Palm Oil Process

Palm Oil Process
The Principle & Operational Techniques
PALM OIL PROCESSING

The Principles &
Operational Techniques
Palm Oil Process

PREFACE
This "handbook" has been prepared as a reference for the many engineers and other professionals
who from time to time need to refresh their memory or update their knowledge on the principles and
the operational techniques relating to the extraction and the recovery of Palm Oil and Palm Kernels
from the fruit of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).
They may be occupying the position of Mill Manager, Mill Engineer, Mill Superintendent, Laboratory
Analyst etc.
The book may also serve as a text book or reference for those wanting to pursue, or are already
pursuing a career in this fascinating industry that directly combines large scale agricultural enterprises
with industrial processing plants in a variety of different ways.
There are five major sections to this book.
The first is an introduction to the base product, i.e. the fresh fruit bunches from the oil palm, dealing
with the fundamentals of its composition and (chemical) behaviour.
This section also briefly describes the matters to be considered for harvesting, handling and
transportation of the f.f.b. and deals therefore with those matters that effect or can affect the f.f.b.
before reaching the processing plant.
The second section describes the fundamentals and basic requirements to be considered when
planning the locality, the type of process and the machinery required therefore.
The third section explores, describes and details the unit operations normally found in a palm oil mill.
The fourth section deals with the waste products generated, the disposal of it and the sources of
pollution.
The last section is an overview of all other activities and requirements that are normally associated
with the operation of a palm oil mill, in particular the generation of steam and electricity, the
maintenance of the machinery and equipment and the monitoring and evaluation techniques for the
operation, administration, maintenance, stores, sales etc.
It is impossible for me to acknowledge all the ideas of the many engineers, authors and friends
whose experiences, added to my own during the forty years in engineering, may appear in this book.
Fortunately I can acknowledge some of my friends and associates from whose world wide knowledge
and experience in their specialized fields I gained during the past twenty four years in the palm oil
industry and which has contributed to individual chapters in this book.
These include: J.J.Olie; R.A.Gillbanks, MBE; ; T.Fleming; D.A.M.Whiting; K.L.Hammond; D.R.Hoare;
J.C.Lumsden; Lim Kang Hoe; Dr.P.D.Turner; T.Menendez.
Finally, I acknowledge that much of the material in this book is by no means new and/or complete
but constitutes an attempt to amalgamate the information from published papers, manufacturers
instruction books etc., with my personal knowledge, views and experience in this industry.
J.A.Vugts.
Palm Oil Process

ABBREVIATIONS
Admix.
B.O.D.
B.V.
C.B.C.
C.M.C.
C.O.D.
C.P.O.
D
E.F.B.
F.F.A.
F.F.B.
H.R.T.
Lotox
M.P.D.
M.V.A.
N.O.S.
P.
P.K.
P.K.E.
P.K.O.
P.O.M.
P.O.M.E.
P.V.
S.S.
T.
T.D.S.
T.O.C.
T.O.D.
Totox
T.S.
U.S.B.
V.M.
: percentage foreign matter in kernel

: Biological Oxygen Demand
: Benzidine Value
: Cake Breaker Conveyor
: Cracked Mixture Conveyor
: Chemical Oxygen Demand
: Crude Palm Oil
: Dura palm type
: Empty Fruit Bunches
: Free Fatty Acid
: Fresh Fruit Bunches
: Hydraulic Retention Time
: Low total oxidation (value)
: Mash Passing to Digesters
: Melavonic Acid
: Non Oily Solids
: Pisifera palm type
: Palm Kernel
: Palm Kernel Expeller
: Palm Kernel Oil
: Palm Oil Mill
: Palm Oil Mill Effluent
: Peroxide Value
: Suspended Solids
: Tenera palm type
: Total Dissolved Solids
: Total Organic Carbon
: Total Oxygen Demand
: Total oxidation (value)
: Total Solids
: Un Stripped Bunches
: Volatile Matter (moisture content)
Palm Oil Process

CONTENTS
Preface
Abrreviations used
SECTION #1 The raw material - F.F.B.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Fresh Fruit Bunches

Ripenes standards
Bio chemistry
Ripeness parameters
Ripeness pattern
Summary 1 to 5
Other factors of influence to F.F.B.
Planting material
Pollination
Climate
Soil condition
Fertilizer
Harvesting interval
Transportation
Summary 7 to 14
1-1
2-1
3-1
4-1
5-1
6-1
7-1
8-1
9-1
10-1
11-1
12-1
13-1
14-1
15-1
SECTION #2 The Factory - Design considerations

16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Design
Site selection
Locality
Effluent disposal
Seasonal wind
Transport distances
Summary 16 to 21
16-1
17-1
18-1
19-1
20-1
21-1
22-1
SECTION #3 The Factory - Extraction of C.P.O. and P.K.

23. General requirements
24. Fresh fruit bunches
25. Sterilization of fruit
25.1 Air release
25.2 Condensate removal
iii
23-1
24-1
25-1
25-3
25-6
Palm Oil Process

25.3
25.4
25.5
25.6
25.7
25.8
iv
Sterilizing cycle
Steam consumption
Operation
Sterilized fruit to thresher machine
Threshing or stripping the fruit
Distribution sterilized fruit
25-7
25-9
25-19
25-20
25-21
25-25
26. Mash Passing to Digester

26.1 Introduction
26.2 Method of sampling
26.3 Analysis
26.4 Recording of results
26.5 Interpretation of results
26-1
26-1
26-1
26-2
26-2
26-3
27. Digesting of sterilized fruit

27.1 The digester
27.2 The action
27-1
27-1
27-1
28. Pressing of digested fruit

28.1 The press
28.2 The operation
28.3 The extraction efficiency
28-1
28-1
28-2
28-5
29. Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.)

29.1 The collection of C.P.O.
29.2 The clarification of C.P.O.
29.3 The storage of C.P.O.
29.4 Evaluation of C.P.O.
29-1
29-1
29-3
29-9
29-10
30. Palm Kernel (P.K.)

30.1 Nut / Fibre mixture
30.2 The cake breaker conveyor
30.3 Nut / Fibre separation
30.4 Nut treatment
30.5 Nut cracking
30.6 Kernel / Shell separation
30.7 Kernel recovery
30.8 Kernel drying
30.9 Kernel cleaning
30.10 Evaluation of P.K.
30-1
30-1
30-1
30-3
30-8
30-9
30-10
30-13
30-13
30-14
30-15
Palm Oil Process

SECTION #4 Waste products and pollution.
31.
Disposal of "dry" material

31.1 Solid waste products and disposal
31.2 The incinerator
31.3 The direct to field disposal
31.4 The use of E.F.B. as fuel
31.5 The fibrous material
31.6 The fuel value of fibre
31.7 The shell material
31.8 The fuel value of shell
31.9 The sludge (centrifuge) solids
31.10 Solids from Decanter systems
31.11 Solids from effluent treatment
31-1
31-1
31-1
31-2
31-3
31-3
31-4
31-4
31-5
31-5
31-6
31-6
32. Disposal of "wet" material

32.1 Parameters for liquid effluent
32.2 Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.)
32.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.)
32.4 Total Organic Carbon
(T.O.C.)
32.5 Total Oxygen Demand
(T.O.C.)
32.6 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Th.O.C.)
32.7 Correlation of measurements
32.8 Biological treatment definitions
32.9 Aerobic suspended growth treatment
32.10 Control methods and technology
32.11 Treatment types
32.12 Anaerobic facultative pond system
32.13 Anaerobic (bi-phase) facultative ponds
32.14 Anaerobic/extended aeration pond system
32.15 Anaerobic tank digestion/extended
aeration system
32.16 Land application of partly treated effluent
32.18 Effects of application of digested effluent
32-1
32-1
32-1
32-2
32-3
32-3
32-3
32-3
32-4
32-5
32-8
32-8
32-9
32-10
32-13
33. Air pollution

33.1 Boiler smoke
33.2 Incinerator smoke
33-1
33-1
33-3
32-13
32-17
32-18
Palm Oil Process

SECTION #5
a) Steam and electricity generation

b) Monitoring and Evaluation
34. Generation of steam and electricity

34.1 General boiler water information
34.2 Water treatment : external
34.3 Water treatment : internal
34.4 Blow down
34.5 The principle of de-aeration
34.6 Procedure for boiler "boil out"
34.7 Steam requirement calculations
34.8 Electricity
34-1
34-1
34-4
34-9
34-10
34-12
34-15
34-17
34-25
35. Repair and Maintenance

35.1 Maintenance and scheduling
35.2 Check list for reporting on Palm Oil Mills
35-1
35-1
35-7
36. Process control

36.1 The aim of process control
36.2 Examination of F.F.B.
36.3 Empty Bunch checking
36.4 Sampling
36.5 Interpretation of the results
36.6 General comments
36-1
36-1
36-2
36-4
36-5
36-7
36-8
37. Quality control

37.1 The Laboratory
(37I).01 Determination of F.F.A. in C.P.O.
(37I).02 Volatile matter in oil
(37I).03 Dirt in oil
37.2 Oxidation
37.3 Bleach-ability
37.4 Quality analysis of P.K.
37.5 Determination of oil losses
37.6 Other tests
37-1
37-1
37-3
37-5
37-7
37-8
37-9
37-10
37-12
37-21
38. Administration and accounting
38-1
Glossary follows
vi
Palm Oil Process

SECTION #1
THE RAW MATERIAL
[FRESH FRUIT BUNCHES]
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #1
FRESH FRUIT BUNCHES
1.01
"Oil is made in the field, and lost in the factory."

This statement, as old as the industry itself, remains to be true, but
provided both the field and the processing operation are well controlled,
these losses can be controlled and kept within,(for the industry)
acceptable parameters.
Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB) harvested from the oil palm trees, and the loose
fruits that have already detached from the bunch whilst still on the tree
are collected from "the fields" and both together are transported to the
factory.
The stage of ripeness at which this bunches are harvested and the
condition of this fruit when delivered at the factory, determines to a
large extend the efficiency of the extraction process and the quality of
the products produced by the CPO factory.
1.02
The CPO factory produces Crude Palm Oil and Palm Kernel.
Further processing of the CPO and the PK takes place in more specialised
refineries, crushing and extraction plants.
Theoretically, the exact point of ripeness or maximum oil content or yield
from the fruit can be determined from a number of factors.
Practically, one cannot expect that harvesters possess the knowledge as
described hereunder and a usable compromise to obtain a harvest of a
good average of fully ripe, mature FFB is required.
1.03
Various circumstances may determine the practical parameters,

although the most used one remains the control of FFB by physical
observation to determine the percentage "black and hard" bunches of
the total FFB delivered.
A full description of the most commonly used parameters can be found
under the section 5, chapter 36 : Process Control.
1.04
2
Soil type and climatic conditions have a definite influence on the growth
and
Palm Oil Process

yield pattern of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis).
An average rainfall of 2000 millimetre or more per year and 5 to 7 hours
sunshine per day are usually good parameters to secure an
economically justified yield.
Generally these conditions can be met in the tropical zone between 15
degrees North and 15 degrees South of the Equator, around the world.
1.05
Height increment (trunk elongation) ranges between 40 to 80 centimetre

per year (pending on age, genetic type and conditions) and the yield of
FFB follows a distinct pattern, changing with the age of the palm.
Peak yields are generally obtained at the palm age of between 5 and 7
years old (when leave production is at maximum), and there after the
yield declines to a reasonably steady pattern.
1.06
Both the male and the female "flowers" (inflorescences) grow on the
same palm.
Each inflorescence has a central stalk with spikelets carrying the flowers.
1.07
The male inflorescence can carry as many as or over a 1000 flowers,

which produce between 20 and 50 grams of pollen during about 5 days.
Pollen are released 2 to 3 days after the beginning of anthesis.
1.08
The female inflorescence carries a considerably larger number of flowers,

the total varies, but can be several thousand flowers, pending on the
arrangement of the central, upper and lower spikelets.
1.09
After pollination the female inflorescence develops into a fruit bunch,

taking up to 22 weeks to become a fully developed and ripe bunch.
1.10
Each pollinated female flower may develop into an individual fruit in the
bunch; its shape and weight varying depending on its geographical
position in the bunch.
The total bunch weight thus can vary considerably and ranges from
about 10 kg to as much as 80 kg per bunch, the average weight usually
varies between 15 and 30 kg.
1.11
An individual fruit consists of a seed (the "palm kernel"), surrounded by

pericarp.
Palm Oil Process

Pericarp includes three layers, i.e.: the hard endocarp (the "shell"), the
fleshy mesocarp (the "fibre") which contains the palm oil and the thin
outer skin or exocarp.
1.12
Oil palms can broadly be divided into three distinct types, i.e.: the Dura
palm (D), the Tenera palm (T), and the Pisifera palm (P).
1.13
The nut of the Dura palm has a relatively thick shell (between 2 and 8
mm) and the percentage mesocarp to fruit is generally low (30 to 65 %).
Dura fruit can be recognised when the fruit is cut transversely and no ring
of fibres in the mesocarp close to the shell can be noticed.
1.14
The nut of the Tenera palm has a thinner shell than that of the Dura palm
(between 0.5 and 3 mm) and the percentage mesocarp to fruit is higher
(60 to 99%).
Tenera fruit has the distinct and prominent ring of fibres close to the shell,
clearly allowing identification of the fruit when cut.
1.15
The Pisifera palm fruit has a kernel but no shell.
1.16
Palm fruit may also develop even though no pollination appears to have
taken place.
These fruits are termed parthenocarpic fruit and although these can be
oil bearing, they are usually small and with a solid centre, no kernel.
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #2
RIPENESS STANDARDS
2.01
Harvesting fruit bunches at the correct state of ripeness is of paramount

importance in maximizing the oil yield.
2.02
It is generally accepted that for the maximum exploitation of the oil, the
fruit bunch should be at its peak of ripeness.
This is where the problem arises, basically on the uncertainty of the best
time to harvest the fruit bunch to give the maximum product.
2.03
The conventional system is to determine the ripeness by the number of

loose fruits detached from the bunch, i.e. 1,2,3 etc. loose fruits
detached, or the amount of loose fruit per kilogram of estimated bunch
weight, i.e. 10 to 25% detached fruits, etc. and any of these two criteria
may be right.
2.04
An understanding of the formation of the various biochemical processes

and the resulting palm products which normally either increase or
decrease at the ripe stage may help to determine this stage of fruit
ripeness.
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #3
BIO CHEMISTRY OF DEVELOPING OIL PALM FRUIT
3.01
Several distinct biochemical changes take place in the mesocarp as the

fruit develops from flower to maturity.
3.02
Carbohydrates form the major biochemical constituent in the early

stages of development.
These are translocated from the main plant (palm), especially from the
leaves, via the bunch stalk into the fruits.
3.03
The presence of Chlorophyll also contributes to the formation of

carbohydrates.
(The function of chlorophyll pigments is to generate carbohydrates by
photosynthetic conversion of CO2 , H2O and light energy)
For fruit development the need to have chlorophyll reduces and
diminishes once the carbohydrates are utilised to form (storage) oil
bodies.
3.04
Carbohydrates are continuously translocated and synthesised within the

fruit until a certain stage whereby the carbohydrate "pool" is drastically
converted to lipids.
3.05
Accessory pigments (such as carotene, orange plant pigment) and their

isomers are also produced in the early stages of development and the
amount increases proportionally with the increase in lipid content.
3.06
Tocopherols (naturally occurring trace elements, able to act as

antioxidants) have been shown to increase in amount as the fruit
matures.
3.07
In the early stages of development, lipids form only about one percent
of the total weight of mesocarp and a large proportion of the lipids are
phospholipids.
3.08
Phospholipids are important (at this stage) as an entity for cell wall and
cell membrane formation.
Palm Oil Process

(The proportion of phospholipids to total lipids remain none the less very
low in ripe fruit.)
3.09
An important product of the carbohydrate metabolism is "tannin" (acidic

substance).
The amount of tannin in the fruit is constant throughout the development
of the fruit.
3.10
Proteins, which function as the building blocks of cells and as enzymes for
all biochemical reactions, also remain proportionally constant throughout
the stages of development.
(Proteins form only 0.1 % of the total biochemical products in ripe palm
fruit)
3.11
The biosynthesis of lipids is the main feature exhibited by mesocarp.

The precursor for lipid synthesis is carbohydrate.
The conversion of carbohydrates to lipids takes place immediately after
the kernel has fully developed.
3.12
The formation of lipids accelerate as the fruit approaches maturity and

maximises at the ripe stage,(i.e. about the 20th week after pollination).
3.13
Senescence triggers the degradation (or hydrolysis) of lipids to glycerol

and free fatty acids (FFA)
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #4
PARAMETERS FOR DETERMINING THE DEGREE
OF RIPENESS
Possible parameters are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Lipid content
Free Fatty Acid formation
Moisture content
Carotene :(Chlorophyll absorbency ratio)
Carotene :(Carotene absorbency ratio)
a) Lipid content
The amount maximises when fruit is ripe and the amount drops slightly
after senescence.
Total oil content increases with the age of the plant.
The amount of oil in wet mesocarp increases from 1% in the young
fruits to about 40 % in the mature fruits.
The FFA composition of the mesocarp lipid at different stages of
maturity is significantly different.
In 11 week old fruits, linoleic acid (C18:2) is prominent, forming about
28% of the FFA composition.
As the fruit matures, oleic acid (C18:1) forms the bulk of the lipid.
In the ripe fruit the FFA composition of the lipid extract is similar to that
of the CPO (see table 1)
It is only natural that the product which is generated by the plant
maximises at the mature stage and the composition is such to
provide the fruit with lipids containing the basic fatty acid precursors
for the subsequent process of dispersion and survival.
Palm Oil Process

b) Free Fatty Acid formation
Degradation of lipids occurs after senescence and also in bruised,
mature fruits.
(Senescence is the immediate phenomenon following the fully
mature fruit stage)
The metabolism of biochemical substrate stops.
Instead, degradation of some of these products, especially lipids take
place.
The action of lipases on the lipids is responsible for catalysing the
formation of FFA's and glycerols.
Lipases may be derived from within the mesocarp or contributed by
bacteria, yeasts and other microbial infections.
Substantial amounts of free fatty acids are formed in the
senescenced fruit. (see table 2)
In the fruit, FFA's constitute about 0.8% of the total lipid and may
increase to 9 or 10% after the fruits are detached from the bunch.
c) Moisture content
Water forms the major constituent in plants, for it is very important as a
medium for transport, for biochemical reactions and as a solvent.
It is very important when fruit is at the young stage, whereby
development requires the precursors to be water soluble.
Water is also the source of hydroxyl groups for biochemical reactions.
The need to have excess water is reduced as the function of the cells
in the mesocarp becomes more specialised.
It is expected that in palm fruit the amount of water per gram
mesocarp is least at the ripe fruit stage.
80% of the total weight of 11 week old mesocarp is water and the
percentage reduces to about 30 to 40% in the ripe fruit.
It has also been shown that the amount of water in the detached fruit
is considerably lower ( 25 to 30 %, see table 3)
9
Palm Oil Process

(A certain drop in the proportion of water in the fruit could trigger the
fruits to senescence.)
d) Carotene: Chlorophyll absorbency ratio
The formation of various biochemical palm products for example:
lipids, carotenes, tocopherols; all of which normally maximise at the
mature stage are not the only processes that are occurring in the
plant.
The degradation of these products may also occur and these
happen in fully ripe and damaged or infected fruits.
(Degradation of biochemical products which are formed at the early
stages of development and have no further contribution to the fruit
may also occur.)
The products include chlorophyll and the all important Carbo
hydrates.
Carbohydrates are converted to potential intermediates for lipid
synthesis, as are chlorophylls.
Ripe fruits DO NOT contain any chlorophyll pigments, the drop in the
chlorophyll content has been shown to be proportional to the
increase in lipid and the carotene content.
This distinct change provides additional information with respect to
the degree of ripeness of the fruit.
Chlorophyll pigments are not detectable in the ripe fruit, but their
presence is always detectable and have been measured in the
younger fruits.
Chlorophyll content increases and then decreases at the later stage
and is absent in the ripe fruit.
Spectral scanning of the extracts of mesocarp of various ages has
provided some accurate judgement of ripe and unripe fruits.
Carotenes are always present, even in the very young fruits.
The "yellowing" of the mesocarp as the fruit ripens is due to the
degradation of chlorophylls and the build up of carotenes.
10
Palm Oil Process

In younger fruits, chlorophylls form the main photosynthetic pigment
for the synthesis of carbohydrates.
The carotenes at this stage function as accessory pigment during the
photosynthetic process.
The ratio of carotene to chlorophyll content at different stages of
development is therefore useful in determining the age of the fruit
and can be used as an indicator for ripeness standard. (under
laboratory conditions)
e) Carotene : Carotene absorbency ratio
The biosynthesis of carotene in oil palm is similar to that of other plants.
The basic precursor is carbohydrate which undergoes biochemical
changes, firstly to acetyl CoA.
This acetyl CoA will subsequently be converted to melavonic acid
(m.v.a.), isopentenyl pyrophosphate (i.p.p.) and finally polymerisation
of these i.p.p's to carotenes.
These carotenes are accessory pigments found in the protoplasts or
chloroplasts.
A typical spectrum of carotene distribution of crude palm oil is
identical to that of the distribution of ripe mesocarp extract.
Carotene extracts of ripe mesocarp exhibits three absorbency peaks:
at 432 nm, 456 nm and 480 nm.
Maximum absorbency is at 456 nm for mature and ripe fruits.
Younger fruits, where the chlorophyll pigments are present have a
maximum absorbency of 432 nm.
As the fruit develop to maturity, the absorbency at 432 nm decreases
to a stage where the absorbency at this wavelength is lower than
that of 456nm.
At the same time the absorbency at 664 nm for chlorophylls also
decreases, and finally disappears.
The ratio of absorbency at 456 nm and 432 nm formulated may be
useful as an indicator to determine the degree of ripeness of the fruit.
11
Palm Oil Process

A 456 : 432 nm absorbency ratio with a value < 1 may indicate young
fruit.
14th to 16th week old fruits have ratios from 0.8 to 1.0.
Mature fruits (18th/19th week) normally have values of 1.0 to 1.2, (and
at the same time exhibit an absorbency peak at 664 nm, which
indicates the presence of chlorophylls)
In ripe and senescenced fruit, the 456 :432 nm absorbency ratio is 1.2,
and do not exhibit any chlorophyll absorbency peak at 664 nm.
This ratio has also been applied to study the various different degrees
of development of fruit that occur in the bunch itself.
Controversy of whether there is a need to allow all the fruits to be
completely developed before harvesting can be solved by this
carotene: chlorophyll absorbency ratio system.
12
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #5
RIPENESS PATTERN
[relation of a ripe fruitlet to the rest of the bunch]
5.01
Ripe fruit may be defined as fruit which has the maximum amount of oil,
and more directly as fruit which contains no more chlorophylls and
attaining a carotene to carotene absorbency ratio of > 1.2 (which
occurs normally in the 20th week after anthesis.)
5.02
The fruits of any given bunch do not ripen simultaneously, due to slight
variations in the time of pollination of the flowers.
(The period of receptivity of the florets in an anthesizing female
inflorescence is about 2 to 5 days.)
5.03
Visual observation indicate that both the size and the colour of the fruit
from the different locations on the bunch are different.
The fruits on the periphery (outer side) of the bunch are usually large and
deep orange in colour, whilst the fruits embedded in the interior of the
bunch are sometimes smaller and do not have the deep orange
coloration.
Correlation of all these fruits with one another in terms of the degree of
ripeness can be made.
5.04
Analysis done on the same bunch of a particular age, from different

bunch sections, i.e. top, middle and bottom and from each section from
different spikelets, i.e. outer, middle and inner parts shows that the
contents of chlorophylls and carotenes are more in the top sections and
decreases towards the bottom, but the 456 : 432 nm absorbency ratio is
at a constant value, i.e. < 1.
5.05
This constant value indicates that the fruits from different sections are all
in a similar stage of maturity.
5.06
Unless: the absorbency ratio of the top section is equal or more than 1,
which would indicate that the fruits in that section are older than the
fruits in the middle or bottom section of the bunch.
5.07
Analysis from the 20th week (optimum ripeness) show a similar

absorbency profile; in all the fruits from whatever position on the bunch.
13
Palm Oil Process

5.08
Another criterium to constitute the finding that the fruit on the different
bunch and spikelet section are of similar physiological age is the fatty
acid composition of the fruits from these different sections.
5.09
It can be seen that the distribution of fatty acid in the fruits, from various
sections have a similar pattern.
The contents of the major fatty acids such as Palmitic Acid (C16:0) and
the C18 fatty acids, i.e. Oleic Acids (C18:1) and Linoleic Acids (C18:2) are
quite similar.
5.10
The fatty acid distribution profile is similar within a bunch, although the oil
content in the outer fruits is higher and decreases towards the inner
portion of the bunch.
This is due to the intrinsic property of the fruit by virtue of its position on
the bunch.
14
Palm Oil Process

Chapter 6
SUMMARY [chapters 1 to 5]
6.01
The conversion of carbohydrates to lipids at about the 13th week of

development appears to be the main function of the fruit at this stage of
its development.
6.02
The accumulations of tocopherols and carotenes are proportional to the

build up of oil.
6.03
Carbohydrates are synthesized by the fruit during this stage, but at a

decreasing rate.
6.04
Since the indications are that most of the fruits in the bunch are of similar
physiological age, it is therefore not necessary to wait to harvest the
bunch, ONCE THERE ARE SIGNS THAT SOME OF THE FRUITS ARE RIPE.
Table#1 Fatty acid composition in %
C type
AGE OF FRUIT IN WEEKS

11
15
12
RIPE
13
C.P.O.
14
12
0.22
14
0.62
0.6
0.8
0.5
1.7
0.2
16
27.8
38.9
37.2
39.6
44.9
44
16:1
1.06
18
4.12
5.1
5.2
4.9
4.0
4.5
18:1
14.4
18.4
22.0
32.6
37.3
39.2
18:2
28.8
25.6
24.4
19.3
14.4
10.1
18:3
22.3
10.9
9.8
2.7
0.3
0.4
20
0.77
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.4
17
0.2
0.6
0.2
Palm Oil Process

Table #2 Fatty acid content
Sample:
Volume NaOH in (McOH)
% FFA
7th week (young fruit)
0.2 ml
0.1
Ripe fruit
0.5 - 1 ml
Ripe fruit
(easily detached)
2.5 ml
1.3
Senescened fruit
10.8 ml
5.5
0.25 - 0.5
Table #3 Oil and Moisture Content

Sample:
16
oil / bunch
oil / fruit
Moisture
Ripe fruit (mill)
20 %
22 %
Ripe fruit (laboratory)
30 %
45 %
40 %
8th week (laboratory
<1%
80 %
10th week (laboratory)
1%
80 %
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #7
FACTORS OF INFLUENCE TO THE PROCESSING
OF FFB
7.01
The quality and quantity of the FFB delivered to the mill can vary
considerably due to a number of factors which are outside the control
of the mill staff.
Some of these factors are fairly constant, whilst others can change from
day to day, or in some circumstances even from hour to hour, depending
on:
- Type of Planting material
- Age of the planting
- Efficiency of pollination
- Climate and /or seasonal conditions (present and past)
- Soil conditions
- Fertiliser programmes
- Harvesting methods/interval
- Type of collection and transportation to the mill
7.02
The handling of FFB in general does affect its quality and the less the fruit
is touched after it is harvested from the tree, the higher the chances are
that the F.F.A content remains at the low level it generally is at the point
of harvest.
It is of course necessary to move and transport the fruit to the mill, but all
unnecessary handling must be avoided where ever possible.
7.03
This philosophy has led to a variety of handling and transport systems, all
more or less effective (see FFB, chapter 24, page 24-1), but is very often to
a large extent dependent on the local circumstances and the distances
the fruit has to be carried.
7.04
Type of planting material:

The different types of oil palm breeds and hybrids all produce FFB with a
different composition of mesocarp and nuts.
The resulting different ratios of fibrous material (mesocarp), shell and
kernel (nuts) and the varying quantities of these components will require
17
Palm Oil Process

different process machinery or machine adjustments to achieve the aim
of optimum extraction of the palm oil and kernel.
7.05
Age of planting material:

As for the type of material, the age of the palm from which the fruit is
harvested, can determine the physical size of the bunch and the total oil
content of the fruit.
Again, to obtain the maximum extraction of the products, machinery
may have to be adjusted to cope with the material.
7.06
Efficiency of pollination:
Popularly stated, non pollinated (non fertilised) fruit has no kernel.(and a
low oil content).
The processing, especially pressing of this type of fruit is difficult and the
resulting press liquid is difficult to separate into oil, water, dirt etc.
(The immediate side effect of the non availability of kernel is the
difference in fuel composition to the boiler furnace, since less or no shell
will be available to be mixed with the fibre.)
7.07
18
The by insect (Elaedobius kamerunicus) pollinated fruit has generally a

much more "dense" composition than fruit pollinated by wind and or
larger insects and in general has a larger number of fully and partly
developed fruitlets in the bunch.
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #8
PLANTING MATERIAL
8.01 Type of planting material:
The different types of oil palm breeds and hybrids all produce f.f.b.
with a different composition of mesocarp and nuts.
The resulting different ratios of fibrous material (mesocarp), shell and
kernel (nuts) and the varying quantities of these components will
require different process machinery or machine adjustments to achieve
the aim of optimum extraction of the palm oil and kernel.
8.01 Age of planting material:
As for the type of material, the age of the palm from which the fruit is
harvested, can determine the physical size of the bunch and the total
oil content of the fruit.
Again, to obtain the maximum extraction of the products, machinery
may have to be adjusted to cope with the material.
19
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #9
POLLINATION
9.01 Efficiency of pollination:
Popularly stated, non pollinated fruit has no kernel.(and a low oil
content).
The processing, especially pressing of this type of fruit is difficult and the
resulting press liquid is difficult to separate into oil, water, dirt etc.
(The immediate side effect of the non availability of kernel is the
difference in fuel composition to the boiler furnace, since less or no shell
will be available to be mixed with the fibre.)
9.02 The by insect (Elaedobius Kamerunicus) pollinated fruit has generally a
much more "dense" composition than fruit pollinated by wind and or
larger insects and in general has a larger number of fully and partly
developed fruitlets in the bunch.
20
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #10
CLIMATE AND/OR SEASONAL CONDITIONS
10.01 The climatic conditions at the time of harvest and transport have a
marked difference on the process in the factory.
Heavy rainfall usually result in waterlogged bunches on arrival at the
factory, where this fruit is weighed over the weigh bridge.
The "extra" weight recorded can have a marked effect on the
calculation of the extraction rates of both oil and kernel since these are
generally calculated against the total F.F.B. weights recorded for the
day or the production run.
It is not uncommon that during wet days a larger percentage earth
and dirt sticks to the bunches, which is also transported to the factory
and can cause problems during the screening and clarification (de
sanding) process.
10.02 Seasonal weather patterns have a marked influence on the yield of
f.f.b. per hectare planted and thus are the main cause for the peak
production and the low production periods of the factory.
During heavy rainfall pollination of the oil palm flowers, whether by
insects or by other natural causes, is generally not as effective as
during the dryer periods of the year.
10.03 It can be estimated that approximately 20 to 22 weeks after pollination
the bunches are ready to be harvested.
With experience, the amount of fruit to be harvested in a given period
from a known hectarage of planting can be estimated about six
months in advance of the actual harvesting dates.
Thus high and low periods of production can be forecasted with
reasonable accuracy and the production runs, the maintenance
periods etc. of the factory can be planned in advance.
10.04 Shorter term influences such as frequently alternating periods of
sunshine and rain generally accelerate the fruit ripening process, whilst
extended periods of dry or very dull weather tends to slow down the
rate of fruit ripening and can affect the production.
21
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #11
SOIL CONDITION
11.01 Soil conditions:
Oil palm will grow on a wide range of soil types, each of these will
influence the yield to a degree.
F.F.B. harvested from different soil areas will not show up in the factory
and therefore has no direct influence on the type of treatment or
process of the fruit.
11.02 On acid sulphate soils however, bunch ash (the ash produced from
empty bunches after incineration) has proved to be useful in
ameliorating the adverse soil conditions prevalent and provide an
inexpensive source of nutrients.
Depending on the logistics and environmental circumstances, the use
of (whole) empty bunches as a mulch in oil palm is also practiced.
The empty bunches contain significant quantities of nutrients, but are
"bulky" (approximately 20 to 25% of F.F.B. weight) and the logistics of
removal from the factory, transport and application in the field
becomes a matter for economic consideration.
11.03 The decision as to what the preferred method of empty bunch disposal
will be has a considerable influence on the design and lay out of an oil
palm factory, where provision must be made for either incinerators and
bunch ash disposal or for storage and handling facilities for the (whole)
empty bunches.
11.04 The application of the liquid effluent from the mill (from sludge ponds
etc.) to the fields is also an option that can be considered under
certain circumstances.
This can be in the form of:
- raw effluent
- anaerobic (digester) bottom fraction
- aerobic pond bottom fraction
- aerobic pond "supernatant"
22
Palm Oil Process

All contain substantial amounts of nutrients beneficial to the palms
albeit in different forms and concentrations.
The logistics of removal, transport and application to and in the field
becomes an economic consideration which has a direct influence on
the design and lay out of the factory.
23
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #12
FERTILIZER
12.01. Fertilizer programmes:
Fertilizer programmes have no direct influence on the operation of an
oil palm mill.
As noted in Chapter 11, under certain conditions the mill may however
be involved in supplying some of the organic fertilizers for these
programmes.
In general the aim of applying fertilizers is to increase the yield per
hectare and as such the total quantity of F.F.B to be processed may
increase and result in an altered (higher) throughput demand on the
mill.
24
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #13
HARVEST INTERVAL
13.01 Harvesting methods / Interval:
Noted under section 1, "The raw material", are the various theoretical
considerations of determining the bunch ripeness.
In practice the estate (field) management has to compromise and
reach a decision on an appropriate practical harvesting standard.
13.02 All ripeness standards used specify the minimum acceptable degree of
ripeness and the degree to which the overall average ripeness of the
bunches harvested differs from this standard, depends to a large
extend on the frequency of harvesting, i.e. the length of the interval
between harvests and to a lesser degree on the prevailing climatic
conditions.
13.03 The actual method of harvesting makes little or no difference to the
process in the mill, provided estate management controls the length of
the bunch stalks, the collection of the loose fruit etc.
(Long stalks increase F.F.B. weight and tend to "soak up" oil, thus giving
an apparent lower oil extraction rate.
Loose fruit carry the highest oil content and if not collected and
included in the overall F.F.B. delivered to the mill will decrease the
apparent extraction rates of both oil and kernel)
13.04 The harvesting interval affects the oil quality to a considerable extend.
When intervals are too long (generally if more then 10 days), a high
proportion of "over ripe" fruit will be harvested, leading to high f.f.a.
contents and increased oil losses in the factory.
When intervals are too short (generally if less then 7 days), the trend
develops towards the harvesting of "under ripe" fruit, i.e. before the
bunches reach their maximum oil content.
13.05 The oil produced from these "under ripe" bunches will have a lower
F.F.A. but the extraction rate is also likely to be lower.
25
Palm Oil Process

This may be acceptable in certain circumstances, where the financial
gain (from sales of low F.F.A. oil) is higher than the "loss" in extraction.
Data obtained at the mill from F.F.B. quality checks and the laboratory
analysis should be viewed by the field management and used to
decide on the most suitable interval of harvesting the fruit.
26
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #14
TRANSPORTATION
14.01 Type of collection and transportation to the mill:
The method of collection and transportation of the F.F.B. to the factory
varies considerably from area to area and is to a large extend
depending on the preference of the estate owner.
14.02 Since it is known that bruised and damaged fruit in general produces
oil with a higher f.f.a. than undamaged fruit, the less handling of the
fruit before sterilization, the better the quality of the oil produced will
be.
14.03 Apart from the quality factor it has also been shown that undamaged
and carefully handled fruit results in lower oil losses during the
sterilization process, ultimately resulting in an improved extraction rate
of oil.
27
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #15
SUMMARY (chapter 7 to 14)
15.01 Virtually all of the points noted under Section 1, the chapters 1 to 6 and
the chapters 7 to 14 above are generally outside of the control of the
mill management and engineers.
15.02 It is however important that the mill management has some
understanding of the factors which affect the material that is to be
processed, both from the point of view of designing/modification of the
mill machinery and or lay out and to foster a greater degree of
understanding and cooperation between "the field" and "the factory".
28
Palm Oil Process

SECTION #2
THE FACTORY
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
29
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #16
DESIGN
16.01 Technological innovations and improvements, coupled to a better
understanding of the various processes involved in the extraction of
Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) and Palm Kernel (P.K.), have resulted in
equipment and design changes over the years to accommodate new
equipment and the improved process technology.
Examples of such changes are for instance:
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
the use of water tube boilers versus fire tube boilers

the use of steam turbines versus reciprocating steam engines
the use of double door sterilizers versus single door sterilizers
the use of screw type presses versus reciprocating hydraulic presses
the use of "bunch crushers"
the use of dynamic clarification systems versus static clarification
systems
the use of "vibro energy" rotating screening devices versus the
"shaking" type screens
"ripple mill" nut crackers versus conventional centrifugal nut crackers
etc. etc.
16.02 Some of the innovations/modifications are not new, but merely a

renewed application of an existing older principle, which coupled to
other changes in the selected equipment and design has shown to be
either economically advantageous, more efficient and/or more
practically orientated by reducing the levels of skill required for
maintenance of the equipment etc.
Most, but not all, changes required the design and lay out of the
factories to be re examined and have generally resulted in a more
efficiently designed work place and allowed for a certain amount of
"standardization" to be introduced.
Despite this, the design and the lay out of palm oil factories are still very
much subject to the individual preference of the owners and/or the
individual preference of the Engineer(s) in charge .
30
Palm Oil Process

16.03 There have been a number of efforts made to "standardize" palm oil
processing factories, all of which were and are more or less effective.
The considerable quantity of proprietary machinery on the open
market which can be utilized in an oil mill, whether or not specially
adapted, precludes the total standardization.
16.04 Generally the lay-out should allow for a generous work space around
the individual equipment and machinery, to allow unobstructed
access for repairs and maintenance without interference to the nearby
machinery.
16.05 Modifications and/or the installation of additional equipment (since
technology changes and knowledge improves over time) are a fact of
life and thus should, to a limited extend, be taken into account when
designing the lay-out.
16.06 A "cramped" work space will invariably lead to a lack of supervision
and operator attention and thus could cause the deterioration of the
process and reduce the optimum usage and out put of the equipment
installed.
The (possible) extra cost associated with creating ample work space at
the design stage will be more then repaid during the economic life
span of the mill.
31
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #17
SITE SELECTION
17.01 There are a number of factors which play an important part in the
selection of the physical site for a palm oil mill.
The following gives an indication of the major points to be taken into
account, but is by no means a complete list since much depends on
the individual circumstances.
17.02 Once an area has been selected for the establishment of oil palm
plantings, the area should be thoroughly examined for the most
suitable place to locate the processing facilities.
This should preferably be done at the time of the feasibility study, or as
soon as possible there after, allowing sufficient time for planning,
design, tendering, building and commissioning of the mill and other
required infrastructure.
17.03 Where possible, advantage should be taken of the natural "lay of the
land" of the area in which a new mill is to be built.
The design and lay out of the mill and its other buildings can be such as
to maximize the utilization of natural "high" and "low" spots in the
selected area.
17.04 The proximity of a steady, good and plentiful water supply, for both the
factory and the required residential labour force must be taken into
account.
17.05 Soil and soil bearing tests should be performed to establish the
requirements and parameters for the calculation of the foundation
type, size etc. for the buildings, the individual items of equipment, roads
etc.
17.06 The depth at which the natural and/or seasonal water table exists must
be established and taken into account and a complete contour map
of the area for the mill construction should be made by qualified civil
engineers or surveyors.
17.07 Such civil engineering details should be completed in advance of the
mechanical design so that the maximum advantage can be taken of
existing natural situations on the proposed mill site.
32
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #18
LOCALITY
18.01 The "local" requirements for the disposal of effluent and air pollution
should be checked and taken into account when the location of the
mill is decided.
In general the mill site should be chosen as "central" as possible to the
supplying plantation areas, to keep time and distance of F.F.B.
transport (and thus the cost of this operation) to a minimum and the
bulk storage area or port to which the products of C.P.O. and P.K. are
to be transported.
18.02 Since both C.P.O. and P.K. are but a percentage of the f.f.b. volume,
the site selection should favour the shorter distances to the f.f.b. supply.
18.03 Other local conditions, such as the access to common facilities
(planned or existing) for the work force should be taken into account.
18.04 Generally when a new mill is planned, the siting of the staff and labour
housing is also to be planned and nuisance factors such as smell, noise,
pollution etc. should be taken into account.
33
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #19
EFFLUENT DISPOSAL
19.01 Consideration of either all or part of the liquid effluent, its solid fractions
and the empty bunches for direct land application (if this is known at
the time of the feasibility study) should also be taken into account and
the logistics of such an approach must be thoroughly examined.
19.02 Where the effluent disposal decided on consists of ponds a generously
sized area must be allocated within a reasonable distance from the
mill.
19.03 The total area required (see section 4, chapter 32) for these ponds can
be rather large and the option for additional ponds later must be taken
into account.
19.04 Access to the ponds is important, in view of the control, the
maintenance, the eventual solids removal etc., but the whole area
must be securely fenced in to prevent unauthorized access and
possible accidents.
34
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #20
SEASONAL WIND
20.01 Prevailing seasonal wind directions should be checked in view of the
location of the accommodation and facilities for both the staff and the
labour force, to minimize air pollution and noise nuisance to these
residential areas.
20.02 Especially the smoke and vapours omitted from the incinerator stacks
does not rise to a great height, but usually settles down within one to
two kilometres from the source point.
This may not be serious (can in fact be beneficial) to the planting, but it
is less then desirable if this residue settles on the areas in which the staff
and labour housing and facilities are located.
35
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #21
TRANSPORT DISTANCES
21.01 Distance to the nearest public access road and existing infrastructure
such as health services, schools, public transport etc. should also be
taken into consideration.
21.02 Due to the size of oil palm plantations, the location is usually at some
considerable distance from the nearest village or town and the
provision of reasonable all weather roads for the transportation of the
raw and the final products is usually included in the planning of the
overall plantation lay-out.
36
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #22
SUMMARY [chapters 16 to 21]
22.01 As noted above, the list is by no means complete and each new
location should be checked thoroughly by plantation staff, civil
engineers, the mill design engineers and environmental experts to
reach the most suitable solution.
37
Palm Oil Process

