ECONOMIC ENGLISH FOR UPPER INTERMEDIATE

14

GRAMMAR

VERBS
Verbs are words that allow us to talk about such things as activities, processes,
states of being, and states of mind. They divide into two major groups, according to
the way they are used in a clause. Those in the larger group are called main verbs.
The remainder are auxiliary verbs.
This basket holds quite a lot.
John is reading an essay.
Larry was preparing a talk for next week's class.
The cat feels much happier now.
She forgot that it was her mother's birthday.
Paul owned several houses.
Verb phrase
A verb can be a single word or a group of associated words. When a verb
phrase consists of a single word it is called a simple verb. When the verb is made of
an auxilliary verb and a main verb, this is called compound verb.
he walks
he is walking
we had walked
we could walk
they had been walking
you might have been walking
MAIN VERBS
These are the verbs that indicate actions and states. Most verbs in English are
main verbs. They are also called lexical words. Main verbs are classified in several
ways:
according to whether they refer to states:

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This scarf belongs to me.

I already feel that I have known you for ages.
or actions:
I feel that I have known you for ages.
regular and irregular verbs according to the spelling of their forms:
regular: talk, talks, talking,talked
irregular: swim, swims, swimming, swam, swum
according to whether or not they are followed by an object, that is they are
transitive or intransitive.
I can speak English.
We both read the same books.
She found a short way.
Tell me the truth!
I saw my best friend kissing her.
AUXILLIARY VERBS
These verbs are used in combination with the main verbs in order to allow us
talking about different times or periods od time, different degrees of compection, and
different amounts of certainty or doubt. There are several types ofauxilliary verb.
The primary auxilliaries help to express time, and the modal auxilliaries help to
express certainty and doubt.
TENSE
Verbs enable us to talk about actions and states. They also allow us to talk
about the time when the action or state takes place.
We use tense to talk about the complete form of the verb phrase and the
time scale it expresses.
All main verbs have two simple tenses: the Simple present and the Simple
past. In these tenses the verb is used on its own without any auxilliary verbs.
I walk. I walked.
She sings. She sang.
You bring. You brought.
English verbs also have compound tense forms, when the main verb is
accompanied by one of both of the auxilliary verbs be and have

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ASPECT
The compound tenses of the verb express:
two tenses, present and past
two aspects, preogessive and perfect
The term aspect expresses continuing actions, versus completed actions or
states. Simple tenses do not have aspect.
I am walking.
I was walking.
He is singing.
They were singing.
I have walked.
They have walked.
You have come.
You had come.
When an auxilliary is added to a main verb to form a compound verb it
expresses:
the continuity of an action by using a form of the auxilliary be+-ing. This is
called the progressive aspect.
I am still studying French.
My friend was living in Bucharest at that time.
James is helping out with the typing.
the completion of an action, by using a form of the auxilliary have + a past
participle, usually -ed,which is called perfect aspect.
I have studied English for four years.
Gloria and James had found their flat by then.
.The two aspects of the verb can be joined so that we can talk about the
duration and the completion of an action in the same verb phrase.
Ihave been studying French for three years.
He had been living in London for three years when I met him.
John has been helping us this week.
TENSE
The tenses alow us to refer to different ways of thinking about the time of an
action or state of being.
SIMPLE TENSES
Simple tenses show moments of time, timeless, states and habitual or repetitive
actions. The Simple Present and the Simple Past of regular verbs are formed by using
the base of the verb.

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PROGRESSIVE TENSES
Progressive Tenses show duration or continuity; The Present Progressive and
the Past Progressive are formed either from the present or the past tense of the verb
be + the present participle of the main verb.
It is raining hard this spring.
It was raininyesterday thid time too.
She is eating a hamburger
PERFECT TENSES
Perfect tenses show that an action is completed but has some relevance to the
present time. The Present Perfect and the Past Perfect are formed using respectively
either the present or the past tense of the verb have + the past participle of the main
verb.
Roger here has walked the Victory Way
She told us he had attempted the mountain before but the weather was too
wet.
He has never visited me again from that time.
She had missed the train.
PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSES
Perfect Progressive tenses show duretion, completion, and perfect relevance.
Father has been working hard in the garden all day.
My mother has been helping him.
He had been working at McDonald's that summer before going to college.
Bill, who had been acting as an instructor, was promoted to manager.
The present Perfect Progressive and the Past Perfect Progressive are formed
using respectively either the present or past tense of the verb to have+the past
participle of the main verb
OTHER VERB FORMS
Other verb combinations are used for positive or negative statements or to
express degrees of time and probability
My grandma likes freshly ground cofee..

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DO YOU LIKE INSTANT COFFEE?

MAY I HAVE SOME CHOCOLATE?
Another use is Future time.
You will be home before you know it.
They will probably meet us at the station
TYPES OF MAIN VERB
VERBS OF ACTION
When we need another verb to describe a new activity, it is possible to adopt
other parts of speech or to invent a new word.
Chris and Debbie were windsurfing all afternoon.
They were guzumped by a buyer with more money.
She is putting on an exhibition of her new dresses,
All the tenses can be used with action verbs.
VERBS OF STATE
I feel unhappy.
I hate quarrels.
I mean you no harm.
This house belonged to us once.
The verbs of state may be verbs of senses: feel, hear, smell, taste
verbs of emotions: adore, fear, like, love, want, wish
verbs of mental activity: believe, expect, forget, mean
verbs of possession: belong, own, possess

Vebs of state are not usually used in progressive tenses. When they are used in
progressive tenses,they change their meaning
I'm just feeling to see if the bone is broken.
We were tasting some French interesting wines.
Some uses of the verb be allow to choose between a state or an action
meaning. The word used as the complement makes an important difference.
BIll is being silly. but not Bill is being tall.
Rupert is being nasty but not Rupert is being intelligent.

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The verb seem has a very limited number of adjectives that can be used as its
complement.
Bill seems happy. but not Bill seems tall.
AUXILLIARY VERBS
Auxilliary verbs are used together with a main verb to express tenses and
continuity.
be and have are primary auxilliaries. They are used to construct compound
tenses.
be is used to make Present and Past Progressive tenses and also for the
passive voice.
I am listening to you.
The students were all asking about that.
Susan is liked by all her friends.
Martin was sent to college in London.
have is used to make Present and Past Perfect tenses
George has seen the show already.
Pa had already had dinner when we arrived.
They had not expected, to see me at that party.
do is a supporting auxilliary and is used in forming negative questions and
emphatic statements in clauses which have simple verbs
I DO NOT LIKE YOU AT ALL!
You do like shrimps, I hope ?
Will, may, might and some others are considered modal auxilliaries. They
construct future as a fact or future actions as possible, doubtful, or necessary.
I will go home on Friday.
I may go home on Friday.
I could go home on Friday.
I must go on Friday.
Auxilliaries can be combined together in a single verb phrase , such as: -a
modal + a form of have + a form of be + a form of a main verb.
I could have been making a bad mistake by trusting her.
Mary will have lived in London for over 2 years now.
You must have been given the wrong address.
The first auxilliary verb performs the following functions:

it shows tense

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I have finished my work.

