A2 English Grammar

1. Articles
Use:

 Use a before a singular noun. Ex : I've got a brother and a sister.

Use an if the noun begins with a vowel. Ex : I've got an aunt in Texas.

 Use plural nouns or uncountable nouns to talk about things in general. Don't use an article here.

 Use the to talk about one particular thing, or a particular group of things.
Ex : The book on the table is interesting.
Children are noisy. The children in this class are noisy.

 Use a to introduce a new thing or person. Use the when you already know this person or thing.
There is a restaurant near my house. The restaurant serves good food.

 Use the when there is only one of these things.

The moon is very big tonight.
Joe is the best student in the class.

 Use the when there are many things, but it is clear which one you mean.
Let's go to the pub! We need to go to the supermarket.

/!\ Most 'general' nouns do not use an article.

Life is not the same as it used to be NOT: The life…
Health is important to everyone. NOT: The health…
We're worried about pollution. NOT: The pollution…

But some general nouns use the:

the environment People are increasingly worried about the environment.
the weather What's the weather like today?
the countryside I love walking in the countryside.

2. Adverbs
Form:
You can make many adverbs by adding –ly to an adjective. Ex : slow -> slowly; loud -> loudly
If an adjective ends in ‘y’, change it to an ‘i’. Ex : heavy -> heavily; funny -> funnily
Add ‘ally’ to adjectives ending in ‘ic’. Ex : Physical -> physically
/!\ Some adverbs are irregular, and do not end in ly. These include:
good -> well Ex : She dances well. fast -> fast Ex : He runs fast.
hard -> hard Ex : He works hard. late -> late Ex : He arrives late.

/!\ Some words end in ‘ly’ but they are not adverbs. Friendly is an example. Friendly is an adjective. We can say
‘She is friendly’ but not ‘She talks friendly’. There is no adverb for friendly, but we can say ‘She talks in a
friendly way’. Elderly and lonely are also adjectives, not adverbs. Kindly and early are adjectives and
adverbs

Use:
Adverbs can be used to describe verbs. They describe HOW you do something.
Ex : She walks quickly; He sings nicely.

Usually, the adverb goes after the verb it describes. Ex : She talks quietly .

If the verb has a direct object WITHOUT A PREPOSITION the adverb should go after the object.
Ex : You sang that song nicely.

If the verb is followed by a preposition and an object, you can put the adverb in different places.
Ex : He quickly walked to the shop.
He walked quickly to the shop.
He walked to the shop quickly.

3. Comparative
Form:

If an adjective has one syllable, add er to the end. If it ends in e already, just add r.
tall => taller nice => nicer
thick => thicker late => later

If an adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant, write the consonant again, then write er. But never write
a w twice.
big => bigger new => newer (NOT newwer)
thin => thinner slow => slower (NOT slowwer)
slim => slimmer

Ex : My brother is thinner than me.

If an adjective has two syllables and ends in y, change the y to i and add er.
funny => funnier silly => sillier

Some adjectives have irregular superlative forms. These are listed below.
good => better
 bad => worse
far => further

Add than after a comparative adjective to compare one thing with another. However, this is not always necessary.
Ex : My house is smaller than yours.

4. Can/ Could
Use:
 Use can / can’t to talk about your abilities now.
I can speak English. I can’t speak German.

 Use could / couldn’t to talk about abilities in the past.

I could speak French when I was a child, but I can't now.
I couldn’t speak English when I was a child, but I can now.

 Use can and could to make requests. Could is more polite.

Can you cook this evening please?
Could you pass me the salt?

 Use can to reply to requests.

Can I sit here? => Yes, you can. Sorry, you can’t.
Can you cook this evening please? => Yes, I can. Sorry, I can’t.

 DON’T use could in replies to requests.

Could you lend me some money?
Yes, I could. => Yes, sure! Sorry, I can’t.

Form:

Can and could are the same for all persons.

I can/could speak English
you can/could speak English
he / she / it can/could speak English
we can/could speak English
they can/could speak English.

The negative form of can is cannot, or can’t. The negative form of could is couldn’t.

There is always a verb after can and could, and the verb is always in the infinitive form (without to).
Sally can help you. NOT Sally can helps you. / Sally can to help you.
 Make questions by inverting can and the subject.
I can see you this afternoon. => Can I see you this afternoon?
You could help me. => Could you help me?
 Use can/can’t and could/couldn’t in short answers.
Can your brother swim? => Yes, he can. No, he can’t.
Could you do the test? => Yes, I could. No, I couldn’t.

5. First Conditional
Use:
The first conditional structure is used to talk about something which will or may happen in the future as a
result of something else.
Ex: If it rains tomorrow, I’ll stay at home.

