Physical Anthropology- 101

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M. Leonor Monreal
Fullerton College
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Notes & Assignments

Physical Anthropology Questions

By K. Markley

Are the following statements true or false? Write an F or T next to each question (you will NOT be
graded on this exercise).
1. Science can be used to explore any question that humans have. At this time there is enough
evidence for scientists to state absolutely that UFOs do not exist.
2. The age of the earth is some 4.5 million years old.
3. Charles Darwins theory of natural selection has undergone so many revisions and changes
since he first put it forth in 1859 that he would hardly recognize it today.
4. Fittness, in Darwinian terms, refers only to differential reproductive success. The most fit
individuals are those who produce more offspring than others within their group. It does not
necessarily have anything to do with size, strength or intelligence.
5. All life on earth is made up of the same DNA bases, adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine.
In general, it is the sequencing and number of each base in a sequence that codes for all of
the different life forms on earth including bacteria, flowers, trees, dogs, and humans.
6. Females are more likely than males to be red-green colorblind.
7. The completion of the Human Genome Project has shown that aggression is a genetic trait
coded for in human genes.
8. Orangutans are monkeys.
9. Humans are unique in both their physical and behavioral features as compared to other
primates.
10. Baboons, an old world monkey, have been shown to make friends with each other and to
form alliances, just like humans
11. All scientists agree that there are only two sexes in the species Homo sapiens.
12. Racial categories of humans are social constructs. There is no way to definitively divide
humans into biological races.
13. Humans co-existed with dinosaurs (cartoons dont lie!)
14 Neanderthals co-existed and interbred with early modern Homo sapiens
15. The oldest human-like ancestors in the fossil record are some 4.5 million years and they are
considered human-like because of their big brains.
16. Forensic anthropologists can determine the lifestyle, sex, and approximate age an individual
was when they died by examining skeletal remains.
17. All Christian theologians and churches state that you cannot accept evolutionary theory and
still be a good christian.
18. In Europe there is not, for the most part, a creation/evolution debate. This debate is primarily
an American phenomena.
19. Evolutionary theory can explain the origin of life on earth.
20. Evolution is only a theory (and therefore not a fact).

M. Leonor Monreal
Physical Anthropology 101
KEYTERMS
Natural Selection: defined as a process of evolutionary change based on differential reproductive
success (fitness) of individuals w/in a species
Key components of natural selection:
Variation: variation exists in all individuals, individuals traits vary within populations for
instance individuals vary in their size, ability to resist disease, their color, etc.
Competition: exists between individuals within a population for survival. Competition exists
between individuals over access to food, the ability to avoid predators, ability to evade disease, etc.
Environment or nature selects desirable traits: we know an individual has been
selected if they are more successful reproductively. Differential reproductive success is the basis
by which individuals fitness is measured.
Fitness: Fittest individuals produce highest number of offspring, differential reproductive
success

Inheritance: Traits are inherited by offspring

Environments change: therefore the traits that are positive or selected for today may not be
positive or selected for in another environment.
Natural selection results in: populations changing over time- as individuals within the populations
change. Over enough time new species will form- speciation
As regards Natural Selection, keep in mind:
Selection operates at the individual level- selection of individuals based on the traits that they
possess
Populations evolve- not individuals. It is populations that change over time as individuals with
the most advantageous traits are selected and produce offspring that have their traits.
Natural Selection is not progressive- it doesnt lead to more perfect organisms, it selects for
traits that are positive in a particular environment, in relation to reproductive success, it does not
have any particular direction or teleology
Natural Selection is not foolproof- extinction is the norm
o Variation must be present to be selected
o There must be time for selection to occur- if environmental change is too sudden
or too drastic it wont work

