng gian vect th mt nh x tuyn tnh gia
hai khng gian y cho mt ma trn v ngc li, mt ma trn xc nh
mt nh x tuyn tnh duy nht.
Nh c ma trn m ta xc nh c gi tr ring v vect ring mt nh
x tuyn tnh; do xc nh c nhng khng gian con bt bin ng vi
nhng gi tr ring. Ma trn cng xc nh nhng dng nh x tuyn tnh
c bit c dng n chng Vi nh cc php bin i i xng, bin
i trc giao. Tri li, nh cc vect ring v gi tr ring ca nh x tuyn
tnh m c th a ma trn tr v dng n gin; l ma trn cho.
Ni dng ca chng ny l:
- Cc php ton trn cc ma trn;
- Ma trn nghch o ca mt ma trn vung;
- Gi tr ring, vect ring;
- Cho ho mt ma trn.
Bn c cn nm vng nhng vn ny v chng c p dng vo
ngay chng sau v trong nhiu lnh vc khoa hc khc.
hc tt chng ny bn c cn nm vng nhng kin thc v
khng gian vect v nh x tuyn tnh.
Trong cun sch ny ta k hiu tp hp cc ma trn kiu (m,n) vi
cc thnh phn trong trng K bi Mat(m.n)(K).
183
Ch : V () l mt c s ca W nn cc thnh phn an c xc
nh duy nht; do ma trn A c xc nh duy nht.
V d 1. Gi s Iv = V V l ng cu ng nht ca khng gian
vect V, v () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l mt c s bt k trong V. Khi :
Do ma trn ca IV i vi c s () l:
184
I c gi l ma trn n v.
Ma trn vung I = (aij) c gi l ma trn n v nu
Do ma trn ca f i vi hai c s ny l
Hn na, ma trn ca f l A.
2) C nh hai c s trong V v W. Vi mi fHomK(V, W), f xc
186
187
188
189
2.3. Php tr
nh ngha.
Ma trn (-1) A c gi l i ca ma trn A. K hiu l A.
Vi hai ma trn A v B, tng A + (-B) c gi l hiu ca A v B.
K kiu A - B.
Nh vy, vi A = (aij)(m,n) v B - (bij)(m,n) ta c: - B = (- bij)(m,n),
A - B = (aij-bij)(m,n).
190
mn iu kin 2X + A = B.
Gii. p dng mnh 2.4, cng - A vo hai v ca ng thc 2X +
A - B, ta c :
191
Quy tc nhn hai ma trn. Mun tm thnh phn cik ca ma trn tch
AB ta phi ly mi thnh phn aij ca dng th i trong ma trn A nhn
vi thnh phn bjk ca ct th k ca ma trn B ri cng li.
C th m t bi s sau:
Ch :
1) Theo nh ngha, tch AB ch c xc nh khi s ct ca ma trn
A bng s dng ca ma trn B.
2) Php nhn ma trn khng c tnh giao hon.
192
hay
X = TY.
i vi hai c s ny l
ta ca vect V i vi c s () v ta ca f( ) i vi c s
() c vit di dng ma trn ct ln lt l
Th th
Mt khc
AX.
194
hay
AX = b.
V d 6. Gi s A = (aij)(m,n) v In l ma trn n v cp n. Khi :
196
5 17 11
10 7 29
- Tnh A - B tng t.
- Tnh 6A.
Chn MODE ma trn:
Gii.
Thao tc nh khi lm tnh cng.
197
b) Dng my tnh in t
Ta thc hin theo chng trnh MATHEMATICA 4.0.
A = {{3, 5,II}, {- 4, 0, 9}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1]= {{3, 5,11}, {-4, 0, 9}}
B={{ - 8, 12, O},{14, - 7, 20}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]= {{ - 8, 12, 0},{14, - 7, 20}}
A+B//1MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
A-B//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
198
6A//MatnxForm
199
200
Ta xt nh thc
c ma trn nghch
V d 2. Trong Mat2(R) ma trn A =
5
3
. Tht vy, ta c:
o A-1 =
202
Gi s li b 0 v
t bjk =
A kj
trong Akj l l phn b i s ca thnh phn akj ca
A
ma trn A (xem nh ngha 4.1, Ch. I). Xt ma trn vung B - (bjk), hay
Tm cc phn b i s
A11 = 11, A12 = - 3, A13 = - 6, A21 = -15, A22 = 5, A23 = 8, A31 = - 3,
A32 = 1, A33 = 2.
204
vo bn tri (phi) ca A.
Php bin i 2) chnh l nhn ma trn
205
vo bn tri (phi) ca A.
Php bin i 3) chnh l nhn ma trn
vo bn tri (phi) ca A.
Hn na d thy rng cc ma trn P, Q, R, S u khng suy bin. Do
ta c nh l sau:
nh l. Nu thc hin nhng php bin i s cp nh nhau trn ma
trn khng suy din A v ma trn n v I m A bin thnh I th I bin
thnh A-1.
206
Chng minh. Nh nhn xt trn khi thc hin nhng php bin i
s cp trn cc dng ca ma trn A thc cht l nhn vo bn tri A mt
s hu hn nhng ma trn dng P, Q, R. Gi B l tch ca nhng ma trn
nhn vo bn tri A nh th c 1, ta c BA = I. Suy ra:
B = A-1
Theo gi thit, ta cng ng thi nhn B vo bn tri ca I v c:
BI = B =A-1.
V d. Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn
1
:
2
Nhn dng th ba vi ba vi
3
ri cng vo dng th nht, nhn dng th
2
1
ri cng vo dng th hai:
2
Tm ma trn nghch o
208
Gii. To ma trn
B = {{3,1,0,7},{6,-2,2,1},{5,1,7,0},{-4,3,8,-5}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1] = {{3,1,0,7},{6, - 2,2,1},{5,1,7,0},{- 4,3,8, - 5}}
Tm ma trn nghch o:
Inverse[B]//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
209
2) Gii h Cramer
V d 4, mc 2.5, cho cch vit h phng trnh di dng ma
trn
AX = b
trong A l ma trn ca h phng trnh, X l ma trn ct cc n, b l
ma trn ct cc hng t t do.
T suy ra:
X = A-1b.
211
TB = AS.
V cc ma trn chuyn kh nghch nn t suy ra:
B =T-1AS.
Gi s B T-1AS, A l ma trn ca f i vi hai c s () v ()
S v T l nhng ma trn khng suy bin. Coi S v l ma trn chuyn t
c s () sang c s () no , cn T l ma trn chuyn t c s ()
sang c s () no . Khi T-1 l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang
c s (). Theo nhn xt trc nh l, S v T-1 ln lt l ma trn ca
cc nh x tuyn tnh 1v v 1w. Theo mnh 1, mc 2.5, B l ma trn
ca 1w.f.1v
l ma trn ca t ng cu f. V V i vi c s { 1, 2} ca V.
Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s gm cc vect:
Ta gi l ma trn cho.
Khi f( j) = ajj j v ni rng j l mt vect ring ca f, cn li l
gi tr ring ca f ng vi vect j.
214
Gi s ma trn ca t ng cu f. V V i vi c s () l
Theo v d 4, mc 2.5,
C th hn l:
hay
iu ny chng t mt t ng cu m ma trn ca n l A =
218
ta c: k1 = - 3, k2 = 1, k3 = 3.
Vi k1 = 3, h phng trnh (**) l h:
6
5
7
c, c).
5
7
c, c) hay
5
c
(6, - 7, 5). l khng gian sinh bi 1.
5
Vi k2 = 1, gii h
220
ta c: k1 = - 9, k2 = k3 = 9.
Vi k1 = - 9, gii h
221
a) Tm gi tr ring.
b) Tm vect ring.
Gii. a) Tm gi tr ring
B={{1,- 4,- 8},{- 4,7,- 4},{- 8, - 4, 1}}
Mn hnh xut hin ma trn:
Out[1]={{1, - 4, - 8}, {- 4, 7, - 4},{- 8, - 4, 1}}
Eigenvalues[B]
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]={-9,9,9}.
b) Tm vect ring:
To cc ma trn nh trn. Nu c ma trn trn mn hnh th khng
cn to na.
tm vect ring nh lnh:
Eigenvectors [B]
222
223
6. CHO HO MA TRN
Nh ni trc 5, khi cho ma trn ca mt t ng cu i vi
mt c s no , ta mun tm nhng c s m i vi chng ma trn
ca t ng cu cho c dng p nht- dng cho. Khi ta ni
rng ma trn cho cho ho c.
6.1. nh ngha
Mt ma trn vung c gi l cho ho c nu n ng dng vi
mt ma trn cho.
V d Ma trn
1 1
v B =
2 1
2 0
ta c: T-1 =
0
3
1 1
224
a) Cho ho ma trn.
b) Gi s ma trn cho va tm c l B. Hy tm ma trn T B =
T AT.
-1
6.3. nh l
Gi sa l mt ma trn vung cp n; k1, k2,..., kp l cc nghim ca
a thc c trng \A kI\, mi l s bi ca nghim ki, vi mi i {1,
2,..., p}, m1 + m2+...+ mp = n, tc l:
227
TM TT
Chng ny nu ln cc quy tc tnh trn tp cc ma trn.
Php cng hai ma trn cng kiu v php nhn mt ma trn vi mt
s c thc hin trn cc thnh phn tng ng. Tp hp cc ma trn
cng kiu l mt K-khng gian vect.
Nhn ma trn A = (aij)(m,n) vi ma trn B = (bjj)(n,p) c ma trn C =
(cik)(m.p)
vi
229
BI TP
Trc ht nhc li rng c s chnh tc ca khng gian vect Ra l c
s gm cc vect:
khng gian.
b) Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s () gm cc vect
3
1 = (1, 1, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 0, 1) ca R v c s chnh
tc () ca R2.
231
Tnh :
a) A + B - C;
b) 2A - 7B;
c) 3A + 5B - 2C.
9. Cho hai ma trn:
- B xc nh?
12. Cho:
233
A =
Tnh f(A).
18. Cho AB l tch ca hai ma trn A v B. Chng minh rng: t(AB)
= tB.tA.
19. Gi () v () ln lt l c s chnh tc ca hai khng gian R4 v
R3. Cc nh x tuyn tnh f: R4 R3, g: R3 R3 xc nh bi:
234
235
Hy tm ma trn ca f i vi c s () gm cc vect:
Ma trn ca t ng cu y: V V c ma trn i vi c s () l
Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s ().
28. f v g l hai t ng cu ca khng gian vect R2. Ma trn ca f
3 5
. Ma
i vi c s gm hai vect 1 = (1, 2), 2 = (2, 3) l A =
4
3
. Tm ma trn ca t ng cu f + g i vi c s { 1, 2}.
6 9
236
6. CHO HO MA TRN
34. Trong cc ma trn sau ma trn no cho ho c? Nu c hy
a n v dng cho.
237
239
VI NT LCH S
Ma trn c t rt sm. Trong cun "Cu chng ton s" ngi
Trung Quc dng ma trn gii phng trnh v nh. Cn Chu
u ln u tin ma trn xut hin vo th k XIX, trong cng trnh ca
nh ton hc Anh tn l J. J. Sylvester (1814-1897) v vic gii h
phng trnh tuyn tnh (tuy nhin lc cha c tn ma trn). Chnh
Sylvester cng nh ngha khi nim hng ca ma trn. V sau, Kelly
(1821-1895), nh ton hc Anh a ra cc quy tc tnh trn cc ma
trn. Cc cng trnh ca Sylvester v Kelly c lin quan n nh thc.
Kronecker (nh ton hc c (1823-1891)) v Capelli (nh ton hc
Italia) cng dng ma trn nghin cu l thuyt h phng trnh
tuyn tnh.
Ngy nay, ma trn c ng dng rng ri trong ton hc tnh ton,
trong Vt l, trong Kinh t v trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc.
240
Chng VI
DNG SONG TUYN TNH
DNG TON PHNG
M U
Trong Hnh hc, khi nghin cu nhng ng bc hai, mt bc hai,
vic a phng trnh ca chng v dng chnh tc c mt ngha rt
quan trng, v dng chnh tc ta d nhn bit dng v cc c tnh ca
chng, phn loi chng. Cng vic ny thc hin c nh nhng khi
nim v dng nh: dng tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh, dng ton
phng, v khi nim khng gian vect clit. Nh vy vic nghin cu
Hnh hc c thc hin bng nhng phng tin i s. Bn c s
thy rng phng tin ny t ra rt hu hiu.
Mt nh x tuyn tnh t mt K-khng gian vect n K-khng gian
vect K c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh. M rng khi nim ny ta c
nhng khi nim: dng song tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh i xng,
dng song tuyn tnh thay phin, dng ton phng. Li nh khi nim
dng song tuyn tnh i xng v dng ton phng m ta s nh ngha
c khi mm tch v hng trong khng gian vect - mt khi nim
c lm quen t khi hc lp 10 trng Trung hc Ph thng. Tch v
hng gip ta xy dng khng gian vect clit.
Khi hc chng ny cc bn cn nm c:
- Cc khi nim dng tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh, dng ton
phng;
- Cc phng php a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc;
- nh l qun tnh ca dng ton phng;
- Khi nim khng gian vect clit;
- Khi nim h c s trc chun v cch dng mt h c s trc
chun; mt s ng dng ca nhng kin thc ni trn ng thi vn dng
241
vi mi , 1, 2, , 1, 2 thuc V v mi k R.
3) Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu:
a x
i
i =0
242
nh x f : Pn R, xc nh bi f ( ) =
i =0
trn Pn.
V d 3. Vi V = R2, = (a1, a2), = (b1, b2). nh x: = R2 R2
R, xc nh bi ( , ) =
a1
a2
b1 b 2
Hn na ta c ( , ) = -( , )
V d 4. nh x = Rn Rn R xc nh bi ( , ) = x1y1 + x2y2
+... + xnyn, vi = (x1, x2,..., xn), = (y1, y2,..., yn), l mt dng song
tuyn tnh i xng trn Rn.
V d 5. Gi s V l khng gian cc vect (hnh hc) c chung gc O.
nh x t V V vo R xc nh nh sau:
Vi OA = , OB = , ( , ) = | | | | l cos ( , ) (tch v hng
ca v ), l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng.
Tht vy, nh bit trong gio trnh hnh hc trng ph thng, vi
k hiu , l tch v hng ca hai vect v , ta c:
243
Nhn xt:
- Mt dng tuyn tnh trn V thc cht l mt nh x tuyn tnh t V
vo R, R c xt nh mt khng gian vect trn chnh n
- nh x : V V R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V nu v
ch nu n l dng tuyn tnh trn V i vi bin x khi ta c nh bin y
v tng t l dng tuyn tnh trn V i vi bin y khi ta c nh bin x.
- Mi dng song tuyn tnh trn V u c th biu din c thnh
tng ca mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng v mt dng song tuyn tnh
thay phin trn V.
Tht vy: vi , V t :
a jc j vi mi =
i =1
i =1
i i
V.
i =1
x i y jdij vi mi =
j =1
x i i , =
i =1
i =1
i i
V. Khi ( i, j) =
i =1
j =1
x y d
i
j ij
x i i , =
i =1
i =1
i i
V ta c:
= ( , ). Vy = . nh l c chng
minh.
V d:
Xt V = Rn, v { 1,..., 2,..., n} l c s chnh tc ca V. Dng song
tuyn tnh trn Rn xc nh bi ( , ) = x1y1 + x2y2 +...+ xnyn, vi
= (x1, x2,..., xn), = (y1, y2,..., yn) V l dng song tuyn tnh duy nht
trn Rn tha mn ( 1, 2) = ij, trong ij = 1 khi i = j v ij = 0 khi i
j.
1.2. Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh
nh ngha. Gi s { 1,..., 2,..., v} l mt c s ca khng gian
vect n chiu V trn trng s thc R, l mt dng song tuyn tnh
trn V, k hiu ( i, j) = aij R, i, j = 1, 2,..., n. Ma trn vung cp
n sau y c gi l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i vi c s
{ 1,..., 2,..., v} cho
x i i , =
i =1
i =1
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
i i
V, p dng nh l 2, mc 1.1, ta c: ( , ) =
Do ma trn ca l
1.3. Lin h gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh
i vi hai c s khc nhau
Theo nh ngha, ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh thay i khi ta i
c s ca khng gian vect. Ta hy xt mi lin quan gia hai ma trn
ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh i vi hai c s khc nhau.
nh l. Gi s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n}, () = { 1, 2,..., n} l hai
c s ca cng mt R-khng gian vect n chiu V, A = (aij)n v B = (bij)n
ln lt l cc ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn V i vi cc c
s tng ng () v (), T = (tij)n l ma trn chuyn t () sang (). Khi
B = tTAT.
Chng minh. V T l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang () nn
247
Ta c cki =
ma trn
(t )
'
ik n
kl lj
l =1
n
n '
'
t
a
t
TAT. Vy B = tTAT.
V d. Trn khng gian vect R3 trn trng s thc R cho dng song
tuyn tnh xc nh nh sau: Vi = (x1, x2, x3), = (y1, y2, y3),
ma vn chuyn t c s () sang () l T = 1 0 1
1 1 1
Ma trn ca i vi c s () s l:
248
1
{( + ) - ( ) -( )}. C
2
i i
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
vi mi =
i =1
i i
i =1
, biu thc ( ) =
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
c gi l biu thc
ta ca .
V d. nh x : R3 R xc nh nh sau:
Vi = (x1, x2, x3), ( ) = 2x21 - 2x1x2 + 4x1x3 - x22 + 3x23, l mt
dng ton phng ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng q) xc nh
bi:
y = (y1, y2, y3). i vi c s () : 1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 0), 3
= (0, 0, 1), v c ma trn l:
vi =
x i i , biu thc ta ( ) =
i =1
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
c th vit l:
Do ( ) cng du vi ( ).
Nu vi mi x R, tc l - x 0 th v l dng ton
phng xc nh nn
251
Vy ( ) cng du vi ( ).
nh ngha. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi
l xc nh dng (m) nu ( ) > 0 (( ) < 0 ) vi mi 0 thuc V.
H qu. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn
khng gian vect V v W l mt khng gian con ca V th thu hp ca
trn W (k hiu l | W ) cng l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng
(m) trn W.
3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC
3.1. nh ngha
Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V. Nu i
vi c s () = { 1, 2,..., n} ca V biu thc ta ca l
i i
i =1
j=1
a x y
ij
, vi
i =1
a) Trng hp c mt aii 0.
Gi s a11 0, ta vit ( ) di dng:
253
y
j
. Gi W l khng gian
i=2
y
j
W, ta
i=2
c biu thc ( ) =
k z
i=2
2
i i
+2
b y y
ij i
2 i j n
k z
2
i i
i=2
k z
2
i i
i=2
a x x
ij i
2 i j n
k z
2
i i
i=2
> 0, vi mi i = 1,.., n.
Chng minh. Gi s l xc nh dng v trong biu din
chnh tc i vi mt c s no c mt h s, chng hn k1 < 0. Khi
vi ( 0) c ta i vi c s trn l (1, 0,..., 0), ta c. ( ) =
k1 0.
Tri vi gi thit rng r l mt dng xc nh dng.
Vy ki > 0 vi mi i = 1,..., n.
Hin nhin.
C nhiu phng php khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v
dng chnh tc: phng php cho ha ma trn, phng php Jacobi...
Quy trnh rt gn dng ton phng trnh by trong nh l trn c gi
l phng php Lagrange. y l phng php dng lin tip nhiu php
bin i tuyn tnh a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc.
V d: a dng ton phng sau trn R3 v dng chnh tc
255
Khi ta c:
256
Ta c
( ) = 4 z12 - 4 z 22
y1 = x1 + x2 - 2x3.