She is looking for the book.

it shows number and person agreement with the subject

She has worked too much already.
They have seen the film before.

it will take any negative after it

The baby doesn't want to eat any more.
He has not been doing the same thing all the time.

it can come before the subject to make a question

Do you remember me?
Have you got the right number?
CONTRACTED FORMS
Auxilliaries are very often used in contracted forms. They ususally link the
subject to the main verb into a single form. , e.g. I'm, I've, we've, we'd, john's
(John is or John has).
The contracted negative form auxilliary + n't is common with all the
auxilliaries except am,e.g. hasn't, wouldn't, don't .
We don't want him here.
He hasn't (has not) seen the fish jumping.
I can't (cannot) come.
Contracted forms are more informal than full forms and they are more used in
spoken English than in written English.
Auxilliaries are also used in sentence tags.
It is your car, isn't it?
You are joking, I suppose, aren't you?
Auxilliaries are used to make an addition to a statement., such as:
a positive addition to a positive statement, accompanied by so or too
We considered her to be sincere and so she was.
I told you I'd find it and I have too.
a negative addition to a negative statemenet, accompanied by neither or
nor.
My parents never eat seafood and neither do I.
I don't want to speak to her - neither does he.
I don't understand you, neither can he.
Auxilliaries are used to emphasise when they are not contracted.
She has made an ass of herself!
She did it!

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Auxilliaries can represent a short answer to a question when they are on their
own. , and the main verb is not repeated.
Do you like shrimps? No, I don't. or Yes, I do.
BE
The verb be is used as an auxilliary verb and as a main verb as well.Its forms
are: be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been
As an auxilliary verb, be is used to form progressive compound tenses and
passive voice.
Progressive tenses of the main verbs the appropriate form of be, present or
past, followed by the present participle.
The passive voice of a main verb be is used as an auxiliary followed by the
past participle.
The verb be is used as a main verb too and expresses:
feelings and states used in simple tenses with a suitable adjective:
She was delighted with the news, but I am not very happy.
She was very busy so she was not able to see him at the hospital.
people's behaviour in progressive tenses of the verb together with a suitable
adjective
I am not being slow, I am being careful.
You are being very rude.
be + to infinitive can be used to refer to future time in a rather formal use
Our Manager is to visit the new headquarters of the company.
it + be refers usually to time and distance
It is a long way to London from here.
there + is/are indicates the presence of something
There is enough food for all of us.
There are several things to care about.
The interrogative form can make not use of an auxilliary:
Are you happy now?
Is that you?
HAVE
This verb is used as an auxilliary verb and also as a main verb too. It has the
following forms:have, has, having, had

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As an auxilliary verb, have makes the Perfect tense of the main verbs,using the
appropriate form of present or past, followed by the past participle of the main verb.
I have studied several possible cases.
I had visited them before I went home.
The negative form is made by adding not or another negative word after the
apropriate form of have. There are also contracted forms.
I have never seen so many people.
She had barely finished the cooking when I came back.
I'd not seen my parents for ages.
We haven't found a hotel to stay for this weekend.
They hadn't worked very hard!
Have as a main verb may state a possession or a relationship. This case,
progressive tenses are not allowed. The negative form is made by adding not or
nothing to make questions.
I have something to tell you.
I haven't anything for you to give.
We have had a nap, so we can leave now.
They had a fine weather.
A form of the verb have in informal British English is have got.It is used in
expressing certain activities including eating and leisure.
My mother hasn't got a sister.
Have you got any time to see me next week?
I haven't got enough money to buy the book.
She was having a rest when I phoned.
The negative and the interrogative forms use do and no contractions and weak
forms are allowed.
I'm having dinner with my family.Come and have dinner with us. No, thank
you. I don't usually have dinner.
We are having lunch together.
DID YOU HAVE A GOOD LUNCH ?
Have got (in the sense of possession) is not used for this meaning.
Have to or have got to may express obligation and they can use progressive
tenses.
You've got to come back, now, you are finished.
Do I have to come with you?
Have you got to choose it ?
I am having to spend less on computer games.

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If have is a main verb, it makes Perfect forms like the other verbs.
We have already had lunch.
DO
Do can be a main verb or an auxilliary, that is a supporting verb.It is also used
to avoid repetition.
I do not read this book.
He does not read this book.
I didn'know that you were home.
Do you like skiing ?
Did he pass the exam ?
As an auxilliary verb, do is used:
to form the negative and interrogative of Simple Present and Simple Past
Tense
to form the negative form of Imperative
Don't let me go!
to make an imperative more persuasive:
Do let me see it !
to avoid repeating a main verb in the following situations:
additions:
I like cooking, and so he does.
commands:
Don't run on my nerves! Don't do it!
sentence tags:
He lives in Brussels, doesn't he?
in short answers:
He likes music, I guess. Yes, he does.
The negative form of the verb has contracted form, but not the positive one.
There some meanings of the verb do when it is a main verb: carry out,
perform, fix, provide.
I'll do the reading now.
Our firm doesn't do the catering for planes.
You have been doing well this term.
She felt she had done her best.
This has been done again.
The verb do can also have the meanings of:
habit:
This is what he usually does.
They do the cleaning every day.
behaviour:

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I did something awful.

plans:
What are we doing this weekend ?
As a main verb do makes the negative and interrogative as the other main
verbs, with the auxilliary do
What does he do for you?
He didn't do the cleaning well.
Do can also be used with a modal verb:
I will do it for you.
You can do it, but you shouldn't do it.
MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs are considered a particular kind of auxilliaries as they are used
when needed special meanings to the main verb.
to express different degrees of doubt and possibility about the action of the
main verb:
He might not be able to do the repairing.
to express degrees of the future possibility, from the definite future will, to
the possible future may, and the conditional future, could.
I may be not be able to manage the matter.
I think you might have cought my cold.
YOU COULD BEHAVE YOUSELF !
You will be wondering on weekend at the seaside.
I may be late home this evening.
I could bring some good news.
to request or give permision for an action to take place
May I open the window, please?
He can borrow my car, if he needs it.
to express a prohibition when used with a negative
You shouldn't make use of my benevolence.
You cannot drop in his house without letting him know before!
He must not notice your absence.
to make an assumption.
The scandal may be over when we get there.
The flight could be late because of the storm.
He may be back home, at that time.
to express obligation and duty

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You must have the cheking out soon.

She ought to tell the bad news.
to refer to characteristic behaviour
She can be very uggly on these occasions.
to add politness to a request which might otherwise sound abrupt
Would you please, shut your mouth?
to make conditional sentences
in reported speech.
All modal verbs can be used for future reference , when they are used with a
time adverbial
I may be late tonight.
Modal verbs can refer to habitual action when they are used with a time
adverbial.
When he was young, he would not miss any weekend trip.
FORMS OF THE MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs have only one base form,valid for Simple Present Tense and they
do not have a to infinitive.They have no -s inflection in the third person singular.
I will be seeing him this week-end.
She may be late for school.
Some of the modal meanings in the past are provided by other verbs. Must is
replaced by had to in the past
You must visit your father in the hospital.
You had to visit him.
There are contracted forms for the modal verbs:
shall/will - 'll. All the negative forms are contracted to to a single word: can't, won't,
wouldn't. There are also other contracted forms, common for spoken English but rare
in written English: he'll, we'll, shan't, they'll.
There are some semi-modal verbs that act sometimes as full main verbs or as
modals
How dare you speak like this?
THE CHILD DARES TO ASK ME TO DO HIS HOMEWORK.!
She need not speak if she does't feel like.
I need a new umbrella.