SECTION #3
THE FACTORY
EXTRACTION OF C.P.O AND P.K
38
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #23
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
23.01 The processing requirements can be separated into several distinct
areas, each with their own input of "raw material" and their output of
"processed material".
23.02 Broadly, a C.P.O. factory requires the following stages in the process of
producing Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) and Palm Kernel (P.K.):
1: Fresh fruit bunch (f.f.b.) reception, f.f.b. storage, f.f.b. handling and
f.f.b. sterilization.
2: Threshing and distribution of the sterilized fruit.
3: Oil and kernel extraction, C.P.O and P.K. storage and C.P.O. and
P.K. handling.
4: Disposal of the empty bunches, the fibrous material and the shell.
5: Disposal of the liquid effluent.
23.03 In order to allow for this processing there has to be :
6: Generation of steam and electricity
23.04 In order to efficiently and economically manage the operation of the
mill there are further the requirements of:
7: Process control, the analysis and recording of process data.
8: Quality control of the produced C.P.O. and P.K.
9: Repair and maintenance of the equipment
10: Administration and accounting for the total operation.
23.05 Each area can be sub divided into various stations, each again with
their own "input" and "output", each with their own particular
equipment.
39
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #24
FRESH FRUIT BUNCHES
24.01 The fresh fruit bunches are harvested and collected from the fields and
transported to the mill by a variety of types and sizes of vehicles.
These may include tractor-trailer operations, trucks fitted with side or
rear tipping bins, hand loading or net loading of F.F.B. etc.
24.02 Some estates developed transport systems where the actual sterilizer
cages are taken into the fields, on purpose built special truck or trailer
frames, thus eliminating the need for loading ramps, others use railways
in the fields etc., or a hybrid of any of the above noted systems.
24.03 The choice of system is often dictated by the particular circumstances
and/or economics.
The main aim should remain the same, i.e. to transport F.F.B. to the mill
with the minimum of handling and bruising of the fruit at the lowest
possible cost.
24.04 The first stop at the mill site is the weigh bridge, where the transport unit
inclusive the f.f.b. is measured for gross weight, usually in metric tonnes
to the second or third decimal point.
(i.e. kilogram)
After discharging the f.f.b. the now empty unit is weighed again and
the resulting netto weight of f.f.b. delivered is calculated and recorded
for each load.
The accumulated total of these netto weights gives the total weight of
f.f.b. delivered to the mill for the hour, the day, the week, the month
etc.
24.05 The weigh bridge records can thus be used to find out the "flow" of f.f.b.
into the mill on which the required through put per hour can be based.
40
Palm Oil Process

NOTE : Since all extraction rates and some losses are usually calculated
against the f.f.b. weight, the accuracy of the operation and the
recording is important and must therefore be regularly checked
by mill management or engineers.
A regular (minimum weekly) check for accuracy and correct
operational procedures should be made and faults etc. can be
rectified immediately.
24.06 A scheduled maintenance procedure must be followed, ensuring that
the required accuracy is maintained.
(see also under section 5, chapter 35, Maintenance)
24.07 Vehicles carrying F.F.B. should be checked to ensure that other than
f.f.b. weight factors are not included.
(Example: "passengers" coming in with the vehicle, water in the truck
bin during the rainy season etc.)
24.08 Various methods of unloading or discharging the f.f.b. from the
transport units are in use, partly depending on the type of transport and
the type of system used.
Each require their own specific operational procedures and attention.
24.09 Loading ramps.
This is generally a steel platform, positioned on an angle that will allow
the f.f.b. discharged from the transport units to "slide down" to the
discharge hoppers, chutes or doors at the lower end of the platform.
The F.F.B. can thus be distributed into the sterilizer cages that are
positioned underneath the chutes or doors.
NOTE: At this point, i.e. before bunches are transferred into the sterilizer
cages, a bunch ripeness check should be conducted. (see also
under section 5, chapter 36,"Process control")
Bunches arriving at the mill should be at least 85% of the "ripe"
category.
The "black and hard" fruit must be reported to the mill management
and estate management, so that the suppliers of this fruit can be
informed.
A too wide a variation in "ripeness" will result in an ineffective sterilization
process with either too high oil losses or "un-strip-able" bunches, all
41
Palm Oil Process

resulting in further processing problems in the factory causing increased
oil losses and lower extractions.
Harvesting and ripeness standards are essentially the responsibility of
plantation management, but it remains the mill management's
responsibility to report the condition of the delivered f.f.b.
24.10 Loading ramps are commonly used through out the industry, despite
the disadvantage of bruising and damaging the fruit as a result of the
action of dumping from the transport unit on to the ramps, the sliding of
the fruit down on the ramp and the subsequent dumping from ramp
into the sterilizer cages.
The result of this bruising and damage to the fruit is inevitably an
increase in the f.f.a. content of the oil produced.
24.11 The system of "in field cage loading" can (at least partially) prevent
most of this damage and has proved to result in oil produced with
generally a lower f.f.a. % then oil extracted from fruit handled via
loading ramps.
Care must be taken to not "overload" the cages, either in the field or
under the ramps, as this results in the bunches bruising and rubbing
against the sterilizer walls and ceiling apertures. The spillage of loose
fruit etc. will increase the losses and lower the apparent extraction rate
of oil.
24.12 Bunch transportation to the sterilizers:
The most commonly used method is by means of rail tracks from the
ramp area to the sterilizer area.
The shunting from one track to another can be achieved by using
either railway switches or by using a transfer system specially designed
for the purpose.
The latter have distinct advantages and should be the preferred
option, from both the points of view of ease of operation and
maintenance of the equipment.
Movement of the cage trains along the tracks is most commonly
achieved with the aid of either horizontal or vertical capstans.
42
Palm Oil Process

24.13 Depending on the design and lay out of the factory, sterilizers can be
equipped with either a single door or with a door on either end of the
sterilizer vessel.
The single door operation requires extensive handling and shunting of
cages, while the double door operation is a "one way in - one way out"
fashion, usually requiring straight rail tracks only, without the need for
rail switches, cross over etc.
Both systems have a number of built in problem areas and continually
require extensive and costly maintenance and operational care to
prevent derailments, a hold up in processing.
24.14 Rail tracks, switches, sterilizer bogie axles, bearings and wheels all need
very regular and almost continual servicing and should thus be on a
regular (scheduled) maintenance programme.
24.15 Storage of f.f.b. in cages, before and after actual process hours, usually
requires a fairly large shunting yard and method for pushing/pulling
cage trains, shunting from track to track etc.
24.16 Hybrid systems are also commonly in use, usually requiring the use of a
tractor or forklift to shift cages, both full and empty ones.
The logistics of having to move a fairly large number of cages
backwards and forward to achieve a certain throughput per hour and
the usually limited space available to do this in can be problematic
and requires effective control to prevent a process hold up etc.
43
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #25
STERILIZED FRUIT
25.01 F.F.B. sterilization
Sterilization is the first step in the process of extracting oil and kernel
from the f.f.b.
Inadequate or incorrect sterilization will undoubtedly adversely effect
the efficiency of the extraction process.
25.02 The usual method of sterilization is a batch process, and this "batch"
process has to supply the feed needed to maintain the subsequent
extraction processes, most of which are of a more "continuous" nature.
A hold up in the supply of sterilized fruit results in the disruption of down
stream processing, which not only leads to the loss of through put, but
also to
the loss of product resulting from a lower efficiency of the
total operation.
It is for this reason that sterilization operation must be scheduled
according to a precise timetable, geared to the through put of the mill.
25.03 The most important functions of the sterilization process are:
a) to inactivate the enzymes that promote the formation of free fatty
acid.
(To ensure that these enzymes are destroyed the whole of the oil
carrying fruit must reach a temperature of at least 55 degrees
Celsius.)
b) to loosen the fruit in the bunch so that the maximum amount of fruit
is recovered in subsequent threshing (stripping) process.
(This aim will be achieved provided the fruit reaches a temperature
of 110oCelsius for a minimum period of 20 minutes and the heating
medium provides moisture. The sterilization with live steam of low
pressure is therefore suitable.)
44
Palm Oil Process

Other functions of the sterilization can be stated to be:
c) To soften the fruit in the bunch so that the mesocarp and the nut
can be detached from each other (in the digester).
(A "clean" separation of the nut and the fibre will facilitate the
proper operation of the depericarper later on in the process.)
d) To condition the mesocarp so that the oil bearing cells can be more
easily and effectively broken and the oil recovered.
(Unbroken oil cells have a density close to that of water and will not
be recovered in the clarification process.)
e) To dehydrate the fruit, which appears to have two functions, i.e. the
pre-treatment of nuts for kernel recovery and an apparent positive
effect on the efficiency of the operation and through put of the
screw presses used for the extraction of the oil.
f) Bio chemical changes also appear to take place during the
process of sterilization, having a beneficial effect on the process of
clarification.
25.04 Sterilization is commonly achieved by means of live steam admission
into the sterilizing vessel loaded with f.f.b. in partly perforated steel
cages.
The steam pressure is usually 3 kg/cm2 (42 lbs/inch2) and a properly
controlled cycle with 30 minutes or more at this pressure will generally
give satisfactory sterilization results.
25.05 As noted previously, the standard of ripeness of the f.f.b. delivered may
necessitate the cycle times to be varied to suit the type of fruit to be
sterilized.
Very ripe fruit can be sterilized in a shorter period, whilst when fruit is well
set, under ripe and hard the sterilization times may have to be
extended .
Double or triple peaks can be used to ensure proper sterilization and
good stripping of the bunches, the latter is the most common.
Air release
25.1.01 When a sterilizer is loaded with fresh fruit and the door is first closed,
the vessel is full of air.
45
Palm Oil Process

Air is a poor conductor of heat and must be removed from the vessel
so that the heat transfer to the bunches will not be impaired.
25.1.02 There are two practical methods of air removal from sterilizers, i.e.:
a) steam sweeping and
b) diffusion, followed by blow off of steam.
a) Steam sweeping:
Steam is lighter than air and as the vessel fills with steam it will sweep
the air downwards and force it through the de-aeration valves.
This action should be controlled so that there is as little turbulence as
possible.
Strong turbulence will mix the steam and air and pockets of air will
remain in the vessel; within these pockets there will be low
temperatures.
An idea of the time needed to clear the vessel of air can be
obtained by considering the volume of the vessel and the area of the
air release valves.
Example:
A 10 x 2.5 tonne cage sterilizer is 2.1 meter in diameter and 30 meter
long, i.e. has a volume of about 104 cubic meter.
If 4 x 75 mm outlets provided, these will have a combined open area
of 177 square centimetre, (0.0177 m2 ).
The vessel should be cleared of air in say 10 minutes, thus the average
speed out of the valves during de-aeration must be about 9.8 m/sec
(35 km/hr).
25.1.03 The fruit and the cages have a volume so there is actually less then
the volume of air calculated above, but inevitably air and steam will
mix, the air will not necessarily be swept evenly to the outlet valves
etc. so the estimate of time can be accepted as reasonably valid.
To achieve an average speed of 9.8 m/sec through the outlet valves,
the vessel must be under pressure during the steam sweeping, deaeration process.
46
Palm Oil Process

At the start of the cycle the vessel and its contents will be cold and
the steam first admitted will be condensed and there can be neither
an increase in pressure nor an air displacement until the rate of the
steam admission to the vessel exceeds the rate of condensation.
To achieve the required de-aeration the steam admission must be
relatively high and this will conflict with the need to reduce
turbulence.
To keep turbulence within acceptable levels sterilizers are fitted with a
steam distributor along the top of the vessel to ensure an even
dispersion of steam.
This distributor is essential and must have a properly selected cross
sectional area and openings correctly sized to ensure good steam
distribution, evenly along the whole length of the sterilizer.
As the fruit is held in cages, the air must be removed from these
cages as well as from the open volume of the vessel and to ensure
that this is achieved it is essential that both the size and the number of
holes in the cage sides and bottom plate are adequate not only for
the purpose of admitting steam into the cage and fruit, but also allow
air to escape.
25.1.04 With a well designed system and if care is taken it should be possible
to sweep the majority of the air from the open volume of the sterilizer
and the cages, but the air trapped in the bunches is not swept out.
b) Diffusion:
Steam pressure will tend to compress this air into the bunch so that
the fruit in the centre of the bunch will remain surrounded by air and
thus not be subjected to heat.
After a period of time has elapsed, the steam will diffuse into the air
and air will be displaced to allow heat penetration, but with very
tightly knit fruit bunches there will not be sufficient time for the
diffusion to be effective within the designed time of the sterilizing
cycle.
This slow diffusion of steam into and the displacement of air from the
bunches can partly be explained by the fact that steam entering the
bunch will condense until the surfaces of the bunch exposed to the
47
Palm Oil Process

steam reach saturation temperature.
If fruit is well set then the diffusion process must be assisted by
intermediate blow offs from the sterilizer.
25.1.05 Theoretically, if pressure is released from the sterilizer at 3 kg/cm2, one
quarter of the air left in the vessel should also be removed.
More importantly, the air trapped in the bunches will be released, so
that on the next application of pressure steam will penetrate further
into the bunch.
After steam sweeping and one blow off very little air will remain in the
open volume of the sterilizer, but there will still be air trapped in the
bunches.
25.1.06 The timing for subsequent blow offs (i.e. in multiple peak sterilization)
could or should be delayed until there is some "heat" in the bunches.
Since diffusion is assisted by turbulence in the gases steam admission
after blow offs should be at the maximum rate attainable to give the
best possible conditions for diffusion.
"Triple peak" sterilization has proved to be effective in assisting the
best air release from the bunches during this sterilization.
Despite this and however careful the air sweeping is carried out, air
will find its way to the bottom of the sterilizer vessel throughout the
cycle and provision for the continual removal of this air (quite
separate from the removal of condensate) must be made.
25.1.07 Temperature gauges or recorders fitted to the sterilizer provide a
check on the temperature obtained in the vessel.
There will be no air in the top of the vessel, thus the temperature
measured there will always be that of the corresponding steam
pressure and does not necessarily reflect the temperature of the fruit
that is to be sterilized.
A more accurate indication of that temperature can be gauged by
placing the sensing device below the level of the fruit cages.
Any condensation droplets removed with the air release when the
vessel is under pressure will flash off into steam under normal
48
Palm Oil Process

atmospheric pressure, thus the sign of steam emerging from the air
release outlets does not indicate that all air is released and the valves
can be closed.
25.1.08 Air release valves must be provided with a bypass without a valve to
ensure a continuous and adequate release of air throughout the
complete sterilizing cycle.
25.2
Condensate removal:
25.2.01 As steam is used in the sterilizer it condenses and this condensate has
to be removed from the vessel for several reasons:
a) If it is not removed it will flood the bearings of the cage bogies,
wash out the lubricating agent and ruin the bearings.
b) If the level is allowed to rise any further up to the level of fruit any
"free" oil and oil out of the bunches will be washed out in
excessive quantities.
c) The "free" oil on the surface of the fruit is a result of damage and
bruising of the fruit and this oil has a high fatty acid content and is
therefore quite corrosive.
The mixture with the condensate will thus be of a corrosive nature
and attacks the steel work of the sterilizer.
This corrosion cannot be totally eliminated since condensate must
flow out of the vessel, but should be minimized as much as
possible by keeping the vessel as free of condensate as
practicably possible.
d) At the end of the sterilizing cycle any free condensate still left in
the vessel will flash off and thus increases the total blow off time of
the sterilizer.
25.2.02 Condensate must be cleared when pressure in the vessel is still low to
prevent a build up of condensate through the main condensate
valves, whilst a "constant bleed" system with sample capacity to
ensure continuous adequate removal of the condensate formed
throughout the cycle must also be provided.
Despite the ample capacity cited above, the main condensate
49
Palm Oil Process

valves should be used at least once during the cycle to make sure no
condensate can build up in the vessel.
Hot condensate "blown" out of the sterilizer will flash off into steam
and adequate provisions should be made for a condensate
drainage system away from the operating area of the sterilizers.
Adequate in this sense must take into account that at the start of the
cycle both air and condensate released are at their maximum and
that these should (must) be provided with separate systems. (Pipes full
of condensate cannot allow air to pass out.)
25.3
The sterilizing cycle
25.3.01 A full sterilizing cycle consists basically of three phases :

i) Steam pressure build up
ii) Constant pressure phase
iii) Blow off
i)
Steam pressure build up

The pressure build up in the sterilizer must be at a rate that will
allow the requirements of proper de-aeration as described
before and the constant pressure phase of minimal 30 minutes at
3 kg/cm2 to be attained within the designed or preferred cycle
time.
The supply of steam and the piping transporting this steam has
therefore to be calculated large enough to achieve this aim.
The very large quantity of steam required at the start of the cycle
is usually limited by the capacity of the back pressure system and
if supplemented by live steam of reduced pressure direct from
the boilers, by the capacity of the steam boilers supplying this
steam.
A pressure build up to 3 kg/cm2 in a time of maximum 10 minutes
would be ideal, but very few systems in C.P.O. mills are able to
achieve this. (see under 25.4, Steam consumption)
50
Palm Oil Process

ii)
Constant pressure phase

While careful attention must be given to the other parts of the
cycle, it is in the constant pressure phase that the action aimed
for in the sterilization process are accomplished.
Thus, if full pressure for the required length of time is not
maintained, the careful control of the other phases will be
wasted and of no value.
This is particularly so in multiple sterilizer installations where one
sterilizer has reached full pressure and another vessel starts is
pressure build up.
The tendency for the pressure in the first vessel to drop is to be
watched and must be avoided.
If adequate steam supply cannot be obtained, the systems
should be regulated so that this drop can be avoided and full
pressure maintained.
iii) The blow off phase

Blow off must be completed as fast as possible, by fully opening
the blow off exhaust valves, in order to achieve as much
dehydration as possible and keep the non productive periods of
the total sterilizing cycle to a minimum.
A complete blow off from full pressure to atmospheric pressure in
about four minutes would be ideal.
Towards the end of the blow off, condensate main valves should
be opened to ensure the removal of any condensate liquid still
left inside the vessel.
Pipe lines and, if utilized, exhaust silencers should be adequately
sized so as to not restrict the volume of the blow off and thus
lengthen the time for this.
25.4
Steam consumption
25.4.01 The low pressure steam in the C.P.O. mill is usually provided by means
of a back pressure system from the electrical power generating
steam engines or turbine sets.
Such equipment can be, and for C.P.O. mills usually is, designed with
an exhaust or back pressure steam at 3 kg/cm2.
51
Palm Oil Process

This provides sufficient temperature for sterilization, higher pressures
and hence higher temperatures could result in decreased oil quality.
Steam pressure and steam temperature are not proportionate,
therefore an increase in pressure would not significantly improve the
rate of heat transfer to the f.f.b. to be sterilized.
25.4.02 The steam consumption of the sterilizing relates almost entirely to the
mass of metal and fruit that has to be brought up to temperature and
to the losses through radiation and blow off.
25.4.02 The insulation of the sterilizer, provided it is in good condition, assists in
reducing radiation losses as much as possible whilst keeping the time
lag between (last) blow off and the steam admission for the next
cycle as short as possible also assists considerably in keeping the
sterilizer metal "hot" and thus reducing the consumption.
25.4.03 Theoretical calculation of STEAM DEMAND :
The sterilizer can be considered as a condenser with at the start of the
cycle a very high condensing capacity and thereafter a quickly
reducing capacity down to more moderate levels with a practically
zero condensing capacity at the end of the cycle.
The quantity of condensed steam per unit of time (Q) equals:
Q=F x t x
F
t
= total surface in contact with the steam

= temperature difference between the fruit surface and the
surrounding steam.
= heat transmission co efficient
The total surface in contact with the steam at the start of the cycle
has then the highest value, since the fruits are still hard and the
bunches in the sterilizer cage are touching each other on only a few
points and the total of these surfaces are rather small.
25.4.04 At the start of the cycle these surfaces are still dry and has been
shown that droplet condensation will occur.
The heat transmission co efficient (1) then has a very high value of :
70.000 kcal/m2.hr.oCelsius.
52
Palm Oil Process

At the start of the cycle t has the highest value too, since:
temperature of steam at atmospheric pressure = 100 o C
the temperature of the fruit surface say
= 30 o C
The temperature difference therefore

= 70 o C
25.4.05 Towards the end of the cycle the situation is quite different, since in
the first place there is no droplet condensation any more, but a film
condensation instead, with a heat transmission co efficient (2) of
about : 6000 kcal/m2.hr.oC.
25.4.06 Secondly the surface in touch with the steam has been reduced as
well since the fruits have become softer and the initial firmness has
disappeared and the mass of bunches show a distinct shrinkage.
The surfaces of contact between the bunches is increased and
consequently the fruit surface in contact with the steam has
decreased.
It is rather difficult to establish the exact reduction in the free
condensing surface, but an acceptable estimate would be that the
reduced surface is 90% of the original surface. (F2=0.9F1)
25.4.07 Thirdly, the temperature difference (t) has been reduced to a great
extend.
The aid of thermo couples the temperature difference between the
surrounding steam and the layer of pericarp nearest to the nut has
been measured and the tests have shown that the assumption of a
temperature difference at the end of the cycle of 4o C is acceptable.
(t2 ) (The longer the cycle, the smaller this difference will be )
With the aid of the above, the condensing capacity at the start of
the cycle can be calculated to be:
70.000 kcal/m2 . hr . o C x F1 m2 x 70 o C = 4.900.000 kcal x F1 / hr.
25.4.08 Towards the end of the cycle this can be calculated to be:
6000 kcal/m2 . hr . o C x 0.9 F1 x 4 o C = 21.600 kcal x F1 / hr.
53
Palm Oil Process

In other words, the condensing capacity is about 200 times bigger at
the start of the cycle then towards the end of the cycle.
25.4.09 The average steam consumption for a single peak sterilization
operation is between 180 and 200 kg/ton f.f.b.
Figure1 shows the calculated steam consumption of a sterilizer, with
no restriction in steam supply.
This figure shows that the peak consumption is about 7 times the
average consumption.
Thus for example, for a sterilizer with a capacity of 15 tons f.f.b. and
an actual steaming time of 60 minutes the average steam
consumption is 2700 kg/hr/hr, or 2.7 tons / hr.
Without any restriction the peak demand could then be 7 x 2.7 = 18.9
tons / hour.
If the actual steaming time is reduced to 45 minutes, then the
average steam consumption increases to 3.6 ton / hr and the peak
demand to 25.2 ton / hour.
25.4.10 "Throttling" devices such as orifice plates have been used to curb this
peak steam demand. (figure 2, and 3)
It is obvious that the pressure build up will then be slower and
consequently a longer steaming time will be required, i.e. a moderate
steam flow will not allow a short steaming time.
However, an appropriately sized orifice only throttles down the peak
steam demand and does not hamper the steam flow at all after the
condensing capacity has dropped down under the preset level of
maximum steam flow. (figure 4, and 5)
(As a matter of fact the orifice plate will allow a bigger steam
consumption than the fruit is able to condense) (figure 5, page 25-17)
25.4.11 The steam flow ( in kg/hr) through an orifice plate fitted in a 200 mm
internal diameter steam pipe line for saturated steam with a pressure
before the orifice of 3 kg/cm2 on the gauge is as shown in table 1.
Steam flow (in kg/hour) through an orifice plate in:
Pipeline of 200 millimetre internal diameter for saturated steam pressure
before orifice of 4 kg absolute, = 3 kg/cm2 gauge.
54
Palm Oil Process

Sterilizer pressure
in kg/cm2
Diameter of orifice in millimetres

100 mm
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
10190
10190
10190
10150
9400
7390
0
90 mm
80 mm
65 mm
8190
8190
8190
8160
7550
5930
0
6430
6430
6430
6400
5920
4640
0
4220
4220
4220
4200
3880
3040
0
The calculation for the correct size of the orifice is quite complex
using Bernoulli's theorem and the general equation for the mass flow
of a fluid through and orifice.
Calculation using simplified equations are not very accurate and the
results obtained using such equations show quite large differences.
Having plenty of steam available towards the end of the cycle is also
of no help in shortening the required cycle time because the
capacity of the fruit to condense the steam is by then greatly
reduced.
25.4.12 In calculations of total steam demand for sterilizing an allowance
must be made for the period of overlap between sterilizers.
There can also be a substantial steam demand when mill production
is reduced.
For instance a 30 ton f.f.b./hr mill with 3 presses could have two x 9
cage sterilizers.
When this mill runs on two presses at 20 ton f.f.b./hr the overlap in the
sterilizer operation will still be needed and the steam demand will be
almost the same as it is for the three press operation.
The fuel available from the two press operation will only be 2/3 or 66
% of that available at full through put and the operation will come to
a halt when steam pressure and production cannot be sustained
due to this shortage of fuel.
25.4.13 For multiple peak sterilization average consumption can be as much
as 250 kg/ton f.f.b. and at the peak rate the steam consumption will
be the maximum that the steam system can support when the
pressure is being build up at the start of the cycle.
55
Figure #1
STEAM CONSUMPTION OF A STERILIZER

No restriction in steam supply @ 3kg/cm2
30
25
TON/HOUR
20
Steam Consumtion of
Sterilizer
15
10
0
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2
2
STERILIZER PRESSURE in Kg/cm
2.25
2.5
2.75
Figure #2

With throttled steam flow
30
25
TON/HOUR
20
Steam Consumtion
15
10
Peak @5.8 T/H = 2.15 x
AVERAGE
5
AVERAGE = 2.7 T/H
0
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
STERILIZER PRESSURE in Kg/cm2
2.25
2.5
2.75
Figure #3

With steam flow throttled too much
30
25
TON/HOUR
20
Steam Consumtion of
Sterilizer
15
10
Peak 3.8 T/H = 1.4 x

AVERAGE
5
AVERAGE = 2.7 TON/HR
0
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
Figure #4
STEAMFLOW IN KG/HR THROUGH AN ORIFICE

in PIPELINE 200 mm I.D
12000
@100 mmdia.
10000
STEAMFLOW in Kg/Hour
@90 mm dia.
8000
@80 mm dia.
6000
@65mm dia.
4000
2000
0
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2
2
2.25
2.5
2.75
Figure #5
Comparison steam requirement (A) and

possible throughput of orifice (B)
7000
B = possible througput of
oriface
6000
Kg/Hour
5000
4000
3000
A = comparison steam
requirement
2000
1000
0
0.05
0.30
0.55
0.80
1.05
1.30
1.55
1.8
STEAM PRESSURE in kg/cm2
2.05
2.3
2.55
2.8
Palm Oil Process

25.5
Sterilizer operation
25.5.01 An oil mill cannot reach its rated throughput unless the required
number of tons of well sterilized fruit are delivered to the threshing
station at regular intervals.
Failure to deliver fruit to the sterilizers as required, for what ever reason
will reduce the throughput of the presses, which in turn will reduce the
fuel supply to the boilers and in extreme cases results in steam
shortage and inadequate, or delayed, sterilizing which in turn leads to
a further lowering of the throughput.
A strict control is therefore necessary.
25.5.02 During peak harvesting periods large quantities of loose fruits can be
delivered to mills.
If sterilizer cages are loaded with loose fruit entirely the heat
penetration will be very poor and under sterilized fruit will enter the
process.
The enzymes responsible for the production of f.f.a. will probably be
inactivated later in the process, but the other undesirable effects
from poor sterilization will not be eliminated.
Loose fruit must be distributed over a sufficient number of sterilizer
cages to prevent this occurrence.
Note:
One exception to the above is when loose fruit is sterilized on

its own, as sometimes practised when separating f.f.b. for the
production and subsequent segregating high and low f.f.a.
oil.
When separately sterilized a shorter (about 45 minute) cycle
of single peak at full pressure is sufficient to adequately
sterilize and prepare the fruit for processing.
25.5.02 The correct sequence and timing of valve operations for correct
sterilization has proved to be far better maintained by a
programmable automated valve control system than by manual
control.
However, an automated valve control system does not compensate
for an inadequate steam supply and does in fact produce worse
results under poor steam availability than a well operated manually
controlled system.
61
Palm Oil Process

The sequencing must be controlled to keep the total process
synchronized to the extend that the operation of the extraction
equipment can be regarded as a continuous operation with no flow
interruptions as a result of the batch type sterilization process.
Proper sequencing will also benefit the operation of the steam boilers,
by having a sufficient time lag between peak steam demands. This in
turn will have a beneficial effect on the steam driven power
generating equipment since the main steam pressure maintained is
more even, with less "low" pressure periods.
25.6
Transportation of sterilized fruit.
25.6.01 After the sterilizing process the fruit is transported to the next step in
processing, i.e. to the stripping or threshing equipment.
Transportation of the cages is usually effected by means of a capstan
and pull ropes, pulling a whole train of cages out of the sterilizer, thus
making space for the next load of f.f.b. to be placed in the still hot
sterilizer vessel.
This change over should be effected as quickly as possible in order to
reduce the heat loss from the open sterilizer and reduce the steam
requirement for the next cycle.
25.6.02 Emptying of the cage can be achieved in different ways. the most
common one being the overhead hoisting crane which lifts the cage
to the thresher platform and tips the fruit out of the cage on to a feed
regulating device which is usually situated on top of the thresher
machine.
25.6.03 The use of a ground level "tippler" device (as for instance commonly
used in the sugar industry) has also found an application in the C.P.O.
factory.
With this method the need for extra heavy building columns to take
the load and stress from an overhead crane or gantry is eliminated,
the building height can be reduced (thus reducing capital
expenditure) and if correctly designed the speed of the tipping
device can be controlled to achieve the required even feeding of
the thresher machine, thus eliminating separate regulating feed
devices.
The (ground level) tipping device does need a conveyor system to
transport the sterilized fruit to the inlet of the thresher machine.
62
Palm Oil Process

Both methods result in approximately the same oil loss before
extraction.
Despite the obvious advantages of a ground level cage tipping
device, the almost universal adherence to the overhead crane
system could be seen as a lack of original thought on the subject and
a lack of willingness from the palm oil industry to examine other
industries for possible improvements in design and utilization of
machinery.
25.7
Stripping or threshing of the sterilized fruit.
25.7.01 The second process step in the factory is the stripping or threshing of
the sterilized fruit bunches. The functions of the thresher can be
separated into two major ones:
a) to cause the fruit to detach from the bunches, and
b) to separate the then loose fruit from the now empty bunch stalks.
Both these actions cause oil losses and although these are
unavoidable, correct operation can keep these losses within the for
the industry accepted limits.
25.7.02 The operation and the effectiveness of the thresher must be
continuously monitored during the operation to prevent the 'unstripped bunch' (u.s.b.) count from reaching too high levels.
One method to reduce the level of unstripped bunches or poorly
stripped bunches is to feed the bunches after the first threshing to a
"bunch crusher".
This machine squeezes the poorly or partly stripped bunch through a
set of (usually star shaped) rollers, thereby dislodging any or most of
the fruit still attached to the bunch stalk after the first threshing. The
bunch and squeezed out fruit is then subjected to a second
threshing, where virtually all fruit is removed. (see also section 5.36,
Process Control)
Regular representative sampling and analysis must be done to
monitor the effectiveness of both the threshing and the sterilizing, for it
has been shown that as much as 30 % of all oil losses can originate in
these two first steps of processing f.f.b..
63
Palm Oil Process

It has been calculated that an 0.5 % increase in all oil lost on bunches
represents a financial loss of a five to six digit figure per annum for a
30 ton/hr C.P.O. mill!
25.7.03 The most commonly used thresher machine is the rotary drum type,
which depending on its physical size can have a capacity to about
45 ton F.F.B./hour.
The sterilized bunches are fed into the thresher drum, which rotates at
a fixed speed.
The drum is usually made up of small section channel bars or T
shaped bars, arranged at equal distances around the outer
circumference of the drum.
The clearance between the bars is sufficient to allow the released fruit
to drop through these gaps, whilst the empty bunch stalks remain
inside the drum and are transported to the end of the drum opposite
the inlet side by means of bars fitted inside the drum at such an angle
as to effect this movement of the bunches.
25.7.04 Drum diameters vary from about 1.8 meter to 2 meter and the drum
length from 3 to 5 meter, the longer drums usually giving a better
threshing effect.
The bunch is lifted to a height just before the vertical center line of the
drum where the weight of the bunch overcomes the centrifugal
force exerted on this bunch by the circular motion within the drum
and the bunch drops to the bottom of the drum.
25.7.05 In order to prevent the complete rotation of the bunch the
centrifugal force (C) has to be smaller then the weight (G). i.e.
C < G.
m x v2
C =
r
where : m
64
=
v
r
n
d
mass
= centrifugal speed
= radius of drum
= rotational speed of drum
= diameter of drum
Palm Oil Process

then:
G
m =
g
and
r x n2
< 1
900
G x Pi2 x r2 x n2
g x r x 900
d x n2
and
1800
<G
it follows that
1800
n <
d
The empirical formulae for the thresher speed can be stated to be
1800
n = 0.75 to 0.80 x
d
i.e. a drum with a diameter of 1.8 meter should have a rotational speed of
1800
n = 0.75 @ 0.80 x = 25 r.p.m.
1.8
The size of the bunches obviously are an important factor and the
empirical formula
40 D - d
2
n = , where
D - d
n = r.p.m ; D = inside diameter drum and d = smallest diameter of
bunch at widest part, takes this into account.
It follows that one single speed cannot cater for the wide variety of
bunch sizes that are usually delivered to the mill, since the diameter
"d" will vary with every bunch delivered.
25.7.06 Variable speed of the drum would not solve this problem, since the
sizes of bunches to be stripped will vary from minute to minute.
65
Palm Oil Process

A compromise has to be reached to obtain the most efficient
threshing process and the stripping effect will thus seldom or never be
100 %.
Once the size and the speed of the drum have been determined, the
effectiveness of the thresher can be judged by its stripping effect.
25.7.07 Poor stripping can be the result of several causes:
a)
b)
c)
d)
irregular feeding and/or overloading of the thresher

a build up of too many bunches in the drum
too short a retention time of the bunch in the drum
insufficient "pick up and drop down" action in the drum
a) Insufficient feeding, which often leads to shock loading and/or

overloading of the thresher will generally also result in shortening
the actual retention time of the bunch in the drum, causes poor
stripping and higher oil losses from fruitlets carried off with the
empty bunch.
b) The build up of too many bunches in the drum will allow the
impact of the bunch dropping down to be cushioned and in
general increases the retention time of the bunch in the drum.
c) The residence time in the drum can be controlled by having
suitably spaced lifting bars, angled to the longitudinal axis, to
"throw" the bunches in the direction of the outlet from the drum.
d) Too fast a travel in that direction is also undesirable since the
bunch would then not be subjected to a sufficient number of
drops and impacts to ensure complete stripping.
25.7.08 Oil losses in the threshing station as a result of the stripping process
are:
a) losses due to absorption of oil by the empty bunch stalks
b) losses due to fruits not released from the bunch and carried off
with the "empty"bunch.
66
Palm Oil Process

a) Oil losses in empty bunches:
Irregular feeding of the thresher machine causes temporary
overloading and overloading causes a build up of bunches inside
the thresher drum.
The (prolonged) contact between "full" and "empty" bunches will
be such as to allow the oil released from the bruised and
damaged fruit to be transferred and absorbed by the empty
bunches.
This oil loss can be quite significant, especially if the build up layer
in the drum is also caused by ,or causing itself too long a retention
time of the bunches in the drum.
Losses of up to 0.7% (to f.f.b.) can be accepted, but these can
quickly double or even triple if both loading and retention time
are incorrect.
b) Losses through non released fruit or fruitlets otherwise carried off
with the empty bunches are the second cause for high losses.
A build up layer of bunches in the drum has the effect of
cushioning the impact of the bunches when dropped during the
threshing action and the threshing action will be incomplete.
As a result of this, fruitlets not yet fully detached and/or released
from the bunch stalk will be carried off with the 'empty' bunch.
The losses sustained from this can be quite high and in this case
not only oil is lost, but kernel as well.
The cushioning effect will also increase the apparent "un-strip-able
bunch" (u.s.b.)
The employment of the bunch crusher and the subsequent
'second threshing' can substantially reduce these losses, a figure
of 1% (to f.f.b.) or lower is common.
34.5.03 The feeding of the drum type thresher machine is often achieved by
means of a feed conveyor with a variable controllable speed or a
feed chute to regulate and control the quantity of fruit released to
the thresher.
The quantity should match the throughput of the extraction
equipment.
67
Palm Oil Process

34.5.04 It is beneficial (and common) to provide slots, a grill or grate at the
bottom end of the chute leading into the thresher drum.
This will allow all or part of the already loose fruits to be removed
before these enter in to the thresher drum and this reduces the load
of the drum.
An average of as much of 15 % of the loose fruitlets can be removed
and collected in this way.
25.8
Distribution of sterilized fruit.
25.8.01 The material stripped from the bunches, i.e. fruitlets, calyx leaves,
occasional spikelets and other bunch "trash" needs to be transported
to the machinery required for the next step in the process.
It is not uncommon that with the bunches some unwanted material,
such as sand, earth, stones, bits of timber or steel etc. are also
delivered.
If these unwanted materials are not noted and removed during the
ramp transfer, they will enter the process in the thresher machine
where the larger bits that can not pass through the slots of the
thresher drum will remain in the drum until manually removed.
25.8.02 The smaller bits however will find their way through and can cause
jamming and damage to the transportation equipment of screw
conveyors and bucket elevators.
Large, flat plate type, permanent magnets can be placed at
selected points in an effort to attract and trap/hold any metal bits
that may be included in the mash passing to the digesters.
Stones etc. will usually pass through the whole system, including the
presses and separate out from the processed material in the
depericarper, polishing drums etc.
25.8.03 The various conveyors used are usually the screw type conveyor,
suitably sized and geared for the required respective duty and the
quantity of material to be handled.
The action of conveying sterilized fruit in this way compresses the fruit
and thus oil is expelled and losses are to be expected. However,
since the conveyor "scrapes" the fruit along, the expelled oil is mostly
68
Palm Oil Process

picked up by the mass transported and actual oil loss can be
negligible, provided conveyors are well maintained.
25.8.04 To lift the fruit to a height suitable for feeding into the digesters the
most commonly used method is the bucket type elevator.
Care must be taken to not overload this elevator in order to minimize
the spillage of loose fruits from the open buckets.
25.8.05 Even in a well balanced and well controlled operation there will be
some spilled fruit and fruit not collected from the "boot" of the
elevator, where the buckets collect their load.
Oil losses can be considerable here and all the not collected material
must be regularly, manually cleared, especially from the elevator
boot and returned to the process.
25.8.06 It has been found that the simplest and most convenient way to
guarantee almost continuously full digesters during the process, can
be achieved with the aid of a suitably sized "maximum level" chute
into the digester and a return conveyor system, i.e. once the digester
is full the excess fruit still in the conveyor is returned to the start of the
process, after the thresher, before the elevator.
25.8.07 The system can be balanced by regulating the feed to the thresher in
such a way that a continuous "trickle" of fruit is returned, thus ensuring
that the digester(s) are kept full at all times during the process.
69
Palm Oil Process

General Data
Screw Conveyor
Capacity of a screw conveyor
C = A x B x V , where:
A = sectional area of the material passing through the trough (usually
about 30 % of the area of the trough)
B = bulk density of the fruit
V = velocity of the material moving (= rpm x pitch of screw)
Average bulk density:
Material
Loose
fruit
Wet
nuts
Dry
nuts
Cracked
mixture
Dry
kernel
Wet
kernel
Wet
shell
Density kg/m3
590
585
560
500
595
640
790
Thresher considerations
Bunches are stripped after 6 to 7 drops from about 1.2 meter, drum
diameter 1.8 meter, rpm = 23.
At each drop the bunch moves "forward" by about 0.5 meter
Thresher capacity
C = area x k x bulk density x velocity
pi x D2
Area = m2
4
K
= factor 0.05
bulk density = 0.32 metric ton per cubic meter.
Velocity
= if the bunch drops once every 0.75
revolution and rpm = 23, then
velocity
= (23: 0.75) x 0.5 = 15.33 meter per minute
70
Palm Oil Process

thus
C = (0.785x1.82m2) x 0.05 x 0.32 mt/m3 x (15.33 m/minute x 60 minutes)
= 37.4 metric tons per hour.
Fruits Elevator Consideration

The "normal" (chain) speed for a fruit elevator is between 15 and 20
meters per minute (or about 0.33 meter per second).
(for minimum wear and longest life time, the slower the better).
For best performance bucket capacity should not be more than 80 % full
during normal operation.
Cb x B x V
Conveying capacity =
P
Cb = bucket capacity, (in cubic meters)
B = bulk density of fruit
(normally 0.30 - 0.35 metric ton / cubic meter)
V = chain speed, ( in meter/second)
P = spacing of buckets, (in meters)
(buckets should be space at 2 or 3 times the projection of the
bucket)
Centrifugal discharge:
The pick up of fruits is obtained by "dredging" the fruit from the bottom
boot of the conveyor, the discharge is obtained by "throwing" the fruit
out of the bucket by centrifugal force.
The elevator can be a single chain type, with buckets bolted to the chain
links and fitted with support rollers or slides at the left and right hand side,
although for heavier loads this is not recommended as buckets tend to
skew left and right when scraping (dredging) fruit out of the bottom boot.
The skewing puts additional stress on the chain links and the bucket fixing
bolts.
71
Palm Oil Process