Form:
Make the first conditional in this way.
If I present simple , I will / won’t verb
When you you might / might (infinitive
he he not form)
she... she...
Ex: If I see Tom, I will tell him the news.
When you visit, we might go to the park.

Or
I will / won’t verb if I present simple
you might / might (infinitive form) when you
he not he
she.. she...
.
Ex: She’ll be late if she doesn’t hurry up.
You might not pass your exams if you watch television all the time.

/!\ Don’t use will or might directly after will or might.

If I will arrive first, I’ll make lunch. => If I arrive first, I’ll make lunch.

/!\Always use an infinitive verb after will and might.

I might to go out tonight, if I’m not too tired. => I might go out tonight if I’m not too tired.
6. Gerunds and infinitives
Use:
 A gerund is a verb in its –ing form, used as a noun.
Ex : eating, going, seeing

 Gerunds are used :

- As the subject of a sentence.

Smoking is bad for you
- After some verbs, such as: like, hate, enjoy, quit, suggest, dislike, deny
I like cooking. I enjoy fishing.
- A good learner’s dictionary will tell you whether a verb is followed by a gerund or not.

- After prepositions.
I’m interested in buying a computer. I’m scared of walking alone in the dark.

 The infinitive form of the verb is the original verb. It can be with or without ‘to’.
Ex: (to) eat, (to) go, (to) see.

 The infinitive form is used:

- After some verbs, such as; agree, arrange, ask, promise, decide, afford
I agreed to do the work. I arranged to see the doctor, They decided to get married.

- To show the reason why you did something.

Tony went to the post office to pay a bill.

- After adjectives.
I was surprised to see Erica. I’m pleased to meet you.

 Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or infinitive with NO CHANGE in meaning:

Ex : start, begin, hate, like, prefer, continue
She started to cry = She started crying.
I hate watching horror films = I hate to watch horror films.

 Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or a infinitive, but there is a change in meaning.
Ex : try, remember, stop
I tried to get into the house. (Getting into the house is your goal or objective).
I tried climbing through the window. (Climbing through the window is one thing you tried in
order to obtain your final objective.)
I stopped cleaning the windows. (I was cleaning the windows and then I stopped).
I stopped to clean the windows. (I was driving, and I stopped driving to clean the
 windows).

6. Going to
Use:
 Use be going to to talk about your personal plans for the future.
Ex : I’m going to see my sister at the weekend.

Form:
The form of the positive and negative sentences and questions is shown below.

Positive
am
I going to verb (infinitive form)
you are
he / she / it is
we are
they are

Negative
‘m not
I going to verb (infinitive form)
you aren’t
he / she / it isn’t
we aren’t
they aren’t

Questions
I
Am going to verb (infinitive form) ?
Are you
Is he / she / it
Are we
Are they
 7. Questions

Use:
Whenever you use an introductory phrase before a question, you must change the word order in the question.

Introductions include : Can you tell me...? Do you know...? I don’t know... I’m not sure... I wonder... I can’t
remember...
Ex: What’s the time? => Can you tell me what the time is?
Where did he go? => I don’t know where he went.

Form:
 If the question has an auxiliary verb, swap the positions of the auxiliary verb and the subject. You can also do
this in sentences with the verb to be.
Ex: When can you get here?

Can is the auxiliary verb and you is the subject. Swap their positions when you add an introduction.
Ex: Do you know when you can get here?

Other examples:
Where has he gone? =>I don’t know where he has gone.
What are they doing? =>I don’t know what they’re doing.
What time is it? =>Have you any idea what time it is?

You cannot contract the verb if it is the last word in the sentence.
Do you know what time it’s? =>Do you know what time it is?

 If the question is in the present or past simple, remove do / does / did from the question. Change the verb
ending so that the verb is in the correct tense.
Ex: Where did he go? =>Did you see where he went?
What time do you get up? =>Can you tell me what time you get up?
Where does she work? =>I wonder where she works.

 If a question does not have a question word (Where, What, Why etc.) use if or whether before the question.
Ex: Does he live here? =>Do you know if he lives here?
Are they coming to the party? =>Do you know whether they are coming to the party?

How Questions :
 Dimensions
Use How big to find out about size.
Ex: How big is your car?
Use How long to find out about length, and How wide to ask about width.
Ex: How long is the River Nile? How wide is it?
Use the words long and wide in your answers to make them clear.
Ex: It’s a hundred miles long. It’s a mile wide.
 Age
Use How old to find out about age.
Ex: How old is your sister?
 Time
Also use How long to ask about time.
Ex: How long is the film? It’s about two hours long.
How long does it take to get there? About three hours.
 Quantity
Use How much to ask about cost. Also use How much with uncountable nouns.
Remember to put any uncountable nouns directly after ‘much’.
Ex: How much is this bag?
How much money do you have?
Use How many to ask about countable nouns. Remember to put any countable nouns directly after ‘many’.
Ex: How many people are coming?
How many questions often use the word there.
Ex: How many people are there in your class?