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POSITION
Modal verbs are always placed before any other auxiliary or main verb in the
verb phrase. They are always finite.
Modal verbs are followed by the base form of the verb if there is no other
auxiliary verb present.
May I open the window, please ?
You must think about the consequences of your words!
If one of the auxiliary verbs have or be follows the modal verb, the main verb
will take the appropriate present or past participle form.
You could have read it by yourself!
Helen might be coming too.
In negative sentences not is placed immediately after the modal verb and in
front of all the other verbs.
Mary may not understand you.
I might not do a better cleaning.
Can is not to be combined with the auxiliary have, as the negative form can't
They ca't have borrowed the car.
CAN and COULD
Both are used to indicate that you know to do something
She can swim very well,but she couldn't last year.
Can shows ability of a more general nature that includes "is permitted to".
When she was younger she could dance very well.
He is a good driver, he can drive even a lorry.
I am able to dance till morning.
He can drive my car whenever he wants.
Both make polite requests or ask for permission, while may is more formal.
Can I borrow your hat, pa?
May I have some more bread?
Could I stay next to you?
Can and could express possibility in the future when this is related to plans or
projects. When may is used, the possibility refered to is uncertain.
You can come and see me since I am free next week.
You could come and see me if I am free. next week.
You may come to see me if you dare!
Both can and could express the possibility of an action in the present.

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You can drive off these cars.

You could drive off these cars, if you take care.
Could + the Perfect form of have express an action that was possible but did
not happen.
She could have helped him, but she didn't.
Can and could used with the Perfect form of have, speculate about actions that
have recently taken place.
Who could/can have said such a thing?
Who could have imagined that he would succeed?
There is a difference between can and could in conditionals, when could is
used when the condition is not met.
If grandma is coming, she can cook something.
If grandma came, she could cook something for us.
Can is changed into could in reported speech.
His friend said, "I can do it only for you.
His friend said that he could do it only for him.
MAY and MIGHT
May and might are used in requests and in expressions of possibility for the
present and future
May I have your attention, please?
Might I take off my coat ?
He may/might recover within a week.
May is used in a more formal way than can, while might is used for asking
permission, for an uncertain response.
Might I ask you something?
May expresses permission of a speaker allowing something to hapen.
You may go to the party since you finished your work.
May can be used to make an order appear as a request, while might makes the
request more formal.
May I have you permission to leave?
Might I have your permission to leave?
Might is used when the speaker wants to persuade someone to do something,
but it can also be used for casual request.
If you go shopping, might I ask you to bring some cigarettes?

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When used in conditional sentences, might makes be in the present or in the

past tense.Compare with could.
If grandma comes, she might cook something.
If grandma came, she could cook something for the children.
May becomes might in reported speech.
MUST
Must is used to show obligation, compulsion and general accepted truths. It is
replaced by have to in the Past Tense.
Must is used:
to express obligation
All the children must go to school.
to advice or reccomend emphatically
You must show everyone what you can do!
to express a positive assumption; when it is a negative one, can is
used instead.
HE MUST BE MAD TO BELIEVE SUCH A THING !
You can't be serious!
must and have to are used in the interrogative
Must I go by myself?
DOES SHE HAVE TO DO THIS?
Must can be used in negative sentences
You must not cross the street when the light is red.
There mustn't be a mistake.
The fact that you are not obliged to do something, do not have to is used.
You must not waste your time talking to her.
You don't have to waste your time talking to her.
SHALL and WILL
The modal verb will is usually used to express simple future time.The modal
verb shall is not very much used in English except in questions, but in spoken
English it is difficult to make distinction between shall and will, since the contracted
form, 'll is used for will and shall.
Shall is used:
in questions of the third person singular and plural
Shall we go to the cinema tonight?

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Shall I drive your car?

to express intentions and promises with the third person singular and
plural
We shall/will keep in touch.
to express willingness and insistence with the second and third
person singular and plural
You shall come back immediately!
Mary shall do her work, otherwise she will be sorry.
Will is used with all the persons except the situations showed previously and
expresses :
polite requests and invitations:
Will you came and see me tomorrow?
orders:
Will you please, open the window?
persistence:
My friends will fight together whwtever I do.
predictions:
My family will have had already dinner by now.
Contracted negative forms:
Shall:shan't:
Don't worry, I shan't tell him the truth.
Will: won't
I won't speak to her again!

SHOULD and WOULD

Should, as a modal verb, is used to express:
a moral obligation
I suggest you should buy another computer for the company to replace the one
you broke.
advice or instructions
You should avoid meeting her.
politeness in a conditional clause
If you should decide to buy, please, contect me.
Should you need more information, please call my secretary.
There are formal expressions with should used with the main verb that are
used together with: it is a pity that,it is odd that, I am sorry/surprised that:

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I am surprised that you should care about it.

Should + perfect form of a main verb is used to express regret or annoyance of
not having done something.
You should have learnt much better.
He should have finished his work before going to bed.
Should replaces shall when reported speech
I told him he should go and see that movie
Should is also used in "If clause" with the first person singular and plural
when referring to some possible future event which seems desirable but will happen
only if external conditions are fulfiled
I should travel abroad if I had money.
In case there is not an "if clause", it is to understand that if conditions are
right.In this case would is more common in modern spoken English.
I would travel abroad.
The modal verb would is used:
for a polite request:
Would you mind leaving us alone?
Would you pass me the bread, please ?
to offer something politely:
Would you like to have dinner together?
to indicate an usual activity
Nick would play cards all day long.
to show persistence in activity, sometimes expressing a complaint
about that.
You would keep saying it. I warned you.
to express wonder and probability
That would be the book I have been looking forsuch a long time!
to express a condition in "if clause"
I would have read it only if the teacher had asked me to.
I wouldn't refuse if you ask me to have some more.
to replace will in reported speech.
My parents promissed me they would buy a new computer next week.
OUGHT TO
It is a modal verb which is less strong than should or must and it has not a past
form, so it is used for present and future only.It is used to:
express an obligation or an expectation
They should know they ought to leave promptly.

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Children ought to be taught to pay respect to the old people.

to express the likelihood of something to happen
The results of the official talks ought to be announced tomorow.
Larry ought to have been here by now.
to give a general advice
You ought to consider the feelings of others.
but when adding a reprouch, it is advisable to use should
You should consider the feelings of others.
and must when suggesting or threatening You must not upset people
like that!
should sounds more natural in question than ought to.
Ought I to report it to the police?
Should I report it to the police?
DARE AND NEED
These verbs are considered to be semi-modal verbs as they sometimes behave
like modal verbs and do not have -s added to the third person singular, and they do
not need an auxiliary.
Need I go now?
Dare Helen prevent him?
He need only try to succeed.
No one dare risk his chance.
These semi-modal verbs are used in negative or interrogative clauses, and
sometimes they behave as main verbs, using auxiliaries and -s inflection for the third
person singular and are followed by long infinitive.
Lucy doesn't need to know what her friend dares to do.
Does he need to leave now?
When the two verbs are used as modal verbs in a statement, a negative word
must be present in the same clause.:never, only, hardly
He need only begin and he will like it.
Dare as a modal verb
I dare not see.
He dare not say a word.
He daren't say it.
I dared not dress like that.
He dared not come here.

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Dare I try it?

Dare he come here?
Daren't he do that?
Dared I try it again?
Dared she do it once more?
Dare as a main verb
I dare
He dares.
He does not dare.
He doesn't dare.
I did not dare.
He did not dare.
Doesn't dare?
Doesn't dare?
It is possible to have a mixed modal and main verb pattern:
Dare he say that!
modal
Does he dare to say that! main verb
Does he dare say that!
mixed
NEED AS A MODAL VERB
I need not come.
He need not promisse.
He needn't ask.
Need I ask?
Need he try?
Needn't he see?
Need as a main verb
I need.
He needs
.
I do not need.
He does not need.
I needed .
He has needed.
I did not need.
Does he need?