Bc 2: nh lnh sau:
> completesquare(y1^2+4*x2^2+4*x2*x3-8*x3^2,x2);
Ta nhn c: ( ) = 4(x2 +
Ta t tip : y2 = x2 +
1
x3)2 - 9 x 23 + y12.
2
1
x3, y3 = x3.
2
258
mi nh thc
261
Tm c c s () = { 1, 2,..., n} ca V, i vi n, ma trn ca
C dng:
|A|
> 0. Nh vy i vi c s (), c dng ({ 1, 2,...,
k1 k 2 ...k n 1
m}) =
k z
2
i i
i =1
phng xc nh dng.
4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT
4.1. nh ngha khng gian vect clit
nh ngha.
1) Dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vect V c
gi l mt tch v hng trn V nu 0 thuc V ta c ( , ) > 0.
Vi , V, s thc ( , ) c gi l tch v hng ca v
, k hiu bi . . Nu = , thay cho . ta vit
( )
Nu | | = 1 th ta ni l vect nh chun.
3) C s () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} ca khng gian vect clit E c
gi l mt c s trc chun nu i, j = ij. (Trong ij l k hiu
Kronecker tha mn ij = 1 khi i = j, ij = 0 khi i j).
V d 1. Trong khng gian V ca v d 1, mc 4.1, 3 vect tu OI ,
OJ , OK i mt vung gc v c di bng 1 lp thnh c s trc
chun.
V d 2. Trong khng gian vect clt Rn v d 2, mc trn, c s
2 ). Ta c | | =
(k ) 2 =
3) Vi mi , E, vi mi gi tr ca x R ta c:
0 || - x ||2 = 2 2x . + x2 2.
Do ' = ( . ) - 2. 2 0 | . |
() 2 . ( )2
Vy | . | || ||.|| ||.
Du bng xy ra khi = k. (hai vect , l ph thuc tuyn
tnh).
264
k
i
= 0.
i =1
Vi mi j, j = 1,..., r ta c
V j nn || || 0 nn ta c kj = 0. Vy kj = 0 j = 1,..., r.
Vy h vc t 1, 2,..., r l c lp tuyn tnh.
nh l 3. Mi khng gian vect clit n chiu (n 2) u c c s
trc chun.
Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng qui np theo n.
Vi n = 1 d dng chng minh c mnh .
Vi n = 2, gi s 1, 2 l mt c s no ca khng gian vect
clit E.
t: E2 =
n 1
i i
+ n, tho
i 1
n 1
i i
j +
i 1
n j = 0, j =1,2,..., n - 1.
V i j = ij nn ng thc trn ch l: xj + n j = 0.
Nh vy n c hon ton xc nh bi cc xj = - n j vi mi j =
1, 2,.., n - 1.
t: n =
n
n
1
1
sau theo
4
3
3
4
, 0, ). 3 ( , 0, ). D dng
5
5
5
5
Tng t, ta c (k ). = k( . ) = 0, F. Do k H.
Vy H l mt khng gian con ca E.
nh ngha. Khng gian con H = { E | , F} c gi
l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F.
nh l. Nu H l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F
ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E th F H = { 0 } v E = F + H.
Chng minh. Ly ty F H, theo cch xc nh H ta thy
trc giao vi chnh n, ngha l 2 = 0. Theo nh l nh l 1 (4.2) ta c
= 0 vy F H = { 0 }.
Gi s { 1,..., 2,..., r} l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian con
F. B sung vo n c mt c s trc chun ca E: { 1 2,..., r,
r+1,..., n}.
Khi mi vc t E u biu din duy nht di dng:
268
4
,
5
3
). D dng kim tra c l c s trc chun ca F. Theo V d
5
4
3
3
4
trn ta c h 1 = (0, 1, 0) ; 2 = (- , 0, ) ; 3 = ( , 0, - ) l c s
5
5
5
5
0,
Vi = (2, 1, 3), ta c:
18
54
72
).
3 = ( , 0,
5
25
25
269
xi i
i =1
i =1
ty thuc E ta
c:
Nhng
ki kj
k =1
tch ta.A.
Vy
A.A = I.
f( ). , , E.
nh l. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng
cu f ca E l php i xng nn v ch nu ma trn ca f i vi mt c
s trc chun l mt ma trn i xng.
Chng minh.
Gi s f l php bin i i xng ca E v ma trn ca f i
vi c s trc chun () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l ma trn A = (aij)n. Khi :
x
i
i =1
, =
y
i
tu ca
i =1
E, ta c:
t_
0
t_
0
X AX = k X X0 (*)
u1
u
0
Gi s X = 2 . Khi
...
u
n
n
t_
X 0 = ( u1 u 2 ... u n ). Ta c X 0 X0 =
u n l s thc. Do
i =1
k X X = k.
t
u
i =1
u n = k.
i =1
1
1
1 v H l
1
2
2, h { 1, 1} l mt c s
Ta c k1 = 0, k2 = 9, k3 = 14
Tm cc vect ring:
- Vi k1 = 0, gii h:
275
Nu ta ca vect ln lt i vi c s chnh tc v c s ()
x1
l X = x 2 v Y =
x
3
y1
y 2 , th ta c:
y
3
276
a thc c trng:
277
Suy ra
t=-
4
5
278
279
TM TT
vi mi , 1, 2, , 1, thuc V v mi k R.
3) Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu ( , ) =
( ), , V. Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l thay phin nu
( , ) = -( , ), , V.
nh l 1. Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l { 1,...,
2,..., n}. nh x f : V R l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V khi v ch khi
tn ti n s thc cb,..., cn sao cho f( ) =
ai ci , vi mi =
i =1
i =1
V.
281
i =1
x i x ja ij , vi mi =
i i
i =1
j =1
n) l dy cc s thc xc nh.
2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng
nh ngha. Cho l dng ton phng tng ng vi dng song
tuyn tnh i xng . Ma trn ca i vi c s { 1,..., 2,..., n}
cng c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s y.
Nu A = (aij)n l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s
{ 1,..., 2,..., n}, th A c tnh cht aij = ( i, j) = ( j, i) = aij.
Ma trn c tnh cht ny c gi l mt ma trn i xng.
Vi =
i i
, biu thc ( ) =
i =1
i =1
j =1
x x a
i
j ij
c gi l biu
thc ta ca .
2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh
nh ngha. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi
l xc nh nu ( ) = 0 ko theo = 0.
282
k x
2
i 1
i =1
ki > 0, vi mi i = 1,.., n.
C nhiu phng php khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v
dng chnh tc: phng php cho ha ma trn, phng php Jacobi,
phng php LagTange.
3.3. Dng phn mm Maple a dng ton phng v dng
chnh tc
283
mi nh thc
chun.
nh l 4. Nu () = { 1,..., 2,..., n} l mt c s trc chun ca
khng gian clit n chiu E, th vi E ta c :
= ( 1 ) 1 + ( 2 ) 2 + ... + ( n ) n .
giao vi F.