M. Leonor Monreal
Physical Anthropology 101
By K. Markley
This is a general outline of what you need to know for the section on genetics. To make the best
use of this information, read your text, attend class and take notes and then use this as an
outline for key concepts and understandings.
Genetics: study how traits are transmitted from one generation to the next. The study of genetics
informs us as to where variation comes from and how inheritance works. The genetic code,
carried by DNA, is basically a set of instructions for the production (or synthesis) of proteins
from amino acids.
Cells: The basic unit of life in all living organisms is the cell.
Humans start life as a single cell. An adult human being is comprised of some 1,000 billion
cells. Cell division and replication of the somatic cells is responsible for our growth as a human
being. There are two basic types of cells that we are concerned with in this class.
o Somatic cells, which comprise the body tissue, muscle, bone, skin, nerves, etc. that
make up our body. Each of our somatic cells contains all 23 pairs of our
chromosomes.
o The sex cells or gametes are the cells of reproduction (eggs and sperm). The sex
cells contain only half of our chromosomes
DNA resides in the nucleus of the cell, carries the genetic code and directs cellular functions.
DNA is the genetic material of all life on earth.
Structure of DNA is a double helix or twisted ladder. The sides of the ladder are made up of
sugar and phosphate units and the rungs of ladder composed of the four nucleic acids;
o cytosine-C, guanine-G, adenine-A, and thymine-T.
o The four nucleic acids combine in a very specific way, A only with T and C only with G.
o This is the key for the ability of DNA to direct cell division, cell replication and protein
synthesis.
o All life on earth is made up of these four DNA bases.
Cell division and replication: during this process enzymes split the rungs of the ladder in half.
The helix unwinds and the exposed bases of the ladder rungs attract the appropriate
complementary bases. Thus an exact copy of the cell is produced.
Mitosis: cell division of somatic cells, produces 2 exact daughter cells. This is an
ongoing process in the body. Mitosis works for repair and growth (nails, hair, bone
marrow, etc. constantly replicating). Each somatic cell (if there is no problem or error
in the replication) contains all 23 pairs of an individuals chromosomes.
Meiosis: cell division where sex cells are produced (gametes; sperm & eggs).
During meiosis the cells undergo an extra round of division. The result is that the sex
cells contain only 23 chromosomes. The number of chromosomes are halved during
meiosis. Genetic diversity (variation) is enhanced thru meiosis. In the production of
each gamete or sex cell there is a 50/50 chance as to which one of their pair of
chromosomes they pass onto to their offspring. Meiosis is a powerful source to
reshuffle the existing variation in the parental generation. Each human has some 8
million possible combinations of their chromosomes for their offspring thru meiosis.

M. Leonor Monreal
Physical Anthropology 101
Protein Synthesis: is the process by which the genetic code puts together proteins in the cell.
For this process DNA splits and attracts mRNA (in RNA uracil replaces thymine), mRNA
completes the production of proteins in the ribosomes where the message is decoded. tRNA
reads the message to produce amino acids and then proteins. Proteins, in large part, make up
what we are (bone, muscle, hemoglobin, enzymes, etc.). Protein synthesis is the assembly of
chains of amino acids (codons) into functional proteins. This process is directed by DNA, using
RNA.
Think of the DNA bases as being the letters of an alphabet and there are only 4 letters (A,
T, C, and G). Each word in the DNA alphabet is only 3 letters (these words are called
codons). There are only 20 possible words formed with the 4 letters (the 20 amino acids
are the 20 words). The words or amino acids combine in various sequences and
quantities to form the hundreds of thousands of proteins that make up a human being.
Feature
Analogue
Meaning
Base (A, T, C, G)
letter
Codon
word
amino acid
gene
sentence
protein
Genes are portions of the DNA molecule that code for specific traits (proteins, or portions of a
protein). Humans have some 30,000+ genes. These genes code for hundreds of thousands of
proteins. Each gene resides at a specific location on a chromosome (locus) and each individual
receives two genes or alleles at each location, one from each parent.
Locus- Genes unique location on chromosome
Alleles-alternative forms of gene- there are always two alleles at each locus
Genotype: alleles possessed by organism
Phenotype: physical expression of alleles
Homozygous: having two of same allele
Heterozygous: having two different alleles
Alleles come in various forms and this impacts their expression in the individual
Dominant: allele expressed phenotypically
Recessive: allele not expressed unless both alleles are recessive
co-dominance: expression of both alleles in an organism (the ABO blood system is an
example with A and B being co-dominate in their expression)
incomplete dominance: occurs when a recessive allele does have some phenotypic effect,
the recessive allele is not completely masked by the dominant allele (tay sachs is an
example)
Example: one trait that all normal humans have is earlobes, which come in two different forms,
either free hanging or attached. If your earlobes are free hanging then the base of your
earlobe is not attached to your neck, if your earlobe is attached then the base of your earlobe is
attached to the base of your neck. The trait is coded for by one gene. Either alternative for the
trait- either free hanging or attached is dictated by an allele. The allele for free hanging is
recessive. Therefore an individual who has two recessive alleles (ee) is free hanging. An
individual who has one of each allele (Ee) is attached and an individual who has two dominant
alleles (EE) is also attached.
5