The additional load induced by the dredging (=pick up) action
360 x W
can be calculated as
S
where W = weight of material in each bucket
S = spacing of the buckets.
A full and clean discharge depends mainly on the angle of the elevator,
the size of the sprockets used and the speed.
The "ideal" speed for efficient discharge =
R
V = 60 x g x r x cos Q x (meter/minute)
r
V
g
r
R
Q
=
=
=
=
=
ideal speed
acceleration due to gravity
radius of the fruits center of gravity
radius of the sprocket pitch circle
angle of discharge (from vertical)
In most cases this speed will be too high for a CPO mill fruit elevator, and
the design usually features the "positive discharge" rather than the
"centrifugal discharge" elevator.
Positive discharge:
The positive discharge design has a lower chain speed, pick up of fruits is
more efficient and the elevator is almost always a double chain type
where the buckets are supported between two strands of chain.
Buckets are spaced at intervals about double of the bucket projection.
The chains should be deflected backwards under the top sprockets (or
head wheels) by a pair of deflector sprockets or wheels in such a way
that the contents of each bucket will fall clear of the bucket ahead.
The angle of the elevator assists in the material falling clear of the
returning chains and buckets.
As chains will "stretch" unevenly, bottom sprockets should be allowed to
idle alternately in order to even out this difference in stretched chain
length.
72
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #26
MASH PASSING TO DIGESTER (M.P.D)
26.1
Introduction
Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.) is extracted from the material that passes
through the extraction equipment.
This material is commonly known as Mash Passing to Digester, or
M.P.D.
26.1.01 M.P.D. is the total fruit, calyx leaves, under developed fruit and
spikelets, that have been threshed out of the sterilized bunches, i.e.
the total sterilized fruit without the empty bunches.
26.1.02 M.P.D. analysis if correctly applied has two important functions in the
process control of a C.P.O. factory.
a) Provide a quantitative (partial) assessment of the quality and
composition of the fruit that is being processed.
b) The results may be used as a feed back for setting optimum
process operating conditions.
26.2
Method of Sampling and analysis.
26.2.01 Equipment required:

A top loading balance of a two to three kilogramme range,
measuring to 10 grammes accuracy.
26.2.02 Sampling:
Samples must be taken before the fruit is elevated to the digesters,
i.e. at the thresher conveyor (or weighing belt equipment etc.) to the
elevator.
The weight of the sample should be as close to one kilogramme as
possible and must be taken every half hour during regular processing.
The sample must be analysed immediately after sampling, this is
preferably done "on the factory floor", i.e. close to the sampling point.
73
Palm Oil Process

26.3
Analysis.
26.3.01 Each sample should be analysed for percentage by weight of:

a) Whole fruit with nut, split into two components:
i) MESOCARP (squeezed out from each fruit)
Mesocarp
Whole fruit
Nut
ii) NUTS
b) NORMAL PARTHENOCARPS
(= underdeveloped fruits)
c) ABNORMAL PARTHENOCARPS
(= normal whole fruit without nut)
d) CALYX leaves and Spikelets
(= all "non fruit" material)
26.4
Recording of results.
26.4.01 The results must be recorded accurately and tabulated as under:

Date: .../.../.....
Time
F.F.B. Source:......
Whole Fruit with nut
Total
Sample
Mesocarp
0800
0900
74
Abnormal
parthenocarp
Normal
parthenocarp
Calyx leave
& Spikelets
Nuts
wght
wght
wght
wght
wght
wght
1080
360
33.0
324
30.0
119
11.0
120
11.1
157
14.6
1000
320
32.0
320
32.0
72
7.2
175
17.5
113
11.3
340
32.4
298
28.4
166
15.8
168
16.0
78
7.4
etc
Etc
etc
0930
1050
1000
etc
Palm Oil Process

26.4.02 This requires a full time sampler i.e. the sampling and testing must
continue for as long as the factory is processing fruit.
26.5
Interpretation of the results
26.5.01 The variation in extraction rates of both C.P.O. and P.K. (Palm Kernel)
over a given amount of time is directly related to the tabulated
results, i.e.:
C.P.O. mainly from mesocarp - if the mesocarp % drops, then C.P.O.
extraction can be expected to drop accordingly.
P.K. mainly from nuts - if the nut % drops, then P.K. extraction can be
expected to decrease accordingly.
If Abnormal Parthenocarps % is too high, then pollination of the fruit is
most likely incomplete, reducing the oil bearing mesocarp.
If Normal Parthenocarps % is too high, then the fruit is probably
harvested before the correct (optimum) ripeness standard.
If Spikelets and other material % is too high, then fruit may have had
a too long retention time in the sterilizer (over cooked) or in the
thresher (over
threshed), when the normally whole empty
bunch/stalk is broken up and pieces pass to the oil extraction
equipment.
(This results in a lower extraction rate, since the material "soaks up" oil
and retains it)
75
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #27
DIGESTING OF Sterilised fruit
27.1
The digester
27.1.01 The next step in the process of extracting C.P.O. and P.K. from the
M.P.D. is the digesting of the sterilized fruit.
The digester was developed during the period that C.P.O. mills
predominantly used either "hand presses" or "hydraulic ram" type
pressing equipment for the extraction of the oil.
27.1.02 The M.P.D. to be processed by these machines had to be prepared
for this pressing by liberating and rupturing the oil cells in the fruit
mass.
Oil bearing cells not ruptured during the digesting process will, even
under the rather high pressure in the press cage of an hydraulic press,
remain "unopened" and the oil in these cells will be lost.
27.1.03 The introduction of the, now almost universally used, screw type press
changed this somewhat.
Due to the turbulence in-and the kneading action exerted upon the
press cake in the press cage of a screw press, the M.P.D. has a better
chance of being ruptured and releasing the oil.
The action of a feed screw, as used with certain presses further
enhances this aspect.
27.2
The action:
27.2.01 The digesters most commonly used in C.P.O. MILLS are steam
jacketed, cylindrical vessels with a vertical central rotating shaft to
which pairs of stirring/cutting/shearing arms are attached.
The action of these rotating arms causes the fruit mass to be
"digested" (= mashed)
27.2.02 The size (volume) of the digester must relate to the through put
capacity of the press which follows it.
76
Palm Oil Process

If the screw press through put is say 10 ton bunches per hour and the
digester volume is rated at 2.5 ton, the average digestion time would
be: 2.5/10 x 60 = 15 minutes , and for a digester of 3.5 ton would be
21 minutes.
In practice, because the digester is not always operated absolutely
full and because press through put can for short periods be
considerably higher than the average through put, the digesting time
will be shorter than the theoretical calculated time.
It is therefore important that the digester is kept as full as practicably
possible during the process and that the press through put is kept as
steady as possible and within the normal rating of the press.
A steam jacket allows for the digested fruits to be brought up and
kept at the preferred operating temperature of about 90 to 95
degrees Celsius.
27.2.03 The preparation of the fruit mash for efficient pressing can be stated
to be at least:
a)
b)
c)
d)
maintaining the correct temperature

the cutting / shearing of fruitlets
the rupturing of oil bearing cells
the "even" feed into the press
a) The heating system should allow for the supply of sufficient steam in
order that the digested mash leaves the digester at about 90 to
95 o C.
These high temperatures have been shown to be vital for good
press results, lower oil losses on fibre and easier clarification
(higher temperatures reduce the viscosity and generally it can be
said that the higher the temperature, the lower the losses)
Further more it will aid the fibre / nut separation in the
depericarper as free moisture at higher temperature will flash off
better from the fibre / nut mixture in the cake breaker conveyor.
Care must be taken not to over heat the mash to boiling
temperature since this has a marked detrimental effect on the
ability to separate the components oil, water and non oily solids
77
Palm Oil Process

of the C.P.O. later on during the clarification stage.
Continuous live steam injection into the digester has also been
observed to aid the formulation of an emulsion of the C.P.O.
components and gives rise to separation difficulties during
clarification.
b) The cutting and shearing action is achieved by the friction
between the fruit mash and the stirring arms.
In order to obtain the maximum effect of this, the digester must be
kept properly filled since the height of the fruit mash in the
digester is directly related to the pressure within the mash as a
result of its own weight.
The friction encountered by the stirring arms during the cutting or
shearing action will tend to rotate the whole of the fruit mash in
the digester and this must be avoided.
It is for this purpose that the vertical wall of the cylindrical digester
body has a number of vertically mounted (usually angle iron)
strips fitted, which hinder and prevent this unwanted rotation.
The retention time of the fruit in the digester obviously also has a
pronounced influence.
If the digester is not properly filled, the digesting time will be
shortened and the pressure in the fruit-mash reduced, both
resulting in inadequate digesting.
c) The rupturing of oil bearing cells.
Correct cutting and shearing action in the digester will cause the
walls of the oil bearing cells to be ruptured so that the oil these
cells contain is released spontaneously and can be extracted
easily during the pressing process following the digesting.
If the crude oil freed from the cells by the cutting / shearing action
in the digester is not removed (i.e. drained off), the oil will act as a
lubricant and as a result of this the stirring arms will loose more and
more of their grip on the fruit mash and the effectiveness will be
greatly reduced.
A direct result of not draining off the "free oil" out of the digester
will be that the stirring arms will agitate and mix the liquid for a
considerable time.
78
Palm Oil Process

This will aid the formation of emulsions consisting of:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
free oil
oil emulsified with water
water emulsified with oil
water
fibrous material
The emulsions of ii) and iii) above are usually of a very high
viscosity and considerably reduce the effectiveness of the
extraction of oil in the press
The addition of a (large) quantity of (hot) water to reduce this
viscosity will help to restore this effectiveness to an extend, but the
oil losses in sludge may increase disproportional and the volume of
liquid effluent increases considerably.
Proper digester drainage of the "free oil" appears to give the best
results during the pressing stage.
(The addition of dilution water after this stage, to aid the settling
out proportions of the crude oil is another matter, see under
chapter 29, clarification of C.P.O.)
d) The even feed of the digested fruit mash into the press is important
in view of the pressing action and the maintaining of a low oil loss
on fibrous material ( and nuts ) expelled by the press.
The more even the feed is maintained, the more even the
conditions inside the press cage will be maintained and the best
average setting for the cone pressure can be maintained.
(see under chapter 28, Pressing of digested fruit)
79
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #28
THE PRESSING OF Digested fruit.
28.1
The press
28.1.01 Directly following the digesting is the actual extraction of the oil,
achieved usually by a pressing action.
Presses have evolved from hand operated ones to hand operated
hydraulic ram types, to automatic hydraulic ram types and to the
presently almost universally used twin screw type presses.
28.1.02 The change over from hydraulic ram type presses to screw type
presses was partly as a result of changes in the fruit composition as a
result of "improved" planting material with a higher yield of oil.
In general it can be stated that the "Dura" type f.f.b. suited the
hydraulic ram type extraction equipment, but created problems if
processed by screw presses, whilst the later developed "Tenera" type
f.f.b. proved to be problematic with the hydraulic ram type presses,
but suited the screw type presses.
28.1.03 This is partially due to the composition of the press cake from the
different types of fruit.
To illustrate the difference between the average "Dura" and the
average "Tenera" type fruit, it is useful to compare the main
parameters:
"DURA"
M.P.D. : F.F.B.
65 %
70 %
Bunch trash : F.F.B.

(Calyx leaves,spikelets, abortive fruitlets etc.)
7%
10 %
65 : 35
80 : 20
Clean sterilized fruit : F.F.B.
60 %
60 %
Nuts : F.F.B.
25 %
13 %
Oil in M.P.D. : F.F.B.
18 %
24 %
Oil extraction rate : F.F.B.
17.5 %
24 %
Kernel extraction rate : F.F.B. (clean, no dirt)
4.5 %
6%
Fibre : Nuts
80
"TENERA"
Palm Oil Process

It must be noted however, that even within the specific type of fruit,
the composition can vary greatly and the figures shown above are
by no means absolute, but are only to show the differences.
Between the two types and are not decisive for the types.
28.1.04 With the exception of the type of press which utilizes a feed screw,
the shape and confirmation of these screw presses varies as a result
of manufacturer's ideology, but their operating principles and action
is virtually the same.
The objective of the machinery used in the pressing process is to
extract the maximum quantity of good quality palm products.
28.1.05 Palm produce is the sum of the products C.P.O. and P.K and in order
to achieve the objective as stated in 28.1.04 above, it will be
necessary to strike a balance between the two, since occasionally
the required actions conflict with each other.
In general the aim of a palm oil mill is to maximize the profitability of its
operation, thus an optimum balance between the efficiency of the
extraction of good quality products and the cost of operation of the
mill is required.
28.2
The pressing operation is only part of this overall process and its
efficiency depends to a large extend on the correctness of the
processes prior to this pressing stage.
28.2.01 The pressing has the following objectives:

General aim:
High extraction
efficiency
High quality
products
81
Specific aim:
Efficiency measured by:
High oil recovery
% O.L.D.B.
% O.L. on nuts
High kernel recovery
% kernel in fibre
C.P.O. suitable for efficient clarification
Clarification station results

(see note 1 , below)
Press cake suitable for efficient

depericarping
% fibre in nuts for kernel

extraction
% nuts lost in (fuel) fibre
Minimum deterioration of oil extracted
Laboratory tests
(see note)
Minimum breakage of kernels in pressing
% broken kernel in analysis
Palm Oil Process

Note :
It will be obvious that the pressing cannot correct errors made in the
previous processes of sterilization threshing and digesting; whilst
pressing only partly controls these measures.
28.2.02 There are a number of known reasons / situations in and out side of
the mill which affect press
performance and all of these can vary
considerably, for example:
VARIABLE
AFFECTS
a) F.F.B.: harvesting efficiency

harvesting interval
handling
contamination
sterilization
Throughput, oil & kernel recovery %

ditto
ditto
Throughput, quality of oil produced
Throughput, oil & kernel recovery and
quality
b) Digesting: condition
filling
temperature
Throughput, oil recovery

Throughput, oil & kernel recovery % and
quality
c) Pressing: screw speeds

cone pressure
condition

Oil & kernel recovery and quality
Oil & kernel recovery %
28.2.03 Virtually all variables have a direct effect on the through put and the
extraction efficiency, because:
a) F.F.B.:
Prolonged harvest interval usually result in the harvesting of "over
ripe" bunches from which too much fruits have already detached,
or will detach on cutting this fruit which will also have a higher f.f.a.
%.
Harvesting efficiency includes the collection of the loose fruits, non
or partial collection results in different ratios of M.P.D. to F.F.B. and
lower extraction and/or recovery rates of both oil and kernel by
the milling process.
F.F.B. handling, if incorrect, increases the bruising and damage to
the fruit, decreasing the recovery of oil from M.P.D. and increases
the oil losses on sterilizer condensate.
82
Palm Oil Process

F.F.B. sterilization affects the press results the most, since:
Under sterilized M.P.D. reduces the through put considerably and
increases oil loss on fibre.
Over sterilized M.P.D. leads to higher oil losses due to the
emulsifying effects in the digester and the breaking up of the
fibrous material.
Pressing will generally take place with increased cone pressures,
which will also lead to a higher kernel breakage.
F.F.B. contamination
Apart from the likely jamming or breakdown of the equipment,
certain compounds will also effect the quality of the oil produced.
b) The mechanical condition of the digester, i.e. badly worn stirring
and/or expelling arms leads to incomplete digesting and higher oil
losses.
The level of filling of the digester has a direct influence on the
efficiency of the digesting process (see 27.2.03 b) usually resulting
in higher oil losses, kernel breakage and lower recovery rates.
The temperature affects the through put and the recovery rates
(see 27.2.03 a)
c) The screw speed (for both the feed screw and the main screw)
has a considerable effect on the overall performance of a screw
press.
Usually the correct speed, producing on average the lowest oil
and kernel losses, is found by trial and error and seldom changes
during the process.
An exception to this is the feed screw, generally higher feed screw
speeds appear to increase through put, but also increase the oil
losses and the kernel breakage.
It is generally accepted that an increase in cone pressure does
not greatly affect the through put, but reduces oil losses, whilst at
the same time it increases kernel breakage and losses.
Again, the most suitable setting is usually determined by trial and
error and the cone control (often automated) adjusted in such a
83
Palm Oil Process

way that an acceptable average is achieved.
The overall mechanical condition of the press, i.e. the wear on
screws and press cages does not appear to have a marked effect
on the press performance until a critical point is reached.
There after the recovery % of both oil and kernel reduces
drastically and losses increase beyond acceptable limits.
28.3
Pressing (extraction) efficiency
28.3.01 It is common practice in the palm oil industry to consider the oil loss
on fibre ex presses as the most important one.
It is however more appropriate and more accurate to take the
overall oil losses into account and judge the overall performance by
calculating the extraction efficiency of the overall palm produce , i.e.
C.P.O. and P.K.
There exists a direct relation between the press cake composition, the
oil loss in fibre, the percentage nut breakage, (the shell thickness) and
the torque of the press, due to the setting of the cones at the exit side
of the press.
Generally it can be observed that:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
With constant torque, nut breakage increases in accordance

with the percentage nuts in the press cake
With constant torque, nut breakage increases in accordance
with the ratio kernel to nut ( as a result of thinner shells)
With improper feed, reducing the capacity of the press in
relation to the main screw speed, the press cake tends to "slip"
and nut breakage increases
With a constant fruit composition the oil loss on fibre will
decrease with an increase in torque, but at the same time nut
breakage will increase.
28.3.02 Kernels from broken nut will not necessarily be lost, recovery can still
be effected in the depericarper section, provided the kernel is not
totally crushed and pulverized.
There are many factors involved in efficient extraction, starting with
the actual type and composition of the fruit and continuing with the
handling. the sterilization, threshing , digesting and pressing.
It is essential that all the operations involved are correctly executed
and controlled.
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Palm Oil Process

On average a particular mill has usually a particular type of f.f.b. to
process and the most effective press settings are usually achieved by
trial and error techniques.
Economic considerations are also of influence, i.e. if a high through
put is not of a major importance it is usually preferred to operate on
higher cone pressures, resulting in lower oil losses on fibre, which will
usually outweigh the increased losses in kernel that may occur.
85
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #29
CRUDE PALM OIL
29.1
The collection of C.P.O.
29.1.01 The liquid extracted by the presses has a fairly high viscosity, which
increases with the oil and solid content of the liquid and with the
decrease of the temperature of the liquid.
Thus, collection of C.P.O. and distribution to the screening plant is
best kept as short as possible and can usually be achieved by chutes
and funnels leading to a "crude oil gutter", suitably sized to match the
out put of the number of digesters and presses that feed into this
gutter and fixed on an angle to facilitate fast(er) flow to the
screening plant.
29.1.02 The screening plant may or may not have a sand trap tank or filter
installation, fitted before or after the actual screening, to remove the
sand.
Sand has a very high influence on the wear and tear of the
machinery.
Much depend on the local conditions and circumstances, i.e.
whether sand is or is not a common component of the crude oil often
depend on field conditions and f.f.b. handling.
29.1.03 The sand trap acts by "settling". thus the major consideration is to
allow the speed of the crude oil flow to reduce to near static
conditions in order that sand has sufficient time to settle out and sink
through the viscous liquid to the bottom of the trap or tank.
Thus, the trap or tank dimensions are important, as in too small a unit
the sand with its very low "sinking" speed in the liquid will not have
time to settle out.
The sand "cyclone" uses a specially designed hydro cyclone through
which the C.P.O. is pumped.
The liquid enters tangentially, so causing the sand particles to be
deposited against the cylindrical outer wall of the cyclone by
centrifugal force and to follow a down ward spiral to escape through
86
Palm Oil Process

the cone outlet, together with a small flow of liquid.
Most of the desanded liquid passes out through the top of the
cyclone.
29.1.04 The vibrating screens will generally not screen out sand, unless screen
material with extremely fine mesh is used.
The major purpose of the vibrating screens are:
i) to remove fibrous material and other coarse materials
ii) to reduce the viscosity of the liquid
The vibrating screens are usually fitted with at least two screens in
series, normally fitted above each other, i.e. the coarser one in the
top position and the finer one in the lower position.
29.1.05 Screen mesh sizes vary, often with individual preference, but on
average 20 and 40 mesh screens are most commonly used.
Screens can be fitted to near horizontally fitted vibrating frames of
rectangular shape, creating and "up and down" motion coupled
with a forward motion of controlled amplitude.
Such screens were (and still are) commonly used although the
introduction of the "vibro energy separator" has replaced many of
them.
29.1.06 The vibro energy separator has circular screens which vibrate around
its center of mass and creates vibration in the horizontal plane, in the
vertical plane and in tangential planes, causing the material to be
screened to move across the screen to the periphery.
The much improved accuracy of controlling these simultaneous
vibrations in the various planes improves the screening out of solids
from the crude oil considerably, with the minimum of carry over of oil
with the solids screened out.
The vibro energy separator's action of reducing the viscosity of the
liquid is quite effective and oil recovery from the liquid has improved
with the introduction of these screens.
29.1.07 Although as yet not indisputably proven, it is generally accepted that
the overall losses from the vibro energy separators are lower than
those from comparable conventional screens and oxidation levels of
87
Palm Oil Process

the oil produced are lower.
The separated solids are usually returned to the M.P.D. entering the
process, on its way to the digester.
29.1.08 The screened liquid is collected in a holding tank (the "crude oil tank")
and pumped to the clarification station of the mill.
Tanks may be heated by closed steam coils to maintain the
temperature of the liquid.
To reduce the chances of homogenization of this crude oil it must be
pumped evenly and at steady, slow rates to the clarification station.
29.2
The Clarification of C.P.O.
29.2.01 C.P.O. is extracted from sterilized mesocarp and the major variations
in the C.P.O. are mainly due to the type of extraction process used.
Fresh mesocarp may be analysed as follows:
49 % Oil
35 % Water
16 % Non Oily Solids
whilst sterilised mesocarp may be:
54 % Oil
28 % Water
18 % Non Oily Solids
The aim of the clarification process is to separate as much as possible
all foreign particles from the oil in order to produce palm oil as pure
as possible before storage and sales, whilst keeping losses of oil on the
removed foreign particles as low as possible.
The (screened) liquid pumped to the clarification consists of three
major components:
a)
a mixture of oil and water
This mixture can be seen as two parts, i.e.: i) "free" oil and
homogenized emulsion
i)
88
ii) a
"Free" oil is mainly oil that has separated out in the digester and
Palm Oil Process

the press before the press cake was submitted to the high
extraction pressures.
This oil has little or no affinity to water and will readily and quite
fast "settle out".
ii) The homogenized emulsion is mainly the liquid extracted under
the high extraction pressures in the press cake and this emulsion
has different stages, i.e.:
iii) a mainly oil and some water emulsion, and
iv) a mainly water and some oil emulsion.
V) The oil - water emulsion is a more or less stable emulsion from
which oil will reasonably easy separate under the correct
conditions of viscosity and temperature.
This separating process can be assisted by a "shearing" action
created in the (static) clarification tank.
vi) The water - oil emulsion can also be separated, provided that the
therefore necessary correct viscosity and temperature conditions
are met.
292.02 The most common clarification processes used in C.P.O. mills are
either direct "static" tank primary oil recovery, or "dynamic" primary oil
recovery with the aid of mechanical decanting.
Both systems have their advantages and disadvantages and the final
outcome both in quantity and quality of the oil produced (and lost) is
about equal.
The two flow diagrams below shows the principle difference in the
two systems.
29.2.03 The composition of the C.P.O. to the clarification process varies
widely, depending F.F.B. quantity and quality, the type and
effectiveness of the sterilization, the threshing, digesting, pressing and
screening.
It is practically impossible to design a system that would be near
perfect whilst accepting these widely fluctuating composition of the
C.P.O. input.
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Palm Oil Process

The physical properties of C.P.O. (density, particle size, viscosity) are
important and influence the behavior of the C.P.O.
Typical specific gravity of palm oil itself at various temperatures would
be:
0.857 at 100 C
0.876 at 70 C
0.890 at 50 C
whilst the specific gravity of fibres, cell debris etc. is usually greater
and can be as high as 1.4.
The viscosity of C.P.O. itself is approximately :
8 centipoises at 100 C
and depends mainly on the extend of the dilution.
29.2.04 The basic principle of static clarification is that a mixture of oil and
water (sludge) tends to separate into two layers with the liquid of the
lowest specific gravity at the top.
The force separating the two elements is the difference in specific
gravity between the two.
The emulsions behave according to Stokes Law and principally also to
Newton's Law for particle fluid mechanics.
Stokes Law states that the velocity of the rise of oil particles is a
quantitative function of:
a) the difference in density
b) gravity
c) square of particle diameter
d) viscosity
In general Stokes Law can be applied to attempts to calculate the oil
recovery efficiency in a static tank type system, i.e. from the Stokes
Law formula it can be calculated that particles of 20 micron diameter
would settle a distance of one meter in 5 hours if the oil temperature
was 80 C.
In practice, convection currents and "emulsion layers" tend to reduce
the rate of settling and a longer time than calculated is needed.
The speed of settling of the solid particles in C.P.O. depends
considerably on the type of extraction process, since this largely
determines the amount of solids and the quantity and proportion of
cell debris.
90
Palm Oil Process

Newton's Law is a general equation which can be applied under all
ranges of velocities, hence it is better suited to the centrifugal or
decanter type process.
29.2.05 From the relationship between the size of the oil droplet, the rate of
rise in the emulsion and the viscosity it is clear that it will be impossible
to reduce oil losses to zero.
This oil loss depends amongst other things upon the amount and the
size of the "free oil" droplets.
Too much digesting and "boiling" of the C.P.O. by overheating will
emulsify the liquid and decrease the option of efficient oil recovery.
29.2.06 The effect of viscosity on the emulsion is quite large and greatly
influences the rate of rise of the oil droplets.
Viscosity can be reduced by various means, such as: raising the
temperature of the liquid, diluting the liquid, or chemically treating
the liquid.
The first two methods are common for C.P.O. mills, the latter (solvent
extraction) is less common.
29.2.07 The effect of temperature is quite self explanatory.
For optimum results, the temperature should be raised as high as
possible, but not above boiling point and should be maintained at
this high level through out the period of (gravitational) separation
Hence clarification tanks must be adequately insulated and must be
covered at the top.
29.2.08 Diluting to reduce the viscosity is also generally practiced, by adding
hot water (to 95 C) to the process.
The quantity of this dilution is subject to discussion, but for sole static
clarification as much as 30 % of water to crude oil is advocated in
order to enhance the oil recovery.
29.2.09 The "pure" oil extracted from the clarification, (which ever system
used) still has too high a moisture and dirt content to maintain the
quality.
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Palm Oil Process

The oil is treated by a centrifugal separator assembled as a purifier,
which removes both dirt and moisture from the oil.
The dirt can be removed sufficiently to an acceptable low
percentage by this action, but the moisture content of purified oil will
still be above the required percentage.
This excess of remaining moisture is generally removed in the process
of "drying" the oil under vacuum, and the resulting oil now has the
accepted moisture and dirt specifications for storage before usage.
29.2.10 The vacuum dryer is usually operated at an absolute pressure of
about 50 Torr, with the aid of a vacuum steam ejector or vacuum
pump.
Drying can then be carried out at lower temperatures with little or no
risk of oxidation of the oil .
29.2.11 The sludge fraction of the clarification process is further treated to
remove as much oil and
solids from the sludge as possible,
before it is considered effluent.
This process is usually done by specially designed "sludge centrifuges",
with or without a variety of aids such as screens, filters etc. to
reduce the solid content before entering the sludge separator.
The "oil" fraction recovered from the sludge centrifuges is returned to
the C.P.O., whilst the solids and the liquid fractions are considered
effluent.
Solids can be directly disposed of (field application), whilst the liquid
fraction still has to be further treated before it can be disposed off.
(see section 4, Waste products)
29.3
The storage of C.P.O.
29.3.01 The storage of C.P.O. from a correct process, which produces oil of a
sufficiently low moisture and dirt content usually takes place in
ordinary steel tanks, without special treatment.
Storage of oil may last for several months without unacceptable
deterioration in the quality of oil,
although the F.F.A. content will
continue to increase.
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Palm Oil Process

29.3.02 Moisture and dirt can create micro biological reactions which will
produce enzymes and a relatively rapid rate of F.F.A. development.
A similar effect can occur if C.P.O. is properly clarified, but
subsequently stored in dirty or infected tanks, containers etc.
"Wet" C.P.O., i.e. with too high a moisture content also undergoes a
hydrolysis process.
The resulting increase in F.F.A. is then not caused by enzymes, but due
to a spontaneous auto catalytic hydrolysis.
The normal moisture content of C.P.O. for storage is between 0.08
and 0.10 %.
Too dry oil in this respect is not useful, since palm oil is hygroscopic
and thus will absorb moisture from the atmosphere contact with the
oil surface.
Reducing the surface area or the use of a "blanket" of inert gas may
reduce oxidation, but for practical reasons is seldom seen at
C.P.O.mill storage tanks.
Care should be taken to avoid the "splashing" of palm oil entering the
storage tanks, since this will increase the oxidation levels.
29.4
Evaluation of C.P.O.
29.4.01 FOSFA recognizes several contracts, i.e.

Product
Basis of Sale
Contract
Quality & Quantity determination
C.P.O.
C.I.F.
Fosfa 80
at destination
C.P.O.
F.O.B.
Fosfa 53
at shipment
[Similar contracts exist for Palm Kernel Oil (P.K.O.)]

Market patterns change, but majority of produce is sold on a C.I.F.
basis.
Careful handling and storage prior to shipment and correct carriage
procedures to the port of destination should result in only modest
deterioration in quality of the product.
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Palm Oil Process

29.4.02 Comparison of "outturn Quality" (example)
Good quality CPO %
Poor Quality CPO%
F.F.A.
3.00
4.75
V.M.
0.20
0.45
Dirt etc.
0.02
0,05
Sale
= 500 MT @ US$ 400.-/tonne C.I.F
Shipped 500 MT
= US$ 200,000.-
a) Loss in weight (+/-0.75%)= 3.75 tonne

Delivered value oil
Delivered value
b) Less:V.M. and Dirt (0.22%)
c) Add FFA premium basis 5% (2%)
= US$
1,500.-
= US$
198,500.-
Good Quality
Poor Quality
198,500
198,500
436.70 (0.50%)
3,970
(0.25%)
992.50
496.25
Value received for oil
202,033.30
198,003.75
Good Quality oil advantage = US$ 4029.55 or equivalent to US$ 8.06 per tonne.
Comments:
a) The CPO is weighed (or gauged) at destination and buyers do not
pay for the loss in weight (skin loss etc.), which is deducted.
b) Buyers do not pay for water and dirt in the oil, weights are
deducted.
c) Each percent of FFA below the agreed basis of 5% shall be paid
for by buyers at the rate of 1 % of the contract price, with
fractions in proportions.
Equally, if % is above agreed basis a deduction is made on the
same basis.
The contract also states that " oil shall be of merchantable
quality"
If oil is contaminated in transit, (from residual cargo left over in
94
Palm Oil Process

pipelines of ships etc.) then buyers may well claim the oil is not of
good merchantable quality. A claim would be laid against the
ship.
If CPO is heavily oxidized or with a very high FFA, rejection by
customers could take place, since
the oil is outside the FOSFA
conditions agreed between the buyers and sellers.
Although not part of an economic evaluation, it should be
stressed that consumers attach great importance to the stability
of the oil
which can be influenced by factors other than the
FFA content itself .
These are mainly oxidation and bleachability characteristics.
A direct relationship between the degree of oxidation and the
bleachability of palm oil has been shown, thus all factors which
induce or promote oxidation are harmful to bleachability and thus
the resultant quality.
FFA content does not directly influence the "heat bleach" ability,
as it does not interfere with the destruction of the carotenes.
FFA content alone is therefore insufficient as a single guide to the
quality of palm oil.
Heavy metals are most damaging, since they catalyze oxidation.
Copper and Iron both have a particularly bad influence, with
copper being the worst.
Great care is to be taken that no contamination can arise
through contact of oil with copper or copper alloy fixtures.
(Ships must carry a certificate containing information on the last
three cargoes carried and a statement that tanks, heating coils,
pipelines and fittings contain no copper or copper alloy.)
95
Palm Oil Process

C.P.O. RECOVERY/CLARIFICATION PRINCIPLES

During the visits over the last two years a number of actions and record
keeping exercises were initiated in order to have sufficient (and
sufficiently trustworthy) data to analyze the general process of C.P.O.
recovery in the mill.
The data have shown up a number of areas where control has to be
intensified in order to achieve a more consistent process state, reduce
losses and increase recovery rates.
Most of these matters have been discussed on site and the keeping
and analyzing of the records involved should now have become a
"routine" matter.
There is however still a great need to "use" the results of the analysis and
actively transfer the gained knowledge etc. to the factory in order to
improve the process.
I.e., we know what is wrong, we know why it is wrong, but we do not
seem to have effective corrective action taken.
During my most recent visit I tried to find out how much the assistants
actually know and understand of a number of basic principles involved
in the process.
The impression was not too good.
To assist with improving the knowledge and understanding please study
the following pages, add or translate where you think necessary and
discuss this with the assistants until they "can dream about this", i.e. until
there are no questions left unanswered with regards to why and for
what reason the process must be done in a certain way.
Most of what follows was discussed with the assistants, but with a time
constraint and I am not at all sure that the subject matter penetrated
sufficiently and that they fully understand all that they need to know.
They MUST KNOW AND UNDERSTAND IT. If not, we can not expect them
to supervise and control labourers.
Apart from maintaining the machinery and equipment in a good
operational state it is equally important to train, re-train and supervise
the operators.
96
Palm Oil Process

It pays to watch operators and study ways and means to apply their
work to the best advantage. If labourers are left to their own devices,
there may often be a considerable amount of wasted time and unless
they are trained and well supervised, undesirable methods may be (will
be!) practised merely because they have got into the habit of doing it
the wrong way, and do not realise that it is just as easy, and often time
saving, to do it the right way.
Observations in the various stations in the mill have shown up a umber
of areas where operators and labour have done exactly that, i.e. found
"short cuts" to what they think is a "better way", thereby destroying the
principles on which the process is based.
I order to ensure that those who are in a supervisory position understand
the principles involved, the attached pages were written.
If you have any trouble understanding the subject matter, ask!
CLARIFICATION PRINCIPLES
is designed to work
The Continuous Clarification Tank (C.C.T.)
effectively under certain conditions and with a certain input of raw
material.
these conditions are not met - and maintained during process - the
C.S.T. can not perform as it should and the final results will be very poor
indeed in terms of oil recovery (and often also of oil quality)
Remember that the tank itself has no input, thus if poor material is put in
under poor conditions, ... poor material will come out!
I.e. the famous statement made for computers applies here also:
GARBAGE I = GARBAGE OUT!!
The basic input into the C.S.T is:
1) Crude oil and
2) heat.
1) Crude oil:
The crude oil composition, i.e. the % oil, water and solids is almost the
same or very similar, when taken direct from the presses. (press liquid)
After the presses we add to this composition by means of diluting it with
HOT WATER, up to 30 % of the volume of the press liquid and then we
call it "crude oil".
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Palm Oil Process

2) Heat:
During the transfer of the fruit from the sterilizers to the presses the fruit
mass cools down, which can be quite considerably, depending on
how long it takes to be transferred.
The only heat added to the process after the sterilizers is in the digester,
either by means of a heated jacket around the digester body or , as in
the case of TP, by means of live steam injection into the mass in the
digester.
The additional heat is necessary to bring the fruit mass to the correct
temperature to release the oil in the mass.
The temperature of the mass passing from the digester to the press must
be kept at a minimum of 90 degrees Celsius, maximum 95 degrees
Celsius.
In other words it must be almost at boiling temperature but NEVER
actually as hot as 100 degrees because this will discolour the oil to be
extracted and will cause problems later on in the bleaching and
refining stage.
THIS TEMPERATURE OF 95 DEGREES MUST BE KEPT THROUGHOUT THE PROCESS
Therefore the DILUTION WATER TEMPERATURE , i.e. the hot water added
to the press liquid must also be at 95 degrees or just about boiling
temperature!
That means that the HOT WATER TANK should always be about boiling
temperature as during the transfer from this tank to the crude oil gutter
the temperature will only decrease.
If the distance from the hot water tank to the crude oil gutters is too far,
insulating the pipes may be necessary.
The main problem is usually not keeping the tank temperature at a
steady 100 degrees.
The hot water at 95 degrees will heat up the press liquid again and the
crude oil formed should thus be about 95 degrees as well before it
enters the sand trap tank.
At that temperature the viscosity of the crude oil is such that it will allow
the maximum settling out of heavy solids (i.e. sand) and the maximum
separation of "free" oil from the crude oil.
The retention time in the sand trap tank is only short, but if any action is
expected from this tank at all the viscosity must be correct, in other
words the temperature of the liquid must be at least 95 degrees.
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Palm Oil Process

The sand trap tank has a circular steam heating pipe fitted with nozzles.
This direct steam heating should ONLY be used to heat the contents of
the tank BEFORE actual process. If it is used during process it will only
cause a swirling action and thereby mixing the solids etc. that are trying
to sink down and settle out, back into the liquid. (have a look at the
drawing of the tank!)
In other words: During process this steam supply must be shut!
(it never is because of trying to heat the oil in this tank, operator error!!)
The sand trap tank should act as a TRAP, i.e. solids should sink to the
bottom - to be drained out at regular intervals, the timing of which
needs to be established by trial and error - and the crude oil skimmed
of the top to go to the vibrating screens.
The screens remove the lighter particles (fibre etc.) and also some of
the coarser solids etc.
On the screens the crude oil cools down very rapidly (large surface
area exposed to the ambient temperature).
For that reason the crude oil tank is fitted with an open heating coil so
that the crude oil can be reheated to the required 95 degrees before
pumping it to the C.S.T. in the clarification.
The C.O. tank is about 5000 litre, the production at say 3 presses running
is about 15000 litre, retention time about 20 minutes, thus an OPEN coil,
because the retention time in this tank is too short to transfer sufficient
heat via a closed coil and at this stage the addition of steam
(=condensate) does not alter the settling out properties of the pure oil
and in any case it has still to be pumped to the clarification.
(Although this is the reason why positive displacement pumps like
"mohno" pumps are better suited to this duty, they don't mix the liquid
as much)
The heating steam to the crude oil tank MUST therefore always be open
during process and a regular control of the temperature meters (that is
why these are fitted.) must be part of the supervisor's routine (and for
that matter anybody else's that have anything to do with the process)
The contents of the crude oil tank must always be at maximum
temperature , 95 degrees, before pumping it to the clarification.
During its travel from the crude oil tank to the C.S.T. the temperature of
the crude oil will decrease again and once again it must be reheated
to its operating temperature before the optimum effect of the settling
out action in the C.S.T. can be realized.
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Palm Oil Process

CONTINUOUS SETTLING TANK
The input into the C.S.T. is thus very important the steadier this input is in
other words : the more consistent the composition, the temperature
and the 'flow' is, the better the final result.
The composition must be kept as steady as possible by
a) controlling the amount of dilution of the press liquid so that a 30 %
dilution to the volume of the press liquid is maintained - whether 2, 3 or
however many presses are in operation, and
b) by maintaining the temperature of the dilution water as close as
possible to the 95 degrees mark, and
c) by ensuring that the temperature of the crude oil at all stages before
the C.S.T. is kept as close to the 90 degrees as possible.
The C.S.T. itself has two methods of heating the contents:
1) by means of live steam addition
2) by means of a closed steam heating coil
1) Live steam:
A circular ring made of a steam pipe with 10 mm diameter holes facing
inwards is fitted just above the conical section of the tank.
This ring is fitted for one reason only: To heat up the contents of the
C.S.Tank BEFORE processing starts.
Live steam should NEVER be added during processing , it will destroy
the separating action of the oil - water - solids in the tank.
To maintain the temperature during the retention period of the crude
oil in the C.S.T
(which for a 90 ton tank is about 6 hours) a CLOSED STEAM HEATING
COIL is fitted, again just above the conical bottom section of the tank.
The temperature MUST BE MAINTAINED at MINIMAL 85 degrees Celsius.
Laboratory tests and experimental tests have unquestioningly shown
this to be the most "active" temperature, i.e. at which the best viscosity
range for the separation of the free and trapped oil and the settling out
of the solids in the shortest period of time.
The tank is called Continuous Settling tank for a good reason ! i.e. the
continuous settling of the contents with as little disturbance and 'shock
loading' as possible.
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Palm Oil Process

After an initial period of operation "layers" will be formed in the tank,
from top to bottom:
pure wet oil
(% oil > % moisture) first
oil - sludge mix
(% oil = % V.M.) layer
sludge - oil mix
(% V.M. > % oil) second or
water - oil solids
(crude oil composition) middle
water - solids mix
( mostly sludge + solids ) layer
solids - water mix
(mostly solids + sludge) bottom
solids
(mostly solids) layer
Thus basically three layers are formed, of which the middle one is the
most active one.
That is where the "stirrers" are fitted to help the separation by shearing
the mixture of crude oil entering the tank and helping oil globules to rise
up and solids to sink down .
The conical bottom of the tank has a purpose - it will collect the settled
out solids sinking down and guide them to the lowest point, where a
'drain' valve is fitted.
The bottom layer should not be disturbed any more, therefore both the
steam coils and the stirrers are fitted above this level.
(The steam coils would very quickly "cake up" with the solids baking on
to them and the stirrers would stir and swirl the solids back in to the layer
above!!)
Thus the lowest stirrer blade is fitted about 35 cm above the start of the
conical section.
Pending the size of the C.S.T. the highest blade / paddle is about half
way the straight section of the tank.
Usually there are 4 rotating paddles (@ 3 - 5 rpm) and 3 stationary
plates. The slow rotating paddles shear the liquid and if the
temperature, or more correctly the viscosity is correct, oil and solids will
have a much greater chance of escaping the middle layer.
The bottom layer should therefore be never more than the conical
section
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Palm Oil Process