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USED TO
It is a marginal modal verb available for Past Tense only, and the auxiliary is
used only in the past.
It is used
to describe a repeated action in the past with no certainity in the
present
He used to like riding the bike when he was a child.
to describe an ususal activity in the past but not available in the
present;
He used to read a lot when he was yonger.
Forms of used to
It is common for all subject:
I used to; you used to; they used to; etc
There are two negative forms:
used + not + to + base form
I used not to watch TV too much.
did not/ didn't + use + base form
I didn't use to drive last year.
There two interrogative forms of used to:
used + subject + to + base verb
Used he to...?
did + subject + use to + base verb:
Did he use to...?
PHRASAL VERBS
A phrasal verb is a main verb combined with either:
a) an adverb: to take off; To break in, etc
b) a preposition: to get at
c) an adverb-preposition:to get out of
having as a result another meaning.. The adverb or the preposition becomes a part of
the verb. They do not answer to any wh-questions.
HOW DID YOU COME? BY PLANE
a) This type of phrasal verbs are transitive (they have an object)
He picked me on his way to office
I turned the radio off.

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If the object is a noun, the phrasal verb will alow an adverb come either:
before the object:
He blew ot the candles on his birthcake.
after the object
He blew the candles out.
If the object is a pronoun, it must come before the object:
He blew them out.
or they are intransistive, (they have no object)
I came back.
Sit down, please.
b) This type of phrasal verbs have an object at least and sometimes, two: the
object of the verb and the object of the preposition.
We asked for the bill. We asked the waiter for the bill.
c) This type of phrasal verb is a combination of the previous ones. All the
parts of this type of phrasal verbs come before the object.
I am fed up with your bad behaviour.
TENSE
Tense is the way the verb makes time reference.There are two simple tenses
(consisting of only the main verb) and six compound (consisting of the main verb
and the auxiliary).
There is a Simple Present Tense and a Simple Past Tense.
I work. I worked.
You learn. You learnt.
An -s is received by the main verb in the third person singular at Simple
Present Tense Affirmative.
He works. He learns.
As for the interrogative and negative form of the Simple Present Tense, the
auxiliary do is used.
Do I learn? I do not learn. I don't learn.
Do you learn? Don't you learn? You do not learn. You don't learn.
Does he learn? Doesn't he learn? He does not learn. He doesn't learn.
The Simple Present Tense is used to express:

ECONOMIC ENGLISH FOR UPPER INTERMEDIATE

habits or things that happen regularly and adds some adverbs such as
: often, regularly, usually, sometimes, never, or adverbial phrases: in
winter, on Sundays, etc)
Susan goes to school. (she has the age to do this and she does so)
I usually spend my weekends in the mountains.
scientific or general truths admitted:
We like scool.
Water freezes at O degrees.
a general belief or feeling of the speaker:
I think that he was angry.
a planned future action with a time adverb
We leave by train at 4 o'clock in the morning.
in conditional sentences about real possibilities
If the weather doesn't improve, our weekend plans will fail.
The Simple Past Tense uses the verb do as a support auxiliary for interrogative
and negative form in the same Past Tense (did).
Did I learn?
Did he learn?
I did not learn. I didn't learn.
He did not learn. He didn't learn.
Simple Past Tense is used:
to describe actions in the past:
He asked the question and waited for the answer.
to describe habitual actions in the past, usually accompanied by
adverbs such as: always, never, often
I often visited my aunt as she was ill.
to describe past actions in a definite time considered to be finished
I visited America 1o years ago.
I finished my work yesterday early in the morning.
points where the main action is broken,or when another action takes
place during or alongside another.
The phone was ringing when I entered the house.
I was wathing the TV program when the stranger knocked the door open.
to describe an action which goes on during or alongside another.
He watched TV as he took a bath.

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TENSE ASPECT
Aspect describes the way the verbal actions are considered.
completed or not completed.
PROGRESSIVE ASPECT is formed by using the appropriate form of the
auxiliary be together with the preffix -ing added to the main verb.It shows:
that an action is going on at the time of speaking:
I am using a computer.

the action was going on throughout the time referring at:

Last time I saw him two hours ago, he was reading in the reading hall.
The action will take place in a referring future time:
She will be visiting America next Monday.
PERFECT ASPECT is formed by using the appropriate form of the auxiliary
have together with the suffix -ed added to the main verb when this is a regular one,
or the past participle of it when it is an irregular verb.
The perfect aspect shows that:
is complete at the time of speaking
I have enjoyed the party very much.
I have borrowed the book until tomorrow.
was complete at the time the speaker is referring to:
I had lost my key, so I had to wait for him.
It is possible that a compound tense show both aspects, progressive and
perfect.
I had been visiting my parents.
COMPOUND TENSES
The compound tenses consist of a main verb and one auxiliary or more. A part
of the compound tense represents the tense and the other part represents the aspect,
either progressive or perfect.
The tense of the auxiliary shows the present or the past of the main-compound
verb.
The tense of the auxiliary and the participle represents the aspect of the verb.
There are the poossible combinations:
a) Present Progressive = present of be + ing participle
My family is having a celebrating-party on Sunday.
b) Past Progressive = past of be + ing participle
I was watching the TV program when he rang.

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c) present of have + ed participle

We have bought a new house.
d) past of have + ed participle
I had already asked him about the copnsequences of the accident.
A compound verb can also combine bath the progressive and perfect aspects,
using two auxiliaries and a main verb. This produces the following combinations:
a) Present Perfect Progressive
present have + past participle of be + ing participle
I have been trying to forgive you.
b)Past Perfect Progressive
past of have + past participle of be + ing participle
I had been sleeping before the new-comer entered the office.
The modal auxiliaries are also used in compound tenses.They can be used by
themselves or followed by the base forms of have or be
The modal verbs are followed by:
the subject and the rest of the verb
Will you be so kind to answer the question?
the negation not and the rest of the verb. If the negative contracted
form is used , then it comes before the subject and the rest of the
verb:
You may not have been joking!
Won't she be calling on me tonight?
Modals are not used in Simple tenses and are not used together with the
supporting auxiliary verb do.
In responses one of the auxiliary form is to be used.
Simple tense - the auxiliary do is used.
Do you like cookies? Yes, I do.
be or have is the first verb in the verb phrase - it is used as a response.
Was grandma calling? Yes, she was.
Had he bought everything? Yes, he had.
modal verb - it is used together with the auxiliary as a response.
Might he have forgotten about our arrival?
Yes, he might or Yes, he might have.
I could be coming with you next time. Yes, I could, or Yes, I could be.

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FUTURE REFERENCE
1. shall/will + the basic form of the main verb represent the direct form of the
future tense in English.
We shall go to the theatre nex weekend.
2. be going to + base form of the verb expresses the intention for an action in
the future
3. The Present Progressive Tense with a time adverb is used for plans and
arrangements.
We shall be flying to London on Monday.
4. Simple Present Tense + time adverb is used for previuos arrangements or
plans belonging to a timetable.
I leave for the office at 7 o'clock in the morning.
5. The Future Perfect Tense (will have + the Past Participle) + time adverb represents an action to be finished in a future time the speaker is referring
to.
Unfortunatelly, by the time I arrive, my sister will have been left for school.
6. be about to + the base form of the verb is used for the near future time.
We were just about to leave for the station when he came in.
7. Future Progressive tense - Will be + present participle.
Next summer I will be spending my holiday with my grandma, as usual.
8. to be + the base form of the verb
Market economy principles are to be applied in our country too.
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Active - The subject of an active-voice sentence is is the doer of the action.
Passive - The subject of such a sentence is the person or thing that is acted on
by the verb. The passive voice is used it is not important who carries out the action
expressed by the verb or it is not important to know.
FORMS of the PASSIVE
Be + the PAST PARTICIPLE of the main verb. The form of the auxiliary verb
be indicates the tense.
They sell fish in the market.
Fish is sold in the market.
They sold fresh fish in the market.
Fresh fish was sold in the market.