M. Leonor Monreal
Physical Anthropology 101
Alleles: Each individual has only two alleles at each locus (inheriting one allele from each parent).
Even though there are only two alleles at each locus, depending on the trait there may be
anywhere from only two alleles possible for a trait (ear lobes), three alleles possible (A, B, O blood
system) to thousands of alleles (HLA system works to reject foreign tissue). Keep in mind at each
locus we only have two alleles.
Traits can be determined by one or more genes and can be impacted by the environment
monogenic traits: one gene, one effect (hitchhikers thumb)
polygenic traits: two or more genes for one effect, often influenced by environment (skin
color)
pleiotropy: single gene for multiple traits (albinism)
Human traits can be both polygenic and pleiotropic.
Chromosomes are strands of DNA in the nucleus of the cell which contain the genetic info for
inheritance. Each species has a specific number of chromosomes. All normal humans have 23
pairs of chromosomes, 46 total (23 from each parent). Keep in mind that genes reside at specific
locations on the chromosome.
Autosomes are chromosomes 1-22 and they contain most all of the genetic info for our
physical characteristics except sex determination.
Sex Chromosomes: are X & Y.
Females have two X chromosomes and thus have a matching pair for all of their
chromosomes. The X chromosome is large and codes for some physical traits, some
300+ genes have been identified on the X chromosome.
Males have an X & Y chromosome, therefore males do not have a matching pair for
their sex chromosomes. The Y chromosome is small and for the most part codes for
maleness. Since males do not have a matching pair of sex chromosomes this
makes them more susceptible to traits that reside on the X chromosome.
Principles of Inheritance
Segregation: during meiosis chromosomes segregate (& therefore allele pairs segregate)
o 50% chance for parent to pass on either chromosome (this is what is represented
in the punnett squares, you are displaying the 50/50 chance for what the offspring
will receive from their parents)
Independent Assortment: genes on separate chromosomes are inherited independently, it is
chromosomes that segregate during meiosis not individual genes
Linkage: genes on same chromosome are inherited together, because it is chromosomes that
segregate during meiosis
Crossing Over: exception to linkage, during meiosis portions of chromosome pairs break off
and cross over and are then recombined (recombination)
Variation is increased through: Segregation, independent assortment, crossing over &
recombination

Frequently Asked Questions- FAQS

What is DNA?
Deoxyribonucleic acid. Its a molecule that controls the structure of proteins and is the primary
carrier of genetic (hereditary) information.
What is a Gene?
There are many different ways to define a gene. For this course we will be using the term gene
as a sequence of DNA that codes for a particular protein or regulates the expression of a protein
What do Proteins have to do with Genes?
Genes store the recipe for making proteins. We are basically made up of proteins and proteins do
the work of the body: they generate energy, fight infection, digest food, form hair, etc. Each protein
in the body is made from a gene by a translation of the genetic code (the DNA base sequences)
What is a Genome?
The complete set of genes carried by an individual. This analogy might help you better
understand: the human genome is like a book which contains 23 chapters (chromosomes), and
each chapter contains several thousand paragraphs (genes), each paragraph is made up of words
(codons, amino acids), each word is written in letters (nucleic bases- adenine, thymine, cystosine,
guanine)
What is junk DNA?
The majority of DNA does not code for proteins and until fairly recently it was thought that this DNA
did nothing and so was labeled junk. Current research is showing that junk DNA does cause
some impacts, it can work to minimize or increase the impact of a protein or trait.
Characteristics of DNA Code
Code is universal: the same triplet code (three bases that code for an amino acid) is present in all
life on earth.
o Humans share some 200 genes that they share with bacteria
o Some 75% of our genes are shared with birds (we shared a common ancestor with
birds some 310 million years ago)
Code is triplet: each amino acid is specified by sequence of 3 bases
Code is continuous w/out pauses: there is no separation from one amino acid (codon) to
another, so if a base is deleted then entire frame is moved, drastically altering the message
downstream for other successive codons
o Change in one base is a point mutation
o Code has periods to stop translation
Code is redundant: there are 20 amino acids, and 4 DNA bases which makes for 64 possible
triplets (w/3 stop messages), so there are 61 codons specifying 20 amino acids
o Many amino acids coded for by more than one codon- (valine= UAA, UAG, UGA)

o Redundancy helps if there is a change or mutation in the code it makes it less likely
there will be drastic consequences

Things to keep in mind

During meiosis parents pass on 50% of their chromosomal complement
Punnett squares are used to calculate percentages for the possibility of what offspring will
inherit with the union of parents chromosomes or gametes
Offspring can express traits not expressed in parents (due to recessive alleles)
Humans have pairs of all autosomes (22 from each parent, 44 total), females have a pair of
sex chromosomes (two Xs, one from each parent), males have one X & one Y chromosome
(males more likely to get conditions passed on X chromosome)
Punnett Squares
Work to show the possibilities for offspring. The outside of the punnett square reflects the alleles
that the parents possess for a particular trait. It is a fifty-fifty possibility as to which allele each
parent passes onto their offspring (through the process of meiosis). The inside of the square
reflects the possibilities for their offspring.