The middle layer should be from the bottom of the straight section to
above the top paddle
The top layer should be from the top paddle to the oil skimmer.
The principle for continuity is that WHAT COMES IN (the crude oil) -MUST GET OUT (pure wet oil skimmed off, sludge underflow, solids) and
provided that this "in = out" is maintained, the layers will have their
maximum effectiveness.
Maximum effectiveness is when:
a) the pure wet oil has the lowest V.M. %, and
b) the sludge underflow has the lowest oil content
The control for this maximum effectiveness is :
1) the maintaining of the correct temperature (= viscosity)
2) the maintaining of the levels in the C.S.T, especially the thickness of
the uppermost layer, the pure wet oil, i.e. the height/position of the
skimmer
In principle : the thicker the top layer, the better the composition of the
pure wet oil, but too thick a top layer may cause the middle layer to
extend too far down so that the crude oil mixture which has not yet
had time to separate and settle out reaches the sludge underflow
outlet and thus resulting in a too high oil content on underflow.
Thus, a balance needs to be established. This is not the same for each
tank and MUST be determined by trial and error.
Once the best positions have been established they should seldom or
never require changing by more then a couple of centimetres up or
down, if any!!
Samples have been taken,and records kept of the composition of
pure wet oil and sludge underflow.
The results show that a large variation can represent any degree of
effectiveness.
The variation is largely due to
a) temperatures are not kept up, and
b) because operational errors in "playing around" with the skimming
devices, and
c) because of uneven and (largely) uncontrolled inputs into the tank
(from crude oil pumps, returns etc.
102
Palm Oil Process

Obviously, the longer the total retention time, the better the results.
The temperature = viscosity requires constant attention. Steam coil
valves should always be fully open, condensate traps must be regularly
inspected and "blown through" (at least daily) and sight glasses
inspected for any signs of 'oil'.
LIVE STEAM IS NEVER TO BE OPENED DURING PROCESS!!!, it function is
entirely to heat tank contents which have cooled down during non
production periods.
The level control skimmers:
At the time when samples are taken of the pure wet oil and of the
sludge underflow, the actual thickness of the oil layer should be
measured and recorded, together with the position of the skimming
device.
(this can simply be done by using a glass tube, stick it in the oil layer,
close the top with your thumb and slowly lift the tube out of the oil, the
column of oil in the tube represents the thickness)
When analyzing the recorded sample test results and comparing this to
the oil thickness measured it will soon become apparent at which
thickness the lowest V.M. % on pure wet oil was achieved and the
lowest oil on underflow was achieved.
Once the skimmer setting correlating with the best results has been
established it must be kept in that position, LOCK IT, FIT AN ALARM,
THREATEN PEOPLE WITH INSTANT DISMISSAL or what ever, but KEEP THE
LEVEL CONSTANT.
THE ONLY TIME the skimmers should be adjusted is at the end of a
production run, when as much as possible the free oil is to be 'pushed
out' of the C.S.T.
That is done by the addition of hot water only, thus the composition of
the tank contents change drastically and thus the layers need to be
adjusted equally drastically.
NEVER AT ANY OTHER TIME SHOULD THIS BE NECESSARY.
103
Palm Oil Process

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS STAGES IN CLARIFICATION
PRESS LIQUID (UNDILUTED)
(+/- 45 % OF FFB INPUT)
OIL
WATER
NOS
: 50 %
: 45 %
: 5%
CRUDE OIL TANK ( WITH 30 % DILUTION ADDED) =

INPUT INTO CONTINUOUS SETTLING TANK
OIL
WATER
NOS
: 38 %
: 58 %
: 4%
OUTPUT COUNTINOUS SETTLING TANK

WET PURE OIL : (35 % OF CST INPUT)
UNDERFLOW : (65 % OF CST INPUT)
INPUT TO PURIFIERS
INPUT TO DECANTERS
OIL
98.9 %
OIL
10 %
WATER
1.0 %
WATER
85 %
NOS
0.1 %
NOS
5%
TO VACUUM DRYER; END PRODUCT

= "CPO" = OIL 99.8 % + V.M. O.2 %)
OUTPUT FROM 3 PHASE DECANTERS
104
OIL
: 28 % (RETURN TO CST OR PURE WET OIL)

OIL
: 32%
WATER : 64 %
NOS
: 4%
SOLIDS
: 9 % (DISPOSE DIRECT ; END PRODUCT)

OIL
: 3%
WATER : 78 %
NOS
: 19 %
Palm Oil Process

HEAVY PHASE : 63 % (DISPOSE DIRECT, TO EFFLUENT OR RE-USE FOR
DILUTION OF PRESS LIQUID (SEE ABOVE)
OIL
: 1%
WATER : 92 %
NOS
: 7%
OUTPUT FROM 2 PHASE DECANTER:
(OPERATING ON PRESS LIQUID + =/< 10 % DILUTION)
OIL OUTPUT
SOLIDS OUTPUT
57 %
43 %
OIL
96 %
OIL
1.5%
WATER
2.4 %
WATER
79 %
NOS
0.6 %
NOS
19.5 %
(TO PURIFIERS OR 3 PHASE DECANTER) TO EFFLUENT POND; END

PRODUCT
105
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #30
PALM KERNEL
30.1
Nut/fibre mixture
After the extraction of C.P.O. from the digested and pressed M.P.D.,
the residue is a mixture of fibre and nuts.
The composition of this mixture can vary considerably, being
dependant on the type of fruit and the type of process applied.
The different (genetic) types of fruit will have different ratios of fibre to
nut, (for example for Dura fruit the weight of fibre is about 20% of the
weight of nuts, while for D x P fruit the weights can be about equal)
and the weight and size of the individual nuts can vary considerably.
The type of process, mainly hydraulic presses or screw type presses,
influences the compactness of the fibre / nut mixture after pressing
and to a degree, the oiliness of the extracted fibre.
Thus, the machinery used for the separation of this mixture need to be
designed for the average composition of the F.F.B. to be processed.
30.2
The cake breaker conveyor
30.2.01 The first process after the pressing is the action of "breaking up" the
cake expelled from either the hydraulic or the screw presses.
The cake from the hydraulic presses is dense and well compacted,
while the cake from the screw presses is less compacted.
In both cases this mixture needs to be "broken up" and opened
before separation by the nut/fibre separator, commonly known as
the "depericarper".
(This in fact is a wrong name for this machine, but is commonly used
through out the industry to describe the nut / fibre separator)
30.2.02 The commonly used method is to transport the cake from where it is
expelled from the presses to the separator by a trough type rotating
conveyor fitted with paddles, the angle of which can be adjusted so
106
Palm Oil Process

that there is a slow forward movement and a limited "tossing"
movement of the cake.
The forward movement can be adjusted to obtain the maximum
retention time in the conveyor without causing overflows or other
obstructions.
30.2.03 The speed of the rotating shaft and paddles must be adjusted to
ensure that the cake is in fact "tossed" and not just "kneaded" and
varies somewhat depending on the diameter of the conveyor and
may have to be found by experimenting with different speeds.
(This however is a design function as the speed cannot normally be
altered during the process. Generally a 60-cm diameter conveyor will
require a shaft rotating speed of about 80 RPM)
A general indication of the sizes / speeds required to achieve the
preferred paddle "tip speed" of 2.4 m/sec would be:
Max.diameter paddles
Conveyor diam. size
RPM of the shaft
760 mm
800 mm
60
610 mm
660 mm
75
560 mm
610 mm
80
500 mm
560 mm
90
Diameter
RPM
Peripheral speed = 3.14 x x metres/second,
100
60
where the diameter is in metres.
The movement of the fibre / nut mixture can thus be quite violent and
considerable and loosen the fibre from the nuts.
The free fibre will loose a certain amount of moisture, due mainly to
the exposure and the "flashing off" during this tossing action.
Cake breaker conveyors are traditionally fitted with steam jackets to
increase the temperature of the fibre and so help in this drying action,
107
Palm Oil Process

but if the conveyor is sufficiently long enough and the retention time is
adequate, a moisture reduction from about 45% to 30% can be
achieved without this steam jacket.
A prerequisite for this is that both the digester and the press
temperatures are kept at a minimum of 85 o C.
30.3
Nut / Fibre separation
30.3.01 Once the nut/fibre mixture has been adequately prepared by the
cake breaker conveyor, the separation of the nuts and the fibrous
material can be achieved by either mechanical or pneumatic air
stream separation.
30.3.02 The mechanical nut/fibre separator has severe limitations with regard
to capacity and with the expansion of the industry coupled to the
increase in process capacity, this equipment has largely been
replaced by the now commonly used air separation type of
equipment.
30.3.03 The pneumatic nut/fibre separators can be divided into two basic
types with occasionally a hybrid combination of these two can also
be found.
30.3.04 For smaller capacity factories (5-15 ton/hr), the rotating drum type
separator has been used.
This, in principle, is a slow rotating (10-15 RPM) long, narrow drum,
fitted with lifting arms and baffle or retaining rings.
The air is evacuated through a fan and blown to a cyclone.
The fibrous material is carried with this air and recovered from the
cyclone, usually situated conveniently near the boiler fuel supply
storage area.
The rotating drum type separator for larger capacity processing
plants tends to be very large in size and thus has a very large power
consumption.
This fibre passes through the fan, thus causing wear and tear, so a
suitable hard wearing material should be chosen for this fan.
Since most of the separation does actually take place after the drum,
108
Palm Oil Process

the vertical column type separator has proved to be a cheaper and
less power and maintenance requiring method.
30.3.05 The vertical column type nut/fibre separator with induced draught
(commonly known as the ("depericarper") is now almost universally
used in palm oil mills.
The principle of this operation is that in a vertical column, with an
induced upward airflow of a certain velocity, the loose fibre will move
upwards (being "light" in weight and "large" in volume), whilst the nuts
will drop down to the bottom (being "heavy" in weight and "small" in
volume).
Experiments at various air speeds have shown that, pending condition
and column size, an air velocity of between 8 and 15 metres/second
allows for a good separation of nuts and fibre.
The vertical column usually has one of its sides manufactured so that
adjustments can be made and this will allow adjustment to obtain the
most suitable air velocity through the vertical air column under given
circumstances so that fibre is evacuated to the cyclone, while nuts
(and free kernel from the presses) will drop to the bottom.
The entry of the nut/fibre mixture into the column should be at
minimum one metre from the top of this column (column is about four
metres long or high) to allow good separation.
30.3.06 The fibre is sucked out by an air-stream current induced by a fan and
ducting to a cyclone where it is recovered, usually via a rotating air
lock.
Several parameters must be considered when designing/ calculating
this induced draught system, i.e.:
a) Air volume/weight per unit weight of the fibre to be transported
b) Velocity of transportation and separation of the fibre to be
transported and separated.
c) Volumetric air flow rate
d) Characteristics of the fan to be utilised for the air movement.
a= Fibre from oil palm fruit has an approximate bulk density of 270-275
kg/m3.
Experiments under a number of varying conditions have shown
109
Palm Oil Process

that an air to fibre ratio of 3.5 - 4 kg air per kg fibre transported
gives adequate and satisfactory results.
b= Separation speed depends mainly on the lifting velocity of the
various components in the material to be separated (i.e. fibre,
nuts, kernel. shell etc.)
Experiments have shown that on average conditions the following
tabulated data
can safely be used for calculating the
requirements of a nut/fibre separation and transport system.
Material
Velocity
Fibre dust and / or fines
2 m/sec
Normal fibre (V.M. < 40%, oil content < 8%)
4 m/sec
Wet fibre
6 m/sec
(V.M. > 40, < 50%, oil > 8, < 10%)
Small shell (D x P type)
10 m/sec
Normal shell ( mixed type F.F.B.)
12 - 14 m/sec
Small kernel ( < 4 mm diameter)
14 m/sec
Small nut
16 m/sec
( < 8 mm diameter)
Large shell ( D type)
16 m/sec
Normal kernel ( > 10 mm diameter)
18 m/sec
Normal nut
20 - 24 m/sec
( > 14 mm diameter)
Large kernel ( > 15 mm diameter)
20 m/sec
Large nut
20 - 28 m/sec
( > 20 mm diameter)
To keep the losses within an acceptable range, the separating

speed should thus be taken to be < 14 m/sec, so that kernel and
nut will separate from the material for further treatment, while the
fibre and smaller shell particles etc. will be transported away.
Transportation speed has been experimentally established (for oil
palm fruit fibre with a "normal" moisture content < 40% and oil
content < 8 % ), to be most efficient between 22 and 30 m/.sec.
110
Palm Oil Process

Lower speeds will allow fibre to "drop out" from the main air
stream, especially so in long ducts and bends and this could
cause blockages etc. by building up and thus effectively reducing
the cross sectional area of the ducting etc.
c= Air flow rate volume can be calculated from the equation:
Volumetric air flow F = A1 x V1 = A2 x V2 in m3/second,
where V1 = velocity at cross section A1, V2 = velocity at cross
section A2 etc.
Once the transport velocity, the air to fibre ratio and the ducting
size etc. (for calculation of the cross sectional areas) have been
chosen / determined, the volume in cubic metres per second or
cubic metres per hour can be calculated.
A similar calculation can be made for the vertical separating
column.
d= Fan characteristics are usually known from the manufacturer's
data, given in curves and diagrams.
If the ducting, bends, columns etc are considered as a single
"resistance", the pressure necessary to force air with a given
(calculated)volume through this resistance can be calculated
from the formula V = 4005 x H0.5.
Once the calculated pressure and volume at the fan are known,
a curve can be drawn to show the requirement of the system
under all prevailing conditions.
This curve can be crossed with the pressure/volume data from the
manufacturer and the point or points of intersection of the two
curves will be the required combination for the calculated
operation.
The curves seldom or never match exactly, thus a most suitable
compromise has to be selected, taking into account that pressure
losses through each part of the system (i.e. the separating column,
the ducting, the bends etc.) vary as the square of the flow rate.
111
Palm Oil Process

Note:
Since fibre quantities as produced by the pressing station vary
throughout the process period, calculations are best made "on
the safe side", (i.e. slightly too large).
If air volumes prove to be too large, the outlet air stream from the
fan can easily be restricted to create the most suitable operating
conditions.
30.3.06 Together with the nuts there may still be some free fibre and some
fibre which is still adhering to the nuts as well as pieces of shell, kernel
and other debris.
This is usually removed in a "polishing drum", to which the nuts are
guided directly after the vertical column.
30.3.08 The term "polishing" drum adequately describes the action of this
equipment, i.e. the still adhering fibre is "polished" of the nuts.
This action is as much due to the nuts rubbing against each other in
the rotating drum, as to the rubbing of nuts against the drum.
The rotating drum is provided with slots or holes to allow the smaller
particles, fibre etc. to pass out of the drum, whilst the whole nuts (and
larger free kernel if present) are given a forward motion through the
drum by means of lifting bars, arms or baffles so that this material
passes through the whole length of the drum and exits at the
opposite end to the entry side.
30.3.09 Occasionally a "secondary depericarper" is used to subject the nuts
plus the polished off
fibre, debris etc. to a further pneumatic separation.
30.3.10 The polishing drum also effectively removes other unwanted debris
from the nuts, such as metal, bolts, nuts, stones, etc.
30.4
Nut treatment
30.4.01 During normal, continuous processing, the nuts after being separated
will still be hot or warm and the shells will be somewhat "elastic", whilst
the kernel may still be adhering to the shell as well.
The nuts may still have a moisture content of up to 20%.
30.4.02 To extract the kernel from these nuts, the nuts need to be cracked
112
Palm Oil Process

and to do so in a hot or warm condition would be more difficult due
to this elasticity of the shell and could lead to greatly than necessary
kernel breakage.
30.4.03 There fore nuts are generally conditioned before the cracking
process.
Nut conditioning in the traditional way is achieved by storing the nuts
in rather large square shaped silos, which may be equipped with
heaters (for further reducing the moisture content to about 10%) and
fans for air circulation.
The square type silos tend to enhance a "tracking" effect of the nuts
stored and will leave areas in the nut silo where the nuts tend to
"hang" and remain, thus producing a "candling" effect through the
silo.
This irregular flow of the material can result in the production of
mouldy nuts, which will affect the quality of the product later to be
extracted from the kernels (palm kernel oil).
A more suitable storage bin would be of a cylindrical shape, with the
air ducts for heating and drying centrally placed.
More recently the (re)introduction of the double or triple peak
sterilization, and the introduction of the "ripple mill" type nut cracker,
has shown that nuts from this process are almost adequately
conditioned in the sterilizer and that all that is required is to cool the
nuts before the cracking process.
This cooling can be achieved by storing the nuts in a cylindrical bin as
described above, provided with (unheated) air circulation.
The bin also acts as a buffer bin, thereby taking out troughs and
peaks in the production of nuts and allowing for a more regulated
flow of nuts for further processing.
30.5
NUT CRACKING
30.5.01 With properly preconditioned nuts, the nut cracking is a simple

operation, where the shell is struck hard enough to crack and split
this so that the kernel can be released.
30.5.02 Despite this apparent simplicity, over the years a surprisingly large
113
Palm Oil Process

variety of nut crackers have entered the market, almost invariably of
the centrifugal type in which the nuts are flung from a high speed
rotor to a stationary "cracking ring".
Both horizontal and vertical shaft types have been used.
30.5.03 Due to the variability of the nut size a number of ways have been
invented to deal with this, ranging from tray type sorters, to rotating
drum type sorters and/or graders and self grading nut crackers.
All have been or are more or less successful and each of these have
their own peculiar short comings.
30.5.04 In most cases the outcome is a compromise between the efficiency
of the cracking, the amount of not cracked nuts expelled and the
amount of kernels cracked or broken during the nut cracking process.
Obviously, the larger the compromise, the more difficult it will be later
in the process to separate the
whole, clean kernel from the rest
of the material.
30.5.05 The recent introduction of the "ripple mill" type nut cracker has
somewhat reduced this necessary compromise and, given
reasonable conditions, the cracking results from this type of
equipment far out classes the other traditional machinery.
(Provided that the base material is derived from palms of the
DxP
type cross, and thus have a relatively thin shell and a fairly uniform size
nut)
Another noted advantage of the ripple mill type equipment is the
relatively small size and floor space it occupies and its low power
consumption as compared with the traditional crackers and its high
through put.
30.5.06 Despite all good intentions a number of nuts will pass through the
systems not cracked and these should be recovered and submitted
again for cracking etc.
Recovery of these nuts can be achieved by a variety of grading
screens, sorting devices etc.
All nut crackers are, by virtue of their action, high wear and tear
equipment and the regular and proper maintenance of these
machines to maintain their optimum operating condition has proved
to be a major factor in maintaining a good cracking efficiency.
114
Palm Oil Process

30.5.07 Another major factor in obtaining good cracking efficiency is the
regular feeding of the cracker, to prevent "shock loads".
This can be achieved by placing a simple vibrating feeding device
before the cracker.
The feeding device can be fitted with a slotted tray, to screen out
and remove loose fibres, small particles of shell etc.
30.6
KERNEL / SHELL SEPARATION
30.6.01 The cracked mixture expelled from the nut crackers contains kernel,
the broken shell parts and fragments of kernel and shell.
From this mixture primarily the whole, clean kernel needs to be
separated and recovered.
30.6.02 In principle there are two methods in use to achieve this, i.e. the "dry"
separation method and the "wet" separation method.
30.6.03 Before either of the above two methods a variety of screening
activities can take place, all with the aim to separate the various
components of the mixture as effectively as possible.
30.6.04 The "dry separation" is by far the simplest and the most economical,
but is not always the most effective method.
The principle of this pneumatic separation is similar to that of the nut /
fibre separation, i.e. the difference in volume - weight ratio of the
various components in the mixture.
process is known as "winnowing" and can be done either as a single
stage operation, or in multiple stages.
30.6.05 Provided the losses can be kept within the required parameters, this
method has the great
advantage that the kernel recovered from this process has already a
low moisture content and kernel drying thus becomes a much less
difficult matter.
Also the average quality of the palm kernel oil extracted from this
kernel has proved to be generally lower in F.F.A.
It is thus well worth while to pursue with dry separation, even if the
direct end result is only partially acceptable and the unacceptable
portion of the resulting product has (separately) to be submitted to a
further (possibly "wet") separation method.
115
Palm Oil Process

The volume of the material for this secondary "wet" separation will be
greatly reduced, thus reducing the capacity and the equipment
requirements, whilst improving the overall final quality of the
recovered palm kernel.
30.6.06 The "wet" separation methods can in principle be divided into two
methods, i.e.: the clay (or brine) bath separation and the separation
with the help of a hydro cyclone unit.
30.7.07 The clay bath separator takes advantage of the difference in specific
gravity of the not dried kernel (about 1.07) and the specific gravity of
shell (about 1.2).
Thus, in a bath with suspended clay to maintain a specific gravity
between these two (i.e. about 1.12) the kernel will float and the shell
will sink.
30.6.08 The clay suspension is circulated continuously and the floating kernels
are skimmed of the
top continuously.
The shell is usually removed by a screw conveyor at the bottom.
30.6.09 The clay bath separator can be quite effective, provided the correct
density level is maintained, i.e. a regular replacement of the clay
removed with the kernel and the shell is required.
The process is however difficult to control and can be quite
expensive, due to the cost of clay etc. and the now a days favoured
option would be the separation with the use of the hydro cyclone
separator.
30.6.10 The hydro-cyclone separator action is comparable to that of an air
cyclone, but as the name implies, the medium is liquid, here water.
Water enters the unit tangentially and the resulting circular motion
causes the heavier particles to be deposited on the outer wall of the
cylinder by centrifugal force, with a spiral path down and out through
the bottom part of the cyclone.
This movement of water requires fairly large pumps and the power
consumption of a hydro-cyclone unit is therefore quite high.
In a correctly adjusted hydro cyclone, most of the shell particles (high
density) pass downward, with a small flow of water, while most of the
116
Palm Oil Process

water together with most of the kernels (lower density) move to the
centre of the cylinder and upwards to leave the cyclone via the
overflow at the top of the cylinder.
30.6.11 The pumps, cyclones, adjustable conical sections etc. are all subject
to considerable wear and tear and regular adjustments and
replacements are required to ensure a consistent effective operation
and if losses are to be kept within the required parameters.
30.6.12 The shell fraction, separated from the mixture by whatever means or
system is usually transported directly by the most suitable method to
the boiler fuel storage area, to supplement the fibre fuel component.
30.7
KERNEL RECOVERY
30.2.01 The kernel recovered after the separation requires further treatment,
the extend of this treatment depending mainly on the method of
separation used. Kernel recovered from dry separation methods have
already a relatively low moisture content ( about 12%) and the
retention time in the traditional kernel drying silos can be shortened
considerably to achieve the required final moisture content for
storage (about 7%)
This type of kernel is also less susceptible to mould formation, which
ensures a better quality of the final product of palm kernel oil.
30.7.02 Kernel recovered from the wet separation method can have an
internal moisture content of over 20%.
This moisture is much more difficult to remove, since it must first diffuse
to the kernel surface before if can evaporate.
Wet kernel (i.e. all kernel with a moisture content > 7%) can support
the growth of a mould that leads to an increased rate of hydrolysis of
the palm kernel oil extracted from this kernel, i.e. an increase in F.F.A.
The enzyme causing this is produced by the mould growth and can
withstand quite high temperatures, thus the drying after the mould
has developed will only enhance the appearance of the kernel, but
will not prevent the later quick deterioration of the kernel oil since the
enzyme will remain active in the palm kernel oil.
117
Palm Oil Process

30.8
KERNEL DRYING
30.8.01 Kernel drying is most commonly achieved by the "continuous" type

silo dryers.
Drying is achieved by blowing hot or warm air through the kernels at
the bottom, the middle and the top level sections of the silo at
different temperatures.
The coldest being at the bottom, the hottest being at the top section
of the silo.
Too high an air temperature (>85o C) could cause discolouration of
the kernel (and thus the kernel
oil extracted there from) and must
be avoided.
Thus retention times can be quite long and rather large capacity
drying silos will be needed.
Here again the advantages of the dry separation method show up
quite clearly, since the lower initial moisture content will allow lower
drying air temperatures and shorter retention times to dry the kernel
to the required moisture content.
The resulting end product will be of higher quality.
Despite the term "continuous" dryer, this type of drying in practice
really works out to be more of the "batch" type operation.
Continuous drying , where kernel is moved continuously on slowmoving conveyor belt or tables has been tried as an alternate
method and proved to be quite successful, producing well dried
good quality kernel.
The preferred method thus depends very much on a design
philosophy and economical considerations.
30.9
KERNEL CLEANING
30.9.01 Kernel cleaning, after the drying process consists mainly of the
removal of dirt and shell debris, loose fibre and fragments of broken
kernel.
This can be done mechanically, by air separation or by hand.
Much depends on the quality of the process before the drying stage,
but invariably shells and shell particles which adhered to the kernel
before the drying process will have come loose during this process,
partly due to the reduction in moisture (size) of the kernel and partly
118
Palm Oil Process

due to the rubbing action and the overall friction encountered in the
silos.
In some cases a simple "seed cleaning" device as used commonly in
the grain and other seed industries can be adapted and successfully
applied here.
The degree of "cleanliness" is expressed as the "percentage
admixture" and is generally largely defined by the end use or user of
the palm kernel.
30.10. EVALUATION OF P.K.
30.10.1 Fosfa recognizes several contracts, i.e.
Product
Basis of Sale
Contact
Quality % Quantity
determination
Palm kernel
C.I.F.
Fosfa 29
at destination
Palm kernel
F.O.B.
Fosfa 79
at destination or
shipment as agreed
between buyer/seller
[Similar contracts exist for Palm Kernel Expeller (P.K.E.)]

Market patterns change from time to time, but the majority is sold on a C.I.F.
basis.
30.10.2 Comparison of "Outturn Quality"

Good Quality P.K [%]
Oil content
49.5
Poor Quality P.K [%]

47.00
F.F.A
4.25
9.75
Shell and Dirt
6.00
10.00
Sale of 500 MT @ US$ 200,- /tonne

Shipped
500 tonne @ US$ 200,-
= 100,000.-
= 100,000.-
Outturn = 487 tonne
Shortage
13 tonne
2,600.-
2,600.-
Outturn value
119
= 97,400.-
= 97,400.-
Palm Oil Process

Good Quality
a)
Poor Quality
Oil content
Contract basis
Out turn
49.0%
49%
49.5%
47%
Premium / Penalty
b)
+0.5%
-2%
+0.5 x 1.3% = +0.65%
-2 x 1.3%= -2.6%
F.F.A content
4.75%
4.75%
Out turn
4.25%
9.75%
Premium / Penalty
+0.5%
-5.0%
+0.5 x 0.75= +0.38%
-5 x 0.75= -3.75%
Shell and Dirt:

Contract basis
2.75%
2.75%
Out turn
6.00%
10.00%
Penalty
-2.25 x 1%= -2.25
-2.25 x 1%= -2.25
-1.00 x 2%= -2.00
-2.00 x 2%= -4.00
-2.00 x 3%= -6.00
-1.00 x 4%= -4.00
Total penalty
-3.22%
-22.60%
Out turn value
97,400.-
97,400.-
Penalty
-3.22% = 3,136.28
-22.6% = 22,012.40
Net Value
94,263.72
75,387.60
Difference between good and poor quality =

US$ 18876.12 or US$ 37.75 per tonne.
Poor quality kernel gives rise to large crushing losses, which is why the
specifications have been set to the following indicative levels:
Oil content
F.F.A
Dirt & Shell
Moisture
120
over 49%
under 4%
under 6%
under 7%
Palm Oil Process

CALCULATIONS FOR NUT TRANSPORT/DESTONER SYSTEM:
1) Known Data
Nut throughput
: 5.25 ton/hr
Lifting velocity nuts
: 40 m/sec
Conveying velocity
: 30 m/sec
Separation velocity
: up to 8 m/sec
Air ratio per kg conveyed nut
: 2.5 : 1
Density of air at 27 oC
: 1.177 kg/m3
2) Unknown data (to be calculated)

Air flow rate
Static pressure requirement
Size of lifting column
Size of separating section
Size of transport pipe or duct
3) Calculation
a) Air required to convey 5250 kg nuts per hour
= 5250 x 2.5 kg/hr = 13125 kg/hr
Airflow rate
= 13125 kg/hr : 1.177 kg/m3 = 11151 m3/hr
Losses due to speed reduction @ 2 %, losses due to leakage etc.
@ 10 %, calculate to actual flow rate of
= 11151 x 1.12 = 12489 m3/hr.
b) Suction pressure required:
for pick up nuts from rest
= 125 mm WG
pressure loss in ducting and column
= 125 mm WG
pressure loss in cyclone
= 75 mm WG
Total
121
= 325 mm WG
Palm Oil Process

c) Cross section area for lifting column:
With lifting velocity of 35 m/sec and flow rate of 12489 m3/hr =
12489
= 0.086729 m2
60 x 60 x 4
Column diameter = 0.3323 meter
d) Cross section area for the conveying pipe or duct:
With velocity of 30 m/sec and flow rate 12489 m3/hr, cross
section area = 0.11564 m2, and diameter of transport pipe =
0.3837 meter
e) Cross section area for the separating column:
With velocity of 8 m/sec and flow rate 12489 m3/hr, the minimum
cross section area required would be: 0.43365m2
For a circular separating column the diameter calculates to
0.5521 meter.
To be "on the safe side" and to suit commercially available
equipment, a 12" diameter pipe (= 0.31 meter) for the lifting
column can be used.
Conveying ducting can be rounded of to 0.38 meter diameter.
Fan capacity selected should be rounded up to the nearest
commercially available , usually 15000 m3 @ 500 mm WG.
ACTION FOR FPII:

1) FPII should check the measurements and data of their existing
equipment and compare with above theoretical calculations to
ensure that at least the minimum requirements are met.
2) The schematic diagram no 1 shows the principle lay out of the system.
FPII should compare with what they have and determine what
additional material, equipment etc. they may require.
3) The lay out as shown on sketch 2 is simple and direct, but it does
require a minimum difference in height between nut inlet and
separating box outlet of at least 8 meters.
That should be possible in FPII, and it will eliminate the need for the
now used single chain bucket elevator.
122
Palm Oil Process

SECTION #4
THE FACTORY
WASTE PRODUCT & POLLUTION
123
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #31
DISPOSAL OF "DRY" MATERIAL
31.1
Solid waste products and disposal.
31.1.01 The major source and nature of solid "wastes" from C.P.O. mills are:
a) Empty Fruit Bunches
b) Fibrous matter
c) Shell material
d) Solids ex centrifuges
e) Solids ex Decanters
22-25%
13-15%
4-6%
0.5-1.0%
1.5-2.5%
of F.F.B. weight.
of F.F.B. weight.
of F.F.B. weight.
of F.F.B. weight.
of F.F.B. weight.
Processing F.F.B. to the stages of C.P.O. and P.K. continuously

generates these solid products, whilst the liquid effluent treatment
generates "wet" (sludge) solids.
These solids are removed from the anaerobic ponds and/or settling
tanks with periodic intervals depending on the load of the system.
(see 31.11 solids from effluent treatment)
The Empty Fruit Bunches (E.F.B.) can be dealt with in two different
ways:
31.2.
The incinerator
31.2.01 E.F.B. from the mills process is transported directly from the outlet of
the threshing machine to the inlet of the incinerator usually by means
of open, slat type conveyors.
Various types of incinerators have evolved over the years, but the
underlying principle remained the same, i.e. a slow, low temperature
"burning" or incineration of the (still wet) bunches on an inclined
grate.
The combined effect of a thick layer of E.F.B. and only natural
draught conditions cause a slow and steady process of converting
the E.F.B. into ashes.
The
124
combustion
efficiency
is
seldom
optimum
under
these
Palm Oil Process

circumstances and the resulting stack plume from the incinerator
chimney stack is characteristic.
(see also under 33. air pollution)
31.2.02 Bunch ash is rich in potassium and has an ameliorating effect on acid
sulphate soils and improves the soil pH.
31.2.03 Average nutrient values of bunch ash from incineration
E.F.B. produces about 4.5 % ash on wet bunch weight, or an
equivalent of about 10 % ash on dry bunch weight, with an
approximate value of:
30-40 % K2O
3-5 % P2O5
7.5 % CaO
The basic nutrient requirements of an oil palm are Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Potassium or Magnesium.
The ratio will depend on the soil type and the area, thus the rate of
application also varies, pending
local conditions.
(A soil inclined to leach will require a heavier application then one of
a more colloidal structure)
Mature oil palms, planted at a density of 135 palms per hectare
remove from the soil annually approximately in K = 40 kilograms, in N
= 15 kilograms, in P = 6 kilograms and it would therefore be a
powerful soil which could sustain such depletion without some return
of the elements used.
31.3
The direct field disposal
31.3.01 E.F.B. are also rich in plant nutrients, making mulching an alternative
method of disposal.
Mulching E.F.B. utilizes the full potential nutrient and soil enriching
properties, whilst there is no source for air pollution.
On analysis of E.F.B. it is usually found that the values are
approximately:
N = 14 %, P2O5 = 0.03 % and K2O = 0.45 %.
125
Palm Oil Process

A complete ground cover in the inter rows of planting can take as
much as 200 tonnes of E.F.B. per
hectare, returning to the soil an
approximate nutrient value of:
N = 250 kg/ha, P2O5 = 50 kg/ha and K2O = 800 kg/ha, which is quite a
valuable dressing.
Added to this are the physical benefits if humus to the soil and soil
water conservation.
(Whole) bunches are placed in between the palm trees and allowed
to decompose naturally.
In relative flat terrain, mulching in this way can be easily effected
using standard tractor trailer units or their normally used equivalent to
transport the E.F.B.
The economic consideration, i.e. the cost of mulching per hectare
versus the fertilizer cost per hectare may be the decisive factor.
31.3.02 It is possible to convert from a mill with conventional incineration to a
direct field disposal system for E.F.B. with minimal direct cost to the
mill, but the cost of the possibly required extra transport
units
to
transport the quite considerable bulk of the E.F.B. (average = 25 % of
F.F.B weight).
31.4
The use of E.F.B as supplementary fuel
31.4.01 The very high moisture content of the E.F.B. necessitates pre drying, if
these bunches are
effectively to be used as additional fuel in the
boiler furnace, since their calorific value when wet is low (1050
kcal/kg)
The calorific value of dried E.F.B. varies considerably with the oil
content of the material and on average (with an oil content of 3 %)
can be taken as between 2300 and 2350 kcal/kg.
31.4.02 Most factories do not use the E.F.B. as fuel, since the combined fibrous
matter and shell provide sufficient fuel to operate and create a
surplus which can be used for starting up periods etc.
126
Palm Oil Process

31.5
The fibrous material
31.5.01 All fibre produced by the process is normally used for boiler fuel.
Pending the steam/power/fuel balance, this is normally sufficient to
ensure
adequate fuel supply, more so since it is mixed with the
available shell.
Surplus fuel is normally stored near the boiler(s) for reserve purposes
during periods of low production, start up periods and, if sufficient
reserves can be accumulated, to maintain boiler operation during
part of the non producing periods to reduce the costs of power
generation by means of diesel oil fuelled diesel generating sets.
31.5.02 Fibre is "dry" when oil has been extracted and free moisture flashed
off during its transportation from the pressing station to the boiler
feeding or storage area, but still has a certain moisture content.
(between 30 and 35 %)
It requires no further treatment and can be directly utilized as fuel in
the boiler furnace.
31.5.03 Fibre when burned as fuel produces approximately: 10% ash on dry
matter and this contains approximately: 20-30% K2O , 4-6% P2O5 and
10% CaO.
The ashes can be conveniently disposed of in various ways, usually as
a road topping for the non sealed roads in the mill/plantation areas
and are thus not considered as an environmental threat.
31.6
The fuel value of fibre
31.6.01 The moisture content of the fibre used for fuel and the oil content of
the fibre largely determine the calorific value available from this
material.
The oil loss on dry fibre is on average about 8 %, whilst the moisture
content can vary between 30 and 40 %.
Thus the calorific value available from this material can vary
considerably, but on average remains between 2500 and 3600
kcal/kg which is sufficiently high to be used in the boiler furnace, but
on its own is insufficient to generate sufficient heat to produce the
required amounts of steam.
127
Palm Oil Process

31.6.02 It is for this reason that this fuel must be mixed with the shell which is
produced, or mixed with other suitable fuel to enable sufficient heat
to be generated.
31.7
The shell material
31.7.01 After the cracking of the palm nuts and the separation of the shell
and kernel, the shell is transported to the boiler fuel feed or storage
area and mixed with the fibrous material.
The mixing can quite simply be achieved by feeding the shell to one
or more of the conveyors which transport the fibrous material.
31.7.02 The shell (after the drying process of the nuts, the cracking and the
usually pneumatic transportation) have moisture content varying
between 12% and 18% although this can vary considerably
depending on whether wet or dry separation of the shell and kernel is
practised.
The oil content, for the purpose of fuel, is negligible.
31.8
The fuel value of shell
31.8.01 There has been a difference established between the calorific values
of "old" shell and "fresh" shell.
For the purpose of determining the fuel value this can be ignored.
Shell has on average a calorific value of between 3500 and 4000
kcal / kg and it will be noted that this is quite a lot higher than that of
the fibrous material.
31.8.02 Under the normally prevailing conditions in a boiler furnace, shell
burns very hot and its silica content produces a hard, solid slag/clinker
which is difficult to remove from the furnace grate bars etc.
It is for this reason that a mixture of fibre and shell is used and that the
ratio of this mixture is controlled by regulating the quantity of shell
added to the fibre and regularly analyzing samples taken from this
mixture.
31.8.03 Shell produce approximately 2% ash and this contains approximately :
55-85% Silicic acid , 4-5% P2O5 and 2-3 % K2O.
128
Palm Oil Process

The ashes, being mixed with the ashes from the fibrous material, are
disposed of as described above.
31.9
The sludge centrifuge solids
31.9.01 Centrifuge sludge has a good plant nutrient value and can be
disposed of together with the E.F.B, if mulching is practised.
Sludge (evaporated sludge) has an ash content of about 10 % and
contains approximately:
20-30% K2O , 4-8% P2O5 and 10% CaO.
The advantage of disposal with the bunch mulch is that the sludge
becomes trapped by the bunches and is not readily washed off by
the surface run off.
31.9.02 If mulching is not practised, these solids can be applied directly to the
land.
31.10
Solids from Decanter systems
31.10.1 A typical C.P.O. factory generates a total effluent of 70 % from the

clarification processes.
The basic principle of a decanter system is to reduce or eliminate the
effluent discharge either partially or totally, in order to reduce the
total effluent volume.
31.10.2 Some decanter systems do not require the reduction of the viscosity
of the
crude oil by means of dilution and thus the resulting solids
phase has a very low moisture content.
Evaporation and flash off of this moisture produces a virtually "dry"
cake which is easily handled.
The dried cake, known as "palm oil meal" has been used both as a
fertilizer and as a component in animal feed.
This system usually utilizes the waste heat from the boiler flue gases to
dry the solids from both the decanter and the nozzle separators.
Such driers simultaneously serve as a "scrubber", thus reducing the
particle emission in the flue gases of the boilers.
129
Palm Oil Process

31.10.3 The obvious benefits are the reduced effluent load to be treated,
possible benefits from the sale value of the dried cake and (if
applicable) the reduced particle emission of the flue gases.
However, initial capital costs are quite high and the recurring
maintenance costs and skills required are also quite high.
Thus, the economics often dictate against the use of these systems.
31.11
The solids from liquid effluent treatment
31.11.1 These solids can also be directly applied as fertilizer to the oil palm
plantings, but since the wet volumes are large, the sludge is first dewatered usually on sand beds, to reduce the volume and facilitate
handling.
31.11.2 De-watering occurs by evaporation under natural sunlight and by
percolation and/or drainage of the (free) water into the sand beds.
The resulting solids "cake" can then be applied to the land, a typical
application would be:
for anaerobic sludge cake : 0.1 tonne per tonne of F.F.B.
for aerobic sludge cake
: 0.05 tonne per tonne of F.F.B.
Again, economic considerations are often the deciding factor,
although with the
increased emphasis on environmental and
pollution control over the last decade, the choice has become more
limited.
130
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #32
DISPOSAL OF "WET" MATERIAL
32.1
General parameters for Palm Oil Mill liquid Effluent. (P.O.M.E.)

PARAMETER
1989
1991
1993
1995
B.O.D.
1000
500
200
100
C.O.D.
2000
1000
400
200
TOTAL SOLIDS
2000
1500
1500
1500
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
600
400
400
400
OIL
75
50
50
50
N-NH3
20
10
pH
6-9
6-9
6-9
6-9
These standards are acceptable for the industry and are

approximately equal to those set in major oil palm growing areas.
(Malaysia / Indonesia).
32.2
Terms and conventions used for general effluent descriptions:
32.2.01 Biological Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.)