7. Past Simple
Use:
Use the past simple to talk about finished events in the past. Use it to tell stories, jokes and anecdotes.
Form:
1) Many past tense verbs are formed by adding -ed to the end of the verb.
want => wanted
start => started
- If a verb ends in e, just add d (liked, hoped).
- If a verb ends in y, delete y and add ied (studied, carried).
But don’t do this if the verb ends in a vowel + y
But a lot of past tense verbs are irregular. You need to learn each one separately.
Past simple verbs are the same for all persons.
I went; you went; he went; she went; they went; we went...
2) To form negatives or questions use the past simple of the auxiliary.

Do not say “I did not saw him” but “I did not SEE him”
Do not say “Did you ate my snack?” but “Did you EAT my snack?”
8. Past Continuous
Use:
1) Use the past to ‘set the scene’ of a story before describing what happened.
‘It was raining. I was walking in the park. Some kids were playing football nearby. Suddenly…’
2) Use the past continuous to talk about an action which happened for some time in the past and was then
interrupted. Use the past simple tense to talk about the interruption.
I was cooking dinner when suddenly there was a knock at the door.
3) Use the past continuous to talk about events that were in progress at a certain time.
At 5 o’clock yesterday afternoon, I was driving home from work.
Note the difference in meaning:
When James got home, I cooked dinner:- I started cooking AFTER he got home.
When James got home, I was cooking dinner: - I started cooking BEFORE he got home.
Form:

Positive Negative
was wasn’t
I I
verb+ing verb+ing
You were You weren’t
He / She / It was He / She / It wasn’t
We / They were We / They weren’t

Question
Was I
Were you verb+ing ?

Was he / she / it
Were we / they

Spelling Rules:
If a verb ends in e, delete the e before you add –ing.
have =>I was having lunch.
If a verb ends in one vowel and one consonant, double the consonant (except w and y).
get =>He was just getting up.
play =>We were playing.
 9. present continuous

Use:
1) Use the present continuous to talk about actions which are happening now.
Ellen is having a bath at the moment.
Right now, Mark is talking to her manager.
Form:

Positive Negative
I am / ‘m I ‘m not
You are / ‘re verb+ing You aren’t / ‘re not verb+ing
He / She / It is / ‘s He / She / It isn’t / ‘s not
We / They are / ‘re We / They aren’t / ‘re not

Question
Am I
Are you verb+ing

Is he / she / it
Are we / they

Spelling Rules:
If a verb ends in e, delete the e before you add –ing.
come => I’m coming.
have => He’s having lunch.
 10.Present Continuous for Future
Use:
The present continuous tense has two uses:
1) Use it to describe what is happening at the moment.
‘Where’s dad?’
‘He’s watching TV in the living room’.
2) Use it to describe plans and arrangements in the future.
‘Tom is arriving on the three o’clock train tomorrow’.
Form:
Make the present continuous in this way.
Positive Negative
am / ‘m verb-ing ‘m not verb-ing
I I
are / ‘re aren’t / ‘re not
you / they / we you / they / we
is / ‘s isn’t / ‘s not
he / she / it he / she / it

Questions
you / they / we verb-ing?
Are
he / she / it
Is

11.Present Perfect
Use:
The present perfect is used for several reasons:
1) Use it to describe events that happened in the past and are still true now because you can see the
result.
I’ve broken my leg!
David has painted his house.
2) Use it to describe experiences in your life.
I’ve been to New York three times in my life.
However, you cannot use the present perfect to describe experiences in someone’s life if that person has
died.
Michael Jackson performed in Britain many times.
NOT
Michael Jackson has performed in Britain many times.
3) Use it to describe events that started in the past and are still happening now.
I’ve lived here all my life (and I live here now).
John has worked here for 10 years (and he works here now).
Never refer to a finished time with a present perfect verb.
Form:
Make the present perfect in this way.
Positive Negative
I / you / they / we have / ‘ve past I / you / they / we haven’t / ‘ve past participle
he / she / it participle he / she / it not
has / ‘s
hasn’t / ‘s not

Examples: I’ve seen him; they’ve gone; she’s taken my bag.

I haven’t seen him; they haven’t gone yet; she’s not been here.

Questions
Have you / they / we past participle?
Has
he / she / it
Examples: Have you seen him? Has she taken my bag?

