LeadershipTheories

andStyles
IAAP
2009AdministrativeProfessionalsWeek
Event
April28,2009

Development of Leadership Theory

DevelopmentofLeadershipTheory
Untilapproximately1930,therewasnotmuch
academic interest in the area of leadership
academicinterestintheareaofleadership
Fredrick
FredrickTaylor
Taylor Scientific
ScientificManagement(time/motion
Management (time/motion
studiesofproductivity)(late1800s)
MaxWeber(writingonbureaucracy)aleader
possessedpowerbyvirtueofhisposition(1922)
MaryParkerFollett participatorymanagementin
powerwith
withasopposedto
as opposed to power
powerover
over(1926)
(1926)
power

LutherGulick
NotesonOrganization 1937
WorkoftheExecutive
Work of the Executive
POSDCORB
Planning
Organizing
Staffing
Directing
Coordinatingg
Reporting
Budgeting
g
g

Leadership anewdefinition
Leadership
a new definition
ChesterBarnard 1938newdefinitionof
leadership
Theabilityofasuperiortoinfluencethe
behaviorofsubordinatesandpersuadethem
tofollowaparticularcourseofaction.
(Barnard1938)

Power FrenchandRaven(1960)
Power
French and Raven (1960)
Legitimatepower
g
p
comessolelyfromthepositionthe
y
p
superiorholdsinanorganization
Rewardpower comesbymeansofpromotion,salary
i
increasesandinterestingassignments
di t
ti
i
t
Expertpower comesfromtheleaderpossessing
superior knowledge of the matter under discussion
superiorknowledgeofthematterunderdiscussion
Referentpower comesfromthefactthat
subordinatesidentifywiththeleaderandrespect
him/her
/
Coercivepower comesfromforcedactionsand
potential for punishment
potentialforpunishment

Nature of Leadership
NatureofLeadership
Effectiveleadershipisakeyfactorinthelifeandsuccess
ofanorganization
Leadership transforms potential into reality
Leadershiptransformspotentialintoreality.
Leadershipistheultimateactwhichbringstosuccessall
p
g
ofthepotentpotentialthatisinanorganizationand
itspeople.
Leadersproposenewparadigmswhenoldoneslose
theireffectiveness.

Leadership isamajorwayin
whichpeoplechangethe
minds of others and move
mindsofothersandmove
organizationsforwardto
accomplishidentifiedgoals.

Theories of Leadership
TheoriesofLeadership
Overtime,anumberoftheoriesofleadershiphave
,
p
beenproposed,including:
GreatManTheory
TraitTheory
BehavioralTheories
B h i l Th i
TheManagerialGrid
TheoryXandTheoryY
Theory X and Theory Y

ParticipativeLeadership
Lewinsleadershipstyles

Theories of Leadership (con't)

TheoriesofLeadership(con
t)
SituationalLeadership
Situational Leadership
ContingencyTheory
C i
h
TransactionalLeadership
TransformationalLeadership

Theories of Leadership: Trait

TheoriesofLeadership:Trait
TraitTheory/GreatMan(Woman)
a t eo y/G eat a ( o a ) assu
assumesthe
es t e
leaderisdifferentfromtheaveragepersonin
termsofpersonalitytraitssuchasintelligence,
perseverance,andambition
d
b
Assumptions
Peoplearebornwithinheritedtraits.
Sometraitsareparticularlysuitedtoleadership.
S
t it
ti l l
it d t l d hi
Peoplewhomakegoodleadershavetheright(or
sufficient) combination of traits.
sufficient)combinationoftraits.

Trait Theory
TraitTheory
Earlyresearchonleadershipwasbasedonthe
y
p
psychologicalfocusoftheday,whichwasof
peoplehavinginheritedcharacteristicsortraits.
Attentionwasgiventodiscoveringthesetraits,
often by studying successful leaders.
oftenbystudyingsuccessfulleaders.
Underlyingassumptionthatifotherpeoplecould
y g
p
p p
alsobefoundwiththesetraits,thenthey,too,
couldalsobecomegreatleaders.