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Passive Voice impersonal - it + passive

It is heard that you left the country.
It is said that it was a terrible accident.
The passive with get - be is replaced by get to express an action that has just
happen or that is done to the subject. - get dressed, get washed, get lost, etc
His dog got run over yesterday.
I got lost once in Paris.
THE LONG (TO) INFINITIVE
The to infinitive is used:
after an adjective of quality such as small, tall, agreable, pleasant, funny
that is used in combination with:
too + adjective of quality
The weather was still too stormy to leave for the mountain.
not + adjective of quality + enough
Mother is not enough recovered to leave the bed.
after adjectives of emotion such : angry, happy, glad, sad, sorry, surprised
He was glad to see me but sorry to hear the bad news.
after an adjective such as: good, nice, silly, wrong (sometimes + of +
another noun phrase)
It is so kind of you to invite me to your wedding party.
after a WH-word: how, what, where, whether, which, who, whom
We had no ideea what way to take.
I was wondering who to see on the stage.
after a noun phrase such as:a good ideea, a good thing, a mistake,(or for +
a noun phrase) etc
It was a mistake for us to buy that house.
It was a good ideea to have some fun together.
after an adjective such as easy, difficult, hard, impossible + for + noun
phrase
It is difiicult for me to understand your behaviour.
after a verb followed by for, e.g. ask, wait + for + noun phrase
We are waiting for you to decide.
the particle to can be used without the verb when the whole verb form is
used in a previous sentence.
Did you see that film? No, I intended to, but I didn't.
to can be used to express purpose or necessity after a verb followed by a
pronoun or a noun

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I looked for her to talk to her.

It is time to leave.
THE TO INFINITIVE AND - ING FORM
Both of them can be used after certain verbs.
Verbs followed by to infinitive: agree, arrange attempt, choose, decide, fail,
hope, learn, manage, offer, plan, seen.
I hope to meet you again.
Verbs followed by an object + to infinitive: advise, allow, command, forbid,
force, invite, persuade, teach, remind, tell, remind.
I invited Laura to have lunch together.
Verbs followed either directly by the to infinitive or by an object + the to
infinitive: ask, expect, help, intend, want, prefer, hate, wish, mean, prefer.
I want to wash my car. / I want you to wash the car.
We really expected him to come and see us.
Verbs followed by -ing form are: avoid, be, used to, dislike, delay, finish,
forgive, escape, give up, go on, imagine.
I gave up trying to convince him.
Some verbs may be followed either by the to infinitive or by the -ing form, the
meaning of the sentence remaining the same: begin, start, continue, intend, hate,
prefer, love.
I prefer to wash the car myself.
I prefer washing the car myself.
Some verbs may be followed either by the to infinitive or by -ing form with a
change-meaning of the sentence, according to the form used: try, forget, remember.
I forgot to post the letter.
I tried all day long writing the letter.
After verbs as go and come the to infinitive expresses a purpose.
She went out to do some shopping.
The use of the to infinitive concentrates upon action, while the use of ing-form
concentrates upon what happens,this case using certain verbs bein an object of the
first ones:it's fun, it's worth, it's no use.
I forgot to bring you the book.
It's worth trying again

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NOUN
A. Prpoer noun - is the noun denominating a real particular name of a person
or a thing.
names of people: English, Romanian
geographical items: Turkey; Danube
days of the week, months and annual Church festivals:Monday, Christmas
patented goods and trade name: Persil, Metro
newspaper and magazine title: THe Times
shop, cinema, and theatre names: The Odeon
-itles or professional labels: Doctor Johnson,Professor James
B. Common nouns denominating all the other beeings or things. They are :
Abstract nouns - intangible items: honesty, time, triumph, etc
Concrete nouns - tangible items

animate nouns : cat, horse

inaninate nouns : table, house
Collective nouns : a herd of deer; a swarm of bees
Nouns can also be singular and plural in number. Count nouns refer to things
that can be counted:car, chairs, girl. Uncountable nouns refer to things that cannot be
counted or qualities or abstract names:furniture, news, information, homework,
knowledge, happiness, anger, evidence, beauty, behaviour, dispair, conduct, safety,
leisure, money,progress, research, jumble. They do not have a plural form and they
are not accompanied by the definite article.
Verbal nouns, formed from the present participle of verbs, are considered
uncountable nouns.
Walking is good for health.
Mass nouns refer to a substance that can be divided or measured but not
counted: sugar, milk, etc. It is not accompanied by an indefinite article. This type of
nouns take a plural only in special sases.
Too much sugar is not good for health.
France is well known for some types of cheeses it exports.
Two coffees, please!
PARTITIVE NOUNS are used when using mass nouns or when referring to
uncountables.
a slice of bread

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a spoonful of sugar
a bit of cheese
a piece of furniture
There are some nouns that have both count and uncountable uses. Some of the
behave like count or uncountable nouns according to their use in the sentence.
Time passes slowly sometimes. She read the book three times.
Some nouns are used only in plural form even when it is about one item:
trousers, clothes, jeans.
I need the scissors at their place all the time.
GENDER OF NOUNS
English does not have grammatical gender for nouns. Gender distinction is
relevant where personal pronouns and possessive determiners are needed. They are
used in singular only.
The man is looking for his coat.
Some special nouns denominating babies and small animals are considered
neutral and those denominating vehicles , of feminine gender.
The bird flew away to pick up its baby.
The crew loved their ship. They use to call her "their girl".
Inaninate objects and abstract notions are also neuter.Nouns used for a group,
e.g. government or team, crew, have common or neuter gender.
The team has changed its strategy.The team won their match.
Sometimes, in spoken English their is used after a singular noun or an
indefinite pronoun.
Each student must apply to his or her tutor for the diploma paper.
Each student must apply to their tutor for the diploma paper.
Gender differences are shown by names of male and female and by
relationships:
horse

stallion

gelding

sheep

mare
cow
ewe

ram

steer

parent

mother

father

child

daughter

son

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There are specific suffixes to mark feminine or masculine gender:

waiter
waitress
There are separate professional denominations and common professional
denominations:
manager
manageress
shephard
hephardess
doctor
doctoress
woman doctor
chairman

chairperson

chair

A country can be nominated as offeminine gender , from economic, political or

emitional point of view. Romania is a rich country. She is my country.
CASE OF NOUNS
The case indicates that the noun has a particular function ina clause. There are
two cases for common nouns.
a) The basic case of a noun is when it can be a subject or an object and its form
doesn't change.
b) The possessive case (genitive) that has two forms:
the 's possessive used only with animate items and in time phrases.Most
singular nouns add 's, and most plural nouns add -s'.
the woman's pair of shoes
the dog's ear
Yesterday's magazine
a week's holiday
the boys' bikes
There are the following exceptions:
for common nouns ending in -s in the singular, the choice for -s' or -'s is
optional
the cactus' spines
cactus's spines
nouns ending in -en uses 's
children's toys
proper nouns and coomon nouns that end in -s add -'s, unless the final
sound of it is [iz]
Mrs Evans's car
Mr Johns's car
compound nouns put the -'s or the -s' at the end of the complete compound
my mother-in-law's house
noun phrases that are descriptive receive -'s on the headword
a stock market analyst's annual income