4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao
nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T
ng cu f. E E c gi l mt php bin i trc giao nu f( ).
f( , )= . vi mi , E.
nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng
cu f: E E l php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi n bin mi c s
trc chun thnh c s trc chun.
nh l 2. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit, A l ma trn ca
T ng cu f: E E i vi mt c s trc chun () = { 1,..., 2,...,
t
n}. T ng cu f l trc giao khi v ch khi AA = I (I l ma trn n
v).
nh ngha. Ma trn vung A c gi l mt ma trn trc giao
nu
286
AA = I (I l ma trn n v)
287
BI TP
Tm ma trn ca i vi c s gm cc vect:
Tm ma trn ca i vi c s () .
288
289
290
v gi
292
VI NT LCH S
Cc dng ton phng bt u c nghin cu khong t nm 300
n nm 200 trc cng nguyn bi cc nh ton hc Hy lp Euclid,
Archimedes v Apollonios. Euclid ni ting vi b sch "C s" gm 13
tp trnh by mt cch h thng ton b kin thc ton hc lc by gi.
Archimedes c nhiu ngi nh gi l nh ton hc v i nht trong
lch s bi cc pht minh khoa hc ca mnh. Apollonios ni ting v b
sch "Cc nht ct hnh nn" gm 8 tp vi khong 400 nh l. ng l
ngi a ra cc khi nim trc giao, cng thc chnh tc v chng minh
c s tn ti cc dng chnh tc trc chnh trong trng hp hai chiu.
Chnh Apollonios l ngi a ra tn gi cc mt bc hai nh dp,
hyperbol v parabol. Vic phn loi cc dng ton phng trong khng
gian 3 chiu c hon thnh nm 1748 bi nh ton hc Thy S Euler.
Dng chnh tc ca cc dng ton phng nhiu chiu c Lagrange
chng minh nm 1759. Lut qun tnh c Sylvester v Jacobi pht
hin pht hin vo khong nm 1850. Gauss l ngi u tin s dng
ma trn nghin cu cc dng ton phng.
Khng gian Euclid (clit) ban u c hiu nh l khng gian thc
3 chiu vi h tin Euchd. Nh ton hc ngi Ba lan, Banach (18921945), l ngi u tin m rng s nghin cu sang khng gian nhiu
chiu v ng c coi l ng t ca cc khng gian nh chun. Ma trn
trc giao c nh ngha u tin bi Frobemus. Weierstrass l ngi
a ra chng minh chnh xc "mi ma trn i xng thc l cho ha
c" vo nm 1858.
293
Chng VII
QUY HOCH TUYN ANH
M DU
T tng ti u ho c t thi xa xa, ngay t khi con ngi phi
suy ngh tm cch hnh ng sao cho c li nht cho mnh theo nhng
mc ch xc nh. Nhng yu cu cp bch ca s pht trin nn kinh t
v quc phng li cng lm ny sinh nhng tng tng t. Do
xut hin mt bi ton cn phi gii quyt, l bi ton tm quyt nh
ti u.
gii quyt mt cch c hiu qu bi ton y, trc ht cn phi
xy dng mt m hnh ton hc cho n, trn th hin c bn cht
ca mi i tng c kho st v s lin quan cn phi tn trng
gia chng; ngoi ra, ng nhin cn phi ch r mc tiu mong mun
t c
Bi ton tm quyt nh ti u vi m hnh ton hc c xy
dng c gi l bi ton quy hoch ton hc hay bi ton ti u ho.
S lin quan gia cc i tng c kho st trong qu trnh xy
dng m hnh ton hc thng c th hin di dng mt h phng
trnh v bt phng trnh, coi nh l nhng iu kin (hay rng buc)
khng th b qua. Nu tt c cc hm c mt trong bi ton y l cc
hm tuyn tnh th ta c bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh. Quy hoch tuyn
tnh l mt b phn c bn v c nhiu ng dng thc tin trong lnh vc
ti u ho.
Trong chng ny ta ch xt cc bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh vi
cc phng php v thut ton gii chng, c xem nh mt ng dng
ca i s tuyn tnh.
294
18
II
30
III
25
rng buc:
2) Bi ton vn ti.
C mt loi hng cn c vn chuyn t hai kho (trm pht) P1 v
P2 ti ba ni tiu th (trm thu) T1, T2 v T3. Bng di y cho bit s
lng hng cn vn chuyn i mi kho v s lng hng cn nhn
mi ni tiu th, v cc ph vn chuyn mt n v hng t mi kho ti
ni tiu th tng ng:
Trm Pht
Trm thu
Lng Pht
T1
T2
T3
Pl
30
P2
75
Lng thu
35
25
45
Gii
Bi ton cho l bi ton dng max nn ta i du hm mc tiu
a v dng mn. a vo hai n b t4, t5 ng vi rng buc th nht v
th hai. n x3 khng c rng buc v du nn ta t x3 = t3 t6. Cui
cng, t x1 = t1, x2 = t2, v ta c bi ton dng chnh tc sau:
301
Gii
t x1 = t1, x2 = - t2, x3 = t3 - t4 ri th vo bi ton cho, sau khi
nhn hai v ca rng buc th hai vi - 1, ta c bi ton di dng chun
tc sau:
302
vy
th bi ton c phng n ti u.
i vi bi ton hai n th, trong trng hp y, X l mt a gic li
(tp X ch c mt phn t cng c xem l mt a gic li) v t nht
mt trong cc nh ca n l phng n ti u.
Tr li v d mc 1.3, tp phng n l a gic li ABCDE.
Ta c: f(A) =
82
, f(B) = 5, f(C) = 1, f(D) = -4, f(E) = -6 v f(A) l
11
305
308
Nu t
l phng n ca bi ton
, nu = o th
310
Vi l s dng tu ta cng c:
V x l phng n nn ta c:
311
xi
: i < 0} . Do
i
ta c th chn sao cho x1 0, x2 0, ng thi trong r thnh phn
u tin ca x1 hoc x2 c t nht mt thnh phn bng 0, c th l:
Chn = + nu i 0 vi mi i, hoc = min(+, a - ) nu tn ti
sao cho i < 0.
Nh vy, t phng n x khng phi l phng n cc bin c th
1
2
1
2
1
2
Vi gi thit xo l phng n ti u, ta c :
f(x0) f(x1) v f(x0) f(x2) .
Gi s t nht mt trong hai bt ng thc trn xy ra vi du bt
312
1
1
f(x1) + f(x2). l iu v l. Vy f(xo) =
2
2
1 1 1 2
x + x ; trong t nht mt trong hai phng n xi v
2
2
Nh vy, c s ng vi
v do xj =B -1 Aj cng ng vi j = 0.
nh ngha. Ta gi j = tc0xj- cj, j = 1, 2 ,..., n l c lng ca n xj
(hay ca vect Aj) ng vi c s J0.