Stodgill'ss(1974)TraitsandSkills
Stodgill
(1974) Traits and Skills
Traits
Adaptabletosituations
Alerttosocialenvironment
Ambitiousandachievementorientated
Assertive
Cooperative
Decisive
Decisive
Dependable
Dominant(desiretoinfluenceothers)
Energetic(highactivitylevel)
Persistent
Selfconfident
Tolerantofstress
Willingtoassumeresponsibility
to assume responsibility
Willing

Skills
Clever(intelligent)
Conceptuallyskilled
Creative
Diplomaticandtactful
Fluentinspeaking
Knowledgeable about group task
Knowledgeableaboutgrouptask
Organized(administrativeability)
Persuasive
Sociallyskilled

Behavioral Theories
BehavioralTheories
Assumptions
Leaderscanbemade,ratherthanareborn
Successfulleadershipisbasedindefinable,learnablebehavior

Description
p
Behavioraltheoriesdonotseekinborntraits theylookatwhat
leadersactuallydo
Successcanbedefinedintermsofdescribableactions

Implication:
Leadership capability can be learned
Leadershipcapabilitycanbelearned

Behavioral Theories
BehavioralTheories
Twogeneraltypesofbehaviorexhibitedby
leaders:
ConcernforPeople
ConcernforProduction

Early Research on Leader'ssBehavior

EarlyResearchonLeader
Behavior
Whilealeadercanexhibitbothtypesofbehavior,
yp
,
earlyresearchonthetwodimensionsindicate
thatgenerally:
Asaleadersconsiderationincreased,employee
As a leaders consideration increased employee
turnoverandabsenteeismdeclined
Asaleaderstaskorientationincreased,
employeeperformancerose.
But,thefindingsweresometimescontradictory.

The Managerial Grid

TheManagerialGrid
High
g

Concern for People

Country Club
management
Middle of the road
management

Medium

Low

Team management
g

Impoverished
management

Low

Authority-compliance

Medium

Concern for Production (Task)

BlakeandMouton(early1960s)

High

McGregor'sTheoryXandTheoryY
(
(1960)
)
TheoryXLeadersAssume:

1.Employeesinherentlydislikeworkand,
whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
wheneverpossible,willattempttoavoidit.

TheoryYLeadersAssume:

1.Employeescanviewworkasbeingasnaturalas
rest or play
restorplay

2.Becauseemployeesdislikework,theymustbe 2. Menandwomenwillexerciseselfdirection
coerced,controlled,orthreatenedwith
andselfcontroliftheyarecommittedtothe
punishment to achieve desired goals
punishmenttoachievedesiredgoals
objectives
objectives
3.Employeeswillshirkresponsibilitiesandseek 3.Theaveragepersoncanlearntoaccept,even
formaldirectionwheneverpossible
seek,responsibility
4.Mostworkersplacesecurityaboveallother 4.Theabilitytomakegooddecisionsiswidely
factorsassociatedwithworkandwilldisplaylittledispersedthroughoutthepopulationandisnot
ambition
necessarilythesoleprovinceofmanagers

Participative Leadership
ParticipativeLeadership
Assumptions
Involvementindecisionmakingimprovesthe
understandingoftheissuesinvolvedbythosewhomust
carryoutthedecisions.
Peoplearemorecommittedtoactionswheretheyhave
involvedintherelevantdecisionmaking.
Peoplearelesscompetitiveandmorecollaborativewhen
People are less competitive and more collaborative when
theyareworkingonjointgoals.
Whenpeoplemakedecisionstogether,thesocial
commitment to one another is greater and thus increases
commitmenttooneanotherisgreaterandthusincreases
theircommitmenttothedecision.
Severalpeopledecidingtogethermakebetterdecisions
than one person alone
thanonepersonalone.

Participative Leadership
ParticipativeLeadership
A
AParticipativeLeader,ratherthantaking
Participative Leader rather than taking
autocraticdecisions,seekstoinvolveother
people in the process possibly including
peopleintheprocess,possiblyincluding
subordinates,peers,superiorsandother
stakeholders.
stakeholders
M
Mostparticipativeactivityiswithinthe
i i i
i i i i hi h
immediateteam.

Continuum of Participatory Style

ContinuumofParticipatoryStyle
Highly
participative>

<Not
participative

Autocratic
decisionby
leader

Leader
proposes
Teamproposes
decision,
decision,
listens to
listensto
leader has final
leaderhasfinal
feedback,then
decision
decides

Jointdecision
withteamas
equals

Fulldelegation
ofdecisionto
team

You should also know:

Youshouldalsoknow:
This
Thisapproachisalsoknownasconsultation,
approach is also known as consultation,
empowerment,jointdecisionmaking,
democraticleadership,ManagementBy
Objective(MBO)andpowersharing.
ParticipativeLeadershipcanbeashamwhen
managersaskforopinionsandthenignore
them.Thisislikelytoleadtocynicismand
feelingsofbetrayal.

Lewin sThreeParticipatory
Lewin's
Three Participatory
LeadershipStyles(1939)

Autocratic
Intheautocraticstyle,theleadermakesdecisions
withoutconsultingwithothers.InLewin'sexperiments,
h f
hefoundthatthiscausedthegreatestdiscontent.
d th t thi
d th
t t di
t t
Anautocraticstyleworksbestwhen:
there
thereisnoneedforinputonthedecision
is no need for input on the decision
wherethedecisionwouldnotchangeasaresultofinput
wherethemotivationofpeopletocarryoutsubsequent
actionswouldnotbeaffectedwhethertheywereorwere
notinvolvedinthedecisionmaking.