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for an of construction the -'s or -s' comes to the last noun:

the director of marketing's personal assistant
the of possessive is used with inaninate things and abstract ideas
The power of thought
the world of ideas
COMPOUND NOUNS
Compound nouns are formed from two or more other words. The main noun is
normaly the last one:
self-control
headache
Compound nouns are commonly formed fromthe following word
combinations:
a noun + a noun
boyfriend; skinhead
a verb + a noun
an adjective + a noun
a phrasal verb

breakfast
software
a break-in

a participle + a noun
overseer; aftershave
Compound nouns can be written:
as one word : bookcase
as two words: post office; eye shadow
with a hyphen: air-conditioning

NOUNS AS MODIFIERS
Nouns can be used as modifiers without forming a compound noun. The noun
in this case, has the same function as an adjective.
a car mechanic; an office manager
NUMBER OF NOUNS
singular
plural
count nouns = have both singular and plural
un ountable nouns and mass nouns = do not have a plural form
a regular plural -s
exceptions to the normal pattern:
singular noun
plural noun

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ending
-s, -e,-ss, -ch, -x, -zz,
focus - focuses
prince - prices
church - churches
box - boxes
buzz - buzzes
-o
hero - heroes
consonant + -y
baby - babies
vowel + -y
key keys

-f

ending
-es

-es
-ies
-s

-s or -ves
hoof - hoofs
dwarf - dwarves

-fe

-ves
knife - knives
IRREGULAR PLURALS

two plural forms

fish - fish / fishes
the same form for plural and singular
a sheep / ten sheep
a change of vowel to form plural
man/men; woman/women
-en plural
child / children
brethern = alternative plural for brother having the sense of members of
a religious group
COMPOUND NOUNS - form the plural by adding -s to the last word of the
compound.
Exceptions:
a verb + an adverb = -s to the last word

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a Chinese take-away - tho Chinese take-aways

a noun + adverb = the first word=pl
a passer-by - two passers-by
-man/woman + noun = both make pl
a manservant - menservants
-ending in -ful + -s after ful or
-s after the main noun
a cupful - cupfuls/cupsful
a spoonful - spoonfuls/spoonsful
PLURAL NOUNS WITH SINGULAR REFERENCE
nouns referring to clothes and tools are treated as plurals and are followed bythe
verb in the plural; a pair of./ pairs of
trousers, binoculars,
dozen/million = have no plural form - exc when they mean an indefitely large
number
Millions of people travel around the world every year.
FOREIGN PLURALS
Nouns that came into English as foreign words;
keep their plural original form
an axis - two axes
a crisis - two crises
take plurals according to the English rules
memorandum - memorandums
have two plurals: from the foreign language and from English. The first one
is used for scientific or profesional use:
an index / indexes/ indices
formula / formulae/ formulas
VERBAL NOUNS
They are represented by the -ing form, i.e present participle of a verb, used as
a noun. It is sometimes called a gerund.
usually works as an uncountable noun, but it can be precedeed, sometimes, by an
indefinite article or used in the plural
the screaming of the baby

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smoking is prohibited
The takings were down this week-end in the shop./
verbal noun can be precedeed by indefinite article, adjective and possessives, as
any noun, and it functions as:
subject: Singing calms me down.
complement (be): Her greatest pleasure is dancing.
object after certain verbs:I like reading but my sister prefers walking.
After prepositions: How much can you resist without screaming?
Verbal noun can also be used :
after some phrasal verbs: be for / against/, give up/, keep on/, look forward
to/ put off, etc
They were all for giving it up.
after certain set of expressions: can't stand, can't help, it's no use/good
I can't help loughing.
a possessive determiner can be used in formal English with the verbal
noun, or with a personal pronoun used in informal English:
The boy went to play football without my letting know.
The boy went to play football eithout me letting know.
Verbal noun has different forms:
perfect form: having...+ ed
She recognized to have mistaken.
passive form:
Being asked does not bother me.
parfect passive form:
The door showed no sign of having been opened.
DETERMINERS
Determiners are words that make the reference of nouns specific. They can be
divided according to:
their meaning
their position in a sentence
There are eight classes of determiners:
the indefinite article
the definite article
the demonstratives:
the possessives
the quantifiers
the numbers: cardinal/ordinal
the distributives

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the exclamatives
A noun phrase has usually only one determiner or none at all. A few
determiners: (all, both), and numbers, can be used together with another determiner.
THE INDEFINITE DETERMINER
a or an ( for nouns beginning with a vowel)
The indefinite article is used:
with reference to a noun mentioned for the first time
with reference to a noun without being specific
A man was seen crossing the street.

in definitions:
An octopus is seafood.

when referring to someone's profession

My mother is a teacher.

to express a quantity
I'd like a cup of tea.
an is used only before nouns beginning with a vowel (ex: an awful mistake ) or
beginning with a silent h ( ex: an hour, heir, heiress, honest, honour)
an is not used before nouns beginning with a semi-vowel: ( ex: a unique book) or
before h which is not silent (ex: a hotel, a history)
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE
The unique form of the definite article is the used both for singular and for
plural nouns, for countable and uncountable nouns, in order to:
make definite or specific the reference to a noun that has already been mentioned
before
to refer to a noun already specified previously
to make general reference to a whole class or species:
The crocodile is hunted for its skin.
indicate nationality or an entire class of people:
The Germans are skilful engineers.
The poor were sheltered in the church.
indicate names of rivers, groups of islands, seas, oceans and mountain ranges:
The Thames
indicate certain public institutions, most newspapers and some magazines:
British Museum; The Guardian; The house of Parliament; The Economist
indicate parts of the body when these are refered to in an impersonal way
I was struck on my head.

ECONOMIC ENGLISH FOR UPPER INTERMEDIATE

proper nouns that refer to common persons, and proper nouns used in conjunction
with titles (Queen Elisabeth) take a definite article if:
they stand for the name of a place or thing
The Queen herself opens the Parliament.
make a distinction between the people who have identical names
The Mr. Jones you speak about lives just next to my house.
NOUNS WITHOUT A DETERMINER
The omission of the determiner has always one of the significances:
the use of a noun or a noun phrase in the plural to make a generalization
Vegetables are good for your health now.
general reference made by singular uncountable nouns
Do you like cake?
Uncountable nouns can be used with a determiner when the reference
becomes specific:
Would you like some of the cake?
There are some idiomatic expressions that usually do not use a determiner,
referring to:
travel
I like traveling by car.
time, when prepositions are used: before, at, or by dawn sunrise, sunset, noon,
midnight, night, supper, dineer, day, night
When I was a student iused to rise at dawn and went to bed at sunset.
institutions with the prepositions to or in: work, school, church, hospital, prison
Catherine was at home all day.
I went to the hospital to visit her after I had been to work.
meals: to have breakfast, tea, lunch
We had dinner together last week.
seasons of the year when generalizing:
In summer days are long and nights are short.
DEMONSTRATIVES
Demonstratives are used to place an item in relation to the speaker.
They are:this, that, these, those
This and these refer to objects near to the speaker

ECONOMIC ENGLISH FOR UPPER INTERMEDIATE

That and those refer to objects that are situated further away from the speaker.
This and that are for singular.
These and those are for plural.
POSSESSIVES
Possessives are used to specify the relationship of ownership referring to an
item.Here are the form of them, according to the person or the thing that possesses
the item:
Person
Singular
Plural
Ist
my
our
2nd
your
your
3rd M
his
their
3rd F
her
their
3rd N
its
their
Possessive derminers are to be distinguished from possessive pronouns which
can stand alone.
Our dream has come true.
Mine has not.
Possessive phrase is a noun or a noun phrase ending in 's or s' and acts as a
possessive determiner, but may also include another determiner itself.
- a good day's work
- my brother-in-law's sister
- John's new hobby
QUANTIFIERS
Quantifiers are used to indicate the amount or quantity of something referred
to by a noun.
all, some, any, much, enough, no can be used before an uncountable noun or a
plural countable noun.
- no can be used before a singular or a plural count
noun or uncountable noun.
Have some chocolate.
Mother gave me all her money.
There are no pictures on the wall.
No information could be obtained from the accident.
some, any, much and enough are used for denominating a part of the item
You have eaten too much, today.