The calculation used to measure in milligram per litre, for percent
mixtures:
B.O.D.(mg/l) = [ ( D.O.b - D.O.i ) 100 : % ] - ( D.O.b -D.O.i)
D.O.b , D.O.i = Dissolved Oxygen values found in blank (contains
dilution water only) and dilutions of sample, respectively , at end of
incubation period.
D.O.s = Dissolved Oxygen originally present in undiluted sample.
With B.O.D. > 200 mg/l, D.O.s is nearly = D.O.b and the second part of
the formula becomes negligible.
131
Palm Oil Process

32.2.02 Biochemical oxidation is a slow process, theoretically infinite.
Within a 20-day period, oxidation is approximately 95 to 99 %, and in
the 5 - day period used for the B.O.D test is plus/minus 60 to 70 %
complete. (the 5 day period is commonly notated as B.O.D.5 )
Tests can be either (in laboratory) by a Warburg Respiro meter (for
slow and small samples ) or by an electrolytic respiro meter, usually
with multiple electrolysis cells.
The advantage is:
1) usage of a large (1 litre) sample, minimizes the errors of "grab
sampling" and pipetting in dilutions.
2) value of B.O.D is directly available.
32.2.03 B.O.D testing has severe limitations:
1) a high concentration of active, acclimated seed bacteria is
required
2) pretreatment is needed for toxic wastes and the efforts of nitrifying
organisms must be reduced.
3) only the bio degradable organisms are measured
4) test is not valid after the soluble organic matter present in the
solution has been used.
5) Arbitrary, long period required to obtain results.
32.3
Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.)
32.3.01 Used to measure the content of organic matter of both waste water,
(effluent) and natural water.
The oxygen equivalent of the organic matter that can be oxidized is
measured by using a strong chemical oxidizing agent in an acidic
medium. (Potassium di-chromate for example)
A catalyst (silver sulphate) is required.
Some organic components interfere, care must be taken to eliminate
these.
C.O.D is also used to measure the organic matter in wastes that are
toxic to biological life.
32.3.02 The C.O.D of a waste is generally higher then the B.O.D. , because
more compounds can be chemically oxidized then can be
biologically oxidized.
132
Palm Oil Process

Usually it is possible to correlate C.O.D. with B.O.D. , which is useful,
since C.O.D. can be determined in about 3 hours.
Once a correlation has been established, it can be used to
advantage for treatment control and operation.
32.4
Total Organic Carbon (T.O.C)
32.4.01 This is used for measuring organic matter present in water and is
especially applicable to small concentrations of organic matter.
The test is performed by injecting a small, known, quantity in a high
temperature furnace, where the organic matter is oxidized to carbon
dioxide in the presence of a catalyst.
The CO2 is measured quantitatively by means of an infra red analyser.
Test is very quick, but certain organic compounds resist being
oxidized and the measured T.O.C. value will be slightly less than the
actual amount.
32.5
Total Oxygen Demand (T.O.D.)
32.5.01 Organic matter are converted to stable end products in a platinum catalysed combustion chamber.
T.O.D. is determined by monitoring the oxygen contend present in the
carrier gas (nitrogen)
Rapid testing and the results can be correlated with C.O.D. results.
32.6
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (Th.O.D.)
32.6.01 If the chemical formula is known, then Th.O.D. may be computed

from this formula, expressed usually in gram O2/mol.
32.7
Correlation among the various measurements.
32.7.01 This depends primarily on the nature of the waste water, effluent and
its source.
If a good correlation can be established, then because of the
rapidity of the C.O.D., T.O.C. and the T.O.D. tests, this can be very
useful and eliminates or reduces the time to get B.O.D results directly.
133
Palm Oil Process

32.7.02 Example ratios' for untreated wastes are:
B.O.D.5 / C.O.D. = 0.4 - 0.8 , B.O.D.5 / T.O.C = 1.0 - 1.6 etc.
Once established, these ratio's can be used to calculate the B.O.D
content to a close enough degree for control of plants etc. quite
quickly.
32.8
Biological treatment: definitions
32.8.01 AEROBIC processes are biological treatment processes that occur in

the presence of oxygen.
Certain bacteria that survive only in the presence of dissolved oxygen
are known as obligate (restricted to special conditions in life)
aerobes.
32.8.02 ANAEROBIC processes are biological treatment processes that occur
in the absence ofoxygen.
Bacteria that can only survive in the absence of any dissolved oxygen
are known as obligate anaerobes.
32.8.03 ANOXIC DENITRIFICATION is the process by which Nitrate nitrogen is
converted biologically into nitrogen gas in the absence of oxygen.
The process is also known as Anaerobic denitrification.
32.8.04 FACULTATIVE PROCESSES are biological treatment processes in which
the organisms are indifferent to the presence of dissolved oxygen.
These organisms are known as facultative micro organisms.
32.8.05 MICRO AEROPHILS are a group of micro organisms that grow best in
the presence of low concentrations of oxygen.
32.8.06 CARBONACEOUS B.O.D. removal is the biological conversion of the
carbonaceous organic matter in effluent into cell tissue and various
gaseous end products.
In this conversion it is assumed that the nitrogen present in the various
compounds is converted to ammonia.
32.8.07 NITRIFICATION is the two stage biological process by which nitrate is
converted to nitrogen and other gaseous end products.
32.8.08 STABILIZATION is the biological process by which organic matter in
sludge produced from primary settling ponds and the biological
treatment of effluent is stabilized, usually by conversion to gases and
cell tissue.
134
Palm Oil Process

Depending on whether this stabilization is carried out under
anaerobic or aerobic conditions, this process is known as anaerobic
or aerobic digestion.
32.8.09 SUBSTRATE is the term used to denote the organic matter or nutrients
that are converted during biological treatment or that may be
limiting in biological treatment.
( for example: carbonaceous organic matter in waste water is called
the substrate that is converted during biological treatment.)
processes are the biological treatment
32.8.10 SUSPENDED GROWTH
processes in which the micro organisms responsible for the conversion
of the organic matter or other constituents in the effluent to gases
and cell tissue are maintained in suspension within the liquid.
32.8.11 ATTACHED GROWTH processes are the biological treatment
processes in which the micro organisms responsible for the conversion
of the organic matter or other constituents in the effluent are
attached to some medium, such as rock, slag or specially designed
ceramic or plastic materials.
Attached growth processes are also known as: fixed film processes.
32.9
AEROBIC SUSPENDED GROWTH treatment
32.9.01 The processes are:

1) Activated sludge
2) Suspended growth nitrification process
3) Aerated lagoons (ponds) (as used in P.O.M's)
4) Aerobic digesters (also used in P.O.M's)
5) High rate oxidation ponds
32.9.02 AERATED LAGOONS:
evolved from facultative stabilization ponds when surface aeration
was installed to overcome the odours from organically overloaded
ponds.
Description:
The aerated lagoon process is essentially the same as the
conventional extended aeration activated sludge process (with Hydr.
Retention Time = +> 10 days), except that an earthen basin is used for
the "reactor" and the oxygen required by the process is supplied by
surface or diffuser aerators.
135
Palm Oil Process

Note:
In an aerated lagoon all solids are maintained in suspension
32.9.03 AEROBIC DIGESTION
Alternate method of treating organic sludge, produced from various
treatment operations.
Description:
In conventional aerobic digestion, sludge is aerated for an extended
period of time in an open, unheated tank using conventional air
diffusers or surface aeration equipment.
Either continuous or batch mode, with separate tank for decanting
and/or concentration.
32.9.04 AEROBIC STABILIZATION PONDS
In their simplest form, large - shallow earthen basins, used for the
treatment by natural processes involving both algae and bacteria.
Description:
An aerobic stabilization pond contains bacteria (and/or algae) in
suspension and aerobic conditions prevail throughout its depth.
There are mainly two types:
1) Objective to maximize the production of algae (very shallow,
limited to 6-18 inch depths)
2) Objective to maximize the amount of oxygen produced and
pond depths up to 5 feet (1.6 m) are used.
In both types, oxygen in addition to that produced by the algae,
enters the liquid through atmospheric diffusion.
For best results, contents must be mixed periodically, (pumps, surface
aerators etc.)
32.9.05 AEROBIC PONDS
Used for the treatment of high strength organic effluent, which also
contain a high concentration of solids.
136
Palm Oil Process

Typically an aerobic pond is a deep earthen pond, with appropriate
inlet and outlet piping.
To conserve heat energy and to maintain anaerobic conditions,
anaerobic ponds have been constructed to depths of > 6 metres.
The wastes added to the pond settle to the bottom.
The partially clarified effluent is discharged to further treatment
ponds.
Usually these ponds are anaerobic throughout their entire depth,
except for an extremely shallow surface zone.
Stabilization is brought about by a combination of precipitation and
anaerobic conversion of organic wastes to C.O.2, C.H.4, other
gaseous end products, organic acids and cell tissues.
B.O.D.5 conversion efficiency up to 70% are routinely obtainable.
Under optimum operating conditions removal efficiency up to 85% is
possible.
32.9.06 FACULTATIVE PONDS
Ponds in which the stabilization of wastes is brought about by a
combination of aerobic, anaerobic and facultative bacteria, are
known as facultative (aerobic -anaerobic) stabilization ponds.
Description:
Basically three zones exist in facultative ponds:
1) A surface zone, where aerobic bacteria and algae exist in a
symbiotic relationship.
2) An intermediate zone that is partly aerobic and partly anaerobic,
in which the decomposition of organic wastes is carried out by
facultative bacteria.
3) An anaerobic bottom zone in which accumulated solids are
actively decomposed by anaerobic bacteria.
In practice, oxygen is maintained in the upper layer by the presence
of algae, or by the use of surface aerators (in which case there are
no algae required)
The advantage of surface aeration is that a higher organic load can
be applied.
However, the organic load MUST NOT EXCEED the amount of oxygen
137
Palm Oil Process

that can be supplied by the aerators without completely mixing the
ponds contents, or the benefits from anaerobic decomposition will be
lost.
32.9.07 TERTIARY MATURATION PONDS
Low rate stabilization ponds, designed to provide secondary effluent
"polishing" and seasonal nitrification.
The biological mechanisms involved are similar to the other aerobic
suspended growth processes.
Operationally the residual biological solids are endogenously respired
and ammonia is converted to nitrate using the oxygen supplied from
surface aerators (and where exist from algae)
Minimum 20 days H.R.T to provide for complete endogenous
respiration of the residual solids.
To maintain aerobic conditions, the applied loading must be kept
quite low.
The efficiency of low rate ponds decreases with decreasing waste
water temperature (all biological Nitrification systems suffer from
these phenomena)
To provide a reliable nitrified effluent that is low in B.O.D. 5 and
suspended solids, an efficient and reliable effluent solids removal
process will be required.
32.9.08 SOLIDS SEPARATION
Probably the most important aspect of biological effluent treatment is
the design of the facilities to separate The biological solids from the
treated waste water; for it is axiomatic that if the solids cannot be
separated and returned to the aeration tank, the activated sludge
process will not function properly.
32.10
The control methods and technology
32.10.1 The choice of an appropriate effluent system depends on various

factors, such as the characteristics of the effluent, (physical, chemical
and biological), the local environment, the degree of treatment
before disposal stipulated by the regulating authorities and the
economic considerations.
138
Palm Oil Process

32.10.2 Since C.P.O. factories are usually located in the more remote areas,
high levels of skill for the operation and maintenance are often not
available or achievable and the preferred choice of suitable
treatment must take this into account.
C.P.O. factory liquid effluent can be said to be composed off:
i) Clarification wastes ( 60 - 70 %)
ii) Sterilizer condensate ( 30 - 40%)
iii) Other liquid wastes ( 5%)
A correctly operated C.P.O. factory, under proper control, will
typically produce about 2 to 2.5 tonne of effluent for every ton of
C.P.O. produced.
This figure varies according to the design, i.e. conventional
continuous settling versus decanter systems etc., but is seldom lower
than that suggested above.
32.10.3 The effluent produced has typically a B.O.D. value of between 20,000
and 25,000 mg/litre, but is not (or very seldom) toxic.
The effluent of the clarification process of the C.P.O. is the most
difficult to treat, due to its viscosity caused by a high proportion of
suspended solids.
32.11
Treatment types
32.11.1 A number of systems have been developed over the past decade, to
treat this effluent.
Most are biological processes, dictated by the bio degradable
nature of the effluent.
The processes are usually combinations of anaerobic and aerobic
processes.
32.11.2 Before these processes, the proper screening, filtering and
centrifuging to reduce the suspended solids as much as possible must
be maintained, so that the "final" effluent to be treated
has the lowest possible quantity of suspended solids.
32.11.3 Appropriate methods include the following:
a) Anaerobic / facultative ponding
b) Anaerobic / extended aeration ponding
c) Anaerobic tank digestion / extended aeration ponding
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Palm Oil Process

d) Anaerobic treatment followed by land application
All methods must have the anaerobic stage, for the following reasons:
i)
High destruction efficiency (including lipids and pathogenic

bacteria)
ii) Lower sludge production
iii) Low power requirement
iv) Possible recovery / utilization of the methane gas produced.
32.11.4 Anaerobic processes can be either thermophilic or mesophyllic.
Thermophilic reactions are generally more efficient but are highly
sensitive to temperature variations (hence mainly used in "tank type
digesters")
Owing to the above, the processes that take place in anaerobic
ponds are usually mesophyllic.
32.12
The anaerobic / facultative pond system
32.12.1 Essentially the components are:

: the de - oiling tank
: the acidification ponds
: the methogenic ponds
: the facultative ponds
: the sand beds
32.12.2 The raw effluent firstly enters the (usually concrete) de - oiling tank,
which should have a Hydraulic Retention Time (H.R.T.) of 1.5 days.
Free oil is trapped and some solids settle out.
The effluent is homogenized, cooled to a degree and flows to the
anaerobic ponds.
32.13.1 The anaerobic ponds have two distinct phases:
: the acidification phase
: the methogenic phase
By keeping these processes separated, by using two separate ponds,
the optimum individual environment for both the acidification and
the methogenic reactions are ensured.
140
Palm Oil Process

32.13.2 The acidification ponds are two ponds in series (with 2 days H.R.T.
each), where the bacteria convert organic components into
volatile fatty acids, which lower the pH of the liquor.
Two ponds in series are used in order to restrict the bonded oil
released to the first pond.
The raw effluent is mixed with liquor from the primary anaerobic
ponds (of the methogenic phase), this cools the effluent further,
decreases the pH further and facilitates "seeding" (ratio 1:1)
32.13.3 The methogenic phase takes place in two ponds in series, with a
typical H.R.T. of 30 and 15 days respectively.
Here the volatile fatty acids are converted to methane, Co2 and
other gases.
32.13.4 The partially treated liquor is then aerated in facultative ponds in
series, with a total H.R.T. of 16 days, before being allowed to flow to
the final discharge.
32.13.5 The sludge solids will build up in the anaerobic ponds.
When this is de-watered on sand beds a cake can be recovered
which can be utilized as plant nutrient.
32.13.6 This type of system is generally good with a final B.O.D. level well
below 200 mg per litre and will handle "shock loads" from the factory.
Other systems have been developed, basically similar to the one
described above, but with different features (see sketch 2)i.e.:
: de-oiling as part of the first acidification pond
: longer retention times in the anaerobic ponds ( 70 days)
(the longer period tends to even out fluctuations in loading rates
and inefficiencies caused by poor maintenance of the system).
Here also B.O.D. levels can be well below 100 mg/litre.
32.14
The Anaerobic / Extended aeration ponding system
32.14.1 This system is similar to that described under 32.13 above, but here the
facultative ponds are replaced by extended aeration lagoons.
The reason for this is that the facultative ponds with their retention
141
Palm Oil Process

time of 12 to 16 days and shallow depth (less than 1.5 metre) occupy
rather large areas.
An aerated lagoon, with its greater depth will cover substantially less
area, retention time however will increase to 20 days.
32.14.2 The extra, mechanical, aerators will increase the capital costs, the
recurring maintenance costs and the power requirements.
Unlike the anaerobic/facultative ponding system, this system is
sensitive to shock loads and the oxygen transfer in the aerated
lagoon.
The aerated liquor needs to be settled in an aerobic sedimentation
tank or pond with at least a one
day retention prior to final
discharge.
32.15
Anaerobic Tank Digestion/Extended aeration system
32.15.1 This system has tank digesters, coupled with aerated lagoons.
The closed type is suitable for tapping the bio gas produced which
can be used as an energy source.
Tank digesters are capital intensive, but do have a number of
advantages; i.e.:
a) compact, thus requiring little land area
b) High loading rates and shorter retention time
c) Easier for corrective measures (and sampling)
d) Bio-gas production as energy source
e) good mixing of (tank)contents possible
32.15.2 Tank digestion may be mesophyllic or thermophilic, the latter
generally produces better digestion conditions.
The anaerobic liquor discharged from the digester does require
further treatment.( see sketch 3 & 4)
32.15.3 The raw effluent is acidified with anaerobic liquor from the tank
digester, (H.R.T.= 1 day ), ratio 1:1 (by volume)
The acidified effluent is then fed to a (mild) steel tank digester.
Typical reduction in B.O.D. levels are 90 to 95 %.
The tank contents are mixed or stirred with a "gas mixing" system.
Gas mixing requires about 12% of the power required by a
mechanical stirring device and costs about 25% less as there are no
moving parts.
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Palm Oil Process

Compressed bio gas from the digester process is directed to an
emitter in the digester which allows escape of gas through a draught
tube.
The motion of the gas bubbles sets up a circulating current in the
effluent that helps mixing.
H.R.T. for these digesters is 10 days.
(Open tank digesters are not stirred, typical retention time +/- 20
days)
32.15.4 In un stirred tank digesters the solids sink/settle to the bottom and are
drawn off.
Typical solids reduction is about 40%.
The anaerobic liquor is then decanted to an anaerobic settling tank
that further settles out solids (60 to 80% )
32.15.5 The supernatant is then fed to an extended lagoon ( typical H.R.T.= 20
days).
The anaerobic liquor is settled for one day in an anaerobic settling
tank before allowing final discharge.
Final B.O.D. of < 100 mg / litre are possible, however variations in
effluent feed rates, B.O.D. input
levels and suspended solids from
the tank digesters and the settling efficiency of the anaerobic settling
tank all affect the final B.O.D. level.
32.15.6 The settled solids are rich in nutrients and can be utilized as fertilizers.
The final discharge from these type of systems has been used to
recycle to the factory as process water.
143
Palm Oil Process

Typical performance of the tank digester/aeration pond system:
(Parameters all except pH in mg/l)
RAW EFFLUENT
32.16
FINAL DISCHARGE
REDUCTION %
pH
4.8
8.1
N/A
B.O.D.
30800
120
99.6
C.O.D.
76090
1460
98.1
TOTAL SOLIDS
57030
6720
88.2
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
27920
1060
96.2
VOLATILE SOLIDS
43490
2160
95.0
OIL , GREASE
10450
30
99.7
NH3 - NITROGEN
50
94.0
TOTAL NITROGEN
1030
100
90.3
Land application of partially treated effluent.
32.16.1 Because of its rich nutrient content, the anaerobic liquor can be
utilized as a fertilizer resource in the oil palm plantations.
Raw effluent can also be used, but the high B.O.D. levels usually
create an unpleasant odour and a fly / insect nuisance.
The possibility of surface run off during heavy rain periods
contaminating existing fresh water streams
can
also
not
be
discounted.
32.16.2 Partially treated anaerobic liquor, with B.O.D. level not more than
5000 mg/l is suitable for land application and may also at the same
allow the production and utilization of bio gas.
32.16.3 Partial digestion does not appreciably change the nutrient contents
of the effluent, (which is related mainly to the nitrogen content) but
complex organic molecules are broken down and are thus easier to
be assimilated by the plants.
144
Palm Oil Process

32.17
Methods of land application
32.17.1 Although the physical land application is generally outside of the

area of responsibility of the technical mill staff, a basic knowledge
of the methods used to apply partially or fully digested
effluent
to the "fields" enhances the overall appreciation of the total effluent
control system.
There are a number of different methods to distribute this (still liquid)
effluent, i.e.:
I ) Fixed spray lines, moveable spray lines with sprinkler system
In fixed spray line sprinkler systems the effluent is pumped through
buried pipe lines direct to the sprinklers.
Sprinklers are generally fixed every third row of palm trees and at
about 27 metres intervals.
Capital costs are high and maintenance costs are high.
In moveable spray line sprinkler systems the basic principle is the
same, but as a result of using moveable lines, the capital costs are
substantially lower.
Fast lock, clip lock type couplings facilitate the removal of the
spray lines, at which time clogging etc. can be detected and
cleared.
II ) Flat beds
Flat, bunded beds constructed between rows of palms are
connected by channels which run from the top end to the
bottom end of the slopes.
Effluent is pumped to the top and allowed to run down the
channels and each bunded bed is filled to a shallow depth,
starting with the lowest. As each bed is filled, the feed is closed and
directed to another channel.
III) Furrows
Here the effluent is pumped to high points and allowed to drain
down the slopes in furrows of about 20 to 30 cm deep and about
30 cm wide.
The velocity of the flow should be slow enough to allow
percolation into the soil. Zig-Zag configuration on steeper slopes
145
Palm Oil Process

reduces the flow velocity and prevents erosion.
The zigzag configuration will cause problems of uneven distribution,
silting is also common.
IV) Percolating trenches or pits
Trenches and pits dug along the slopes are usually the silt pits dug
to contain the sediments transported by surface erosion.
The effluent is discharged into these pits and allowed to percolate
into the soil.
32.17.2 The rate of application is decided and affected by various factors,
i.e.:
a) Characteristic of effluent, the concentration of solids (size of solids
as well)
The presence of "large" solids will frequently block or clog sprinkler
nozzles.
b) Type of vegetation between rows of palms
c) Soil characteristics, the acidity, the porosity, normal water table
etc.
Over application may result in anaerobic conditions due to the
formation of an impervious layer of organic matter on the soil
surface.
d) Age of palms, since palms of different age require different rates
of application, which are usually determined by experimentation.
32.18
Effects of the application of digested effluent
32.18.1 Although the effects vary from place to place and the optimum for a
particular plantation area is largely determined by experimentation,
on average the yield of oil palm increases with the use of digested
effluent.
32.18.2 The nutrient value of the soil improves, especially the phosphorus, the
potassium and the magnesium values.
The resulting leaf growth has proved to have increased values of
nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium, all assisting in a
higher F.F.B. production per palm.
The effect on underground water has been shown to be negligible
and surface drainage is not polluted, provided the application
method and the application rates are controlled.
146
Palm Oil Process

CPO MILL EFFLUENT
Palm Oil Mill Effluent, POME, has a high organic polluting load and if
released untreated into natural watercourses would result in a severe
depletion of the dissolved oxygen level in the stream or water course.
The organic pollution load is measured by the Biological Oxygen
Demand, BOD of the effluent.
By definition BOD is the amount of oxygen required for biological
oxidation of waste over a stated period of time. (which in the tropical
regions is usually interpreted as 3 days at 30 deg. Celsius)
The higher the BOD load, the greater will be the polluting effect on the
receiving water course.
Depending on the frequency of discharge and the type / size of the
water course it could lead to anaerobic conditions causing the death
of the aerobic eco system and the destruction if the water course in
terms of social and amenity value.
Acceptable levels vary from country to country and should be
checked with the authorities, but is almost always expressed in terms of
the BOD level.
(BOD levels for direct land application are usually much higher, up to 50
times as high)
Treatment to an acceptable level of BOD before discharge is therefore
required.
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION:
The cellulosic nature, high BOD and high temperature of POME
practically precludes the effective use of aerobic methods of
biological treatment.
Anaerobic treatment, because of its ability to utilize combined oxygen
and not dissolved oxygen is ideally suited to the treatment of high
organic strength POME.
Also, because of the use of combined oxygen, the higher
temperatures, as high as 60 deg.C are not harmful but are actually
beneficial in stimulating the rapid growth of the anaerobic microorganisms.
This fact, coupled with the very high rate of decomposition of oils and
greases and cellulosic solids by a number of anaerobic activities, make
it very attractive as a first treatment for POME.
147
Palm Oil Process

The biochemistry of Anaerobic digestion is a two stage process, with
both stages occurring simultaneously and in balance with each other.
The first or acidogenic stage is dominated by a diverse group of
facultative and anaerobic bacteria which have the ability to hydrolyze
the POME constituents to soluble, less complex organic mixtures which
are subsequently fermented to volatile acids for the most part , whilst
some carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas is also produced.
Very little COD stabilization occurs at this stage as the only COD leaving
the system is the small amount of hydrogen gas that is formed and
escapes.
The second or methanogenic stage of the anaerobic digestion is
dominated by a diverse group of strictly anaerobic bacteria which will
oxidize hydrogen and reduce carbon to form methane and water, and
/or ferment volatile acids to form methane and carbon dioxide.
4H2 + CO2
CH3OOH
forms CH4 + 2 H2O

forms CH4 + CO2
COD stabilization which occurs as methane and is insoluble in water is

formed and leaves the system
Operating requirements:
Compared with the acidogenic bacteria the methanogenic ones are
particularly slow growing and sensitive to changes in their environment.
Therefore conditions have to be created that are favorable to
methanogenic bacteria.
pH, temperature and toxic materials have the greatest effect on the
micro organisms rate of growth and on its metabolic activities.
The optimum operating pH for the anaerobic biological process is
around the neutral mark, 7.
pH values below 6 and above 8 are not favorable and may even be
toxic to the methanogens.
The digestion process can be carried out at either the mesophilic range
of 25 - 45 deg.C or the thermophilic range of 45 - 85 deg.C.
A number of substances, such as chlorinated hydro carbons, heavy
metals, synthetic detergents etc., have been reported to have an
inhibitory effect on the process.
148
Palm Oil Process

POME does not normally contain these substances, or if they are
present they are not present at inhibitory levels.
The major buffering in an anaerobic digestion is the CO2 - HCO3 system.
During the digestion process bicarbonate alkalinity is formed from
ammonia which reacts with H2O and CO2. The ammonia is produced
through the de-amination of the protein present in the POME and the
bicarbonate alkalinity serves to prevent rapid changes in the pH and in
a properly operating system treating POME it should be > 2,000 mg/l as
CaCO3.
In a well balanced system the volatile acids (VA) produced during the
first stage of the digestion are utilized as a major substrate by the
methane producers without accumulation of the acids in the system.
Under this normal digesting condition the VA concentration is usually
less then (or about) 400 mg/l expressed as acetic acid. However when
the digestion process becomes overloaded, the slower methanogens
cannot cope with the amount of VA produced. (popularly stated, the
mixture turns 'sour')
Depending on the buffering capacity of the system and the extend of
the overloading the accumulation of the VA may deplete the buffering
capacity of the digestion process totally, leading to a depression of the
Ph to such an extent as to impair the activities of the more sensitive
methanogens and the whole process turns "sour'.
pH by itself is not a good control parameter as the pH does not
decrease significantly in an adequately buffered digestion system until
the system is already seriously affected. The best control parameter to
use is the VA concentration and this should be used along with the pH
and the alkalinity.
These three parameters should be determined daily (preferably before
feeding of the system starts) Any sharp increase over the normal VA
concentration of the system is an indication of an impending failure
and this should be immediately followed by feed reduction or even
total stoppage.
For POME the normal range is as follows:
pH
Alkalinity
VA
149
= or > 7
= > 2,000 mg/l
= < 400 mg/l
Palm Oil Process

In some cases one may have to add neutralizing agents such as
NaHCO3 to arrest the pH falling further to a level where the
methanogens are inactivated.
Basic criteria for anaerobic digestion systems:
The most commonly used for POME is the Anaerobic lagoon type
treatment, although the conventional tank type digesters are also
used.
Anaerobic contact, anaerobic filtering and anaerobic sludge blanket
type are sometimes used in the municipal waste water treatment
systems.
Anaerobic lagoon:
This is basically a large holding unit, usually in an earthen basin.
Mixing of the lagoon contents is not provided and the retention time is
long (minimal 40 days) in order to allow degradation of the POME to
take place, gas to be produced and released and solids to settle
down.
Lagoons are always made as deep as possible (min. 3 - 4 meter) in
order to minimize surface area and hence reduce the oxygen transfer
from the atmosphere to the anaerobic system.
Anaerobic lagoons are normally subject to low organic loading of 0.65 1.3 kg VS/cubic meter lagoon capacity per day.
The advantages are generally the 'ease' of construction and the 'low'
capital cost.
The disadvantages are the long retention time; thus requires a large
area, the need to de-sludge the lagoon to maintain its effective
volume, the extensive need to monitor over a large area, requiring
manpower and time.
The system does not allow the capture and storage of any bio gas
produced.
Retention time for anaerobic treatment of POME varies from 20 to 100
days, depending on the degree of treatment wanted and the
variability of the 'influent' feed.
Recycling of the anaerobically digested overflow by mixing with the
raw effluent will improve the pH of the influent feed into the anaerobic
150
Palm Oil Process

pond and depletes the oxygen content in the influent, which is
desirable for anaerobic digestion.
The use of anaerobic digestion alone would not be able to meet the
standards as required or as stipulated, further treatment of the effluent
from the anaerobic ponds is necessary and this is usually done in
facultative ponds, where sufficient oxygenation to the water is
introduced.
The effluent after sedimentation in these ponds is allowed to discharge
into the drains river, stream etc.
Ponds should be located there where there is minimum effect on the
surrounding environment and habitation.
The required size of the ponds can be calculated from a number of
given factors and flow rates, such as:
Effluent ex sterilization station
Effluent ex clarification station
Effluent ex hydrocyclone plant
Spillages , wash water etc
= 0.15 m3/tonne FFB

= 0.45 m3/tonne FFB
= 0.05 m3/tonne FFB
= 0.10 m3/tonne FFB
= 0.75 m3/tonne FFB
The above example is about correct for a conventional, static tank

type clarification system operated palm oil mill, with dynamic type
clarification it can be reduced to about 0,45 m3/tonne FFB.
For a 60 tph factory @ 0.75 tonne effluent/tonne FFB, the effluent to be
handled in a 20 hour work day :
= 20 x 60 x 0.75 = 900 tonnes/day.
The BOD in the raw effluent can be assumed to be around 25,000 to
30,000 mg/l. For calculation the worst should be prepared for, i.e.the
maximum BOD load per day:
= 900 x 30,000/1000 = 27,000 kg/day.
At a maximum loading of 0.4 kg BOD/m3, the effective pond volume
required would be 27,000 kg BOD/day divided by 0.4 kg BOD/m3 =
approximately 67,500 cubic meter.
151
Palm Oil Process

Allowing for a 20 % silting up factor, and realizing that ponds should not
be filled to their maximum level in order to prevent unexpected
overflows etc., the actual pond capacity should be around 67,500 x 1.3
= 87,750 cubic meter.
The initial minimum retention time in these primary ponds will thus be
87,750 cubic meter divided by 900 cubic meters/day = about 97.5
days, which will steadily reduce as the solids built up in the ponds and
the effective volume reduces.
The effluent leaving the anaerobic ponds is expected to have a BOD of
between 500 and 1000 mg/l.
For the anaerobic maturity pond(s) at 900 cubic meter/day and a
maximum loading of 0.1 kg BOD/m3 , the effective pond capacity
required will be (900 : 0.1) x 1.2 =
10,800 cubic meters, or equivalent to about 12 days retention time.
The effluent leaving from this treatment should have a BOD between
200 and 500 mg/l.
Facultative ponds:
The total maximum BOD load/day will be approximately: (900 x 500) :
1000 = 450 kg/day.
At a maximum loading of 0.3 kg BOD/cubic meter, the effective pond
capacity required for a 12 day retention will be approximately 21,500
cubic meter.
These should be shallow ponds with an operating depth of about 1.25
meter only , a total depth of about 1.75 meter should be sufficient.
The effluent leaving these ponds is expected to have a BOD of less
than 100 mg/l.
Anaerobic "Conventional" system:
The tank type digester can be "low-rate" or "high-rate" designs.
In the low-rate type the digester contents are not mixed, thus there is
stratification in the digester.
The solids retention time (SRT) is only partially dependent on the
hydraulic loading, the process operates at a long hydraulic retention
time (HRT) of 30 to 60 days
152
Palm Oil Process

The high-rate digester is a completely mixed digester where the SRT
equals the HRT.
Mixing of the contents is either by a mechanical stirrer or by gas
recirculation
Power requirements are low (1.8 Kw/cu.m capacity) with a bio gas
recirculation rate of about 2 cu.m/min.
The advantages of a high rate digester are that the formation of a
scum layer in the digester is prevented. Uncontrolled scum formation
will lead to an appreciable reduction of the digester's capacity and will
affect the sampling results if samples are drawn quite close to the
surface.
Thermal stratification in the digester is avoided, particularly when the
POME influent temperature is kept around 70 - 80 deg.C.
There will be good contact between substrates and micro organisms
and a shorter retention time, i.e. a smaller digester capacity, is required.
Solids in the digester are kept to a minimum, as uncontrolled solids
settlement will reduce the digester capacity.
The advantage of the high rate is the ability to operate on low HRT
(about 10 days) with high organic loading of up to 4.8 kg VS/cu.m
digester capacity / day.
It requires a much smaller area (about 20 % of the lagoon type) and
allows the capture and harnessing of the bio gas produced.
The initial capital cost however is high as the digester's construction is
usually in mild steel with the internal surfaces in contact with bio gas
sand blasted and coated with epoxy.
Unless there is an economical application of the bio gas produced, or
other compelling external reasons, the system is not commonly used for
the treatment of POME
Common operational problems:
The successful operation of an anaerobic system requires a basic
understanding of the process, its limitations and an effective monitoring
system from which one can predict (and thus can prevent) impending
failures.
Unfortunately, it is often seen by otherwise responsible mill engineers
and staff as a nuisance and "the less they know about it the better it
suits them".
153
Palm Oil Process

POME is ideally suited to anaerobic treatment:
1) it is available at 70 - 80 deg.C and hence can be digested "as is" at
the thermophilic range and temperatures as high as 55 deg.C can
be achieved without any external, additional heating.
2) the high buffering capacity in the system allows digestion of the
POME without neutralizing prior to feeding.
3) no toxic substances are present in inhibitory levels to the microorganisms.
Despite this , digester failures do occur and can almost always be
attributed to overloading of the anaerobic system, mainly arising from:
a) overfeeding; this could be due to putting too much effluent into the
pond (hydraulic loading) or the organic content of the effluent is
too high (organic loading)
b) reduction in operating capacity, either from lowering of the
operating levels, or from sludge built up.
The use of a reliable flow meter, or a reliable basculator should help to
prevent the pumping of too much effluent into the system.
A difference must be made between hydraulic loading and organic
loading.
HRT is obtained by dividing the effective digester capacity (in cub.m)
by the actual feed input/day (cub.m/day).
Whilst HRT can be maintained by ensuring a constant feed rate, the
organic loading may not be so easily maintained as this is mostly
affected by oil present in the POME.
Example:
digester capacity
feed to digester
TVS in POME
oil content
HRT
organic loading
: 4200 cub.m
: 420 cub.m
: 45,000 mg/l
: 10,000 mg/l
= 4200/420 = 10 days
= 420 x 45/4200 = 4.5 kg VS/cub.m/day
if the oil content increases to 20,000 mg/l:

TVS
: 55,000 mg/l
HRT
= 10 days
organic loading
= 5.5 kg VS/cub.m/day
In other words, in order to maintain the organic loading of 4.5 kg, the
154
Palm Oil Process

feed to the digester must be reduced to 4.5 x 4200/5.5 = 343
cub.m/day, a reduction of 18% of the designed maximum HRT.
Characteristics of digested effluent:
With the high rate digester system, the BOD removal can be as high as
95 % and to obtain the final effluent quality suitable to return to any
water course discharge, the digested effluent can be settled with the
resulting supernatant going into an aerobic system.
The underflow of the settling tank can be recycled to the digester.
Digested effluent is rich in N, P and K and can be used in the estates to
supplement or replace the normally used inorganic fertilizers, the
fertilizer value is approximately: (for 60 tph mill, at 20 hrs/day)
Ammonium Sulphate (21 % N)
Rock Phosphate (36 % P2O5 )
Muriate of Potash ( 60 % K2O)
Kieserite ( 26 % MG O)
2.00 tonne/day
0.75 tonne/day
2.25 tonne/day
2.25 tonne/day
The high rate digester also produces approximately 25 cubic meter bio
gas with a calorific value of approximately 22,400 KJ/cubic meter, from
1 cubic meter of POME digested. The direct use of the bio gas as a
heat source is probably the most economical way of using it.
EFFLUENT FROM CPO MILLS

BEFORE TREATMENT
155
TEMPERATURE
70 - 80OC
pH
VOLATILE ACIDS
1,000
COD
80,000
BOD
30,000
TOTAL SOLIDS (TS)
60,000
TOTAL VOLATILE SOLIDS (TVS)
45,000
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
38,000
AMMONIAL NITROGEN (NH3-N)
40
TOTAL KJELDAHL NITROGEN (TKN)
900
PHOSPHORUS
200
POTASSIUM
2,000
MAGNESIUM
600
Palm Oil Process

AFTER TREATMENT
DISCHARGE TO WATER COURSE
LAND APPLICATION
BOD
100-5000
SUSPENDED SLOIDS
400 N/A
OIL & GREASE
50
AMMONIACAL NITROGEN
150 (1)
TOTAL NITROGEN
200 (2)
pH
5-9
TEMPERATURE
45OC
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGESTED POME

HIGH DIGESTER RATE
TEMPERATURE
43
pH
7.15
VOLATILE ACID
265
ALKALINITY
2,300
BOD
1,900
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
3,725
AMMONIACAL NITROGEN
55
TOTAL KJELDAHL NITROGEN
175
OIL & GREASE
175
FERTILIZER VALUE OF DIGESTED POME

EXAMPLE FOR 60 TON PER HOUR FACTORY OUTPUT
FERTILIZER SUBSTITUTE
DIRECT LAND
HIGH RATE DIGESTER
AMMONIUM SULPHATE (21% N)
0.65
1.92
ROCK PHOSPHATE (36% P2O5)
0.17
0.62
MURIATE OF POTASH (60% K2O)
1.55
2.18
KIESERITE (26 % MgO)
1.05
2.10
NOTES:
Items (1) and (2) measured from filtered samples All values in mg/l,
exept pH.
156
Palm Oil Process

NUTRIENT CONTENTS OF OIL PALM WASTE PRODUCTS
POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent): (at 5% dry matter)
From literature
Own analisis
On average per
1000 liter
In kg
2.4
1.7
0.3
0.35
0.17
4.8
2.7
1.9
Mg
1.4
Mg
0.58
Mg
0.5
Ca
0.8
Ca
1.1
Ca
0.5
0.24
0.12
Cl
1.0
Cl
0.5
Dried decanter sludge

(% on dry matter)
N
2.3
0.2
0.7
Mg
0.3
Ca
2.9
0.2
Cl
0.1
EMPTY BUNCHES
as bunch ash
(%)
157
as empty bunches
as empty bunches
(70% moisture, 30 % dry matter)

(% on dry matter)
(in kg per 1000 kg

Empty Bunches)
0.05
0.79
2.4 kg
1.5
0.08
0.24 kg
30.0
2.0
6.0 kg
Mg
3.0
Mg
0.12
Mg
0.35 kg
Ca
4.0
Ca
0.25
Ca
0.75 kg
0.08
0.24 kg
Cl
0.21
Cl
0.63 kg
Mn
300 ppm
120 ppm
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #33
AIR POLLUTION
33.1
Boiler smoke
The gases emitted from the chimney stacks of the boilers and the
incinerators of C.P.O. factories contain particulates of condensed tar
droplets and soot and other contaminations from 20 to 100 microns in
size.
33.1.1 Boiler smoke is dark in colour due to the soot resulting from
incomplete combustion of the mixture of fibre and shells used as fuel.
The control of this smoke emission depends largely on the type (and
the age) of the boiler(s) in use.
33.1.2 Some form of control over the combustion conditions may be
achieved by efforts to maintain as much as possible a "steady state"
condition.
The main options for control measures are:
i)
Adequate and accurate instrumentation.

Indicative instruments, such as steam pressure gauges, air pressure
gauges, CO2 meters, smoke density monitors etc. should be
installed and maintained in a functional condition.
These will indicate if complete, or as near as possible complete
combustion is taking place.
Optimum levels of CO2, compatible with "steady state" operations
are about 15 to 20%.
ii) Automated control of fuel feed rates.