R rng ta c
Ch rng, nu j E J0 th j = 0, tc l
314
( I i l
Chng minh. Ta c
Vect b biu th tuyn tnh mt cch duy nht qua c s {Ai : i J0}
nn t (6) v (7) suy ra:
ta c
+ sj = x' = (x'ij ), i = 1, 2 , , n th ta c
316
317
khng suy
Nh vy phng n cn tm l x(0) =
+ 0sj
Bng cch gii h (16) ta thy rng xt) l phng n khi v ch khi
R rng
Nh vy vi cch chn th phng n mi
i = 1, 2,., n c xc nh (theo (10)) nh sau :
319
C qu mt
phn t.
Tht vy, gi s s, r K (r s). Khi xs0 - kxsk = 0 v xr0 - kxrk =
0, ngha l x c nhiu nht l m - 1 thnh phn dng, tc l x l
phng n cc bin suy bin.
By gi ta gi s rng
l phng n cc bin suy bin, tc l tn
ti i J0 sao cho xi0 = 0. Khi theo (16), vect x = x() = + sk l
phng n khi v ch khi = 0, ngha l x = x(0) = v ta thy ng
vi hai c s khc nhau. Nu tnh trng trn xy ra lin tip mt s ln
th c nguy c l gp li mt c s dng trc . Nu khng c bin
php g ngn chn th t c xoay vng mi theo mt dy hu hn cc
c s ca x m vn c khng ri khi c , khng ci thin c g
v gi tr ca hm mc tiu. Ta gi l hin tng xoay vng. R.G
Bland chng minh quy tc trnh xoay vng do mnh xut vo nm
1977, c gi l quy tc Bland c ni dung nh sau:
Tiu chun a Ak vo c s: k l ch s nh nht trong cc c
320
Thay As vo (19) ta c
v theo nh ngha ta c:
322
323
Gii
Bi ton cn gii l bi ton chun. Ta thy ngay = (2, 12, 0, 0, 9,
0) l phng n cc bin ng vi c s n v gm cc vect A1, A2, A5.
Kt qu tnh ton c th hin bng di y; trong bng n
hnh th 3 ( bc th 3) ta c j 0 vi mi j , l du hiu ti u.
Vy phng n ti u l x* = (0, 8, 0, 3, 0, 1) vi f(x*) = -17
Gii
a bi ton v dng chnh tc vi cc n b x5 , x6 , x7 ta c
327
bc 2, do 3 =
15
3 7 17
> 0 V x3 = ( , , ) < 0 nn ta c kt
4
4 4 4
n+i
> 0 (c t nht
= 0, tc l mi n gi u nhn gi tr bng 0:
Gii
Trong ma trn rng buc A c Ai l vect n v nn ch cn a
vo hai n gi x6, x7 ng vi hai phng trnh cui, ta c bi ton ph
Gii thch.
- Lc u, ch ghi vo dng trn cng cc h s 1 ca cc n gi
trong hm mc tiu F(x, w); cc h s cn li bng 0 ta khng cn ghi,
cng l ch nh dnh ch ghi cc h s ca f(x) trong pha 2.
- bc 3, du hiu ti u i vi bi ton ph xut hin, trong
c s khng c vect gi. Lc ny, cng vi vic ghi cc h s ca hm
f(x) vo dng trn cng v cc h s ph hp vo ct co ( nhnh bn
332
Gii
Sau khi a vo cc n b x4, x5 0 ng vi cc rng buc cng
bc bt phng trnh, ng thi ch bin i sao cho v phi b 0, h
rng buc cng bc tr thnh:
333
Gii
a vo hai n b x4, x5 v n gi x6 ta c bi ton ph
Ta c bng sau:
1
> 0 nn ta kt lun
2
V d: Gii bi ton
Vy p s ca bi ton l :
x* =(0, 4/3, 5/12, 0) l phng n ti u vi z(x*) = 23/4
2) Gii cc bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh c dng
336
Vy p s ca bi ton l:
x = (0, 4/3, 5/12, 0) l phng n ti u vi z(x*) = 23/4.
3) Gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chun tc
z(x) = tcx min
Ax > b
x>0
V d: Gii bi ton
337
Vy p s ca bi ton l:
x* = (0, 2, 3) l phng n ti u vi z(x*) = 3 .
338
TM TT
gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh bng thut ton n hnh, trc
ht phi a n v dng chnh tc. Sau khi bin i sao cho v phi ca
cc phng trnh u khng m, nu cn, ta s a vo cc n gi vi s
lng va ma trn trong h rng buc cng bc mi c mt c s
n v. T y ta tin hnh thut ton hai pha i vi bi ton chun va
thit lp c.
Trong trng hp bit mt phng n cc bin ca bi ton quy
hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc ta tin hnh nh sau:
Thc hin php bin i s cp trn cc dng ca ma trn rng buc
thu c ma trn mi c cc vect (ct) n v khc nhau ng vi cc
n c s. Nu phng n cc bin bit l khng suy bin th c ng
mt c s n v. Nu phng n cc bin bit l suy bin th hoc l
bin i tip, hoc l a thm vo mt s n gi c mt c s n v.
T tin hnh thut ton n hnh gii bi ton.
339
BI TP
1. Mt c s sn xut c th sn xut c hai loi hng I v II t hai
loi nguyn liu A v B.
Tr lng ca cc nguyn liu A v B theo th t l 6 v 8 n v.
sn xut mt n v hng loi I cn 2 n v nguyn liu A v 3
n v nguyn liu B; sn xut mt n v hng loi II cn 1 n v hng
loi A v 4 n v nguyn liu B.
Gi bn mt n v hng loi I v loi II theo th t l 7 v 5 n v
tin t. Qua tip th c bit, trong mt ngy, nhu cu tiu th loi hng
I khng qu 2 n v, nhu cu tiu th loi hng I hn nhu cu tiu th
loi hng II khng qu 1 n v. Vn t ra l cn sn xut mi ngy
bao nhiu n v hng mi loi doanh thu l ln nht.
Hy lp m hnh ton hc cho bi ton thc t trn.
2. Dng nh ngha chng t rng, x* = ( 0, 2, 3 ) l phng n ti u
ca bi ton sau:
340
trong t l tham s.
Bng phng php th hy tm tt c cc gi tr ca t sao cho:
a) Tp phng n l rng.
b) Tp phng n khc rng nhng hm mc tiu khng b chn.
c) Bi ton c phng n ti u duy nht.
d) Bi ton c v s phng n ti u.