ECONOMIC ENGLISH FOR UPPER INTERMEDIATE

I didn't find any photo of yours.

some is used in positive sentences and any in negative ones

In questions any is used when there is no particular expectation about the

answer, while some is used when the answer is expected to be positive.
Have you any information today?
WOULD YOU LIKE SOME TEA, PLEASE?
No can be used with there is or there are
formal: He had no trouble in finding the right man.
informal:He didn't have any trouble infinding the right man.
half can be used with countable and uncountable nouns
Half of the emploees were fired.
double is used for uncountable nouns
The employees claimed for a double amount of money for working on
holidays.
both define two things represented by a plural count noun
Both men and women have equal rights.
In order to express graded amounts there are the following quantifiers:
many, more the most used plural count nouns with graded quantities of plural
count nouns:
How many children are in a classroom?
We need more people to understand.
Most of the European people are white.
much, more, most are used with graded quantities of uncountable nouns:
I feel much more interested now about the matter.
More and more people are interested in computers.
Most of the paintings are forgery.
few, fewer, fewest are used with graded quantities of plural count nouns:
Few people know the answer.
Fewer and fewer wild animals remained in the woods.
little, less, least are used with uncountable nouns
I earned too little money to repair the car.
She can't bear the least opposition to her will.
a few and a little have a positive sense
A few kind people helped the man bleeding.
few and little are used in negative sense and suggest disapointment and pessimism
Little encouragemente was given to him.

ECONOMIC ENGLISH FOR UPPER INTERMEDIATE

Everyone needs a little encouragement.

NUMBERS
Cardinal numbers are used in all forms of counting - two cars, ten thousand
dollars
Ordinal numbersgive the place of something in an ordered sequence. They are
mostly formed by adding -th to a carinal number. Exceptions are the first, the second
and the third and their combinations.
Cardinal numbers can be used at the beginning of a noun phrase, like
determiners, or on their own, like pronouns.
One of them came down to meet me.
Ordinal numbers are used after the definite article or after a possessive.
The first boat in the row has won the contest.
the words next, last and another can ber considered as ordinal numbers.
The next runner was declared the winner.
The words next and last come ususlly after the or a possessive
My next favourite subject is mathematics.
next, last and another can be used together with a cardinal number
The last time we met was on Christmas holiday.
some is added to a cardinal number to show approximation:
Some two hundred people gethered at the airport to see the star.

DISTRIBUTIVES
The distributives are each, every, either neither.used with a singular noun.
Neither plan was successful.
Each child is worth having a family.
every can be used in front of ordinal numers
Every fourth soldier was killed in that war.
either refers to one of two:
Either plates would suit me.
neither excludes bothe of the items that are being referred to:
Neither dress is elegant enough for this party.

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EXCLAMATIVES
The exclamations are what, such. They can introduce a noun phrase alone:
What a party! Such a dress!
A noun phrase in acomplete clause:
HE IS SUCH A NICE MAN!
What a pleasant surprise!
NOUN PHRASES WITH SEVERAL DETERMINERS
Determiners are represented by four groups depending on what other
determiners they can be used with and the order that they follow:
There are two main groups:
a) the, this, these, that, those, a(n), and tje possessives: my, your, her, his, etc
b) another, some, any,no, either, neither, each, enough, a few, a little
The two groups can not be used together but with the following exceptions:
if of is placed between the two
Some of those apples
Neither of my brothers
a group words may be used with words in groups c and d
c) all, both, half, double, twice. They can be used on their own before a noun
or before the group a determiners. It is possible to insert of between all, both,or half
and a central determiner.
All the turists left the resort because of the storm.
d) every, many, several, few, little, much, more, most, less, and the ordinal
numbers. They can be used on their own before a noun or after the a group words.
I have few friends.
Every move was carefully prepared.
My few real friends visited me after the accident.
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives make the meaning of the noun more specific.
Adjectives are
attributive - can go before the noun - a large street

predicative - go after the verb- the books are interesting

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ADJECTIVE ORDER
In English more than four adjectives is most uncommon:
- a pale young Eastern girl
adjectives before a noun are not usually separated by and, unless they are
adjectives of colour- a blue and white flag
adjectives can be preceeded by adverbs of degree - an extremely intelligent
person
some adjectives can only be used predicatively; they usually begin with -a :
afloat, afraid, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake
We go abroad again.
this case, they may have to be followed by a particular preposition if the phrase
continues
He was glad
He was glad to come.
I was afraid
I was afraid for his life.
there are adjectives changing their meaning when having the position before or
after the noun: absent, present, involved, concerned
The people present were given some coffee.
The present leadership has been in power for three years.
COMPARISON
The comparative form is used to compare two features nominated by
adjectives.
When the second part of the comparison is mentioned, than is present
My son is taller than yours.
as...as in the affirmative and not as... as or not so ... as in the negative are
present in comparing the equality of the features of the adjective.
My son is as tall as yours.
The superlative when a quality exceeds all the others. It normally has the in
front of it, but it can be omitted in predicative position.
I will choose for you the apple which is (the) ripest.
Two forms of cpomparative:
a) the adjective has -er or -est as endings
bright - brighter - the brightest
if the adjective ends already in -er or -ry, it usually adds -er and -est (y changes to
-i before adding the ending. If the adjective ends in -e, this must be left off)
clever
cleverer
the cleverest

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easy

easier

the easiest

b) more and most are added to longer adjectives. If the comparison is negative,
less or least is used.
Two syllable adjectives can use both ways to form comparison:
polite
politer
politest
o
more polite
most politest
less polite
the least polite
There are adjectives with irregular comparison forms:
Good
better
the best
Bad
worse
the worst
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIALS
They answer to the questions: where?, what?, how?, when?, to what extent?
and they usually modify the meaning of the verb, adjective, another adverb or even
of a whole sentence or a prepositional phrase.
That is quite silly.
Our manager behaved remarkably stupidly.
Nevertheless we must give him a last chance.
His place is really an awful mess.
Adverbials can be divided in:
of manner: slowly, with care
of place: there , anywhere, all over, etc
of time: now, today, last night, lately
of degree: largely, extremenly,by a whisker,much etc
of frequency: rarely, often sometimes, daily
a) Most adverbs come:
before the verb phrase or the subject
Tearfully, she told her mother what happened.
after the verb phrase or the object
She told the whole story tearfully to her mother.
between the auxilliary and the main verb
She was tearfully telling everything to her mother.
b) Some adverbs can only come after the verb
Suddenly, the frighten rabbit ran back in the woods.
c) A few adverbs can come before the main verb barely, hardly, little, rarely,
scrcely, seldom. They give a negative meaning to the clause.