The steam demand by the factory varies and thus maintaining a
"steady state" condition compatible with the fluctuating demand
requires continuous control.
A closed loop control of the fuel feed rate and air supply can
158
Palm Oil Process

assist or ensure a steady state combustion in tandem with the
steam demand.
iii) Modifications to boilers to improve the combustion conditions can
include:
a) prevention of (secondary) air leaks into the furnace (for
instance through furnace doors)
b) increasing the air volumes by using larger capacity draught
fans
c) promoting secondary air flow in furnace by directional nozzles
d) mechanical fuel feed control
e) increased chimney stack height to facilitate dispersion.
33.1.3 The control of particulates in the boiler smoke can be effected by
baffle plates and secondary nozzles blowing down in the furnace.
Dust collectors can be installed to cope with the particular conditions
such as:
- size of particles to be removed
- required efficiency
- flow rate of flue gases
- composition of flue gases
Dust collectors can be mechanical (cyclones) or cloth collectors
(bag filters) or liquid scrubbers.
33.1.04 Cyclones may be single stage or multi stage.
The single stage has an efficiency factor of about 40 to 50%, whilst the
multistage can be as high as 85%.
Cyclones require gas velocities of 7 to 20 metres per second in order
to operate properly.
Some cyclones have a water feed at the inlet (irrigated cyclone) to
further assist in the collection of fine dust particles.
33.1.5 Bag filters simply trap the particles in the fabric when flue gases are
drawn through the bag.
The cost of bags and the maintenance cost is usually prohibitive and
unless very strict pollution control measures are the norm, not
generally used.
159
Palm Oil Process

33.1.6 Liquid scrubbers are quite effective particle removers, but are also
quite expensive, both in capital expense and maintenance costs.
Economic considerations and particular local circumstances may be
the deciding factor.
33.2
Smoke from incinerators for Empty Fruit Bunches
33.2.1 The control of smoke/particulate emission from incinerator stacks can

also be improved by improving combustion efficiencies with
regulated feed rates.
33.2.2 The nature of the operation of incinerators ,i.e. the slow and "low"
temperature burning also results in low gas exit velocity and
precludes the use of dust collection equipment .
33.2.3 The "stack plume" is high in moisture content and thus has little
buoyancy, therefore aerial dispersion is usually minimal.
Visual observation of the colour of the smoke emitted from the stack
can usually give a fair indication of the combustion condition.
33.2.04 The Ringelmann smoke charts may be used to determine either the
increase or decrease in combustion efficiency by comparing
the relative blackness of the smoke against these charts.
Since each chart (6 in total) indicates a change of 20 % in the
observation, an estimate can be made of the altered combustion
condition and controls adjusted to achieve optimum conditions.
160
Palm Oil Process

SECTION #5
THE FACTORY
STEAM & ELECTRICITY GENERATION
MONITORING & EVALUTION
161
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #34
GENERATION OF STEAM AND ELECTRICITY
34.1
General boiler water information.
34.1.01 The most common components of boiler water deposits are:

CALCIUM PHOSPHATE;
CALCIUM CARBONATE (in low pressure
boilers). MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE; MAGNESIUM SILICATE; various
forms of IRON OXIDE; SILICA (absorbed on previous mentioned
precipitates and ALUMINA.
34.1.02 EXPECTED AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF BOILER SLUDGE
162
CONSTITUENT
COAGULATION TREATMENT
PO4 RESIDUAL TREATMENT
Calcium carbonate
HIGH
USUALLY < 5%
Calcium phosphate
USUALLY < 15%
HIGH
Calcium silicate
USUALLY < 3%
TRACE OR NIL
Calcium sulphate
NIL
NIL
Calcium hydroxide
NIL
NIL
Magnesium phosphate
NIL
USUALLY < 5% (except in

H.P. boilers)
Magnesium hydroxide
MODERATE
MODERATE
Magnesium silicate
MODERATE
MODERATE
Silica
USUALLY < 10%
USUALLY < 10%
Alumina
< 10%
USUALLY < 10%
Oil
NONE
NONE
Iron oxide
USUALLY < 5%
USUALLY < 5% (except in high

purity feed water)
Sodium salts
USUALLY < 1.5%
USUALLY < 1.5%
Copper
TRACE
USUALLY LOW
Other metals
TRACE
LOW
Loss on ignition
USUALLY < 5%
USUALLY 8 - 12 % (except in very

pure feed water)
Palm Oil Process

34.1.03 If phosphate salts are used to treat the boiler water, calcium will
preferentially precipitate as the phosphate before precipitation as
the carbonate and calcium phosphate becomes the most prominent
feature of the deposit.
At the high temperature found in boilers, deposits are a serious
problem causing poor heat transfer and potential tube failures.
In low pressure boilers with a low heat transfer deposits may build up
to a point where they completely occlude the boiler tube.
Normally , water circulating through the tubes conduct the heat
away from the metal, preventing the tube from reaching the stage
whereby the metal structure weakens.
34.1.04 Deposits insulate the tube, reducing the rate at which this heat can
be removed, which leads to overheating and eventual tube failure.
If the deposit is not thick enough to cause such a failure, it can still
cause a substantial loss in efficiency and disruption of the heat
transfer load in other sections of the boiler.
Deposits can be SCALE, precipitated in-situ on a heated surface, or
previously precipitated chemicals, often in the form of a sludge.
These "drop out" of the water in low velocity areas (circulating
velocity), compacting to form a dense agglomerate similar to scale.
but retaining the features of the original precipitate.
34.1.05 The second major water related boiler problem is CORROSION, the
most common being the attack by oxygen.
This occurs in virtually every part of the system, from tanks, pipelines,
valves, boiler condensate lines etc., every where oxygen is present.
Oxygen attack is speeded up by high temperatures and by a low pH
of the water.
There is also an alkali attack , corrosion mainly in high pressure boilers,
where caustic can concentrate in a local area of steam bubble
formation because of the presence of porous deposits.
34.1.06 The third major problem is the carry over from the boiler into the
steam system.
This may be a mechanical effect, such as boiler water spraying
around a broken baffle, it may be due to the volatility of certain
boiler water salts (such as silica and sodium compounds) or may be
caused by foaming.
163
Palm Oil Process

34.1.07 Carry over is most often a mechanical problem and the chemicals
found in the steam are those originally present in the boiler water, plus
the volatile components that distil from the boiler, even in the
absence of spray.
There are three basic means for keeping these major problems under
control:
1) EXTERNAL TREATMENT OF THE WATER ,
make up, condensate or both, BEFORE it enters the boiler, to
reduce or eliminate chemicals (such as hardness or silica) gases
or solids. (see 34.2 here under)
2) INTERNAL TREATMENT OF THE BOILER (FEED) WATER,
boiler water, steam or condensate, with corrective chemicals.
3) BLOW DOWN,
Control of the concentration of chemicals in the boiler water by
"bleeding" of a portion of the water in the boiler.
34.2
EXTERNAL TREATMENT.
34.2.01 Broad classification, the aim is to control:

a) suspended solids
b) hardness
c) alkalinity
d) silica
e) total dissolved solids
f) organic matter
g) gases
a) Suspended Solids
The removal is accomplished by coagulation/flocculation,
filtration or precipitation.
Other processes (except "direct reaction") usually require prior
removal of solids
Example:
Ion exchange water should contain less than 10 mg/l suspended
solids to avoid fouling of the exchanger and cause operating
problems.
164
Palm Oil Process

b) Hardness
A number of unit operations remove calcium and magnesium
from water, summarized in the table below:
Impurity
to be
remove
d
Direct
addition
(note 1)
Coagulatio
n
flocculation
Solids
liquid
separation
Preci
pitation
Adsorption
Ion ex
change
Evapor
ation
Dega
sification
Membrane
separation
Suspend
ed solids
n/a
10 mg/l
<1mg/l
10 mg/l
Pre
treatment
Is
required
for all
of
these
Hardnes
s
n/a
n/a
n/a
part
removal
note2
n/a
note 3
note 4
note 5
note
Alkalinity
Decreasing
creasas
require
note 7
n/a
note 2
n/a
note 8
note 4
n/a
note
Silica
n/a
slight
removal
slight
removal
note
part
removal
note 9
note 10
note 4
n/a
note
Total
Dissolve
d Solids
may
increase
note 11
n/a
n/a
note
n/a
note 12
note 4
n/a
note
Organics
note 13
part
removal
note 13
n /a
note 13
5-10%
part
removal
note 14
note 4
n/a
note
Gas
can be
decreased
to zero
may
increase
note 8
n/a
note 15
note 16
note 8
note 4
note 17
note
NOTES:
1) Direct addition is application of chemicals directly to water,
where by-products remain in solution.
2) In the precipitation process, hardness can be reduced by a
controlled amount, depending on the line dosage.
In partial lime softening - only Ca is removed by adding just
enough lime to react with bicarbonate alkalinity plus free CO2.
The reduction of Calcium equals the reduction of alkalinity, since
CaCo3 forms as a precipitate. More hardness removal requires
enough lime to react with magnesium as well to produce a
hydroxide alkalinity of 10mg/l.
The reduction of total solids equals the hardness reduction with
165
Palm Oil Process

coincident reduction of silica and organic matter.
3) The residuals after ion exchange vary with the water analysis, the
regenerant dosis and the application method.
4) Make up to an evaporator is similar to a boiler water, treatment is
similar.
5) If water is de-gasified for CO2 removal, the chemical balance
may be disturbed and hardness may precipitatein the degasifier.
6) Degree of purification varies with the membrane characteristics.
7) Alkalinity may be reduced by coagulation with alum or iron salts it
may be increased by aluminate and remains constant if dosage
of alum and aluminate are balanced.
8) Alkalinity is reduced by blending the effluent of sodium and
hydrogen zeolite units, to any required residual.
The reduction produces Co2 gas which can be degassed to 5 - 10
mg/l at ambient temperature or to 0 at 100 degr. C.
9) The residual silica can be predicted from the water analysis and
the dosage of absorbent applied in the treatment process.
10) Silica is removed in ion exchange processes only by strong base
anion resins, regenerated with caustic.
If the anion unit follows a sodium zeolite the residual may be 10 %
of the feed.
If the anion unit is part of a demineralizer, residuals as low as 0.01
mg/l can be achieved.
11) Some reactions, such as sodium sulphite and oxygen produce a
soluble byproduct (sodium sulphate), which increases T.D.S.
12) The reduction of (T).D.S. by ion exchange varies with different
cation and anion exchange processes.
With sodium zeolite T.D.S. is unchanged on a CaCo3 equivalent
basis, with hydrogen zeolite (H2X), T.D.S. reduction equals the
alkalinity reduction, with a demineralizer removal is essentially
complete and the residuals depend on the combination of units
in the system.
166
Palm Oil Process

13) Organic matter is reduced by both coagulation/flocculation or
lime softening.
Efficiency varies with the selection of coagulants, chlorine,
permanganate or powdered activated carbon.
14) Special ion exchange resins can be used to remove colour
(activated carbon)
Organic matter tends to accumulate irreversibly on anion and
must be removed ahead of demineralization.
15) Carbon dioxide is removed by lime in cold process softeners and
by de-gasification in the spray section of hot process softeners,
which also reduces dissolved oxygen to a residual of about 0.5
mg/l.
H2S may be removed by adding a heavy metal precipitant such
as iron or zinc salt.
16) Taste and odour removed by activated carbon. (also removes
chlorine, by chemical reaction)
17) De-gasifiers, using air stripping reduce CO2 and H2S by 90-95 % if
the pH is kept below 7.
Vacuum de-aerators do as well on CO2 and H2S and also reduce
dissolved O2 to less than 1.0 mg/l.
Steam heated de-aerators will remove all free CO2 and reduce
dissolved O2 to 0.005 mg/l.
c) Alkalinity
It is desirable to have some alkalinity in boiler water, so complete
removal of this is seldom practised, except in demineralization.
Some alkalinity is also needed to provide optimum pH in the feedwater to prevent corrosion of piping and equipment.
The degree of alkalinity reduction is dictated by the boiler-water
control limits and the steam quality goals.
167
Palm Oil Process

d) Silica
The normally permissible concentrations of silica at various
operating pressures are:
Drum pressure in
kg/cm2
Recommended limit in
mg/l
Silica concentration producing 0.02

mg/l SiO2 in saturated steam at
upper limit
0 - 20
20 - 30
30 - 42
42 - 52
52 - 62
62 - 70
150
90
40
30
20
8
150
90
55
35
20
15
Silica reduction is not always necessary, but is very necessary

when operating turbines.
Low concentrations of silica can produce a sticky sludge in low
pressure boilers treated with phosphate.
Treatment selection to the proper degree of silica reduction
required by the steam system.
e) Total Dissolved Solids
Usual reduction achieved by a reduction of several individual
contaminants.
Treatment will result in residuals produced by processes which
reduce T.D.S. as under:
T.D.S.
RESIDUAL
HARDNESS
ALKALINITY
SILICA
Original water
275
160
135
10
Split steam
170
nil
20
10
Partial cold lime
190
75
50
Hot lime - soda
145
17
40
Hot lime - zeolite
155
nil
30
Demineralization
1-2
nil
1-2
0.05
PROCESS
168
Palm Oil Process

f)
Organic matter
A quantitative term, includes wide variety of compounds, seldom
a problem.
g) Dissolved gasses
Commonly used to remove gas mechanically rather than
chemically.
Blower types, vacuum types, steam scrubbing types (de-aerating
heaters), all reduce CO2 and O2 concentrations.
34.3
INTERNAL TREATMENT.
34.3.01 Scale formation in a boiler is controlled mainly by four chemical

programmes:
1) Coagulation (carbonate)
2) Phosphate residual
3) Chelation
4) Coordinated phosphate
1) COAGULATION
Sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide or both are added to the boiler
water to supplement the alkalinity.
The carbonate causes deliberate precipitation of calcium carbonate
under favourable, controlled conditions, preventing depositions at
some subsequent point as scale.
Under alkaline conditions, magnesium and silica are also precipitated
as magnesium hydroxide and magnesium silicate.
There is usually a fairly high concentration of suspended solids in the
boiler water and precipitation occurs on the solids.
Only used on boilers with high hardness feed-water and operating
below a pressure of 18 kg/cm2.
2) PHOSPHATE
Where the pressure is above 17.5 kg/cm2, high concentrations of
sludge are undesirable.
Feed-water hardness to be limited to 60 mg/l.
169
Palm Oil Process

A sodium phosphate compound fed either to feed water or direct to
boiler drum, quantity depending on water analysis.
Magnesium and silica are precipitated as magnesium hydroxide and
magnesium silicate, or calcium silicate.
The alkalinity is usually adequate for magnesium precipitation.
3) CHELANT PROGRAMME
A chelant is a molecule similar to an ion exchanger, low in molecular
weight and soluble in water.
The sodium salts of Ethylene Diamin Tetra-acetic Acid (EDTA) and
Nitrilo-tri-acetic Acid (NTA) are chelating agents.
These chelate (=form complex ions with) calcium and magnesium,
because the resulting complex is soluble, this treatment is
advantageous in minimizing blow-down.
Usually limited to boilers operating below 100 kg/cm2.
4) CO-ORDINATED PHOSPHATE PROGRAMME
Only used in high pressure, high heat transfer rate boilers.
34.4
BLOW DOWN.
34.4.01 Basically it is a process of diluting boiler-water solids by withdrawing

water at a rate that induces a flow of feed-water into the boiler in
excess of the steam demand, i.e.:(example):
Steam 900.000 kg/day,
solids essentially zero
Feed water 1.000.000 l/day
solids 100 mg/l
solids added per day=100 kg
Boiler Water Solids Level1000 mg/l
Blow down 100.000 l/day

Solids content 1000 mg/l
Solids removal= 100 kg/day
Blow down may be intermittent or continuous, to

concentration level of solids in boiler water.
maintain
When level is reached, blow down is opened for a short period to

reduce the concentration, water is filled and boiler operated until
control limits are reached again.
170
Palm Oil Process

It is common to express the blow down rate as a percentage of feed
water.
BLOW DOWN = 100 : CRf = % feed water.
CRf = Control Ratio factor
i.e.: if silica concentration is 1.5 mg/l in feed-water, and the allowable
limit is 10 mg/l, the concentration ratio factor will be 10 : 1.5 = 6.7
The concentration ratio factor is calculated for each of the
constituents , the lowest CRf determines the blow down rate.
Example:
FACTOR
MAKE-UP
T.D.S.
150
SiO2
3
20
ALKALINITY
FEED-WATER
75
BOILER-LIMIT
MAX. CRf
2000
26.7
1.5
10
6.7
10
150
15
Blow down = 100 : 6.7 = 15 % of feed water.

High blow down losses can be reduced by treating water to reduce
the constituent making the lowest CRf.
Therefore careful sampling of both the feed water and the make up
water is required to determine the correct blow down rate.
Boiler water must be cooled before analyzing it.
Although one of several constituents may determine the required
blow down rate, it is general practice to determine all of the critical
concentrations on a regular basis.
Each can be related to the T.D.S as measured by a conductivity
meter and actual blow down can be related to this. (Chloride test
may also be used for this)
Continuous blow down, at a calculated, controlled ratio is usually
cheaper than the intermittent type blow down. (chemical usage)
171
Palm Oil Process

34.5
THE PRINCIPLE OF DE-AERATION
34.5.01 When dealing with de-aeration problems, it is usual to refer to

dissolved oxygen content in millilitres per litre or in part per million
(1 ml/l = 1.43 ppm)
The volume of oxygen being corrected to the normal temperature
and pressure (N.T.P.), i.e. 0 0C and 1 atmosphere.
It is assumed that the source of all dissolved oxygen is the atmosphere
which contains approximately 20 % of oxygen and 80 % of nitrogen,
measured by volume.
By the Law of Partial Pressures it follows that the pressure exerted by
the oxygen constituent in air is 20% or one fifth of the total air pressure.
The solubility of oxygen in water follows Henry's Law which states that
the weight of gas dissolved in water is proportional to the pressure of
the gas.
The graph below shows the solubility of pure oxygen in water for
varying temperature at a constant oxygen pressure of 1 kg/cm2.
From this curve, it is possible to calculate the maximum dissolved
oxygen contents of water for any temperature and pressure
conditions.
34.5.02 Example:
Calculation for the maximum dissolved oxygen content of water at
atmospheric pressure and at a temperature of 82 oC.:
From the saturated steam tables,
Internal vapour pressure of water
0.5 kg/cm2
Thus, total pressure (1 atm)
1.0 kg/cm2
Vapour pressure
0.5 kg/cm2
Difference (air pressure)
0.5 kg/cm2
Oxygen pressure (1/5 x air)
0.1 kg/cm2
From the graph,

Solubility of oxygen at 82 oC
18 ml/litre
Therefore,
oxygen in solution at 82 oC
172
18 x 0.1 : 1 = 1.8 ml/litre
Palm Oil Process

A series of curves as shown below are derived and drawn, through
this calculation, indicating the maximum oxygen contents at varying
temperatures and total pressure.
The upper curve for atmospheric pressure is useful to ascertain the
maximum oxygen content of open feed tanks at various
temperatures.
It is noted that the pressure lines reach the zero oxygen line at a
temperature corresponding to the boiling point, but the oxygen
contents increase rapidly as temperature falls below boiling point.
When de-aerators are introduced, an oxygen content not exceeding
0.1 mg/l is usually specified.
In most cases to water tube boilers and their economizers when the
working pressure does not exceed 18kg/cm2, this allowable limit gives
adequate, sufficient protection.
34.5.03 For modern, (high pressure) boilers plant, the following table may be
taken as a guide:
BOILER PRESSURE
STEAM TEMPERATURE
MAX.PERMISSIBLE OXYGEN
CONTENT
( KG / CM2 )
(DEGR. CELSIUS)
( MG / LITRE )
18
320
0.05
32
400
0.03
42
430
0.02
62
480
0.01
OVER 62
OVER 480
0.005
The most simple method of de-aeration is by thermal, by operating at

the boiling point of the water under vacuum or pressure.
Under vacuum, the operating temperature is lower.
173
Palm Oil Process

34.6
PROCEDURE FOR BOILER BOIL-OUT
34.6.01 REQUIRED CHEMICALS:

Na2CO3 = SODA ASH , or
Na3PO4 = TRI SODIUM PHOSPHATE (ANHYDROUS,=NO WATER=IN DRY FORM)
Or
Na3PO4(+12 H2O)= TRI SODIUM PHOSPHATE (PRE MIXED IN WATER)
34.6.02 USAGE OF CHEMICALS:

PER 1000 LITRE WATER IN BOILER:
=
Na2 CO3
Na3 PO4 (+12 H2O) =
=
Na3 PO4
9 KG
5 KG
2,5 KG
34.6.03 METHOD OF WORK:

FIRST DAY:
1) Fill boiler with water with the chemicals already mixed in, to the
normal operating water level.
2) Start slow firing to a maximum of 15 % of the normal working
pressure, then stop firing and "rest" the boiler. (i.e. 12 hours firing;
followed by 12 hours rest.)
3) There after, drain out the boiler water.
SECOND DAY:
1) Fill boiler with water with chemicals already mixed in, to the
2) Start slow firing to a maximum of 30 % of the normal working
pressure, then maintain pressure for 12 hours in total.
3) Let boiler cool down
4) after cool down, drain out the boiler water.
THIRD DAY:
1) Fill boiler with water with chemicals already mixed in, to the
2) Fire up boiler to a maximum of 50 % of the normal working
pressure , then maintain pressure for a total of 12 hours.
174
Palm Oil Process

3) Blow down boiler while under pressure but maintain sufficient
water level in boiler to let it cool down.
4) Leave water in boiler until cooled down completely.
5) When cold, drain out all water, refill with clean water and wash
out all sludge, deposits etc.
6) Open and inspect headers, drums etc.
7) If found O.K. and no loose deposits etc., Close up boiler and refill
with water and the normal water treatment chemicals.
Common Chemicals Used to Treat (Boiler) Water
Bulk
Apprp
density
kg/m3
H in 1%
solution
Solubility
960
180
3.4
64kg/m3 @15oC
960
Insoluble
50
1280
Insoluble
96 % Ca(OH)2
40*
640
12
Insoluble
HTH
70 % Cl2
103
880
6-8
3% @15oC
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Burned lime,
quisk lime
96 % CaO
30 *
960
12
Slake at
10-20%
Calcium sulfate
(CaSO4.2H2O)
Gypsum
98 % Gypsum
86*
880
5-6
Insoluble
Chlorine (Cl2)
Chlorine
Gas - 99.8% Cl2
35.5
gas
1.1 kg/m3 @5oC
Copper sulfate
(CuSO4.5H2O)
Blue vitriol
98 % pure
121 *
1200
5-6
32 kg/m3
@15oC
Dolomitic lime
[Ca(OH)2.MgO]
Dolomitic lime
36-40% MgO
67#
640
12.4
Insoluble
Ferric Chloride
(FeCl3.6H2O)
Iron chloride
Lump-20% Fe
Liquid-20% Fe
91*
1120
210
3-4
45% @15oC
Ferric sulfate
[Fe2(SO4)3.3H2O]
Iron sulfate
18.5 % Fe
51.5*
1120
3-4
30% @15oC
Ferrous sulfate
(FeSO4.7H2O)
Copperas
20% Fe
139*
1120
3-4
16kg/m3 @15oC
Common
name
Typical
specifications
Equiv
weight
Aluminium Sulphate
[Al2(SO4)3 .14H2O]
Alum
Lump - 17% Al2O3

Liquid - 8.5%
100*
Bentonitic clay
Bentonite
Calcium carbonate
( CaCO3 )
Limestone
96 % CaCO3
Calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2]
Hydrated
lime,
Slaked lime
Calcium hypochlorite
[CA (OCl)2.4H2O]
Chemical
175
Palm Oil Process

Hydrochloric acid
Muriatic acid
30%
HCl,20oBaume
120*
155
1-2
35% @15oC
Sodium aluminate
(NaAlO2)
Aluminate
Flake-46%Al2O3
Liquid-26%Al2O3
100*
800
11-12
40% @15oC
Sodium chloride
(NaCl)
Rock salt,
salt
98 % pure
58.5
960
6-8
42 kg/m3
@15oC
Sodium carbonate
(NaCO3)
Soda ash
98 % pure
58 % Na2O
53
960
6-8
42kg/m3 @15oC
Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH)
Caustic,
Lye
Flake-99% NaOH
Liquid-50-70 %
40
1040
190
11
12.8
Sodium phosphate
(Na2HPO4)
Disodium
phosphate
49% P2O5
47.3
880
20% @15oC
Sodium
Hexamata
phosphate
66% P2O5
34
750
5-6
16kg/m3 @15oC
Oil of vitriol
94-96 %
66 o Baume
50*
240
1-2
Infinite
Metaphosphate
(NaPO3)
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
* Effective equivalent weight of commercial product

# Effective equivalent weight based on Ca(OH)2 content
176
24kg/m3
@15oC 70%
@15oC
Palm Oil Process

34.7
STEAM REQUIREMENT CALCULATIONS
34.7.01 Steam required for mill capacity of 20 ton ffb/hr, 25 ton ffb/hr and 30
ton ffb/hr at the peak load of sterilizer.
At capacity 1ton
FFB/hr
20/25/30 ton
20
ton FFB/hr
25
ton FFB/hr
30
ton FFB/hr
Steam consumption
Kg steam/hr
kg steam/hr
kg steam/hr
kg steam/hr
3 peak sterilizer at the

peak load*
256/240/224
5.120
6.000
6.720
20
400
500
600
Crude oil heater*, tank

& clarification
82/74/66
1.640
1.850
2.000
Process water heating *
36/38/40
720
950
1.200
Cake breaker
conveyor*
90/72/60
1.800
1.800
1.800
Nut silo dryer*
60/48/40
1.200
1.200
1.200
42
840
1.050
1.260
Vacuum oil dryer*
HP 6/4.8/4
120 nil
120 nil
120 nil
Steam driven feed

pumps
HP 30 LP nil
600 nil
750 nil
900 nil
De-aerator
HP 50 LP nil
1000 nil
1250 nil
1500 nil
High pressure
1720
2120
2520
Sub total
11.760
13.350
14.720
Losses 5 %
588
667
736
Grand total
12.348
14.017
15.456
Digester
Kernel silo dryer*
177
Palm Oil Process

34.7.02 TABLE OF FUEL / STEAM / POWER BALANCE
1. AVAILABLE FUEL PER HOUR
Basic of
20 T FFB
25 T FFB
30 T FFB
Shell 6%*
1.200 kg
1.500 kg
1.800 kg
Fibre 13%*
2.600 kg
3.250 kg
3.900 kg
*) based on average data under average conditions
2. AVAILABLE HEAT FROM FUEL PER HOUR

a) 20 T FFB:
Shell
= 1.200 x 3.850** kcal/kg
4.620.000 kcal
Fibre
= 2.600 x 2.570***kcal/kg
6.682.000 kcal
Total
= 11.302.000 kcal
b) 25 T FFB:
Shell
= 1.500 x 3.850** kcal/kg
5.775.000 kcal
Fibre
= 3.250 x 2.570***kcal/kg
8.352.000 kcal
Total
= 14.127.500 kcal
c) 30 T FFB:
Shell
= 1.800 x 3.850** kcal/kg
6.930.000 kcal
Fibre
= 3.900 x 2.570***Kcal/kg
= 10.023.000 kcal
Total
= 16.953.000 kcal
HEAT AVAILABLE FROM STEAM GENERATION

Basic of
Heat quantity of fuel
(fibre + shell) (100% DxP)
20 T FFB/hr
25 T FFB/hr
30 T FFB/hr
11.302.000 kcal
14.127.500 kcal
16.953.000 kcal
**) with moisture content 16%

***) with moisture content 34%
178
Palm Oil Process

3. STEAM OBTAINABLE FROM FUEL AVAILABLE (FIBRE + SHELL).
(Steam is generated by a Water Tube Boiler)
Technical Data
Working pressure
Bar.g
20
Temperature at superheated outlet
oC
260
Feed water temperature
oC
105
Boiler efficiency
73
Blow down rate
Heat required to produce 1 kg of

steam
616 kcal
Hence, steam obtainable due to combustion of fuel (Fibre+Shell only)

STEAM OBTAINABLE
179
20 TON FFB
11,302,000 x 0.73
= 13,394 kg steam/hr
616
25 TON FFB
14,127,500 x 0.73
616
30 TON FFB
16,953,500 x 0.73
616
Palm Oil Process

AVAILABLE STEAM FOR ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATION AFTER DIRECT
HIGH PRESSURE CONSUMPTION.
A) 20 TON FFB/hr
13,394 - 1,720
Losses 3% (installation losses)
=
350 kg steam/hr
11,324 kg steam/hr
B)
25 TON FFB/hr
16,742 - 2.120
=
440 kg steam/hr
14,182 kg steam/hr
C) 30 TON FFB/hr
17,570 - 2.520
=
527 kg steam/hr
17,043 kg steam/hr
4. AVAILABLE ELECTRIC POWER

Total kW obtainable from available steam
TOTAL kW OBTAINABLE FROM AVAILABLE STEAM
(*)
180
20 TON FFB/hr
11,324
= 566 kW
20
25 TON FFB/hr
14,182
= 709 kW
20
30 TON FFB/hr
17,043
= 844 kW
20.18
High efficiency steam turbine characteristic

Output power
: 500/600/750 kW
Specific steam consumption
: 20 kg/kW H
Inlet steam pressure
: 18 bar (g)
Exhaust steam pressure
: 2.8 bar (g)
: 260 oC
Palm Oil Process

(**) High efficiency steam turbine characteristic
Output power
: up to 940 kW
Specific steam consumption
: 20.18 kg/kW H
: 18 bar(g) max.21 bar(g)
Exhaust steam pressure
: 2.8 bar(g) max.3.5bar(g)
Inlet steam temperature
: 260 oC max.300 oC
5. HORSE POWER & KILOWATT REQUIREMENT

A load factor of 70% could be assumed as full load.
20 TON FFB & 25 TON FFB (Almost equal power requirements)
ELECTRIC POWER
For processing
996.2 x 0.746 x 0.7 = 520 kW
Additional
- Factory light
- Work shop
- Office & lab.
- Domestic
59 x 0.746
TOTAL
= 44 kW
564 kW
30 TON FFB
ELECTRIC POWER
For processing
Additional
- Factory light
- Work shop
- Office & lab.
- Domestic
TOTAL
181
1,102.2 x 0.746 x 0.7 = 576 kW

59 x 0.746
= 44 kW
620 kW
Palm Oil Process

STEAM AND POWER BALANCE
Capacity
Steam (kg/hr)
AVAILABLE
REQUIRED
Balance
Electric Power (kW)
Balance
+/-
AVAILABLE
REQUIRED
+/-
20 T FFB
11324
12348
- 1024
566
564
+2
25 T FFB
14182
14017
+ 165
709
564
+ 145
30 T FFB
17043
15456
+ 1587
844
620
+ 224
FINAL ANALYSIS
I. STEAM POWER
I.a.
For 20 TON FFB:

- Steam required for processing
12348 kg/hr.
- Steam available
11324 kg/hr.
- Steam balance
1024 kg/hr.
i.e. Fuel (Fibre + Shell) are not enough to generate the required steam for this
reason, thus supplementary fuel (for example empty bunch) has to be used.
I.b.
For 25 TON FFB:

14017 kg/hr.
- Steam required
14182 kg/hr
- Steam balance
+ 165 kg/hr.
15456 kg/hr.
- Steam available
Steam balance
:
:
17043 kg/hr.
+1587 kg/hr.
564 kW
- Electric power available for processing :
566 kW
i.e. surplus of fuel.

I.c.
For 30 TON FFB:

-
i.e. surplus of fuel.

II. ELECTRIC POWER
II.a.
For 20 TON FFB:

- Electric power required for processing
- Power balance is
+ 2 kW
That means that steam production is sufficient to generate the required

power.
182
Palm Oil Process

II.b. For 25 TON FFB:

564 kW
- Electric power available for processing
709 kW
- Power balance is
+145 kW

power (surplus).
II.c.
For 30 TON FFB:

620 kW
- Electric power available for processing
844 kW
- Power balance is
+ 224 kW

power (surplus).
SUMMARY
A. Mill capacity 20 TON FFB/hr:
1. To obtain sufficient steam/power for processing,
empty bunches could be utilized as fuel.
shredded and dried
2. Boiler capacity: 15 T/hr

3. Turbo alternator output: 650-700 kW (in order to cover additional power
requirement for empty bunch treatment plant).
B. Mill capacity 25 TON FFB/hr:
1. Steam and power can be sufficiently generated from fuel available.
3. Turbo Alternator output: 600-700 kW (in order to fully utilize the steam
available).
C. Mill capacity 30 TON FFB/hr:
1. Steam and power can be sufficiently generated from fuel available.
3. Turbo Alternator output: 700-950 kW (in order to fully utilize the steam
available).
183
Palm Oil Process

NOTE 1:
The above figures are merely shown as an example and should not
be taken literally when calculating the requirements for a particular
plant/factory.
Each factory has its own specific needs and these should be taken
into consideration when calculating its requirements.
NOTE 2 :
From the working results of palm oil mills which utilise empty bunches
mixed with
fibre and shell as fuel, it has been shown that as a
consequence of burning the bunches a large part of the other wise
available potassium salts are wasted.
Regular boiler ash analysis for K20, have given percentages of 4, 9, to
even 12% thus, not all potassium salts are wasted.
It must be noted that the figures of low K20 content concerned boilers
on full load and the high K20 figures concerned boilers on low load.
Further more, the K20 content of fly-ash from the flues and chimneys
in its turn is higher then the K20 content of ashes from the furnace
grate, for instance:
In HCl soluble K20
grate ash
flue ash
1st sample
12.04%
16.38 %
2nd sample
7.06%
12.75 %
3rd sample
9.28%
14.92 %
Thus a part of the potassium salts is carried along with the smoke
gasses in some form and later on, when these gasses cool down, it
will crystallize as fine dust and deposit with soot and other particles on
various places in the smoke gas flues.
Investigation in to the reasons for (violent) corrosion have comprised
a qualitative chemical analysis of the acid liquid between the "iron
blisters" and corroded parts.
The tests showed that the existence of Mg - K - NH4 - iron Cl and SO4
could be determined.
184
Palm Oil Process

Unless the burning of empty bunches in the boiler furnace is
absolutely necessary in order to maintain a positive fuel - steam
power balance, it is therefore not recommended.
34.8
ELECTRICITY
34.8.01 Since a palm oil mill utilizes the expelled fibre, shells etc. for fuelling
its boilers and generating steam, it is obvious that it is
advantageous to generate electricity for normal processing by steam
driven alternators.
34.8.02 In order to be able to start-up the boilers and the process, there has
to be electricity available before sufficient steam is raised to operate
the steam driven equipment and this is commonly achieved by
generating electricity with diesel driven alternators.
34.8.03 In a well designed and correctly operated palm oil mill these diesel
driven units should never be used to operate the main process lines
and in fact the capacity of these units should be chosen such that
there is sufficient power generated to allow for a correct start-up
(and stopping) of the boilers and auxiliary equipment, but definitely
insufficient to "run" the factory.
34.8.04 Steam turbines have now largely replaced all other types of steam
drive units for alternators in palm oil mills.
The steam turbine type most commonly used is designed to operate on the
full steam pressure as generated by the boiler(s) and has a "back
pressure" (or exhaust steam pressure) which is sufficiently high to be
utilized for the sterilization process and the various heating
applications in the oil mill.
34.8.05 The introduction of the water tube type steam boiler with super
heated steam etc. has aided the introduction of a fairly large
assortment of steam turbines into the industry, each with their own
particular characteristics, their good point sand their "failings".
34.8.06 As for many other (specific) machinery in the mill, it would be outside
the scope of this book to enter into too much detail for particular
machines as it is far better to extract specific information from the
manufacturers instruction manuals and hand books.
34.8.07 Correct operation of these machines consists mainly of correct
185
Palm Oil Process

starting and stopping procedures to be observed and correct load
balancing when these machines are operating.
Ideally this load balancing should be automatic and not manually
controlled, so that actual kW loads and power factors etc. are
equally shared out on the system, if more then one unit is operating in
parallel with others.
34.8.08 Good and continuous supervision is the key word here and can save
considerable amounts of money, by ensuring that correct operating
procedures are followed and that diesel driven generator usage is
restricted to the start - stop periods of the mill only.
186
Palm Oil Process

GENERAL STEAM PIPE & BOILER CALCULATIONS
Steam pipe diameter
To calculate the diameter of a pipe to pass a stated quantity of steam:
Area of pipe in square inches
Steam quantity in lb/h x specific volume in ft3/lb x 1728 cu.inch
=
Velocity in ft/sec. x 3600 sec x 12 inches
0.25 x area in inches
Diameter of pipe in inches =square root of :
3.14(=pi)
N.B.: The velocity of dry saturated steam through a (main) pipe should not
normally exceed 100 ft/sec.
Steam velocity
To calculate the velocity of a stated quantity of steam passing through a given
pipe diameter:
steam quantity in lb/h x spec.vol. in lb3/lb x 1728 cu.inch
velocity in ft/sec =
Diameter of pipe in sq.inches x 3600 sec. x 12 inches
Feed water pipe diameter

To calculate the required diameter of a pipe to pass a stated quantity of boiler
feed water:
water quantity in lb/hr x 144 sq.inch
Area of pipe in sq.inch =
velocity in ft/secf. x 62.5 lb/ft3 x 3600 sec.
N.B.: The area calculated should be increased by at least 30% to permit quick
filling of the boiler(s) in emergency situations.
187
Palm Oil Process

0.25 x area + 30%
Diameter of the pipe in inches =square root of:
3.14 (=pi)
The usual velocity in a main feed pipe should not be more then about 3 ft/sec.
and in a branch of the feed pipe about 2 ft.sec.
Feed water velocity
To calculate the velocity of a stated quantity of feed water passing through a
feed water pipe of given diameter:
water quantity in lb/hr x 144
velocity in ft/sec. =
(pipe area in sq.inch. + 30%) x 3600 x 62.5
Pipe expansion
The linear expansion of steam pipes (or feed pipes if in long stretches) can be
calculated :
E = ( T - t) x C x L
where :
E
C
L
T
T
=
=
=
=
=
expansion in inches
coefficient in linear expansion
pipe length in inches
temperature of steam in oF
ambient temperature in oF
The linear coefficient of expansion per oF for the varios metals various
somewhat and should be obtained from the boiler or pipe manufacturer, but
on average the following may be assumed:
Mild steel
Cast iron
Copper
Wrought iron
=
=
=
=
0.0000065
0.0000063
0.0000093
0.0000069
Equivalent evaporation
For purposes of comparison it is assumed that feed water is supplied and
evaporated at a temperature of 212oF.
188
Palm Oil Process

If
H
t
Wi
=
=
=
weight in lb. of steam produced at any given temperature or

pressure;
total heat in Btu of 1lb. of steam at this temperature or pressure;
temperature of feed water in oF;
equivalent weight of steam at 212oF from feed water, then
Wi
=
=
(1150.7 - 180)
W [H - (t - 32)] , or
Wi
W [H - ( t - 32 )]
970.7
Factor of evaporation
The factor of evaporation for either saturated or superheated steam can be
calculated:
total heat of steam - (feed temperature - 32)
970.7
Gross boiler efficiency
May be roughly calculated:
furnace temperature flue gas exit temperature
Boiler efficiency % =
furnace temperature
189
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #35
REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE
35.1
Maintenance and maintenance Scheduling.
35.1.01 Most maintenance seen to date at older mills is either on a : "repair

when breakdown" basis or on a scheduled time preventative basis.
Both systems have considerable failings; the first one needs no
explanation, it is always too late, the second one depends on
scheduled inspections of the installed equipment in order to discover
(and remedy) the condition that leads to the breakdown, damage
etc.
With the knowledge acquired over many years of mill operation in
many different mills and under equally as many different circumstances
various systems have evolved to control and "manage" maintenance.
35.1.02 One of the more successful ones can be termed:"break down fore
cast" or a predictive system.
Such a system requires the proper recording of machine/ equipment
utilization (i.e. running hours, operating loads, through put rates etc.)
and the proper recording of repairs effected in terms of time, parts etc.
Once the above recording system is established, usually the cost of
maintenance and the total spare part inventory cost decrease,
resulting in a lower overall total cost of production.
35.1.03 More efficient maintenance control by management will reduce the
stock holding levels of the three major areas :
- consumables (which is about 15% of total)
- materials, pipes, valves, fittings etc. (which is about 25 % of total) and
- machinery spare parts (which represent about 60 % of total stock
holding).
Usually maintenance cost operate in cycles,i.e. a very heavy cost this
year is followed by fairly moderate costs the following one or two years.
35.1.04 The main area for (initial) attention is good and consistent recording, so
that trouble areas can be identified and analyzed to attempt to
predict (the cause of) failure of the machine.
Once this is in place, essential decisions in the following areas can be
190
Palm Oil Process

made:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Establish priorities
Plan, Schedule work
Prepare time schedules
Prepare work orders
Make cost estimates
Keep track of costs
Control of both material and spares holding
Scheduling for preventative maintenance
Record historical data of repairs etc.
Train personnel
35.1.05 All above have a specific function and apart from the actual physical
repair work most of the above administrative tasks can be assisted to a
high degree with the introduction of the computer in the
workshop/store environment, for the recording, sorting and linking the
gathered data.
Suitable interpretation of the data as noted above allows the following:
a) better control by the engineering staff
b) identification / reduction of excessive R&M costs
c) early indication of equipment problems / failure
d) improved planning / scheduling options
e) repetitive failures can be identified / analyzed, leading to
f) improvements in re design, lay out, replacements etc.
g) less emergencies, more reliability
h) less paper work (computerized records)
i) better inventory control through instant access to updated
data
j) lower overall stock holding, lower costs
Computer utilization to assist in the record keeping and the data bases
should be on at least the following:
35.1.06 Individual machine records.
Ideally if a machine has a nameplate, all data on that should be
transferred to a data base that contains all equipment information,
including equipment number (a code cross reference number to the
stock inventory), original cost, replacement cost, (updated), warranty
data, service agent information, service location, engineering drawings
and specifications, parts descriptions and technical performance data.
191
Palm Oil Process

Spare parts must be cross referenced to interact with an inventory
control data base.
35.1.07 Machine history.
This should consist of a complete history of all equipment, assembled in
accordance with machine and station.
It should interact with work orders (job cards), inventory control,
maintenance data base and generate reports of corrective actions
taken.
35.1.08 Work orders (job cards).
These should interact with the inventory control, equipment history and
the maintenance data base, to produce on line reports of status of all
equipment in total cost, including labour and parts in accordance with
the allocated code numbers.
It should be capable of producing up to date station status reports on
demand.
35.1.09 Maintenance data base.
These are basically activity schedules to be produced and to interact
with work orders.
(This data can also be interfaced to accept data from a condition
monitoring device).
35.1.10 Inventory control.
A coding system to accept inter changeability within a group of mills
(general standardization, if planned for can thus be achieved).
Stock holding to be categorized and to have the ability of "purchase
order tracking", order printing (on a specified time basis) and maintain
necessary lowest stock levels.
35.1.11 The concept of what is termed "condition monitoring" should be
introduced in all mills, old or new, and regular monthly full inspections
should be done and the results recorded.
This however requires a high level of skill and competence for the
carrying out of the inspection and the necessity to shut down and
dismantle machinery for inspection.
192
Palm Oil Process

Although this type of monitoring is often the only one available,(virtually
all larger companies have their own "visiting" engineers or employ
consultants to monitor monthly, there are ways to mechanize this
monitoring and reduce the reliance on individual levels of skill and
competence.
Condition monitoring by recording the machine inherent vibration
levels, for instance, can give a very clear indication of a machine
condition and whether it is heading for a breakdown or not.
Such measuring/recording devices are not cheap but will, if used
consistently, achieve the major aim, which remains:
- reduce costs
- improve reliability.
Meanwhile it is strongly recommended that a regular full mill inspection
is carried out, mill questionnaires are completed and an accurate
record is kept of all the data gathered to build up an "historical data
bank" for the existing mills.
A central engineering division to control this and associated mill
technical problems should be created, if not already in existence.
A check list for mill visits and a questionnaire for completion by the mill
staff before the inspection visit are the essential beginnings of a
maintenance orientated recording system.
35.1.12 Monitoring machines / equipment.
An effective preventative system leads to an equally effective
predictive system, where action can be taken in time to prevent
complete breakdown.
As noted above, the major draw back is the high level of skill and
competence required by the staff which carry out the routine
inspections and the necessity to shut down and dismantle machinery
for proper inspection.
The personal relationship between the engineer or plant attendant and
the machines under their care is no longer economically feasible.
The modern integral machinery, totally enclosed and running at high
speeds are designed to run automatically with only occasional,
minimum attention from attendants.
In the past the attendant assessed the machine condition by feeling by
193
Palm Oil Process

hand and listening to any changes in the running noises of the
machine.
This relationship was dependant on a continuous association with the
machine on a day to day basis.
Sensitive instruments are nowadays commonly available to monitor
machinery, basically by a vibration measurement and an interpretation
thereof, i.e.:
An ideal machine would produce no vibration, a good
designed well maintained machine will produce low levels
of inherent vibration.
As machines wear, parts deform, shafts un align, moving
parts become unbalanced etc., clearances increase or
decrease and an increase in vibration will be the result.
This increase will create a resonance, an increased
dynamic load on all moving parts and eventually this will
lead to a machine breakdown.
Instruments based condition monitoring can prevent this
breakdown by indicating at what stage of vibration it
becomes critical, so that repairs may be effected before
that time.
Generally maintenance methods fall into two categories:
1) Break down / replacement maintenance.
In expensive machinery with the important ones duplicated allow
operation to breakdown without a significant loss.
As long as safety standards are maintained there is no economic
advantage in knowing when it will break down.
2) Predictive, time based maintenance.
Built up by statistical study and manual inspections, set out on a
calendar based schedule or on an operating hours basis.
Experience has shown that the reliability of newly serviced machines
is not guaranteed and often subject to post repair failures or failures
194
Palm Oil Process

after machine inspection, the result of incorrect workmanship or non
genuine spares etc.
Skill and training are a very important pert of maintenance and
merit separate attention.
35.1.13 Condition monitoring maintenance.
The basic idea of this is that maintenance is only permitted when
measurements show it to be necessary.
The question as to when and why this should be introduced is best
answered by a list of pro's and con's, since it is difficult to immediately
quantify an economic attractive balance.
SAVINGS
COSTS
Increased average time between

overhauls
Initial investigations, selecting of

monitoring points, establishment of limits
Virtual elimination of break down
Selection, purchase of instruments
Elimination of secondary damage
Instruction, training of staff
Elimination of component waste
Instruction of engineers in the

evaluation of the measurements
Reduction of the spare part costs

Reduced repair duration
The reduction in maintenance staff will be a saving, but is not shown

above since costs will be taken up in training those with the ability to
absorb the new technique and the upgrading of the existing
maintenance staff.
In the long term a general, significant, reduction in overall
maintenance costs can be expected.
Introduction of the system can be either "step by step" or "instant".
Both will require the KEEPING OF GOOD RECORDS as the FIRST and most
IMPORTANT measure.
That way the inventory control is more effective and stock levels can be
set based on the inter changeability of parts etc. between mills,
resulting in overall lower levels and less capital tied up in stock.
195
Palm Oil Process

35.1.14 Staff training
On a group basis a team of Engineers / Technicians could cover all mills
within one year, achieving a comprehensive monitoring system which
would have the ability to be linked at some time to a computer based
maintenance programme.
This however will require training towards this goal, which could / should
start well before the system is introduced.
A Central Engineering division should have as one of its main tasks a
"Technical Training Centre", to upgrade and teach technical skills.
This would include trade skills, for (younger) tradesmen who will form the
nucleus of future maintenance personnel.
Training should blend in with the other training programmes operated
within the group.
35.2
CHECK LIST FOR REPORTING ON PALM OIL MILLS.