Genetics Exercise: Protein Synthesis and Sickle-Cell Anemia

Protein synthesis is the process by which the genetic code puts together proteins in the cell. DNA, residing
in the nucleus of the cell contains the blueprint for each specific protein. The four letters or bases
in the DNA alphabet (adenine-A, thymine-T, cytosine-C, and guanine-G) combine in various sequences
and quantities to form words or codons. Codons are made up of three letters or bases (A, T, C, G) and
they form amino acids. Each amino acid is made up of three letters. There are 20 different amino acids
which combine in various sequences and quantities to formulate the hundreds of thousands of proteins that
make up human beings. The genetic code is redundant in that each amino acid can be coded for in more
than one way (e.g. lysine can be coded for by TTT or TTC).
Hemoglobin is a protein made up of two chains of amino acids. There is a mutation that occasionally occurs
in the second chain of hemoglobin. This mutation changes one of the bases (A, T, C, G) and results in the
formation of an abnormal protein. Individuals that have this abnormal protein have a condition called sicklecell anemia. Sickle-cell anemia results in the red blood cells becoming distorted and rigid (sickle shaped)
and small clots are formed which deprive the cells of oxygen.
Below are the first twelve amino acids that make up the second chain in the hemoglobin molecule. The
mutation that causes sickle cell resides in this part of the protein. Below is the sequence of amino acids for
normal hemoglobin (each amino acid is indicated by the first three letters of its name):
VAL-HIS-LEU-THR-PRO-GLU-GLU-LYS-SER-ALA-VAL-THR
Assume you are a researcher studying sickle-cell anemia. You have been given two unlabeled
samples of DNA sequences. One is from a healthy individual, and one is from an individual with
sickle-cell anemia. Using the table of amino acids (below) and the sequence of amino acids for
normal hemoglobin (above), determine which strand is normal and which codes for the abnormal
hemoglobin. (HINT: Remember that a codon is a series of three nucleotide bases that code for a
particular amino acid).
Leucine: AAT, AAC, GAG, GAC
Serine: AGA, AGG, AGT, AGC
Alanine: CGG, CGA, CGG, CGT
TGT, TGC

Proline: GGA, GGG, GGT, GGC

Valine: CAT, CAG, CAA, CAC
Glutamic Acid: CTT, CTC

Lyseine: TTT, TTC

Histidine: GTA, GTG
Threnine: TGA, TGG,

DNA Sequences
1. Individual A: C A T G T A A A T T G A G G A C T T C T T T T T A G A C G G C A T T G A
Amino acids:
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Individual B: C A T G T A A A T T G A G G A C A T C T T T T T A G A C G G C A T T G A
Amino acids:
_____________________________________________________________________
3. Who is the healthy individual? ______________
4. Who has sickle-cell anemia? ________________
5. How did you make this determination?

10

Natural Selection & Lamarck Scenarios

Read the following two scenarios and determine which one describes Lamarcks Hypothesis of Inheritance
of Acquired Characteristics and which one describes Darwins Theory of Natural Selection. Match the
key components listed below to each (either Lamarcks hypothesis or Darwins theory) by putting the
appropriate number next to the description.
Scenario #1
Two species of birds exist on Daphne Major in the Galapagos Islands. The cactus finches, which live off of
the cactus on the island and the medium ground finch which survives by eating the seeds on the island.
The beaks of the finches are instrumental in their ability to get food. The size and shape of the finches
beaks determines what seeds that are able to crack and eat. All of the medium ground finches are very
similar in their beak size and shape. A drought hits the island and there is no rain for 550 days. Most all of
the smaller seed that the medium ground finches eat are consumed and the medium ground finches start
dying off. The only seeds left are quite large and hard. Some of the medium ground finches are able to
change their beak size and adapt to the changing environment. These finches adapt their beaks to be able
to crack the only seeds that are left in the environment, large, hard seeds. The finches that are able to
adapt their beaks are able to survive the change in their food source and live to produce offspring. The
offspring of the surviving finches are born with larger beaks that their parents evolved. The population of
medium ground finches is now different, the population now has larger beaks and are able to eat larger and
harder seeds.