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She little cared for her problems.

An adverb placed bettween the to and the base form of the verb represents a
"split infinitive", and it is a matter of personal preference.
I need to really think hard about this.
I really need to think hard about this.
There are a few adverbs modifying nouns or indefinite pronouns
the man downstairs
the exemple above
Almost all the children knew the poem by heart.
FORMS OF ADVERBS
most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of related adjective
slow
slowly
sensible
sensibly
free
freely
adjectives ending in -y change it to -i before adding -ly.
Some adverbs keep the same spelling as the adjective to which they are
related. If it comes before a noun, it is probably an adjective, or if it relates to a verb
or an adjective, it is probably an adverb.
a short way
He was cut short.
Some adverbs have the same spelling as a preposition. Prepositions are used in
front of the noun phrase,because preposition must have an object.
She hurried over her meal because she was late.
When the word is found without an object,especially at the end of as clause,it
will usually be an adverb.
She hurried over.
Some adverbs have comparative and superlative forms and can be used with
submodifiers.
He should behave far more prudently.
PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word that is used in the place of a noun or a whole noun
phrase.
TYPES OF PRONOUN
PERSONAL pronoun is used as a subject, object, or complement in a clause.
When more than one personal pronoun is used with a verb, the order is normally:

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3rd person, 2nd person, 1st person.

He and I are going to shopping.
The object form is usual in spoken informal language:
after the verb be:
It's him. (informal)
It is I. (formal)
after than (without be) in comparisons:
In formal English the subject form is used when the verb be is present or
possible.
John is taller than him. (informal)
John is taller than he (is). (formal)
Than + object pronoun is necessary
Her improvement in English impressed him more than me.
Personal pronoun is sometimes used to supply short answers.
Who broke the window? Him, as usual.
REFLEXIVE pronoun is used in object position when the action of a verb is
performed on the subject by the subject.
John dressed himself for his wedding.
self = singular
selves = plural
The reflexive oneself can be used for persons in general. It can also be used as
a substitute for the first person singular,the subject pronoun being one,in a formal
language.
One askes oneself whether it is worth to bother.
One or oneself is to be avoided mixt with I or myself in the same clause.
Some verbs are always followed by a reflexive pronoun.
One could easily arrange it all oneself.
It can be left out if it is obvious that the subject performs the action:
I washed and dressed in no time.
It is used to make a verb transitive:
Take care of yourself.
I can be used to make a clause more emphatic.
I will do it myself, if you don't mind.
One another and each other are not pure reflexive pronouns, but they are
called reciprocals.

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POSSESSIVE pronoun indicates the owner or its associated item. It has

separate forms for the singular and plural

1st
2nd
3rd M
3rd F
3rd N

Singular
mine
yours
his
hers
its

Plural
ours
yours
theirs
theirs
theirs

DEMONSTRATIVE pronoun indicates position in space in relation with the

speaker or distance in time.
Singular
Plural
near
this
these
far
that
those
RELATIVE pronoun has the same form with the interrogative pronoun but it
links a subordinate clause to a main clause which is called relative, and it refers back
to a noun phrase or pronoun that was just mentioned. The only words allowed to
come before a relative pronoun is preposition or conjunction.
that as a relative pronoun never has a preposition before it. It can also be used
istead of which and it is sometimes used instead of who and whom.
That is the person that they found guilty.
which is not used for human subjects or objects.
We shall see the play which you like best.
who and whom are restricted to human antecedents.If the clause is a non-defining
relative clause, or if thre is any possible ambiguity who and whom are to be used.
I have found the solution that you'll understand.
She is one of the girls who joined the party.
She is one of the girls that joined the party.
whom is considered very formal, and that is why who is sometimes used instead
I noticed who he was calling.- informal
I noticed whom he was calling.- formal
in informal writing and speech,any preposition is placed after the verb phrase
instead of before the relative pronoun.
The girl who he was talking to looked pretty.
The company that he had been working for in he summer, offered him a
permanent job.

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the object form of a relative pronoun can be left out entirely if the noun referred
to is unambigous.
That is the house that I bought recently.
INTERROGATIVE pronouns are who, whom, whose that are used to refer
only to people. Which, what refer to people and things too. They are known under the
general heading of Wh words.
Who- is used to ask about people in general.
Who is singing?
What- is used to ask about things in general. It can be either a subject or an object.
What did you cook for dinner?
Which- is used to identify a particular person or object in a group.
Which one do you prefer?
Whose- is a possessive form and it is addressing to the possesor; what can also be
used with a suitable verb.
Whose is the car in front?
What firm does the car belong to?
whom is the object form for who.Which can be considered as a very formal word,
avoided in casual conversation. It is still used in writing.
Who do you have in mind? - informal
Whom do you have in mind? - formal
To whom do you speak? - formal?
the object forms of the interrogative pronoun are also used after a preposition.
Informal usage places the preposittion at the end of the clause and it is most
common.
What are you complaining about? - informal
About what are complaining? - formal
INDEFINITE pronoun can refer to a person,a thing, or a group of persons or
things,in which gender and number are not madeclear.
It defines:
a) general amounts and quantities: most, some, noneany, all, both, half,
several, enough, many, each
Some of the comission members came and asked about the amendments.
b) Choice or alternatives: either, neither
Neither of them passed the examination.

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c) undefined singular or multiple persons and things.

SOMEONE
SOMEBODY
SOMETHING
no one
nobody
nothing
anyone
anybody
anything
everyone
everybody
everything
Formal usage permits only the use of a following singular form, but informal
language uses the plural form their or theirs and avoids the awkward his or her.
Has anybody finished his or her work for today?
Has anybody finished their work for today?
pronouns from a and b are often used like partitives,with of and a noun phrase or
a personal pronoun.
None of the children has finished their work.
PREPOSITIONS relate different parts of the clause toeach other. There are:
simple prepositions: in, on,under
complex prepositions: due to, together with, on top of, in spite of, out of
Prepositions are usually followed by:
a noun phrase:- under the table
an -ing clause:- Thank you for taking care of my baby.
relative pronoun (Wh-word). In informal language a preposition may end a
relative clause rather than come before it.
That's the person of whom we were thinking.
The person (who) we were thinking of.
Prepositional phrase is used as an adverbial or a post modifier.
The documents that you can see on the table has been finally concluded.
I went through a bad patch.
Preposition can combine with other words to render new meanings.
Here is a list of prepositions. The words in italics can also be used as adeverbs
aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, alongside, amid, around, as, at,
top, bar, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by,despite, down,
during, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, onto, opposite, outside, over,
past, pending, per, prior, pro, re, regarding, round, since, than, through, throughout,
till, to, towards, under, underneath,until, unto, up, upon, via, with,within, without.
He went in. He took it through.
The choice of a preposition changes completely the meaning; some
prepositions can be used with more than one meaning according to the time and
place for which it is used. There are:
prepositions of location that can indicate:

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1. the direction in which somethingis moving

towards, from, off
2. something or someone being enclosed:
within, in, inside, outside
3. being at a certain point:
on, at, by, near
4. place as an area:
over, across, on, onto
5. location as a line:along, over,on
prepositions of time that can indicate:
a. a point in time or a date: at, on, in
b. a period or a point of time which marks a change: before, after, since,
unti.