In order to be able to check the machinery and equipment in the
factory and its ancilliated areas of operation engineers should prepare
a check list which can be used as a basis for a variety of monitoring
purposes.
An example of a checklist is as under:
1.
FACTORY
Reception area
:
condition of mill internal roads
condition, operational procedures
recording methods, accuracy
fruit spillage, overall cleanliness
Rail tracks
overall condition
Transfer tracks
overall condition, operational procedures
Marshalling yard
type/condition of cage moving device
Weighbridge
Loading ramp
Cages
196
number operational
number under repair
Palm Oil Process

Bogies
Capstans & Ropes
total number available
number operational
number under repair
total number available
chart recorders
door wear and door joints
door safety devices / measures
wear plates/internal rail tracks
hinged rail pieces
condensate drainage
condition silencer/pit
condition valves , pipes , etc
thermal insulation
pressures , cycle times (door open-door close)
sequence of usage , automatic system operation
check roof , rafters, columns, floor
condition of: beam
hoist cables
tipping chains
power cables
condition of feeding device , RPM
thresher drum, RPM
bar clearance , spider arms
threshing action, effectiveness
Sterilization
Check
Operation
Building
Crane & Thresher
Crane
Thresher
Unstripped bunch count 100 bunches

Check
all drive units, chains and sprockets
machinery guards
Empty bunch/incinerating
Check
197
condition of MT bunch conveyors, horizontal and
Palm Oil Process

inclined
:
chutes etc.
incinerator roofs
incinerator grates
external and internal brickwork
drive units conveyors, machinery guards
method of operation, sequence of usage
condition of bottom fruit conveyors
fruit elevator chains and buckets
top fruit conveyors
feed chutes
return fruit conveyors
drive units and machinery guards
overall condition shaft, arms, wear plates
operating temperatures
electrical loading
operational method
press settings / electrical loading
operating temperatures
dilution rates / temperatures
average throughput rates
general performance/condition (visual)
crude oil gutters and tank
tank operating temperature
all drive units and machinery guards
type
condition and operation
solids carry over / effectiveness
Digesters /Presses
Check
Digesters
Presses
Crude oil
Check
Vibrating screens
Crude oil pumps
198
dilution rates (at screens)
tank heating type (closed coil or live steam)
type , condition , method of operation
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Clarification
Check
Decanters
Oil centrifuges
Sludge centrifuges
clarifier tank operation , levels and temperatures
underflow composition and oil content
pure oil skimming and operational procedures
sludge tank operation
feed rates, feed temperatures , electrical loading
overall condition
feed rates , feed temperatures , electrical loading
type used , sequence of usage , condition
type used , sequence of usage, condition
nozzle sizes, electrical loading
condition of valves ,pipelines and fittings
vacuum driers overall condition/ operation
station working temperature
station overall cleanliness
special tools for centrifuges (available / condition)
General station operation

Check
Fibre / nut recovery

Cake Breaker Conv. :
condition / operation
Primary Depericarper :
ducting condition
Nut elevators
199
fan condition , electrical loading
fibre cyclone condition
rotary sluice condition
nut/fibre separation effectiveness
condition chains / buckets
electrical load
Check
drives and machinery guards
Nut silos
overall condition, cleanliness
average loading, operating temperatures
Palm Oil Process

Check
heaters , filters , fans
cleaning frequency
Nut grading drums
drum condition, drive, machinery guards
Nut cracking
feeding rates and methods
overall cracker condition
cracker loading (electrical)
cracker effectiveness
uncracked nut return, quantity, where
Pneumatic separation :
ducting condition , fan condition
feed conveyor condition, loading rates
rotary sluice condition, cyclone condition
overall operation, drum condition
separation effectiveness , pump condition
water supply and waste discharge method
Clay bath Separators :
overall operation , clay condition , quantity
Hydro cyclones
gravity tests , pump condition
water supply and discharge , clay recovery
conveyor / elevator condition
recovery rate
average loading, operating temperatures
heaters , fans , filters
cleaning frequency
conveyors , belts , etc
vibrating screen , secondary separation
Kernel recovery
Kernel silo
Check
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Palm Oil Process

2.
BOILER HOUSE AND POWER HOUSE

Boiler house
Fuel
Boiler
Cleaning interval
Check
Feed water pumps
Check
check fuel storage space
stored fuel condition ,shell content , dryness etc
distribution of fuel, firing method
operating pressures
operating procedures
operating frequency (period before change over)
furnace
tubes
chimney and soot collectors
condition of: firing equipment
fans, draught regulation and doors
furnace and grate (visual)
gauge glasses , indicators
other instrumentation
chimney temperatures
ash and soot removal procedures
blow down equipment and Procedures
overall condition
operational procedures
frequency of rotation
chemical dosing equipment condition /operation
Deaerator condition, operation, temperatures
manual/automatic/modulated feed supply
Feed water plant
Demineralization plant
201
General condition of vessels etc
frequency of regeneration
condition pumps, pipelines, valves etc.
instrumentation check/calibration
Palm Oil Process

:
treated water storage system /quantity
recording usage/chemicals etc.
type and size of diesel driven alternators
steam turbine driven alternators
diesel engines
steam turbines
alternators
Engine room
Prime movers
condition of
Electrical switchboard
:
condition of switch gear
condition of instrumentation
condition of safety devices
condition of pipelines, valves, fittings
condition of instrumentation, gauges etc
operational methods, pressures
condition of safety equipment
Air compressors
condition, loading, operation
General
recording methods logbooks etc
frequency of machine rotation / usage
availability of safety devices etc
overall cleanliness
Back pressure vessel
3.
OTHER OPERATIONAL AREAS

Raw-water treatment plant
Check
202
filters and pumps
condition raw and treated water
chemicals used , quantities
methods of dosing etc
frequency of cleaning
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Effluent ponds / systems
Check
sludge pits / ponds
screens , drains , pumps
aeration devices , overflow alarms etc
general conditions, safety measures etc
equipment used ,condition
Laboratory
Check
chemicals used, correctness
sub sampling room, recording methods
sampling methods, analysis methods
raw data results , data interpretation
accuracy , overall cleanliness
oil tank temperature recording
method of calibration, measuring devices
condition of tanks, pipelines, valves etc
method of despatch , security etc
tank cleaning interval
Produce storage
Check
4.
OTHER GENERAL MILL AREAS

Check condition/availability
:
perimeter fencing
station and factory lighting
security
lightning protection
workshop equipment, material stock
stores and spare part stock
stores and spare part administration
Staff and labour housing
Staff and labour
203
water supply
electricity supply
housing availability
overall power requirement
Manager
Assistant manager
Palm Oil Process

5.
Shift staff
Shift labour
Workshop staff
Workshop artisans
Workshop labour
Stores staff
Administrative staff
OFFICE PROCEDURES /ATTENTION

General check/discussion
1 :
FFB and production recording
produce despatch recording
factory efficiency / losses recording
laboratory recording
actual versus target results
2 :
:
own maintenance
contract maintenance
supplier maintenance
other maintenance
3 :
Workshop utilization
repair work
spare parts manufacture
4 :
Stores procedures
parts ordering
parts receiving
stock takes and checking
5 :
204
Factory maintenance planning/ recording
Training of mill workers
station supervisors
station operators
boiler attendants
engine room attendants
laboratory attendants
samplers
Palm Oil Process

SUMMARY OF MOST COMMON & MOST ENCOUNTERED PROBLEMS IN
CPO MILLS
The successful operation of a CPO mill depends for a large part on the
ability of the staff to recognize which or what problem is causing the
lower than expected performance of the mill.
Most oil mills have the same or similar common problems in the various
areas of the operation and each time the engineer "walks around" in the
mill he must be alert to these problems and put in an effort to eliminate or
minimize the after effects of such problems.
Most, if not all, problems have an effect on the process far beyond the
station where the problem exists or originated.
This " knock - on " effect is best illustrated starting from the sterilizer station,
but is equally applicable to all other stations in the mill.
The items listed hereunder are basically a reminder as to what to focus
on, and where to look for possible improvements.
STERILIZATION STATION
1.
Equipment for the automatic cycle control

(including the chart recorders) : often and repeated break down
resulting in
: manual
operation,
sequencing of units
irregular
cycles
and
resulting in
: excess steam consumption, higher oil losses on

condensate, irregular factory throughput, higher
losses overall.
the excess steam consumption
results in
: higher and irregular steam demands on the

boilers, higher stresses on the boilers, higher fuel
consumption, possible fuel shortage.
The excess steam demand also
205
results in
: using a dis-proportionate amount of "fresh" make

up steam from the boilers to the back pressure
vessel, which
results in
: an excessive amount of SUPERHEATED STEAM

entering the sterilizers, possibly causing scorching
and overheating of the exposed FFB
Palm Oil Process

resulting in
: poor bleach ability of the CPO produced, poor

quality and stability of the CPO produced (poor
DOBI value)
Apart from the above there are a number of other directly or in directly related
unfavorable results from excessively fluctuating steam demands (frequent and
more than necessary usage of additional power supply from diesel driven
alternator units is but one of them!) generally all resulting in higher than necessary
operating costs and maintenance requirements.
2.
Other common problems in this station

a. Pipeline leakage, door seal leakage, poor instrumentation
b. Rail condition, both outside and inside the sterilizers
THRESHING STATION
1. Irregular feeding of the threshers, usually resulting in occasional over feeding of
the threshers, causing poor stripping of the fruit, high oil losses in EFB.
2. Overfeeding causes overloading of the subsequent conveyors and fruit
elevators, unnecessary compaction of the fruit during this transfer to the
digesters, higher than necessary oil losses in the conveyors and elevators.
3. All overfeeding/overloading causes additional stress to drive motors, gearboxes,
couplings, chains and sprockets etc. and will accelerate the wear and tear and
increase the chancres of breakdown.
PRESSING STATION
1. The irregular feeding pattern of the threshers has the effect of irregular feeding of
the digesters, causing irregular feeding of the screw presses.
This generally results in presses having to adjust the cone pressure to maintain an
acceptable percentage oil loss on press fibre.
With automatic controlled equipment this causes excessive usage of the
controls, resulting in accelerated wear and tear and increased chances of
breakdown.
2. Poor automatic controls, or non functioning automatic controls resulting in higher
than necessary oil losses and/or higher than necessary nut breakage during
pressing.
3. Poor instrumentation, resulting in a lack of control of the required optimum
operating conditions, such as temperatures, pressures, dilution rates etc.
NUT/KERNEL RECOVERY STATION

1. The most common problem here is usually a lack of maintenance. This is not
necessarily due to insufficient maintenance, but simply because the equipment
wear rate is very high in this station.
2. The lack of maintenance invites "short cuts" and improper operation of the
equipment.
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Palm Oil Process

3. Improper operation usually results in reduced capacity, which then gets
"overloaded" resulting in high and higher than necessary losses in kernel and
kernel of a lower overall quality.
4. The lack of cleanliness in this station is frequently the cause of breakdowns or a
poor overall performance.
Accumulated fibre, fibre dust, shell fragments etc. settling in chain drives,
covering bearings etc. cause increased wear and tear and increased chances
of breakdowns.
CLARIFICATION STATION
1. Incorrect level control in tanks, possible overflows, spillage etc. is frequently the
cause for high losses.
2. Leakage from pipelines and equipment ditto.
3. Incorrect and/or improper operation of the equipment, i.e irregular usage,
overloading, incorrect temperatures etc.
4. Improper operation can usually be related back to a lack of training and a lack
of operational knowledge required by the operators in charge of this station.
5. Insufficient or unreliable instrumentation is frequently the cause of improper
operation, generally resulting in higher than necessary overall oil losses in this
station and the production of a lower than necessary quality of CPO produced
and pumped to the storage tanks.
BOILER HOUSE & POWER HOUSE

1. Lack of instrumentation or instrumentation not functioning is frequently the cause
for incorrect operation.
2. The non functioning or the not correctly functioning of the automatic controls,
ranging from speed governors on generating sets, voltage regulators, power
factor compensation, boiler feed water modulating control equipment, boiler
water level alarm equipment, demineralizer alarm equipment, chemical dosing
equipment etc. are all prime causes for incorrect operation, low efficiency and
high operating and maintenance costs.
3. Lack of operational knowledge by the key operators for boilers and engine room.
lack of training.
WATER TREATMENT
1. The most common problem is usually the lack of training of the key operators,
resulting in poor control and poor efficiency.
The indirect results of this can be disastrous, in the form of (frequent) boiler
breakdowns, high repair costs and extended down time or reduced factory
operation.
2. This is another area where the "knock-on " effects can be very extensive indeed,
for example:
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Palm Oil Process

Poor boiler water control will eventually lead to a much reduced output of the
turbines, as over a period of time the impurities carried over with the steam will
have caused a build up on the turbine rotor blades and also caused corrosion
and extra wear on the stationary guide blades of the turbine.
In other words, gradually the power delivered by the turbine appears to get less
and less, upsetting the steam/power balance, causing an apparent lack of
power availability/generation by the turbines and generally results in additional
usage of the diesel driven generator sets to compensate for that.
LABORATORY OPERATIONS
1. Calibration of instruments and equipment
2. Accuracy of the test results, consistency of accuracy of sampling and test
procedures
3. Correct interpretation of the results of the tests, action recommended.
4. Lack of training of key operators, analysts, samplers
EFFLUENT TREATMENT
1. Maintenance and upkeep of the various treatment ponds
2. Re-circulating, de-silting and overflows
3. Incorrect operation of the ponds resulting from a lack of knowledge of the
biological actions taking place
4. Lack of interest of staff in this "dirty , unimportant" part of the operation, often
resulting in nobody wanting to take the responsibility for this operation.
WORKSHOP AND MAINTENANCE

1. Lack of suitably trained / skilled personnel
2. Lack of proper records for machinery / equipment
3. Lack of keeping records up to date
4. Lack of proper , preventative, scheduling of maintenance
5. Lack of proper tools/equipment to perform the maintenance, and/or the
upkeep of such tools. Lack of timely replacement of worn out equipment, either
due to lack of funds (or insufficient budgeting) or due to an indifferent approach
i.e. to wait till equipment breaks down or collapses before replacing it.
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
1. Frequently differs from operator to operator, from worker to worker.
2. No proper system established by management
3. Lack of direct involvement by management, too much left to the operators
initiative.
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Palm Oil Process

GENERAL COMMUNICATION
1. Feed back often not accurate and / or on an irregular , ad-hoc basis
2. Responsibility for particular areas of operation not clearly outlined, too many
"grey" areas.
3. Information flow in and out insufficient.
GENERAL TRAINING
1. Lack of systematic approach and follow up.
2. Lack of proper records / recording of training activities
3. Too often on ad-hoc basis, trainees too often used as "cheap" additional labour.
Obviously there are many more problem items and areas which deserve a
similar approach as the ones noted above and certainly there are specific
problem for any specific mill.
The above is not a definitive list, just an indication of how to develop a "feel"
for the job of "running a mill" and getting a grip on the most common
problems!
The earlier issued paper called: "General contributory factors that influence
quality, losses and performance" (incorporated in the Palm Oil Mill
Management Circulars on Quality) should also be read in conjunction with
the above notes.
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Palm Oil Process

Chapter #36
PROCESS CONTROL
36.1.01 The aim of process control.
The aim of process control is to detect the likelihood of a change in the
conditions under which the factory is operating before the change
actually occurs so that action may be taken to ensure that operation
will continue at the maximum economic extraction efficiency whilst
producing products of the best possible quality.
36.1.02 The F.F.B. ("raw material") to the mill can vary considerably, depending
on:
- Planting material
- Age of planting
- Pollination
- Climatic conditions
- Soil conditions
- Fertilizer programmes
- Harvesting methods
- Transportation methods
- Reception systems (x)
(All of the above except the item marked (x) are noted under the
various headings in chapter 1, whilst the item marked (x) is referred to in
chapter 24.)
36.1.03 Since in any one day the effect of the full range of these variables on
delivered F.F.B. can be experienced, it should be clear that a
compromise has to be accepted.
This does not simply imply that, for instance, a set sterilizer cycle can be
used throughout the year, under the claim that it is impossible to cater
for the variation in the condition of the F.F.B.
The major variables that the mill should detect and cater for are:
- bunch composition
- ripeness standards
- oil content
- fruit to nut ratio
- shell to kernel ratio
- form (size) of nut
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Palm Oil Process

36.1.04 To achieve efficient process control requires a constant flow of data,
most of which is generated and calculated by the mill laboratory.
For process control purposes, laboratory data should be considered as
a newspaper rather then a history sheet, i.e. a report of "what is
happening now".
It follows that at least some of the laboratory data should be used on
the day it is produced and not on the following day or days after that.
If tomorrow is good enough, there is no point in for instance using
(expensive) "Fosslet" equipment, when Soxhlets will give the same
answer for less cost, but slower.
36.1.05 Factory Engineers in charge should see the results as they are
produced.
It is of no use waiting until tomorrow,for by then the oil or kernel will be
lost, never to be recovered.
36.2
Examination of F.F.B.
36.2.01 It is the primary responsibility of the (estate) field management to

harvest F.F.B. at optimum ripeness.
Given the wide spread of area of the plantation(s), the ratio of
Supervisors to workers and the desire of workers to increase immediate
earnings, it is unrealistic to expect that the optimum conditions will be
achieved at all times or even at any time.
36.2.02 To put the difficulty of control in perspective comparison with a mill
operation is perhaps valid and will illustrate the point.
Mill managers comments in reports often state, for instance, that the
control of the operators feeding the threshers is difficult.
The thresher operation is at a distance measured in meters from the mill
office and under the direction of shift engineers situated at a distance
of a few steps away from the operation.
Despite this control is difficult!
How much more so in the plantation, where distances are in kilometres
and spread over large hectarages!
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Palm Oil Process

36.2.03 In order to establish F.F.B. condition and from that enable the best or
most suitable sterilizer cycle to be established, F.F.B. should be
examined to determine the percentage "black and hard" bunches.
To achieve optimum yield, all bunches must be stripped and since
there is a limit to the percentage of bunches that can be recycled
without loosing mill capacity, the sterilizer cycles have to be selected
to achieve at least say 95 % efficiency of stripping.
36.2.04 Over the years various methods of F.F.B. assessment have been
developed and tried, each having their own peculiarities.
The data produced can be useful as an aid to harvesting control, even
though this data is "historic".
The method has to be simple and economic in order to survive and
have the desired effect.
36.2.05 It is important that the only parameter measured is :
"HARD AND BLACK BUNCHES" .
Attempts to include various other classifications such as "under ripe",
"ripe", "over ripe", "rotten", "long stalks" etc cannot be successful as
they depend too much on subjective assessment, whereas "hard and
black" can be numerically defined and is indisputable.
If necessary the cage or container in which these bunches are counted
can be kept apart and held for a later recheck.
36.2.06 As noted under 2.01 above, there will always be imperfections in the
control of harvesting and the component of major interest to the mill is
the "hard and black" bunch percentage.
If this is accepted and that regardless of the size of any bunch with less
than 5 (five) loose fruit on arrival at the mill this bunch is qualified as
"hard", then by transferring not less then 100 bunches from one cage to
another under the supervision of supervisor and two tally counters - one
to count all bunches and - one to counting "hard " bunches, a
percentage hard bunch can be established.
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Palm Oil Process

This measurement should be made for each contributing division, twice
per week and the results recorded and reported.
36.2.07 The operator supervising the operation can be trained easily, the
record allows comparison between various areas / divisions, days,
weeks, months and years.
If the hard bunch percentage is noted to be increasing, the frequency
of checking and reporting can be increased to keep track of this trend.
36.3
"EMPTY" BUNCH CHECKING
36.3.01 The largest possible source of product loss under normal operating
conditions is in UNSTRIPPED BUNCH
36.3.02 It follows that in order to establish what this loss is, the "empty bunch"
conveyor must be monitored continuously and at all times and any
unstripped bunch ( U.S.B.) returned for further processing.
36.3.03 As the percentage U.S.B. is a measure of sterilizing efficiency and that a
high recycle rate of U.S.B. reduces the mill's through put, data must be
gathered and the accuracy of data on U.S.B. must be checked.
U.S.B. can be defined as: any bunch which has more than 5 (five) fruit
still inside the bunch.
36.3.04 U.S.B. can result from three causes:
a) Inadequate threshing
All U.S.B. to be re threshed, without re sterilizing.
A reduction in U.S.B. then shows the percentage resulting from
inadequate threshing.
b) Inadequate sterilizing
The balance U.S.B. from a) above is re sterilized and re threshed.
A reduction in U.S.B. shows the percentage due to inadequate
sterilization.
c) Nature of the bunch
The balance can be taken as the percentage U.S.B. as a result of the
nature of the bunch.
(These used to be called "katte koppen" or "knot heads").
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Palm Oil Process

The results of these checks should be of interest to plant breeders, since
there is likely to be a genetic reason as to why these bunches remain
hard and unstrippable.
36.3.05 An effective method of measuring U.S.B. is to check not less than 100
"empty bunches", every hour, using exactly the same method as for the
"hard and black" bunch count.
Again, the results are to be recorded and reported.
36.3.06 The method as described above does not replace the 100% monitoring
of the "empty" bunch conveyor and the recycling of the U.S.B.
Indeed it provides a basis for comparing the efficiency of the recycle
operation, i.e. the % measured should relate to the number of cages
recycled per shift, which figure should also be recorded.
36.3.07 The procedures are quite simple and if maximum oil and kernel
recovery are to be achieved they are essential and the cost is far less
than operating a laboratory which under normal conditions will provide
data that monitor much smaller potential losses.
36.4
SAMPLING.
36.4.01 It is self evident that samples should be representative of the product

stream being sampled.
It is also self evident that the various product streams vary in
composition from time to time and that some are more homogeneous
than others and some are heterogeneous.
Thus, the selection of sample frequencies and size is critical, if data
obtained from the sample is to be accurate and viable.
36.4.02 To illustrate the point:
All empty bunches were taken from the conveyor of a particular mill
over a period of time.
Each separately analyzed for oil content and the results subjected to
statistical analysis.
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Palm Oil Process

The results showed that to obtain a representative sample of the
product stream not less than 50 % of the bunches would have to be
taken.
It also showed that a bunch taken once per hour gave a totally
misleading result for the operator takes an "average" bunch, i.e. one of
medium size which seems to well stripped.
Even instituting a system whereby the operator takes the tenth (or the
twentieth) bunch to leave the thresher after it arrives at the conveyor
and thereby instituting a degree of random selection hardly improves
matters.
Empty bunches is the extreme example but illustrates some of the
difficulties.
36.4.03 At the other end of the scale:
Two laboratories at two different mills were noted to obtain differing
results on dirt in oil.
Procedures at each laboratory were checked and no errors found,
analyst and equipment were transposed and the difference persisted.
The variability was tracked down to sub sampling errors, i.e. the drawing
of a sample from the sum of the daily samples.
Specks of dirt are distributed through the oil and unless it is well
homogenized a sub sampling error can occur.
This represents the other extreme of an apparently homogeneous
product
stream which contains an unevenly dispersed minor
constituent.
36.4.04 In general, the major sampling problem arises in the kernel station,
especially in cracked mixtures and admixture sampling.
The sample size must be large enough, but what is large enough?
Clearly 10 grams is too small, perhaps 5 kilogram is too large.
The sample will vary from mill to mill and from time to time.
A large primary sample should be taken and analyzed, re
homogenized and split into a number of sub portions and each
separately analyzed.
215
Palm Oil Process

If the several sub portions show similar analysis results then the sub
portions size could have been large enough for primary sampling and
the process can be repeated , using more sub portions.
If there are unacceptable differences between the analysis results then
the sub portions are too small for primary sampling purposes.
All re mixing must be done thoroughly to ensure satisfactory results.
The test has to be done many times to determine a satisfactory primary
sample size.
36.4.05 Samples are normally drawn at a nominally one hour interval (for no
better reason than it seems reasonable!) For the liquid product streams
it probably is, but for kernel recovery stream it might not be and
investigation into variability within the hour is needed to establish this
timing interval.
36.5
INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS:
36.5.01 It is of no use drawing samples and analyzing them if the data

produced is not used.
Results should flow on to the operating staff, as they are produced.
Whilst average results can be used in some cases, in many areas they
are misleading and can cover inefficiency in operation.
36.5.02 If a one month average for one sludge centrifuge is 0.99% oil loss on
wet basis and for another is 1.05 % oil loss on wet basis, the former may
be considered the better; but if the range results is 0.77% to 1.22%, and
0.85 5 to 1.15 % respectively, the second machine is probably the better
one!
In both cases the process is anyway "out of control", i.e. the results are
unpredictable, probably because the dilution rate is out of control.
36.5.03 A very simple scientific calculator will allow the mean (average) result
and the standard deviation (degree of variability) to be calculated as
quickly as the mean alone can be calculated.
Reporting of mean and standard deviation should be adopted.
Any high variability should be investigated to determine the cause.
As some variability is inevitable, a method of checking trends is
necessary.
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Palm Oil Process

A simple method is to take the average of a number of results, e.g. the
last four results, plot these on a graph and at the same time plot the
range on the same sheet.
This is historic to some extend, but will show when, for example, the
sludge centrifuge performance deteriorated and a nozzle change or
an investigation is needed.
36.6
GENERAL
The above only scratches the surface of process control but gives some
idea of what should be done to change the tendency of some to
consider mills to be a disposal system for F.F.B to considering them to be
optimum extraction units.
An old mill is not to written off as beyond hope, some of the older mills
are still most efficient, with good process control, albeit that they have
been modified and extended over the years.
36.6.01 The introduction of computers into the oil mill office and laboratory
environment can assist to a large degree to keep, calculate and
analyse data gathered from the process and equipment.
36.6.02 Virtually all data produced by these areas can be "computerized" and
a standard quality output of analyses and reports can be generated by
either professionally written special software, or by making use of and
adapting the already available common software for spread sheets
and data base manipulation.
36.6.03 Once introduced and "set-up", the risk of calculating errors, statistical
analysis errors etc. of considerable amounts of data can virtually be
eliminated, whilst at the same time reports can quickly and correctly be
produced and used as a "tool" by the engineers and management of
the oil mill.
36.6.04 Laboratory data could be integrated with data as noted under
Chapter 35-Maintenance, which would further enhance the capability
of effective control of the processing of palm products.
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Palm Oil Process

Chapter #37
QUALITY CONTROL
Quality control and Process control are inter dependent and thus one
can not be effective without the other being equally as effective and
well controlled.
The majority of these monitoring processes rely on data gathered from
the samples taken during the process and from the samples taken from
the final products of C.P.O and P.K.
37.1
THE LABORATORY
Methods of sampling and analysis.
From the section on process control the following requirements can be
noted:
a)
the weighing or measuring of all material supplied and discharged

during the process of producing C.P.O and P.K. and of important
semi - products (if any).
b)
standardized methods of analysis, which should be simple and

easy reproducible.
c)
a good system of sampling , so that a representative set of samples

is secured.
d)
an efficient system for recording the data resulting from the various
tests and checks carried out.
37.1.01 The process control is intended in the first place for the technical
staff of the mill, who need the data obtained by the tests and checks
for an efficient and economic management of the mill.
More over, the process control enables the compilation of an accurate
record/account of the work done and the results produced by the mill.
By comparison of these (control) reports with those of similar or
associated mills, it will sooner or later be possible to track down any
imperfections so that improvements, modifications and or more
218
Palm Oil Process

efficient work methods can be introduced earlier and with the greatest
possible chace of success.
37.1.02 The laboratory tests cover three distinct different areas:
I ) The QUALITY analysis of the products ( C.P.O. and P.K. )
II) The LOSSES sustained from processing F.F.B. into oil and kernel
III) The EFFICIENCY of individual items of machinery
It will be clear that on many cases the tests and checks performed
under the headings above can and will overlap, since an inefficient
machine usually allows high losses and vice versa high losses usually
indicate a poor state of the machinery involved.
I : Quality analysis of Crude Palm Oil ( C.P.O.)
The mill laboratory must routinely check at least the following three
parameters on the quality of the oil:
I.01 the Free Fatty Acid ( F.F.A.) percentage
I.02 the Volatile Matter ( V.M. ) or moisture percentage
I.03 the Dirt percentage
The sampling of the production oil must be done at a point after the
purifier and after the oil dryer and the following method should be
used:
A one litre bottle, which can be closed air tight, calibrated at one
centimetre intervals is placed at each supply point.
At the end of each half hour one centimetre of oil is taken from the
sample point.
The bottle is closed air tight again.
At the end of the production run or shift, the sample is taken to the
laboratory.
(37 I).01 DETERMINATION OF F.F.A. % IN OIL :
i)
219
3 to 5 grammes of melted and homogenized oil are weighed

accurately into a 250 cc chemical flask.
Palm Oil Process

ii)
50 cc of previously neutralized isopropyl alcohol (90-96%) are

added and the mixture warmed in a water bath for about 5
minutes.
iii)
The solution is titrated against an NaOH solution in an accurate

concentration of 0.1N on phenolphthalein.
iv) From the number of cc of the NaOH solution consumed minus the
number of cc of NaOH used in the blank test, it is possible to
determine the F.F.A. %, expressed as free palmitic acid .
(molecular weight 256)
Thus F.F.A. can be calculated:
number of cc NaOH (minus blank) x normality NaOH x 256 x 100
FFA =
weight of sample in grammes x 1000
With pre prepared standard solutions, the following method is

generally used:
i)
Add three drops of 0.1% phenolphthalein indicator.
ii) Titrate N/10 Potassium Hydroxide (KOH) into the oil until the first
persistent pink colour is obtained.
iii) No attention should be paid to the subsequent fading of the
pink colour.
iv) Record the number of ml of N/10 KOH required.
v) Calculate the F.F.A. % :
FFA % =
A x 2.56
weight of oil
where A = number of ml of N10/KOH required.
220
Palm Oil Process

NOTE:
The reddish colour of the oil makes the recognition of the end point
somewhat difficult and a certain amount of practice is required.
The most important point to watch is the colour change in the upper
layer of the spirit and not in the lower layer of it.
In order to obtain an accurate indication of the acidity by this method,
the alkali should be added as quickly as possible.
If the analyst is not fast enough, a rough first titration , followed by an
accurate second titration should be practised.
The use of "standard solutions" is recommended, the results obtained
are usually more accurate and the work method becomes a routine
which is easy to perform.
Basic chemicals required for analytical work are generally obtainable in
accurately pre measured and pre mixed (small) quantities, since most
of these have only a limited "shelf" life.
The preparation of standard solutions can be done as under:
a) Preparation of neutralized isopropyl alcohol
i) To 200 ml of isopropyl alcohol in a conical flask add three drops
of phenolphthalein.
ii)
Titrate against N/10 KOH until a pink colour is obtained.

(a few drops only are required)
b) Preparation of 0.1 % Phenolphthalein from a 1.0 % phenolphthalein

solution:
(the solution is normally supplied in a 1.0 % strength)
i)
Put 10 ml of the 1.0 5 solution into a 100 ml volumetric flask.

(use a 10 ml pipette)
ii)
Fill up the 100 ml volumetric flask to the 100 ml mark exactly.
c) Preparation of the 0.1 N Potassium Hydroxide solution

(N/10 KOH):
i)
221
0.1 N Potassium Hydroxide can be packed in various ways, in
Palm Oil Process

plastic packs of a standard weight.
ii)
Check the size of the pack and if suitably sized, pour the entire
contents of the pack into a suitably sized volumetric flask and fill
with distilled water.
iii)
The usual standard size suits a 500 ml flask, which when filled
with distilled water to the 500 ml mark exactly gives the solution
at the correct strength.
(37 I).02 VOLATILE MATTER ( moisture content ) % IN OIL :

i) Weigh accurately 10 to 15 grammes of oil into a crystallisation dish
("watch glass") and keep in a (conventional) oven for 3 hours at a
temperature of 105 degree Celsius.
ii) Remove the sample from the oven, cool in desiccator and weigh
accurately.
iii) Replace the sample in the oven, dry for 1 hour and weigh the
sample again.
iv) Continue this procedure until a constant
decimal point is obtained.
weight to the second
v) Record all weights and the time of drying accurately.

NOTE:
The use of a magnetron oven ( micro wave ) type is also practised and
the in oven drying times can usually be reduced considerably.
Example of recording:
Moisture determination of oil after purifier, or after dryer:
Date of sample
Date of analysis
Dish no
Weight of dish
Weight of dish + wet sample
222
:
:
:
:
:
dd/mm/yy
dd/mm/yy
D1
40.1234 grammes
51.2345 grammes
Palm Oil Process

Time in oven
Time out oven
Weight of dish + sample
9.30 am
12.30 pm
50.6789
1.00 pm
2.00 pm
50.2345
2.30 pm
3.30 pm
50.2300
4.00 pm
4.30 pm
50.2300
Calculation:
weight of moisture
V.M. % = x 100 %
weight of wet sample
(51.2345 - 50.2300)
x 100 %
(51.2345 - 40.1234)
(37 I).03 DIRT percentage on production oil

Method:
i)
The filter paper must be well rinsed with Shellsol, (or

equivalent) then dried in oven for 15 to 20 minutes at 105
degrees Celsius, allowed to cool in desiccator and then
accurately weighed.
ii) About 40 to 50 grammes of oil is weighed accurately into a

250 ml flask
iii) Heat for about 10 minutes and add 50 ml of shellsol, shake
vigorously to mix the contents.
iv) The solution is then filtered through a "Gooch" crucible,
under vacuum.
v) The filter paper is then washed thoroughly with solvent, from
a jet of a wash bottle.
The washing must be thorough to ensure that no trace of oil
is left on the filter paper.
vi) The weighed crucible and filter paper are then dried in the
oven at 105 degr. C. for two hours.
223
Palm Oil Process

vii) It is then left in a desiccator to cool down and weighed
again.
This procedure is continued until constant weight to the second
decimal point is obtained.
Calculation:
Let A = weight of flask
Let B = weight of flask + sample
Let C = weight of crucible + filter paper
Let D = weight of crucible + filter paper + dry non-oily solids
weight of non oily solids
Dirt % = x 100 %, or
weight of sample
(D - C)
= x 100 %
(B - A)
37.1.03 There are a number of other factors which are also indicative of the
quality of C.P.O. but the tests for these are not normally performed by
the oil mil laboratory, but by the manufacturers of the products made
from palm oil.
Such test usually include or concern the oxidation of the oil and the
bleach-ability of the oil.
The bleach-ability of palm oil has been found to be related to the
degree of oxidation of the oil.
37.2
Oxidation occurs largely as a result of processing methods, storage of

oil, handling of the oil and increases notably by:
a) Very high temperatures during the extraction (> 100 degr.C.)
b) Very high temperatures for drying oil, especially if in direct contact
with hot air. (hence the preferred use of a vacuum dryer, which
operates at lower temperatures )
c) Incorrect pumping, handling, where air is mixed with oil, or when it
falls into tanks with such a force that considerable turbulence is
caused.
224
Palm Oil Process

d) Storage at too high temperatures for too long periods.
e) During shipments, by over heating, incorrect placed heating coils
etc.
37.2.01 In its natural state, palm oil contains anti oxidants (the most common
being to copherols) and the avoidance of the exposure of too hot oil
to the atmosphere will assist to keep oxidation levels low.
The oxidation levels can be measured by determining the Peroxide
Value (P.V.) of the hydro peroxides formed during the initial stages of
oxidation.
Continued oxidation will form saturated and unsaturated aldehydes
and ketones.
37.2.02 A series of tests over a period of time will show the increase in P.V. (in
m.e./kg), but this test is not concensive and the later formed oxidation
compounds are measured using benzidine, giving the Benzidine Value
(B.V.)
For practical quality estimation, the sum of the oxidation products us
used, commonly known as the total oxidation value ( TOTOX ) and is
calculated as follows:
Totox = 2 x P.V. + B.V.
Good quality oil should be at maximum P.V. = 3 m.e./kg and have a
B.V. of 6 at the time of shipment.
37.3
Bleach-ability can be measured by treating an oil sample by a

standardized method and measuring the residual colour by
comparison with a (Lovibond) tinto meter.
The residual colour is due to a combination of carotene and oxidized
fatty acids at high temperature and gives some indication of the
amount of processing, refining etc. that will be necessary to produce
good quality, palatable food products.
225
Palm Oil Process

37.4
QUALITY ANALYSIS OF PALM KERNEL.
37.4.01 Determination of Shell % in kernel

i)
From a sample of 1000 to 1500 grammes of kernel the shell particles

are removed , by hand.
ii) If there are any half cracked or uncracked nuts present, then the
kernels in these nuts must be taken out of the shells first.
iii) The percentage of separated shell particles is determined by the
weight of the initial sample of the kernels.
Calculation:
weight of shells only
x 100 %
total sample weight
37.4.02 Determination of Dirt % in kernels

As for the above , but dirt is understood to be any particles which
cannot be regarded as either kernel or shell , i.e. abortive fruit, fibrous
matter, bunch particles etc.
Calculation:
weight of dirt
x 100 %
total sample weight
37.4.03 Percentage of broken kernels

i) From the sample that has been used to find the shells and dirt
percentages, the broken kernels are sorted out as well.
ii) The percentage of broken kernel is calculated by weight of the initial
sample:
Calculation:
weight of broken kernel
x 100 %
total sample weight
226
Palm Oil Process

37.4.04 Determination of kernel discolouration
i) Take one hundred kernels at random from the sample that has
been taken for the determination of shell. dirt and broken kernel.
ii) The kernels are each cut into two equal parts, perpendicularly to
their longitudinal axis.
iii) Of every bisected kernel one half is laid in a cut out of a special
board provided with 10 x 10 holes.
iv) Now the sections are checked for colour.
A distinction is made between marked
discolouration and no visible discolouration.
NOTE:
discolouration,
slight
The distinction made is merely a subjective one and unless the check is
always performed by the same person, there can be considerable
differences and the check will be of little value.
37.4.05 Moisture percentage in kernels
i)
Approximately 150 grammes of kernel , cleared of shells, dirt etc.

are
ground or minced in a small grinding machine.
ii) This should be done as rapidly as possible, to prevent desiccation.

iii) 100 grammes of the ground substance are dried to a constant
weight in a drying oven, using exact similar techniques and
methods as used for oil.
Calculation:
weight of moisture
x 100 %
weight of wet sample
37.4.06 Determination of F.F.A. in kernel

This can be determined by extracting some oil from the kernels of the
sample taken and by using similar methods os described for C.P.O.
227
Palm Oil Process

37.4.07 Oil percentage in kernels
Although not necessarily a quality parameter, the laboratory can
determine the oil content.
From the ground sample used for moisture determination the oil
content can be established using similar techniques as for the
determination of oil losses.
37.5
DETERMINATION OF OIL LOSSES.
37.5.01 During the process of extracting oil and kernel from the fruit, oil losses
will occur in a number of areas.
Samples are taken and tests are conducted to determine where oil is
lost and how much of it is lost.
In order of the process, the following losses can be calculated:
a) oil loss on sterilizer condensate
b) oil loss on empty bunches
c) oil loss on fibre ( ex pressing equipment)
d) oil losses sustained by clarification
e) oil losses on nuts
a) Oil loss on sterilizer condensate
A continuous sample should be drawn from the condensate discharge
lines of the sterilizers.
This can be achieved with the aid of a sampling tube, fitted with a
"dropper".
From the average oil content of the condensate, the measured or
calculated quantity of the condensate and the quantity of F.F.B
processed it is possible to calculate the oil loss to F.F.B.
b ) Oil loss on empty bunches
(see also section on empty bunch checking and U.S.B. under the
228
Palm Oil Process

heading
Process Control)
i) From a representative sample of empty bunches, obtain two

samples of 100 grammes each ( by the "mixing - quartering - mixing quartering"
technique)
ii) Determine the moisture and oil content of the samples by the usual
method
iii) The daily average or periodical average is calculated from the
analytical figures (i.e. the arithmetical mean of the replicate
determinations) in proportion to the total quantity of bunches
processed.
iv) This will produce a "weighed" average.
v) Finally the ratio oil loss in empty bunches to F.F.B. is calculated via the
weight of the empty bunches.
c ) Oil loss on fibre.
Fibre samples can be taken at various points in the process, i.e. at the
presses to determine the individual press performance or at the end of
the cake breaker conveyor to determine the overall oil loss on fibre etc.
Sampling procedures and test procedures are similar.
Sampling:
i) Sampling must be done at hourly intervals during the mill operation,
with the first sample to be taken one hour after the mill (pressing
station) has started.
ii) A good "hand full" of the sample is to be collected, including the
fibre and the fines.
iii) Store the sample immediately in an air tight container or bag, clearly
labelled to indicate the source of the sample.
iv) Store the container in the coolest convenient place near the
sampling point.
229
Palm Oil Process

Sub sampling:
The most suitable method for sub sampling is as follows:
i)
Pour main sample onto a clean sheet of paper or plastic
ii) Sort out the kernels, shells and stalks etc. from the main sample
iii) Mix the remainder thoroughly, breaking up lumps etc. but ensure
that no spillage of fines or fibre takes place
iv) Quarter the main sample until a sample of about 500 grammes is
left over, again ensuring that all the fines are included.
v) Cut or chop the sample to uniform size with a suitable chopper or
grinder.
vi) Mix this chopped up sample thoroughly and quarter to a final size
of about 15 grammes for analysis.
Make sure that during the quartering fines divided for one quarter
do not get mixed with other quarters.
vii) The analysis of the fibre sub sample must include all the fines
within that sample and be carried out immediately after obtaining
the final sub sample.
Analysis:
Moisture:
The method for moisture determination and recording is exactly similar
to the one as described for the moisture determination in oil ( see 1.02 )
Oil determination (using Soxhlet extraction method)
i)
Transfer the properly dried sample (from above) and keep in

desiccator.
ii) Extract the oil and continue to extract until a clear solution is
obtained, i.e. until no trace of oil left in the sample is observed.
iii) The recording of weights should be recorded directly below the
recordings of the ( previously ) dried sample.
230
Palm Oil Process

iv) The weight of the extracted oil and the weight of dried fibre
without oil must be recorded.
v) The method of dying is as for the moisture determination, but in
this case with hourly intervals.
Example:
Cake breaker conveyor:
MOISTURE DETERMINATION
Date of sample
Date of analysis
Thimble no
: dd/mm/yy
: dd/mm/yy
: ........
A) Weight of thimble : .......