9. Cho bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh
f(x) = tcx min
342
12. Gii cc bi ton sau bng thut ton n hnh (tn gi chung cho
thut ton n hnh gc v thut ton hai pha):
344
345
VI NT LCH S
S ra i ca Quy hoch tuyn tnh ni ring v Quy hoch ton hc
ni chung c th coi l vo nm 1939. Phng php n hnh ni ting
do gio s Dantzig (George Bernard Dantzig, ng sinh nm 1914)
xut t nm 1947, n nay vn c s dng rng ri nht cho Quy
hoch tuyn tnh. Cui thng 8 nm 1997, hn hai nghn nh khoa hc t
khp cc nc trn th gii tham d Hi ngh quc t "Quy hoch
ton hc" ti Lausanne (Thy S) lm l k nim 50 nm ngy phng
php n hnh c cng b, v ngy cng chnh thc c ly lm
"Ngy Quy hoch tuyn tnh" trn th gii.
Gn y, xut hin phng php ellipsoid ca Khachian (ra i
nm 1979), phng php "im trong" ca Karmarkar (ra i nm 1984),
l nhng thnh tu mi v rt quan trng, c quan tm c v mt l
thuyt ln kh nng gii quyt cc bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh c ln.
346
kx
n k
k =1
348
349
V \ U . Suy ra
s:
17. S:
18. Hng dn: Tm r1, r2, r3 sao cho r1 1 + r2 2 + r3 3 =
c r1, r2, r3 khng ng thi bng 0 th h ph thuc tuyn tnh.
S: a) c lp tuyn tnh;
. Nu
= r2
hay r1
- r2
2.
Th th tn ti r1, r2 thuc
. T gi thit suy ra kt
1,
2,
1,
2}
c c lp
b) S: T =
c) Hng dn: C 2 cch gii:
Cch 1. Tm ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () ri p dng
cng thc i to .
Cch 2. Coi to ca f(x) i vi c s () l (y1, y2, y3, y4). Dng
cng thc i to vi ma trn chuyn T t c s () sang c s ()
bit trong cu a), ta c mt h phng trnh i vi n y1, y2, y3, y4.
s: (6, 3, 2, 0).
38. s: a) T = .
b) (7, 0, 5, -2);
c) Cng l ma trn T trong cu a) .
d) (0, 1, 4, 2).
39. S: hng(A) = 3 ; hng(B) = 2 ; hng(C) = 4 ; hng(D) = 3.
40. S: a) {
1,
2};
b {
1,
2,
4}
; c) {
1,
2,
3}.
352
353
1. Tr 1i: a) ; b) ; d) ; f) ; g) ; h).
2. Tr 1i: n cu: g), h); Ton cu: d) , f); Khng c ng cu.
3. S: Vi
= (3,
9
, 0).
2
8. b) Gi s A 1 mt c s ca V v
s1
+...+ sm
= r1
1
1
+...+ rm
++ rm
m,
m
= s1
++ sm m. V B l c s ca W nn r1 = s1,..., rm = sm. Do
= .
Suy ra f l mt n cu. Theo gi thit f l ton cu. Vy f l ng cu.
9. S: a)
354
14.
1,,
f(
m),
m+1,.,
vi mi j {1,..., m}, g(
1,
b) Gi s {
... ,
m)
{1,..., m}, c nh mt
vi mi j {1,..., m}.
21. a) Ta c
tn ti mt
f(
') =
tn ti mt
Kerf.
b)
j)
n}.
Xc nh nh x g bi gf(
j)
j.
= 0 , Vi mi j {m + 1,..., n}.
l mt c s ca W, vi mi
sao cho f(
j)
j.
, vi mi j
Xc nh g bi g(
j)
f-1f(A) f( ) f(A)
' A sao cho f( ) = f( ')
' Kerf
'=
hay
' + A+
= f( ) v f( )
B
B Imf.
22. a) f v g l nhng nh x tuyn tnh.
Tht vy, vi
356
Tng t i vi g.
f v g l nhng ng cu. C nhiu cch chng minh. Xin gii
thiu hai cch.
Cch 1. Chng minh chng l nhng n cu v nhng ton cu.
Chng hn, chng minh cho g:
= (0, 0, 0, 0) th g(a1, a2, a3, a4) = (2a1, a2, a3, - a4) =
+ Nu g( ) =
(0, 0, 0, 0). Do a1= a2 = a3 = a4 = 0. suy ra = 0 ; ngha l g l mt
n cu.
= (b1, b2, b3, b4) R4 l mt vect tu .
+ Gi s
t
=(
b1
, b2, b3, - b4), ta c g(
2
; ngha l g
l mt ton cu.
vy g l mt ng cu.
Cch 2. Chng minh rng f v g bin mt c s thnh mt c s. Ly
c s chnh tc ca R4, ta c:
g(1, 0, 0, 0) = (2, 0, 0, 0)
g(0, 1, 0, 0) = (0, 1, 0, 0)
g(0, 0, 1, 0) = (0, 0, 1, 0)
g(0, 0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0, -1).
H vect ny c lp tuyn tnh v nu
r1(2, 0, 0, 0) + r2(0, 1, 0, 0) + r3(0, 0, 1, 0) + r4(0, 0, 0, -1) =
(2r1, r2, r3, -r4) = (0, 0, 0, 0). suy ra r1 = r2 = r3 = r4 =0.
th
357
= (0, 0, 0, 1)
) = (0, 0, 0, 1).
(1, 0, 0, 0),
= (0, 1, 0, 0).
1,
2.
U Kerh. V
U nn
= a1(1, 0, 0, 0) + a2(0, 1, 0,
0).
V
Kerh nn
Vy U Kerh = { }.
e) (-2, 0, 1, 0) - gf(x1, x2, x3, x4) = (2x1, x2, -x3, -x4), suy ra (x1, x2, x3,
x4) = (-l, 0, -1, 0).
f) Gi s 1 = (x1, x2, x3, x4) l nh ngc ca
th (0, 2, -1, 0) = f(x1, x2, x3, x4) = (x1, x2, -x3, x4).
Do
1),
= (0, 2, 1, 0).
Tng t, ta tm c nh ngc ca
1, 0).
= f -1(
2)
-1
= (1, 0, 1, 0) l
1,
2}
= (1, 0, -
c lp tuyn tnh.
cng l mt ng cu. Do
v f -1(W) sinh bi {
1,
= f-
2}.
1)
31
17
,-17c3 +
, c3) ; c) v nghim ; d)
10
10
(1, 2, 1) ;
359
2
14
+ 26c4,
+ 14c4, c4 ) ; g) V
19
19
93 159 102 9
,
, ) .
nghim ; h) V nghim ; i) ( ,
91 91
91 91
3. Tr li: a) C ; b) C ; c) V nghim ; d) C.
4. Hng dn: Xt nh thc ca A. Vi nhng gi tr ca a, b, |A|0
th h c nghim. ng vi mi gi tr ca a, b m |A| = 0 , hy xt hng
ca hai ma trn A v B.