Scenario #2
Two species of birds exist on Daphne Major in the Galapagos Islands. The cactus finches, which live off of
the cactus on the island and the medium ground finch which survives by eating the seeds on the island.
The beaks of the finches are instrumental in their ability to get food. The size and shape of the finches
beaks determines what seeds that are able to crack and eat. The medium ground finches are highly
variable in their beak size and shape. A drought hits the island and there is no rain for 550 days. Many of
the seeds that the medium ground finches eat are eaten up and the medium ground finches start dying off.
The only seeds left are quite large and hard. The medium ground finches that have larger beaks are able to
crack the larger, harder seeds. The finches with smaller beaks are not able to eat these larger, harder
seeds and they die. The finches with the larger beaks are able to live and reproduce offspring. Their
offspring inherit their parents larger beaks. The population of medium ground finches is now different, the
population now has larger beaks and are able to eat larger and harder seeds.
Components of Lamarcks hypothesis
1. Environments change
2. Individuals bodies change in response to environmental change
3. Variation is created within an individuals lifetime
4. Variation created within an individuals lifetime is inherited by their offspring
Components of Darwins theory
1. Variation exists (in traits, among individuals within a species)
2. Competition exists
3. Environment selects desirable traits, as evidenced by fitness (differential reproductive success)
4. Traits are inherited by offspring
5. environments change
6. Populations evolve over time

11

History of Life on Earth

Geological history is backdrop for life on earth, geological time scale divided into eras of biological & geological
activity that stretch over long periods of time, use boundaries to mark periods of devastation or mass extinctions, eras
subdivided into periods, w/in periods epochs

MYA- BP
4,600-2,500(4.6 - 2.5 bya)

3000- (3 bya)

Geological Era
Archean

Periods
Precambrian

Proterozoic

Precambrian

Paleozoic

Precambrian

550 mya

Cambrian

505

Ordovician

435

Silurian

410

Devonian

360

Carboniferous

290

Permian

240
205
138

Mesozoic

Triassic
Jurassic
Cretaceous

65

Cenozoic

Paleocene

Mass Extinctions

545mya mass
extinction- meteor?
440mya- mass
extinction
370mya most fish,
invertebrates die off

250mya-95% of
marine species
extinct

Tertiary epoch
65mya- mass
extinction event

54
38
25
5
1.65

Eocene
Oligocene
Miocene
Pliocene
Pleistocene

.01

recent

Quaternary
epoch

Life Forms
3 BYA geological tumult died down, unicellular
organisms everywhere, some photosynthesis,
starts changing atmosphere, adding oxygen
1.4-1.9bya find eukaryotic cells, 1.2 bya
multicellular life (red algae-Canada), Siberia 1 bya
Prior to 600-700mya record sparse, intense
heat/pressure destroyed most remains
Ancestors of all modern animal groups appear +
formation of many now extinct species
Seas- algae, invertebrates, 1st vertebrates (jawless
fishes)
First land organisms, plants (had stems, no leaves,
roots) & animals resembling scorpions
Age of fishes; invertebrates, fish w/bone, cartilage,
land mostly barren-scorpions, millipedes,
invertebrates
Age of Amphibians: sea animals spending more
time on land
1st 4 limbed animals- mixed adaptations for water &
land-Acanthostega (fin on tail like fish, hips/legs/
toes, ribcage not strong enough to support internal
organs out of water, but footprints showed brief land
ventures, flat feet to move thru water w/8 toes)
earth- insects, plants flourished on land, huge ferns,
Coal Age (produced coal of today)
Mass extinctions- 95% of terrestrial, sea organisms
reptiles gone- egg laying animals appearCotylosaurs gave rise to dinosaurs, mammals,
reptiles, birds
First mammals
Dinosaurs everywhere
Flowering plants spread in diversity, triceratops
flourished (cockroaches of cretaceous)
Extinction of dinosaurs other marine life &
mammals proliferate - diverse hoofed mamals,
many marsupials, egg-laying monotremes
(ancestor to platypus), placental mammals appear,
primate like animals appear
First primates- primitive prosimians
Anthropoid evolution
Radiation of early apes
First hominids, first members of genus Homo
Evolution of genus Homo
Humans develop agriculture, industry, explore
space

Stephen Gould perspective: With the appearance of each new type of animal we call it The Age of Fish, The Age of
Dinosaurs and dont discuss that many of the previous forms of life in existence continue to exist and often proliferate.
For instance the most salient feature of life has been the stability of its bacterial mode from the beginning of the fossil
record until today and, with little doubt into all future time so long as the earth endures. This is truly the age of
bacteria as it was in the beginning, is now and ever shall be. Bacteria occupy a wider domain of environments and
span a broader range of biochemistries than any other group. They are adaptable, indestructible, and astoundingly
diverse.