Weight of thimble + sample before drying : .......
Time in oven
Time out oven
8.00 am
1.00 pm
2.00 pm
4.00 pm
5.30 pm
7.30 pm
Weight of thimble + sample

after drying
B) Weight of dried sample + thimble : ...........

OIL DETERMINATION: (sample after extraction)
231
C) 22.00 - 24.00
24.00 - 01.00
..........(thimble plus
..........(extracted fibre)
D) 22.00 - 23.00
24.00 - 01.00
...........( extracted
...........( oil )
Palm Oil Process

Calculation:
Let A = weight of dry thimble
Let B = Weight of thimble + dry fibre (fibre + oil)
Let C = Weight of thimble + extracted fibre (without oil)
Let D = Weight of oil extracted
OIL LOSS ON DRY BASIS may be calculated by at least two methods:
i)
D
O.L.D.B. = X 100 %
B-A
ii)
D
O.L.D.B. = X 100 %
C+D-A
To decide which equation should be used, check the following:

If the analysis has been carried out perfectly correct then the equation
C + D = B will hold.
However, some error will usually occur, so that C+D is > B, or C+D is < B.
If C + D < B use equation ii)
If C + D > B use equation i)
If C + D = B use either i) or ii), the simplest being i)
The daily average or periodic average is calculated from the analytical
figures (arithmetical mean of the duplicate determinations) in
proportion to the quantity of bunches handled during the period.
From the figures, the quantity of fibre and the bunches handled, the
ratio of oil loss in fibre to bunch weight can be calculated.
d) oil loss on sludge:
Sludge samples can be taken from the outlet of the individual
machines, for checking their performance, or from the outlet for the
"final" sludge before the disposal to the effluent treatment, for the
overall loss of oil on sludge.
The sampling procedures and the analysis method for both samples is
identical.
232
Palm Oil Process

Sampling:
i)
Sampling should start one hour after the clarification station has
"started" and thereafter at hourly intervals.
ii) Collect 500 ml from the sampling point into a suitable container
and seal airtight.
iii) Shake vigorously, then pour 100 ml of the well mixed sample into a
measuring cylinder.
iv) Pour the measured 100 ml into a 1000 ml bottle and seal air tight.
v) Sampling throughout the normal operating day of the mill should
produce at maximum 800 ml per shift which can all be kept in the
1000 ml bottle.
vi) At the end of the day, maximum 3 bottles @ 1000 ml, clearly
labelled with the source and date can be taken to the laboratory.
Sub sampling and Analysis:
Each 1000 ml bottle should be graduated on a 100 ml scale.
The total quantity of the sample depends on the total time of operation
of the mill.
Assuming a 3 shift operation:
There will be 3 bottles of samples
i)
Shake each bottle vigorously and pour away half of the sample.
ii) Repeat above procedure once more

iii) Mix all three bottles into one
iv) From the total mixed sample, shaken thoroughly pour away half the
sample
v) From the remainder, shaken thoroughly, pour out a final sample of
about 60 grammes for analysis into a weighed, dry beaker.
233
Palm Oil Process

Assuming a 2 shift operation:
There will be 2 bottles of samples
i)
Shake each bottle vigorously and pour away exactly half of the
samples by means of a measuring cylinder.
ii) Mix the 2 bottles into one

iii) From the total mixed sample proceed as described for the 3 shift
operation.
Assuming a 1 shift operation: (or individual machine samples)
i)
Shake the sample vigorously and pour away half the sample
ii) Shake the other half and pour out a final sample of about 60
grammes for analysis.
ANALYSIS:
A) Moisture determination:
The method of moisture determination is the same as the method used
for fibre analysis, i.e. dry until constant weight is obtained, but in this
case however the drying is more critical.
B) Oil determination:
The final dried sample must be stored properly in a desiccator before oil
extraction.
The oil is to be extracted as soon as possible to prevent absorption of
moisture from the atmosphere.
i)
Final dried sample is quickly soaked in solvent
ii) With the aid of a spatula, the sample in solvent is scraped in to a

porcelain mortar.
The sample is properly and carefully ground and sheared, taking
care that no solvent or solids are spilled.
iii) The ground sample is then filtered, using the finest grade filter paper.
Suction filtration is necessary to reduce the filtration time.
234
Palm Oil Process

iv) The dry weight of the filter paper is to be recorded.
The filter paper together with the solids should be placed in the
thimble for immediate extraction in the Soxhlet apparatus.
v) When extraction is complete, the thimble is to be dried in the oven
under similar procedures as described for the fibre analysis.
vi) The extracted oil is to be dried and weighed.
CALCULATION OF LOSSES:
Let a = weight of beaker
Let b = weight of beaker + wet sample (moisture-oil-solids)
Let c = weight of beaker + dry sludge ( oil + solids)
Let d = weight of thimble + filter paper
Let e = weight of thimble + filter paper + dry sludge (oil+solids)
Let f = weight of thimble + non-oily sludge
Let g = weight of extracted oil
Calculation and recording of oil losses on both wet and dry basis can
thus be made:
c-a
moisture % = x 100 %
b-a
O.L.D.B. =
(method 1 )
g
x 100 %
e-d
(method 2 )
e-f
x 100 %
e-d
O.L.W.B. =
235
(method 1 )
g
x 100 %
b-a
(method 2 )
c-f
x 100 %
b-a
Palm Oil Process

The methods 2 are usually preferred by the mill laboratories and
reported in the mill control records.
(With both methods recorded, there is sufficient data for statistical
comparison and determination of error)
e) Oil loss on nuts:
Sampling procedures:
Nut samples can be taken from the outlet of the depericarper, at
hourly intervals
The sample size should be about 750 grammes and stored in an airtight
container until transferred to the laboratory.
Sub sampling
The final sample is obtained by mixing / quartering technique, until a
sample of about 125 grammes remains
Analysis:
The nuts are cracked by hand and the kernels separated from the
shells.
From an accurately weighed quantity of 100 grammes of shells the oil
and moisture contents are determined, using similar procedures as
those used for other oil and moisture determinations described
previously.
Calculation:
The percentage of oil lost in / on nuts by weight of fruit bunches is:
axbxd
%, in which
c x 100
a = percentage of shell to bunches
b = percentage of non-oily solids in shells produced
c = percentage of non-oily solids in shell used for analysis
d = percentage of oil to shell analyzed.
236
Palm Oil Process

It is necessary to determine the moisture contents of the shells first in
order to be able to calculate the oil loss on nuts.
With the method described any kernel oil adhering to the inside of the
shells is included in the percentage palm oil lost on nuts.
This is a small and more or less constant error and can be accepted.
(It is not improbable that at least part of the oil at the inside of the shells
is in fact palm oil which during the sterilization process has percolated
into the nuts through the germination holes)
The weighed average of the analytical figures can be calculated for a
period and from this the oil loss on nuts can be established.
37.6
Other tests:
A number of other tests can be performed in the laboratory, usually at
the request of the mill management or engineers to determine the
efficiency of the individual machines or equipment.
The frequency and the type of samples/tests are often depending of
the available laboratory skills and equipment.
Samples taken for such tests are usually "spot - check" samples, often
"before" and "after" a particular machine or piece of equipment.
The analysis methods for oil, sludge, fibre, nuts, kernel etc. are as
described under the various commodities, whilst special techniques for
other tests are usually described and expanded upon in the
manufacturers manuals etc.
More recent innovations have seen the introduction of the Micro wave
oven (magnetron oven) and specialised equipments to determine oil
losses (e.g. "Fosslet" equipment)
These improvements have all resulted in data being available in a
much shorter time after the samples have been taken.
The improved methods, if used and utilised correctly, allow for more
frequent sampling/analysis and thus can be an important "tool" for mill
management and engineers to monitor and control the process more
efficiently and reduce the overall losses in the factory.
237
Palm Oil Process

This type of frequent sampling / analysis can often also provide an early
indication of the physical state of certain machines and the degree of
deterioration in their performance, thus allowing planned and
scheduled repairs and maintenance to be adjusted accordingly and
maintaining optimum usage of the machinery.
238
Palm Oil Process

General Data
Processed Material
Sterilizer condensate:
V.M.
= 95%
N.O.S.
= 4%
Oil/N.O.S.
= 9.5%
Empty bunches:
V.M.
= 67%
N.O.S.
= 31%
Oil/N.O.S.
= 6%
Bunch ash:
04. - 0.5 to F.F.B and contains aprroximately:
30 - 40 %
K2O
2- 5%
P2O5
+/- 7.5 %
CaO
Press cake:
V.M.
= 41 %
N.O.S.
= 55 %
Oil/N.O.S.
= 8%
Oil/N.O.S
= 0.8 %
Oil loss
= 0.5 %
Wet nuts:
239
Fibre:
with V.M. of +/- 30 % has C.V. of +/- 2500 kcal/kg
Shell:
with V.M. of +/- 15 % has C.V. of +/- 3800 kcal/kg
Palm Oil Process

C.P.O.
ex continuous clarifier tank
: V.M. = 0.40 - 0.50 %
after purifier centrifuge
: V.M. = 0.15 - 0.20 %
after vacuum drier
: V.M. = < 0.10 %
in storage
: V.M. = < 0.10 %

: Dirt
Clarifier tank Under flow
After sludge centrifuge
: V.M.
= 85 %
: Oil
= 10 %
: N.O.S.
= 5%
: V.M.
= 95 %
: Oil
= 5%
: Oil/N.O.S.
= 12.5 %
Raw effluent:
N.O.S.
5%
Oil/N.O.S.
= 12 %
pH
B.O.D.
= 20.000 - 30.000 ppm
After treatment:
240
pH
= 8
B.O.D.
= < 200 ppm
C.O.D.
= < 1000 ppm
= < 0.010 %
Palm Oil Process

CRUDE PALM OIL
Fatty Acid composition: (see also table 1, page 6-2)
Acid name
C number
Type
LAURIC
12
Saturated
Trace only
MYRISTIC
14
Saturated
1-2
PALMITIC
16
Saturated
40 - 43
STEARIC
18
Saturated
4 - 6.5
OLEIC
18(1)
Un-saturated
38 - 40
LINOLEIC
18(2)
Un-saturated
10 - 12
LINOLENIC
18(3)
Un-saturated
Trace only
The acid molecules combine together (in 3's) with a glycerine molecule
to form a fat molecule called: triglyceride.
The triglyceride composition can vary considerably, pending type and
composition of numerous bonds of the saturated and un-saturated acids.
Other constituents of C.P.O. are carotenes and tocopherols.
Carotenes give C.P.O. its characteristic orange colour, which is then
removed by bleaching the oil.
Carotenes are precursors of Vitamin A, which is primarily formed when the
molecule splits due to the addition of water.
Tocopherols are naturally occuring anti-oxidants and in C.P.O. may be as
high as 800 ppm, pending the quality of the material and the process.
241
Palm Oil Process

PALM KERNEL OIL
Fatty Acid composition
Acid
C number
Type
CAPRYLIC
Saturated
CAPRIC
10
Saturated
LAURIC
12
Saturated
50
MYRISTIC
14
Saturated
16
PALMITIC
16
Saturated
STEARIC
18
Saturated
OLEIC
18(1)
Un-saturated
16
LINOLEIC
18(2)
Un-saturated
P.K.O. % of dried P.K. is approximately 50 %, the residue cake composition

is as under:
Carbo-hydrates
Proteine
Fibre
Water
Oil
Ash
242
48%
19 %
13 %
11 %
5%
4%
Palm Oil Process

Chapter #38
ADMINISTRATION AND ACCOUNTING
This area can usually be split up into three distinct responsibilities, i.e: the
administration of :
Quality control, Maintenance, stores and spare parts holding and the Financial
control.
38-1.
Quality control
38.1.01 This consists mainly of monitoring the quality of the palm products
manufactured, stored and distributed, but also the quality of the raw
input material (F.F.B.), the boiler feed water and water quality, the
operation of the waste product sections (effluent control) etc.
38.1.02 Many of the records required and kept are to a large degree
"repetitive" type records, requiring summary calculations etc. to be
integrated with other administrative records.
Here also the introduction of "computerized" records can provide a
greater and more accurate measure of control, all resulting in (where
possible) a reduction in the final cost of producing the palm
products.
38-2.
Repair and Maintenance control
38.2.01 As described in chapter 35, Repair and Maintenance, the keeping of

records of the machinery and equipment performance and the
condition can be a positive aid to the scheduling end execution of an
effective repair and maintenance program for the mill's machinery.
Here also the introduction of computerized records allow a large
degree of record
integration and a better (cost) control of this
important part of the overall operation of an oil mill.
38.2.02 Spare parts and spare part stock holding can be kept at proven and
accepted minimum levels if good records are kept, all helping to
keep the overall financial requirements of the oil mill down to the
minimum level required to sustain effective and profitable operation.
243
Palm Oil Process

38-3.
Financial control
38.3.01. As for any other industrial operation, financial records of the cost of the
operation are to be kept and calculated.
These records may take the form of weekly, monthly or other time
based accounts and may vary with the individual factories, companies
or corporations requirements.
38.3.02 The introduction of computer based accounting can provide an option
to integrate some of the direct operational costs with for instance
weigh bridge records, repair and maintenance costs, transport and
distribution costs etc, during the time based period which is to be
covered, thus virtually providing a day to day financial control of the
production cost per tonne of palm product.
38-4
General
The three sections above are just general descriptions, since each
individual factory will have its own, specific, requirements or system of
administrative control.
It is however advisable that when there is more then one plant
operating within a group of plants owned by one company or
corporation, that an as much as possible "standardized" format for the
generated accounts and reports is created and adopted in order to
allow for a reasonable degree of accuracy when comparing different
factories and to allow the staff who produce and process these records
and reports to become familiar and competent with the recording and
calculating procedures.
Mill management should make full use of all the reports and records
produced and (as noted in chapter 36, Process control) should use this
data as a "news paper" rather than a "history sheet" in order to maintain
full control and be able to alter / modify the production process as
required, when required and not at some undetermined future date,
usually after costs have already risen out of proportion, or losses have
already increased to intolerable levels.
244
Palm Oil Process

GLOSSARY of terms
Absorbance ratio (carotene: chlorophyll)
The ratio in which various bio-chemical palm products form during the period of
growth till maturity of the palm fruit.
Aerobic ponds
Excavations made in earth to provide a holding space for liquid effluent in the
aerobic stage. Ponds are not usually lined but have inclined earth walls.
Anthesis
The time of flowering.
Back pressure system
Method whereby low pressure (exhaust) steam from high pressure equipment
(turbines) is collected and utilized for low pressure applications before released
to the atmosphere.
Bio-gas
Usually methane based gas, in palm oil processing plants collected from
effluent digesters or ponds.
Bleachability
The ability to reduce the (usually reddish-orange) colour of crude palm oil by
chemical treatment.
Blow down
The release of water, solids and chemical material from boilers under pressure.
Bogey
The chassis, fitted with wheels, on which the sterilizer cage is transported over
rail tracks.
Boiler sludge
An emulsion formed inside the water compartments of the boiler, usually
containing water, treatment chemicals and some scale fragments.
Brine bath
Method to separate shell and kernels by floating the mixture in water which has
its specific gravity increased by means of the addition of salt.
I
Palm Oil Process

Cake breaker conveyor
The paddle conveyor transporting the solid material expelled from the press to
the nut - fibre separator (depericarper).
Capstan
A motor driven vertical or horizontal shaft drum, used for marshalling cages
from loading ramp to sterilizers, crane pick-up point etc.
Carbo-hydrates
Compound of general formula : Cx(H2O)y usually containing sugars, starch,
cellulose.
Carotene
An orange - red pigment in palm oil.
Carry over (boiler)
The possibility of water and or foam being carried over with the steam leaving
the boiler.
Catalyst
A substance which accelerates or retards the rate of chemical reactions.
Chlorophyll
Green pigment found in all algae and higher plant and chiefly responsible for
light capture in photosynthesis. It is the site of the first stage of the transformation
of light energy to chemical energy.
Clarification
The process of separating "pure" palm oil from the crude oil and emulsion
extracted from the press liquid.
Clay bath
Method to separate shell and kernels by floating the mixture in water which has
its specific gravity increased by means of the addition of clay (usually Kaolin).
Condensate
Liquid formed from steam condensing on colder surfaces.
In palm oil processing sterilizer condensate is thus formed when steam
condenses on the fruit and in the sterilizer vessel.
Condensing capacity
The ability to reduce a given quantity of steam under given circumstances to
condensate moisture.
II
Palm Oil Process

Cone pressure
The pressure exerted on the fruit mass expelled by a screw press.
Consumables
Materials held in stock that are not classified as either spare parts or raw
materials.
Crucible
A small cup shaped pressed paper container commonly used in laboratories.
Cutting and shearing
The action of separating the fibrous material and the nuts before pressing,
performed in the digester by a rotating set of "knife-arms".
Decanter
A specially designed high speed rotating centrifuge, usually with horizontal
shaft, to separate various phases of liquid emulsions to a pre set degree into
liquids and solids
Dehydration (in sterilization)
The reduction in moisture content due to the temperature and pressure
changes during sterilization of the fresh fruit.
Depericarper
A set of equipment designed to facilitate the pneumatic separation of the
(loose) fibre and nuts expelled by the cake breaker conveyor.
Diffusion
The action of steam penetration into air, thereby displacing the air.
Digester drainage
Under certain circumstances the drainage of "free" oil and liquid from the
digester bottom, before the M.P.D. enters the press.
Digester
A circular vertical vessel equipped with rotating arms causing the fruit mass to
be sheared and cut, thereby separating fibre from the nuts and preparing the
mash (M.P.D.) for the action of pressing.
Effluent
Material left over after processing and extraction the palm oil and palm kernel.
III
Palm Oil Process

Endocarp
The shell material if palm fruit.
Exocarp
The outer skin of palm fruit.
Extraction rate
A percentage calculated to show the relation of oil or kernel recovered from
the F.F.B.
Feedwater
Water suitably treated, heated and de-aerated to be pumped to the boiler.
Fines (in laboratory tests)
Fibre and shell debris in fine, dust like form.
Flue gasses
Exhaust gasses from the operation of the boiler furnace escaping to
atmosphere through the chimney stack.
Fosslet equipment
Laboratory equipment calibrated to measure particular oil losses in dry and wet
waste material from the process.
Hard bunch percentage
A percentage calculated to show the ratio or quantity of unripe fruit delivered
with the overall F.F.B. to the process plant.
Hardness (water)
A measure of chemical quality of the water used for the boiler, usually
expressed in mainly calcium and magnesium.
Hydro-cyclone
Equipment designed to separate shell and kernel by means of a vortex created
by water flow through a cylinder.
Hydrolysis (of lipids)
Decomposition of lipids through the addition of water.
Incinerator
A furnace designed for slow and low temperature burning of the empty
bunches.
IV
Palm Oil Process

Inflorescence
The reproductive shoot of plants, composed of, or bearing, flowers.
Ion exchanger
Part of the demineralization plant, where silica can be removed by an
exchange process with base anion resins, usually regenerated with caustic
material.
Lipase
Enzyme which splits lipids into glycerol and free fatty acids.
Lipids
Basically fat, a compound of glycerol and fatty acids.
Loading ramp
Equipment designed to facilitate the transfer of F.F.B from external road
transport units to the sterilizer cages.
Loose fruit
Fruit which has abcissed from the fruit bunch on ripening.
Marshalling yard
The area designated to move, shunt and store the sterilizer cages, full or empty.
Mash Passing to Digester (MPD)
The fruit mash prepared by the digester, passed on to the pressing / extraction
equipment.
Mesocarp
The main oil bearing tissue of the palm fruit.
Mesophyll
Internal tissue of leaves, other than the vascular elements, in which chlorophyll is
found.
Methogenic
Having the capability of generating methane based gases.
Mill capacity
A theoretical calculation showing the quantity of F.F.B. that can be processed
in a given period and at a given rate.
Palm Oil Process

Mulch
loose organic material lain on the surface of the soil, assisting in retaining soil
moisture, improvement of soil structure and increasing the organic matter
content.
Nut conditioning
Treatment given to palm nuts, prior to the process of extracting the palm kernel.
Nut-fibre separator
See depericarper
Orifice plate
Plate fitted with a hole smaller than the internal pipe diameter in a steam pipe
line to reduce the flow of steam through the pipe as a result of the "throttling"
action.
Palm oil meal
The dry cake material remaining after extracting the drying off the oily phase
and moisture from decanter solids.
Palm produce
The combined quantity of palm oil and palm kernel extracted from F.F.B.
Parthenocarpic
Formation of fruit without fertilization.
Pathogenic
Being able to cause disease in a host.
Pericarp
The main oil bearing tissue in oil palm fruit, plus the outer skin.
Phospholipid
A combination of oil with a phosphoric acid group and a nitrogenous base.
Polishing drum
A rotary drum in which nuts are treated and remaining fibres are loosened from
the nuts, before further process of the nuts.
Pressing
The action of squeezing the oil out of the digested fruit.
Regenerant
Material used to regenerate exhausted ion and anion exchange resins.
VI
Palm Oil Process

Ripple mill
A rotary nutcracker, the action of which is more akin to shattering the shell than
breaking the shell, without unacceptable breakage of the kernel.
Rotary drum (thresher)
The revolving part of the thresher machine, designed to carry the bunches up
and dropping them back in the slotted drum, the action of which "threshes" the
fruits from the bunch.
Sand trap
A tank fitted between the crude oil gutter and the vibrating screen, designed
to allow sand and other (heavy) solid material to settle out.
Scale ( boiler)
Deposits of calcium and other solids on the water side of the heated surface of
boiler tubes, drums etc.
Screw press
Equipment designed to extract the crude palm oil from the digested fruit by
means of pressing.
Senecent
Grown old.
Silica
Silicon dioxide, hard stone like material, usually entered with water from source.
Silo dryers
Equipment designed to dry nut or kernel material by passing heated air through
the material to be dried during a calculated retention time in the silo.
Sludge
Mixture of primarily oil and water
Soil bearing test
Test performed to establish the capacity of the soil to support structures etc. of
a given weight on a given area of foundation.
Soxhlet extraction
A laboratory technique used to determine quantities of oil or grease mixed with
normally dry material.
VII
Palm Oil Process

Spectral scanning
A method designed to allow the detection and calculation of various
components of a compound material by scanning the images of various bands
of colours produced by light rays.
Stack plume
The characteristic elongated cloud of smoke above a chimney stack.
Steam sweeping
The action of forcing the air inside sterilizers down wards towards the deaeration outlets.
Sterilization
The action of preparing the F.F.B. for further handling and process to allow the
efficient and economic extraction of palm produce.
Sterilizer cages
Metal baskets in which the fruit is held during the sterilization process.
Sterilizer vessel
A long, cylindrical vessel in which the fruit to be sterilized is placed and
submitted to the influence of live steam .
Stripping process
Commonly used term for threshing of fruit.
Tannins
Group of astringent substances, particularly found in the bark of trees, unripe
fruits, leaves and galls.
Tenera
Also called D x P as it is a cross between Dura and Pisifera.
Threshing
The action of removing the fruits from the bunches in a revolving thresher drum.
Tippler
Device designed to rotate a sterilizer cage at ground level , tipping out the fruit
and eliminating the use of an overhead hoisting crane.
Torque
Twisting force. causing rotation.
VIII
Palm Oil Process

Triple peak sterilization
Process of sterilization whereby cycle is divided into three peaks, separated by
intermittent blow - offs, assisting in the proper penetration of steam,
dehydration and pre-treatment of nuts.
Vibration measurement
Measurement to indicate the overall vibration, or the increase in vibration of a
particular machine, thereby providing data on which a forecast of the
machine wear can be based.
Vibro energy separator
Equipment designed to separate the solid and liquid fraction of the crude oil
extracted from the fruit by the press. The equipment has a simultaneous
horizontal, vertical and gyrating movement.
Viscosity
Fluid rating of liquids
Volatile matter
Term commonly used to describe moisture in oil or kernel.
Weigh-bridge
Equipment designed to weigh the incoming F.F.B. into the factory and the
outgoing produce from the factory.
Wet separation
The actions performed by either hydro-cyclones or clay-bath separators.
Winnowing
The actions performed by pneumatic separation of material of different density,
volume and weight.
Zeolite
Chemical substance used in the treatment of boiler water.
IX
Palm Oil Process

INDEX
absorption : 25-23
acid sulphate soil : 31-1
administration : 38-1; 38-2
aerated lagoon : 32-5
aerobic : 32-4
aerobic pond : 32-6
aerobic stabilization pond : 32-6
aerobic suspended growth : 32-5
aerobic sludge cake : 31-7
aerobic digestion : 32-5
air flow rate : 30-5
air pollution 33-1
air release : 25-1; 25-3
air velocity : 30-4
alkali attack : 34-2
alkalinity : 34-3; 34-7
alumina : 34-1
anaerobic : 32-4
anaerobic ponds : 32-11
anaerobic sludge cake : 31-7
anaerobic tank digestion : 32-13
analysis c.p.o. : 37-1; 37-2; 37-3; 37-4; 37-5; 37-7; 37-8; 37-9
analysis p.k : 37-10; 37-11; 37-12
anoxic denitrification : 32-4
application digested effluent : 32-18
attached growth : 32-5
automated valve control : 25-19
bag filter : 33-2
batch type process : 25-19
bio gas : 32-14
bio-chemistry : 3-1
biochemical oxidation : 32-2
biological oxygen demand (b.o.d.) : 32-1; 32-2
biosynthesis : 3-2
black bunches : 36-3
bleach-ability : 29-12
blow down : 34-10
blow-off : 25-4; 25-5; 25-7; 25-8
boiler smoke : 33-1
X
Palm Oil Process

boiler water : 34-1
boiler ash : 31-4
boiler boil out : 34-15
breakdown : 35-1
buch ash : 11-1
bulk density (fibre) : 30-4
bunch stripping : 25-2; 25-21
bunch trash : 28-1
bunch ash : 31-1; 31-2
by-pass : 25-5
cake breaker conveyor : 30-1
calcium carbonate : 34-1
calcium phosphate : 34-1
calorific value : 31-3
capstan : 25-20
carbohydrate : 3-1; 4-3
carboneceous b.o.d. : 32-4
carotene : 3-1; 4-2; 4-4; 29-12
carry over : 34-2; 34-3
centrifugal separator : 29-9
check list : 35-7; 35-8; 35-9; 35-10; 35-11; 35-12; 35-13
chelant programme : 34-9
chemical oxygen demand (c.o.d.) : 32-1; 32-2
chloro-plast : 4-4
chlorophyll : 3-1
clarification : 25-1; 29-2; 29-3; 29-7; 29-8
clay bath : 30-11
co-ordinated phosphate programme : 34-10
coagulation : 34-3; 34-9
combustion : 31-1; 33-1
composition : 28-2; 29-7
computer : 35-2
condensation/condensate : 25-3; 25-5; 25-6; 25-10; 25-11
condition monitoring maintenance : 35-5
cone pressure : 27-4
cone control : 28-4
constant bleed : 25-6
constant pressure : 25-7
consumables : 35-1
contamination : 28-4
control methods: 32-8
convection current : 29-7
conveyor : 25-25
XI
Palm Oil Process

copper : 29-12
cracked mixture : 30-10
cracking ring : 30-9
crude oil gutter : 29-1
crude palm oil (c.p.o.) : 1-1; 26-1; 28-2; 29-1; 29-3; 29-7; 29-8
crude oil tank : 29-2
d x p : 30-1
de-aeration : 25-3; 34-12
de-gasified water : 34-5
de-watered sludge : 31-6
decanter : 29-8; 31-6
dehydration : 25-2; 25-8
demineralization : 34-6
depericarper : 30-1
deterioration : 29-9
determination oil losses : 37-12; 37-13; 37-14; 37-16; 37-18; 37-20
diffusion : 25-3; 25-4
digester : 27-1; 27-3
dilution : 27-4
dirt : 29-9; 29-10
disposal : 29-9
dry separation : 30-11
drying : 29-9
ducting : 30-5
dura : 1-2; 1-3; 28-1; 30-1
dust collector : 33-2
dust cyclone : 33-2
dynamic (oil) recovery : 29-4; 29-6
efficiency : 28-2
effluent : 32-1
elaedobius kamerunicus : 9-2
electricity : 34-1
electricity : 34-25
elevator : 25-25
empty bunches : 25-24; 31-1; 31-3; 36-4
emulsion layer : 29-7
emulsion : 27-3; 27-4; 29-3
endocarp : 1-2
enzyme : 3-2; 25-1; 30-13
evaluation : 29-10; 30-15
examination of f.f.b. : 36-2
extended aeration ponds : 32-13
external treatment : 34-3
XII
Palm Oil Process

extraction rate : 24-1; 26-3; 28-1
f.f.a. premium : 29-11
facultative process : 32-4
facultative pond : 32-7
fan characteristics : 30-6; 30-7
feed water : 34-10; 34-11
feed screw : 27-1
fibre fuel : 30-12
fibre : 30-4; 31-3; 31-4
fibre / nut separator : 27-2
fibre:nuts : 28-1
field disposal : 31-2
filtration : 34-3
flash off : 25-6
flocculation : 34-3
flowers : 1-2
foaming : 34-2
free fatty acid : 3-2; 24-3; 25-1; 25-6; 29-10
free oil : 27-3; 27-4
fresh fruit bunches : 1-1
fruit cage : 25-4
fruit transport : 24-1; 25-20
fuel : 31-3
fuel/steam/power balance : 34-18
furrows : 32-18
gases : 34-3; 34-8
glycerol : 3-2
gravity : 29-7
hand press : 27-1
handling (f.f.b.) : 28-4
hardness : 34-3; 34-4
harvest interval : 28-3
harvesting efficiency : 28-4
heat transmission : 25-10
heat transfer : 34-2
heat loss : 25-20
heat penetration : 25-4
henry's law : 34-12
hoisting crane : 25-20
homogenization : 29-2
hydraulic retention time (h.r.t.) : 32-9
hydraulic press : 27-1; 30-1
hydro cyclone : 30-12
XIII
Palm Oil Process

hydrolysis : 3-2; 29-10
hydroxyl group : 4-2
hygroscopic : 29-10
incinerator : 11-1; 31-1; 33-3
inflorescence : 1-2
instripped bunches : 36-4
internal treatment : 34-9
inventory control : 35-33
ion exchange : 34-3
iron oxide : 34-1
iron : 29-12
isopentenyl pyrophosphate : 4-4
kernel losses : 28-5
kernel drying : 30-13; 30-14
kernel recovery : 30-13
kernel extraction rate : 28-1
kernel cleaning : 30-14
kernel / shell separation : 30-10; 30-11
laboratory : 37-1
land application effluent : 32-17
linoleic acid : 4-1; 5-2
lipases : 4-1; 4-2
lipids : 3-1
liquid scrubber: 33-2
loading ramp : 24-2
lubrication : 25-6
m.p.d.: f.f.b : 28-1
m.p.d.analysis : 26-1
machine history : 35-3
machine records : 35-2
magnesium : 31-2
magnesium hydroxide : 34-1
magnesium silicate : 34-1
maintenance 35-1
mash passing to digester : 26-1
maturity : 5-1
melavonic acid : 4-4
mesocarp : 1-2; 25-1; 26-2; 26-3; 29-3
methogenic phase : 32-11
micro aerophil : 32-4
moisture : 29-9; 29-10; 30-2
moisture content : 4-2
monitoring equipment : 35-4
XIV
Palm Oil Process

mould : 30-13
mulch : 11-1
mulching : 31-2; 31-5
multiple peak sterilization : 25-12
multiple sterilizers : 25-7
newton's law : 29-7; 29-8
nitrification : 32-4
nitrogen : 31-2
non oily solids : 29-3
nut / fibre separation : 30-3
nut / fibre : 30-1
nut cracking : 30-9; 30-10
nut treatment : 30-8; 30-9
nutrient value : 31-2
oil palm : 1-2
oil bearing cells : 25-1; 27-1
oil : 28-1; 29-3
oil losses : 25-23; 25-24
oil recovery : 29-8
oleic acid : 4-1; 5-2
organic matter : 34-3; 3408
orifice plate : 25-12; 25-18
other laboratory tests : 37-21
oxidation level : 29-2
oxidation : 29-9; 29-10; 29-12
oxygen attack : 34-2
paddles : 30-1
palm oil meal : 31-6
palm produce : 28-2; 28-5
palm oil mill effluent(p.o.m.e.) : 32-1
palm kernel : 1-1; 25-2; 28-2; 28-5
palmitic acid : 5-2
parthenocarps : 1-3; 26-2; 26-3
peak demand (steam) : 25-11; 25-12
peak yield : 1-2; 10-1; 11-1
penalty : 30-16
percolating trench : 32-18
percolation : 31-6
pericarp : 1-2
permanent magnet : 25-25
phosphate : 34-9
phospholipids : 3-1
phosphorus : 31-2
XV
Palm Oil Process

physical properties of oil : 29-7
pneumatic air stream separation : 30-3
polishing drum : 30-8
pollination :1-2; 9-1
potassium : 31-1; 31-2
precipitation : 34-2
predictive maintenance : 35-1; 35-5
premium : 30-16
press cake : 27-1; 30-2
press (twin screw) : 28-1
pressing : 28-1
pressing (extraction) efficiency : 28-5
preventative maintenance : 35-1; 35-5
process control : 36-1
proteine : 3-2
proto-plast : 4-4
pure oil : 29-9
quality control : 37-1
quality : 28-3; 29-12; 30-11; 30-13; 30-14; 30-15; 30-16
recovery % : 28-5
retention time : 27-3; 30-2
return conveyor : 25-26
ringelmann : 33-3
ripeness : 1-1; 2-1; 5-1; 10-1; 24-2
ripple mill : 30-10
rotary drum : 25-21
rotating drum separator : 30-3
sampling : 25-21; 26-1
sampling : 36-5
sand trap / filter : 29-1
sand cyclone : 29-1
scale / deposits : 34-2
screen aperture : 29-2
screening : 29-1
screw speed : 28-4
screw press : 27-1
scrubber : 31-6
seasonal winds : 20-1
secondary depericarper : 30-8
seeding effluent : 32-11
sequencing : 25-19
settling : 29-1
shell : 30-12; 31-4
XVI
Palm Oil Process

silica : 34-1; 34-7
site selection : 17-1
slag / clinker : 31-5
slip : 28-5
sludge : 29-9
sludge separator : 29-9
soda ash : 34-15
soil pH : 31-1
solids separation : 32-7
solids : 29-9; 31-1; 31-5; 31-6
sprinklers : 32-17
stabilization : 32-4
staff training : 35-5
standardization : 16-1
static tank recovery : 29-4; 29-5
steam turbine : 34-25
steam distributor : 25-4
steam demand : 25-9; 25-10
steam jacket : 27-1
steam : 34-1
steam pressure : 25-2; 25-7
steam requirement (calculation) : 34-17
steam consumption : 25-9; 25-11
steam sweeping : 25-3
sterilization : 25-21; 25-19; 28-4
sterilized fruit : 25-25
sterilizer : 24-3
sterilizer cycle : 25-6; 25-7
stirring arms : 27-3
stoke's law : 29-7
stones/debris : 25-25
storage : 29-9
substrate : 32-4
super natant : 32-14
supplementary fuel : 31-3
suspended solids : 32-1; 34-3
suspended growth : 32-5
tannin : 3-1
temperature : 25-4; 29-1; 29-2; 29-8; 30-13
tenera : 1-2; 1-3; 28-1
tertiary maturation pond : 32-7
theoretical oxygen demand (th.o.d.) : 32-3
thermophilic reaction : 32-9
XVII
Palm Oil Process

thresher speed : 25-22; 25-23
thresher : 25-20; 25-21; 25-24
throttling : 25-11
through put : 27-1; 27-2
tippler : 25-20
tocopherol : 3-1; 4-2
torque : 28-5
total oxygen demand (t.o.d.) : 32-3
total solids : 32-1
total organic carbon (t.o.c.) : 32-3
total dissolved solids : 34-8
treatment types : 32-8
tri sodium phosphate : 34-15
tube failure : 34-2
turbulence : 25-3; 25-4
unstripped bunches : 25-21; 25-24
vacuum de-aerator : 34-6
vacuum dryer : 29-9
variables : 28-3
velocity (table) : 30-5
vertical column separator : 30-3
vibrating screen : 29-1; 29-2
vibro energy separator : 29-2
viscosity : 29-1; 29-3; 29-7; 29-8
waste disposal : 31-1
water : 29-3
weigh-bridge : 24-1
wet separation : 30-11
work orders (job cards) : 35-3
XVIII

Palm Oil Process

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Palm Oil Process

The Principle & Operational Techniques

PALM OIL PROCESSING

Palm Oil Process

Palm Oil Process

: percentage foreign matter in kernel

Palm Oil Process

Fresh Fruit Bunches

SECTION #2 The Factory - Design considerations

SECTION #3 The Factory - Extraction of C.P.O. and P.K.

Palm Oil Process

26. Mash Passing to Digester

27. Digesting of sterilized fruit

28. Pressing of digested fruit

29. Crude Palm Oil (C.P.O.)

30. Palm Kernel (P.K.)

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Disposal of "dry" material

32. Disposal of "wet" material

33. Air pollution

Palm Oil Process

a) Steam and electricity generation

34. Generation of steam and electricity

35. Repair and Maintenance

36. Process control

37. Quality control

38. Administration and accounting

Palm Oil Process

Palm Oil Process

"Oil is made in the field, and lost in the factory."

Various circumstances may determine the practical parameters,

Palm Oil Process

Height increment (trunk elongation) ranges between 40 to 80 centimetre

The male inflorescence can carry as many as or over a 1000 flowers,

The female inflorescence carries a considerably larger number of flowers,

After pollination the female inflorescence develops into a fruit bunch,

An individual fruit consists of a seed (the "palm kernel"), surrounded by

Palm Oil Process

The Pisifera palm fruit has a kernel but no shell.

Palm Oil Process

Harvesting fruit bunches at the correct state of ripeness is of paramount

The conventional system is to determine the ripeness by the number of

An understanding of the formation of the various biochemical processes

Palm Oil Process

Several distinct biochemical changes take place in the mesocarp as the

Carbohydrates form the major biochemical constituent in the early

The presence of Chlorophyll also contributes to the formation of

Carbohydrates are continuously translocated and synthesised within the

Accessory pigments (such as carotene, orange plant pigment) and their

Tocopherols (naturally occurring trace elements, able to act as

Palm Oil Process

An important product of the carbohydrate metabolism is "tannin" (acidic

The biosynthesis of lipids is the main feature exhibited by mesocarp.

The formation of lipids accelerate as the fruit approaches maturity and

Senescence triggers the degradation (or hydrolysis) of lipids to glycerol

Palm Oil Process

Palm Oil Process

Palm Oil Process

Palm Oil Process

Palm Oil Process

Palm Oil Process

Analysis done on the same bunch of a particular age, from different

Analysis from the 20th week (optimum ripeness) show a similar

Palm Oil Process