Tr li : a) a 1 v a -2 hoc a = 1 ;
b) a 1 v b 0.
5. Tr li: a 1 v a -2 hoc a = 1.
6. Hng dn: Tnh nh thc ca ma trn A c |A| = (b - a)(c a)(c - b).
Xt cc trng hp:
a b, b c, c a;
a = b, b c; (tng t: b = c, c a; c = a, a b);
a = b = c.
7. S: a = 27.
360
a b, b = c, a d, b d. H v nghim.
a b, b = c, a = d. Nghim: (1, y, -y).
a b, b = c = d. Nghim: (0, y, 1 y).
a = b = c d. V nghim.
a = b = c = d. Nghim: (1 - y - z, y, z).
=3
-5
15. S: T =
16. S: a) (3c4, c4, -4c4, c4); b) (-13c, 8c, 11c, 4c); c) (3c, c, 0, 0, 0);
di (3c,-c, c, 2c, 0).
17. S: a) -11
1+
20
+19
; b)
1-
2+
3=
.
361
1
1
+ a, - 5a + b + c, c, b, 3a).
3
3
2
, b = c = 0, c mt nghim ring: (1, -3, 0, 0, 2).
3
2
1
+ 2a + b, + 5a - b + c, 2c,
3
6
2b, 6a).
Cho a =
1
, b = c = 0, c mt nghim ring: (1, 1, 0, 0, 1).
6
th d1 trng vi d2 v d3 // d1
362
+ Nu
song song.
th ba ng thng
..
Trng hp hng(A) = 2 = hng(B). H c nghim duy nht.
Nu
quy.
th ba ng thng ng
+ Nu
Nu
th ba ng thng i
Chng V. MA TRN
363
4. S: f(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 1), f(0, 1, 0) = (2, 1, 2), f(0, 0, 1) = (0, -2, 1).
f(3, -2, 0) = (-1,-2, -1).
5. Gii :
Vy to ca f( ) l (10, 11).
T ng thc
19. S: A =
20. B-1A-1AB = B-1(A-1A)B = B-1IB = BB-1 = I. iu ny chng t BA l nghch o ca AB. Do B-1A-1 = (AB)-1.
-1
365
23. S: X =
24. Hng dn: Gi s A =
Coi a, b, c, d nh nhng n, t
A2 = 0 ta c mt h phng trnh.
S: a) C th chn ma trn A =
b) (I + A)(I - A) = I2 - A2 - I. Vy I + A v I - A l hai ma trn
nghch o ca nhau.
25. Gi s A kh nghch. Khi BA = (A-1A)BA = A-1(AB)A. Vy
BA ng dng vi AB.
26. Ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s (') l
1
4
; b)
1,
2},
xc nh nh x
; c) .
30. S: i vi f + g, gi tr ring ng vi
k1k2.
l k1 + k2; i vi fg l
= (1, 2),
= (0, 1).
= (-1, 3);
= (6, -7, 5),
= (0, 1, 1);
= (2, 0, 1),
= (-l, 0, 1, 0),
367
= (1, 0, 0, 0);
= (0,1, 0, 0);
= (0, 2, 1, 2),
, W2 sinh bi
368
37. a)
369
d) Cch 1.
khi v ch khi:
370
2),
fg(
3),
fg(
4)}
2),
fg(
3),
fg(
4)}
c lp
l mt c s ca Im(fg) .
Suy ra k1 = 1, k2 = 2 , k3 =
371
2 ),0) .
2 - 1, 0).
Cc gi tr ring ca fg:
K1 = 0, k2 = 1, k3 = - 2 , k4 = 2 .
372
373
2 -1 , 2- 2 , 0).
2 -1 , 2- 2 , 0).
trn R3 vi c s e = {
1,
2,
3}
Chnh l A = ( ( i,
j))
2. Theo nh ngha.
3. Ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc e={
T=
1,
2,
3}
sang c s () l
i vi c s () l
375
, t
khi ta c ma trn:
376
v j 0 Vi mi i nn
l phng n ti u.
378
BNG THUT NG
Trang
A
nh x
123
nh x tuyn tnh
124
nh ca mt nh x tuyn tnh
129
nh ca mt vect
125
nh ngc
129
n c s
153
n phi c s
153
B
Bi ton chun
37
Bi ton cc tiu ho
330
331
331
338
325
329
325
Bng n hnh
355
Bc lp
353
C
Chun ca mt vect
263
Chuyn tr
20
Cng thc i to
96
Ct xoay
357
379
85
C s chnh tc
86
C s ca ma trn
337
C s ca phng n cc bin
337
C s trc chun
263
D
Dng cho ca ma trn
213
185
282
274
274
283
265
265
Du ca php th
Dng xoay
22
341
a thc c trng
233
214
ng cu
136
nh thc
27
nh thc con
35
nh thc con b
35
ng cu
133
n cu
136
380
G
Giao ca nhng khng gian con
84
Gi tr ring
229
Gi tr ti u
314
H
Hm mc tiu
313
314
Hng ca h vect
104
Hng ca ma trn
104
139
180
60
178
84
88
H vect lin kt
H vect ph thuc tuyn tnh
324
88
336
284
K
Khai trin nh thc theo mt dng
36
42
81
283
230
277
84
381
76
M
Ma trn
25
Ma trn cc to
106
100
Ma trn chuyn v
126
198
260
Ma trn i xng
264
Ma trn c trng
233
Ma trn ng dng
227
Ma trn n v
214
Ma trn nghch o
261
316
47
48
285
27
N
Nghch th
22
160
233
167
167
382
P
Phn b i s
35
Phn t trc
341
Php bin i s cp
114
287
285
204
147
204
Php th
21
22
Php xoay
341
Phng n
313
Phng n cc bin
321
322
Phng n n hnh
321
333
Phng n ti u
314
R
Rng buc cng bc
313
313
S
S chiu ca khng gian vect
96
383
T
Tch ca hai nh x tuyn tnh
149
205
Tch v hng
277
To ca mt vect
Ton cu
T hp tuyn tnh
99
136
87
146
202
83
c lng
330
V
Vect
Vect nh chun
78
278
Vect i
78
Vect khng
78
Vect ring
229
278
384
Paris.1996.
385
I S TUYN TNH
In 600 cun, kh 17 x 24 cm ti Cng ty In v Vn ho phm H Ni.
Giy php xut bn s. 90 -II31/XB-QLXB, k ngy 29/8/2003.
In xong v np lu chiu thng 11 nm 2003.