12

Physical Anthropology-Hardy Weinberg Sample Problem

1. Evolution (definition):

L. Monreal

2. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Formula

This formula is a tool researchers can use to document evolution occurring within a population.
Researchers go into a population, select a trait for study and determine the genotype frequencies for that
trait within the population. These observed genotype frequencies are then plugged into the HardyWeinberg formula (p2 + 2pq + q2=1) and the formula gives the expected genotype frequencies for this
population under a hypothetical condition of no change. These expected genotype frequencies are
hypothetical because populations are always being impacted to some degree by the processes of evolution.
Comparison between the observed and expected genotype frequencies documents the change the
population is undergoing and allows us to speculate as to what is going on in the population.
3. The Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium formula gives the expected genotype frequencies in a population in a
hypothetical condition of no change. Why are these expected genotype frequencies of no change
said to be hypothetical?

4. Steps to use the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium formula

Determine the OBSERVED GENOTYPES for all individuals (3 options: homozygous dominant,
heterozygous, homozygous recessive)
Calculate the OBSERVED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES for all individuals (divide the total for each
genotype into the total number of individuals in the population for the three genotype frequencies)
Calculate the total number of dominant alleles and the total number of recessive alleles for the
population and then calculate the ALLELE FREQUENCIES for both the dominant and recessive alleles
(dividing the total number of each type of allele into the total number of alleles for the population)
Plug the allele frequencies into the Hardy-Weinberg formula. Use p to represent the dominant allele
frequency and q to represent the recessive allele frequency.
Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium formula: p + 2(p)(q) + q = 1
Your figures must add up to 1, to represent all possibilities.
The resulting numbers will give you the EXPECTED GENOYPE FREQUENCIES
p = AA (homozygous dominant)
2 (p)(q) = Aa (heterozygous)
q = aa (homozygous recessive)
Plug the EXPECTED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES into your table and compare the expected
genotype frequencies with the observed genotype frequencies. Remember the expected genotype
frequencies are what you would expect to find if the population was not undergoing any change

5. What can the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium model tells us?

6. For EACH process of evolution what information do we need to be able to speculate as to how allele
frequencies can change over time (in relation to each process)?
Mutation
Gene Flow
Gene Drift
Natural Selection
Sexual Selection

13

Sample problem:
The Nacirema have a population of 98 individuals. They live in a secluded valley that is accessible
only to travelers on foot. Visitors must hike for three days through rugged terrain to reach the
Nacirema (they are rarely visited by anyone.) The Nacirema subsist by foraging for foods that grow
naturally in the environment, hunting for small animals and diving for clams & shrimp (these are
high status foods). Roving physical anthropologist Rosa Rodriguez and her research assistants
are the first visitors the Nacirema have had in 3 years. Rosa examines the entire population to
determine their genotypes for ear wax. As you recall ear wax comes in two forms, wet, brown,
sticky and dry, gray and brittle, the dry ear wax is inherited as a recessive. Ear wax was chosen as
a trait for study because the Nacirema really do not like the wet, sticky variety and they want to
know what is going on with their population. The Nacirema find the wet, sticky earwax gross and it
is hard to keep their kids ears clean. Rosa finds 27 individuals with dry ear wax and 36 individuals
who are heterozygous for the trait and 35 individuals who are homozygous dominant.
genotype

number of
individuals

observed
genotype
frequencies

expected
genotype
frequencies

total number
of dominant
alleles

total number
of recessive
alleles

EE
Ee
ee
Total number of alleles=
p = frequency of dominant alleles

p=

q = frequency of recessive alleles

q=

Expected genotype frequencies: p + 2(p)(q) + q = 1

Is change occurring in this population?
What can we speculate as to what is happening in this population (you must list and
address all of the five processes that can affect a change in allele frequencies over time)?