12. some / any / much / many

 Some and any
Use:
Use some before plural nouns or uncountable nouns.
There are some children in the street.
There is some money in my pocket.
Use any, not some, in negative sentences and questions.
There aren’t any children in the street.
There isn’t any money in my pocket.
However, Some is possible in offers and requests.
Please can I have some chocolate?
Would you like some tea?
  Much and Many
Use:
Use many in negative sentences and questions. We don’t often use it in positive sentences, especially in
informal situations. We use a lot of / lots of.
Use many with plural nouns.
Are there many Chinese students in your class?
I haven’t got many CDs.
There are many cars on the road today. → There are a lot of cars on the road today.
However, we can use Many of Not Many before the subject of the sentence.
Many people think that trains are too expensive.
Not many people know that you can get free coffee here!
We use much in negative sentences and questions with uncountable nouns. We don’t often use it in
positive sentences. We say a lot of / lots of.
Have you got much money with you?
I haven’t got much money with me.
I have much money. → I have a lot of money.

13.Superlatives
Use:
Use the superlative form to describe something that is greater than any other thing.
The Amazon is the longest river in the world.
Helen is the most intelligent student in the class.
Form:
1) Write the before all superlatives.
2) If an adjective is short and has one syllable, add est to the end. If it ends in e already, just add st.
tall => the tallest nice => the nicest
thick => the thickest late => the latest
3) If an adjective ends in one vowel and one consonant, write the consonant again, then write est. But
never write a w twice.
big => the biggest new => the newest (NOT newwest)
thin => the thinnest slow => the slowest (NOT slowwest)
slim => the slimmest
The biggest cat in the world is the lion.
4) If an adjective has two syllables and ends in y, change the y to i and add est.
funny => the funniest silly => the silliest

It’s the silliest film I’ve ever seen!

5) For other adjectives with two or more syllables, DON’T add est. Write most before the adjective.
interesting => the most interesting surprising => the
most surprising

It’s the most interesting book I’ve ever read.

6) Some adjectives have irregular superlative forms. These are listed below.
good => the best
bad => the worst
far => the furthest

14.Uncountable Nouns
Use:
Some nouns are countable – you can count them. These include:
apples, books, cars, trees

Some nouns are uncountable – you cannot count them. These include:
water, oil, rice, fruit, bread, information, money
Uncountable nouns have different grammar rules from countable nouns.
countable singular nouns countable plural nouns uncountable nouns
e.g. apple e.g. apples e.g. fruit

Singular countable nouns always Plural countable nouns do not need Uncountable nouns do not need a
need a determiner: a determiner. determiner.
a, this, that, my, the etc.
I like apples. I like fruit.
Look at that cat! Dogs are friendly.
But they can use singular
Can I have an apple?
But they can be used with determiners:
Is this your bag?
determiners:
This fruit is nice.
Where are my shoes?
Are those pens yours?

You can count countable nouns. You cannot count uncountable

Can I have five apples please? nouns.
Can I have five breads please?
Use singular verbs and determiners. Use plural verbs and determiners.
This apple is nice.
Use singular verbs and determiners.
These apples are nice. This bread is nice.
Some determiners can be used with both countable and uncountable
nouns.
some, a lot of, lots of, loads of, plenty of, any
We’ve got some potatoes. We need some bread.
We don’t have any potatoes. We don’t have any bread.
Some determiners can only be used Some determiners can only be used
with countable nouns: with uncountable nouns:
several, various, a few, many much, a bit of, a little

15.Zero Conditional
Use:
The first conditional structure is used to talk about something which is always true. It always happens,
on the condition that something else happens.
Example: If it rains a lot, our garden floods.
Form:

1. Make the first conditional in this way.

If I present simple , I present simple
When you you
Unless he he
she... she...
Examples: If you fly on a budget airline, you have to buy your own drinks.
When we visit Geoff, he always cooks us a roast dinner.
Or
I present simple if I present simple
you when you
he unless he
she... she...
Examples: You have to buy your own drinks if you fly on a budget airline.
Geoff always cooks us a roast dinner when we visit him.
2. You can also form the zero conditional with the imperative form.
If you have a membership card, enter through the door on the left.
Enter through the door on the left if you have a membership card.
3.You can also form the zero conditional using a modal verb.
If the alarm goes off, we should leave the building.
If it’s rainy and sunny at the same time, you can often see a rainbow.

4. Different tenses can be used in the If / When (‘condition’) clause. However, only the present simple, a
modal or imperative form can be used in the ‘result’ clause.
If we’ve finished all our work, we can leave early.
If people are getting enough exercise, they usually feel better emotionally as
well as physically.