GEOGRAPHY REVISION

RIVERS AND COASTS

THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE
All water goes through something called the hydrological cycle.

The hydrological cycle of all water in the world is called a closed system whereas the
hydrological cycle for a drainage basin is an open system because it doesnt account
for every single drop of water i.e. that which is in the air and oceans.

GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
(Sub-aerial) Weathering: the wearing away of material by exposure to the
atmosphere. Three types: physical (wind, water, temperature (hot expands, cold
contracts), freeze-thaw (water expands on freezing)), chemical (rain is slightly acidic,
acid rain) and biological (animals and plants e.g. warrens and tree roots).
Erosion: the breakdown and removal of material by rivers or the sea. Four types:
solution (soluble material dissolve), abrasion (sand or rocks scrape against material),
attrition (rocks knock together) and hydraulic action (water forced in cracks).
Transportation: the carrying of material by rivers or the sea. There are four types:
solution (dissolved material carried), suspension (sand carried), saltation (pebbles
bounce) and traction (stones roll (heavy material on the bed is the bedload).
Deposition: the dropping of material (heaviest first) when the water has less energy.

RIVERS
FLOODING
Flooding happens when the volume of water in a river exceeds that which it can
carry. A storm hydrograph can be used to show the discharge of a river responds to
a storm.

When describing a storm hydrograph mention steepness of limbs, peak discharge

and if its high or low, total rainfall in total time and lag time and if its long or short.
Several factors can increase the risk of flooding: heavy rain, snow/ ice melting,
antecedent rainfall (saturated soil), hot dry weather (baked soil), deforestation (soil
washed into river, less interception), impermeable rocks, steep slopes, urbanisation
(impermeable), ploughing (channels) and blockades in the river.

FLOOD MANAGEMENT
Hard Management: dams (change ecosystem (reservoir, trap sediment), unnatural,
very expensive), embankments (unnatural, expensive), flood walls (unnatural,
expensive), channelising (change ecosystem, unnatural, water builds up downriver
where not channelised), storage (spare land to flood), raising buildings
Soft Management: washlands, land-use zoning, afforestation, warning systems,
reinforcing and heightening banks to stop erosion

RIVER LANDFORMS (RIVER TEES)

Upper Course: V-shaped valley (high GPE, vertical erosion, sides collapse (gravity,
weathering)), interlocking spurs (lack energy to remove hills by lateral erosion so
avoids), High Force waterfall (soft rock (limestone, sandstone, shale) erodes faster
(abrasion, hydraulic action) than hard (whinstone) above, ledge undercut (plunge
pool), overhang collapses (above), moves back, steep-sided gorge), Low Force
potholes (Whinsill pebbles in hollows swirl around, erode (abrasion) bigger)
Middle Course: wide flat-bottomed valley (less GPE, less vertical more lateral
erosion), bluffs (removes hills by lateral erosion, line on both sides), Barnard Castle
Meanders (fast water on outside bend erodes (abrasion, hydraulic action) forming
river cliff, slow on inside deposits forming slip-off slope, undercut valley sides which
collapse, move downstream, widen valley), Barnard Castle floodplain (floods
surrounding land, suspension deposited, every flood new layer of silt added)
Lower Course: very wide flat-bottomed valley, bluffs, Yarm levees (flood, heaviest
material deposited closest, banks build up, deposition on bed, flow above floodplain,
when floods cant flow back in), Yarm ox-bow lakes (meanders more pronounced,
neck narrows, river breaks through (during high discharge), deposition seals
meander, evaporate), estuary (ice age melt, valley floods), delta (sea not strong, not
steep, load builds up)

COASTS
WAVES
Constructive waves add material to a beach.
Destructive waves remove material from a beach.

LONGSHORE DRIFT
Prevailing winds at an angle to the beach cause the swash to be at an angle.
Backwash, however, is perpendicular due to gravity.

COASTAL LANDFORMS
Headlands and Bays: along a discordant coastline of soft rock and hard rock the
soft rock is eroded but the hard rock remains, jutting out, and a bay is formed where,
if sheltered by two headlands, sand is deposited and beaches are formed then built
up by constructive waves
Cliffs: erosion is concentrated at sea level forming a wave-cut notch which
undercuts the rock above until it falls due to gravity and weathering, the debris
protects the foot of the cliff for some time until it is eroded then the process continues
making the cliff move backwards and form a wave-cut platform which protects it from
the full force of the waves
Cave, Arch, Stack, Stump: water forced into cracks in a rock by hydraulic action
can enlarge them to form caves, if a cave on a headland is eroded backwards it can
run straight through and form an arch (erosion upwards may form a blowhole which
allows water and air to escape when pressure inside is increased by entering water),
as an arch becomes higher and wider from erosion and weathering the roof
collapses due to gravity and forms a stack.
Spits: spits form where the direction of the coast changes but material is added in
the same direction by longshore drift and can form curved ends from occasional
winds from different directions, mud flats and salt marshes can form behind.

COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Hard Management: sea wall (stop waves reaching cliff, absorb wave energy),
groynes (trap sand on one side), rip-rap (absorb wave energy), gabions (stabalise
cliff bases, absorb wave energy), revetments/ rock armour (absorb wave energy,
stop waves reaching cliff), breakwater (stops waves reaching shore)
Soft Management: beach replenishment (absorb wave energy), vegetation (binds
sand and cliffs), mud flats (absorb wave energy), salt marshes (binds mud flats)