14

Hardy Weinberg
Allele Frequencies should remain static unless there are processes that work to cause them to
fluctuate. The Theory of Evolution has shown that the only processes that can work to change
allele frequencies are: mutation, gene flow, gene drift, natural selection and sexual selection (an
aspect of natural selection). So, if there are fluctuations in allele frequencies we must look to these
processes to ascertain what is causing the fluctuations in allele frequencies. The Hardy Weinberg
gives us a formula to see if change is going on in a population and to speculate which processes
are interacting to change allele frequencies. The goal of using the Hardy Weinberg is to gain
insight into how the processes of evolution work to change populations over time. Keep in mind we
are only looking at one trait at a time.
Mutation: random change in the genetic code its spontaneous & occurs at a regular rate
o introduces variation to be selected for or against, rare for any given locus and cant
change allele frequencies more than 1%
gene flow random exchange of alleles between populations introduces variation into populations
but doesnt change allele frequencies more than 1%
o can be stopped: with geographic isolation or reproductive isolating mechanisms (or
partially by cultural barriers in humans)
gene drift random fluctuation of alleles from one generation to the next (punnett squares)
o always occurring, can lead to big changes in allele frequencies in populations under
100 (sampling error, gamate sampling)
o in large populations, sampling error is eliminated and there cannot be large changes in
allele frequencies
natural selection selection based on differential reproductive success can lead to big change
allele frequencies
o selection only occurs for traits that impact reproductive fitness, environment (niche) is
a determining factor, how does the trait interact with fitness and with the niche of the
organism? Can we speculate that the trait under study is impacting the ability of the
individual to survive, to out-compete others in their population?
sexual selection selection of mates based on phenotypic traits selection is always taking place
based on phenotypic differences
o sexual selection involves female choice (females generally invest much more into
offspring than males, so they make their choice based on the health, genetic
superiority of the male) and male competition (males access to females is regulated
by other males, they compete with other males to get access to females)
o how does the trait under study impact the organism phenotypically? To what degree
would mate choice be impacted by this trait? To what degree would male competition
be impacted by the trait?

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Physical Anthropology Hardy Weinberg Homework

L. Monreal

Hardy Weinberg Problems: These problems will be graded in class and are due on the date listed in your
class schedule. You may handwrite the table for each problem (neatly, legibly) but you must type your
answers For each of the following problems set up and fill in a Hardy Weinberg table and then answer
the following questions for each problem:
state whether change is occurring
list each of the processes of evolution and then speculate (with EACH process) as to
whether or not it could be working to change the allele frequencies in the population.
State whether or not each process could be changing the allele frequencies either to a
small or large degree and why you would speculate that the process of evolution can
change the allele frequency.
Sample problems- to be done in class
Population under study: The Dorje are a community of 98 individuals living in a secluded commune in
Nepal. They live in a harsh environment where cold, wind, rain, and snow are frequent and severe
especially in the winter months. The Dorje survive by foraging for food and hunting for small game animals
and so they spend a great deal of time outdoors. The trait under study is hairy nostrils (very hairy!). Hairy
nostrils are a dominant condition. Genotype distribution: HH= 35, Hh= 36, hh= 27
Population under study: 923 coyotes. Trait under Study: color variation within this population called
mottled coloring. This population of coyotes have learned to adapt to suburban conditions, often taking
food left out for domestic pets. The coyotes traditionally have had a grayish brown coat color but lately quite
a number of these coyotes have been observed with a mottled coat of various colors. This mottled coloring
often makes it difficult to tell that the animal is a coyote. Mottled coloring has been determined to be a
dominant trait. Genotype Distribution: MM= 200, Mm= 93, mm=630
Homework Problems
1. Population under study: 98 humans. Trait under study: sneezing fits in bright sunlight. The population
is located on a small oasis on the edge of a large desert. The population faces frequent threats from roving
bands of guerillas who will kidnap and/or kill the inhabitants if they find them. The people move frequently
to keep themselves safe. They frequently trade goods with other populations of nomads like themselves.
Sneezing fits in bright sunlight is a recessive trait. Genotype Distribution: SS= 35, Ss= 36, ss= 27
2. Population under study: 80 individuals who have agreed to take part in a multi-generational study to
give insights into social group relations. These individuals are isolated in a self-contained environment for
the duration of the study, which is expected to take 100 years. The population is responsible for growing
their own food and periodically they have had significant problems with some crops. Brussel sprouts are
one of the few vegetables that they have been able to grow consistently. Trait under study: ability to taste
PTC. The individuals who have this trait find brussel sprouts to be very bitter tasting. The ability to taste is
a dominant trait.
Genotype distribution: TT= 20, Tt= 52, tt= 8
3. Population under study: 1158 humans. Trait under study: the large toe. This population resides in an
isolated area of the Andes Mountains and survive by foraging for food, hunting small animals and
maintaining small gardens. For several generations there have been a number of individuals born with an
especially large, strong big toe. The individuals born with the extra large big toe are very adept at climbing
steep walls to retrieve condor eggs for food (these eggs are highly valued for both food & status), however
they have not been very good hunters or foragers. Having an extra large big toe is a dominant trait.
Genotype distribution: TT= 255, Tt= 276, tt= 627

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Physical Anthropology- Primate Report

K. Markley
The answers to the following questions must be typed. The due date for this assignment is in your
class schedule. You may study with other students as you work to answer these questions.
However, you must put the answers into your own words.
The first two questions come from the Park text and class lecture, the rest of the questions come
from articles in the Annual Editions text.
1. Define Socioecology and give one example of how it is used to analyze and predict primate
behavior.
2. Define Sociobiology (all the components) and give one example of how it is used to analyze and
predict primate behavior.
3. Machiavellian Monkeys: A) What is tactical deception? B) What role does the authors
research into primate deception play in our understanding of the evolution of the human brain? C)
What are the three key things that the authors see as being connected to society?
4. What are friends for?: A) What are the assumptions as regards female and male behaviors in
regards to mating in the dominance hypothesis? B) What is the question the author explores in
this paper? C) What are the three ways in which the authors findings (from nonhuman primates)
challenge the popular scenarios for the evolution of female/male relationships?
5. Dim Forest, Bright Chimps: A) what are the differences in hunting, tool use, and food sharing
between the Tai chimps and the Gombe chimps (be specific)?
6. Mothers & Others: A) what is cooperative breeding, and what does a species need to become
cooperative breeders, B) Are humans cooperative breeders? C) What is the critical variable for
infants to develop into healthy empathetic adults?
7. Whats Love Got to Do With It?: A) List three traits or adaptations that early humans shared with
Bonobos, B) What is a key difference that the author notes now exists between bonobos and
humans.
8. The Myth of the Coy Female: A) What is the authors main point in the article? B) List three
aspects of the authors reasoning and data that is used to back up her opinion

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Primate Studies: there are two major theoretical orientations used to explain and analyze
primate behavior.
Socioecology looks at the relationship between the environment and behavior. It is
understood that animals interact with their environment and it impacts their behavior. The
environment includes quantity and quality of food, predators, seasonal variation, etc. Intraspecies differences (differences within species) can be explained in relationship to the
environment.
Sociobiology states that natural selection selects not only for physical traits but also for
behavioral traits. Different behavioral traits are selected for in males and females because they
have different strategies for reproductive fitness. See your text (Park text) for an outline of the key
components of sociobiology and the different reproductive strategies for females and males.
Primates: You need to know the 5 major groupings of non-human primates below and the key
differences between them. You will also need to know key features of all of the great apes.
1. Prosimii: primitive primates, marginalized today, wet nose, often nocturnal, claw on one digit,
scent glands (lemurs, lorises, tarsiers), more specialized than other primates
2. New World Monkeys: arboreal, prehensile tails, no estrus, little/no sexual dimorphism,
dental formula: 2-1-3-3 (incisors, canine, pre-molars, molars), Mexico, central/south
America
3. Old World Monkeys: more diverse environments, tropics to snow, more behavioral
diversity, sexually dimorphic, females show estrus, arboreal & terrestrial, no prehensile
tail, dental formula: 2-1-2-3 (same dental formula as both apes and humans).
4. Lesser Apes: gibbons, siamongs, Smaller body & brain size, Southeastern Asia, fruit eaters,
brachiators, monogamous, territorial
5. Great Apes- the four groups below comprise the great apes
Orangutans: Southeast Asia, Indonesia, arboreal, sexually dimorphic, males 200lbs, females
100lbs, solitary, primarily frugivores
Gorillas: West Africa (forest areas), Central Africa (mountain area), sexually dimorphic, males
400lbs, females 200lbs, terrestrial, knuckle walkers, groups: one-male (silverback) multiple
females,& offspring, vegetarians, shy
Chimpanzees: equatorial Africa, mild sexual dimorphism, quadropedal knuckle walkers,
varied diet (fruit, leaves, nuts, hunt for small mammals), partially arboreal, bonded males core
of community, females show estrus, (fluid communities 50+)
Bonobos: south Zaire only, physically leaner than chimps, more arboreal, varied diet, bonded
females core of group, females continuous estrus
Differences between monkeys & hominoids (apes & humans are classified as hominoids)
Hominoids: physical differences compared to monkeys. Hominoids do not have a tail,
generally have a larger body size, a larger relative & absolute brain size, a longer period of

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dependency & learning, a larger & stronger collar bone, a flexible shoulder joint and different limb
lengths (monkeys limbs are all of the same general length).

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