Lewin'ssStyles(con
Lewin
Styles (con't)
t)
Democratic
Inthedemocraticstyle,theleaderinvolvesthepeople
inthedecisionmaking,althoughtheprocessforthe
fi l d i i
finaldecisionmayvaryfromtheleaderhavingthefinal
f
th l d h i th fi l
saytothemfacilitatingconsensusinthegroup.
Democraticdecision
Democratic decisionmaking
makingisusuallyappreciatedby
is usually appreciated by
thepeople,especiallyiftheyhavebeenusedto
autocraticdecisionswithwhichtheydisagreed.
Democraticstylecanbeproblematicwhentherearea
widerangeofopinionsandthereisnoclearwayof
reaching an equitable final decision.
reachinganequitablefinaldecision.

Lewin'ssStyles(con
Lewin
Styles (con't)
t)
LaissezFaire
Laissez
Faire
Thelaissezfairestyleminimizestheleader's
involvement in decisionmaking.
involvementindecision
making.
Laissezfaireworksbestwhen:
Laissezfaire works best when:
peoplearecapableandmotivatedinmakingtheir
o dec s o s, a d
owndecisions,and
wherethereisnorequirementforacentral
coordination

Lewin'ssConclusions
Lewin
Conclusions
Theseexperimentswereactuallydonewith
These
experiments were actually done with
groupsofchildren,butwereearlyinthe
modern era and were consequently highly
moderneraandwereconsequentlyhighly
influential.
Lewindiscoveredthat:
ThemosteffectivestylewasDemocratic
Excessiveautocraticstylesledtorevolution
Laissezfaireresultedinlesscoherentwork
patternsandexertionoflessenergythanwhen
b i
ti l l d

Situational Leadership
SituationalLeadership
Assumptions
Thebestactionoftheleaderdependsona
range of situational factors
rangeofsituationalfactors.
Whenadecisionisneeded,aneffectiveleader
doesnotjustfallintoasinglepreferredstyle.

FactorsInfluenceSituational
Leadership
d h
Tannenbaum
TannenbaumandSchmidt(1958)identified
and Schmidt (1958) identified
threeforcesthatledtotheleader'saction:
theforcesinthesituation
the forces in the situation
theforcesinthefollower
theforcesintheleader
the forces in the leader
Thisrecognizesthattheleader'sstyleishighly
Thi
i th t th l d ' t l i hi hl
variable,andevensuchdistanteventsasafamily
argument can
argumentcan
influencedecisionsmadeintheworkplace.

Contingency v. Situational Theory

Contingencyv.SituationalTheory
Bothassumethatthereisnosimpleonerightway:
ot assu e t at t e e s o s p e o e g t ay:
Situational
Situationaltheorytendstofocusmoreonthe
theory tends to focus more on the
behaviorsthattheleadershouldadopt,given
situationalfactors(oftenaboutfollower
behavior).
Contingencytheorytakesabroaderviewthat
includescontingentfactorsaboutleader
capability and other variables within the
capabilityandothervariableswithinthe
situation.(Leaderswhoareveryeffectiveatone
placeandtimemaybecomeunsuccessfuleither

Transactional Leadership
TransactionalLeadership
Assumptions
Peoplearemotivatedbyrewardand
punishment.
punishment
Socialsystemsworkbestwithaclearchainof
command.
d
Whenpeoplehaveagreedtodoajob,apart
ofthedealisthattheycedeallauthorityto
theirmanager.
Theprimepurposeofasubordinateistodo
whattheirmanagertellsthemtodo.

Transactional Leadership Style

TransactionalLeadershipStyle
Transactionalleaderworksthroughcreatingclear
g
g
structures
Workrequirementsareclear
Rewardstructureisclear
R
d t t
i l
Punishmentsarenotalwaysmentioned,buttheyarealso
wellunderstoodandformalsystemsofdisciplineare
usuallyinplace
Negotiate
Negotiatethecontractwherebythesubordinateisgivena
the contract whereby the subordinate is given a
salaryandotherbenefits,andthecompany(andby
implicationthesubordinate'smanager)getsauthorityover
the subordinate
thesubordinate.
Whenworkisallocatedtosubordinates,theyare

Transactional Considerations
TransactionalConsiderations
The
Thetransactionalleaderoftenuses
transactional leader often uses
managementbyexception,workingonthe
principlethatifsomethingisoperatingas
expectedthenitdoesnotneedattention.
IntheLeadershipvs.ManagementSpectrum,
transactionalleadershipisverymuchtowards
themanagementendofthescale.
Reliesstronglyonprincipleofrationalman
andreactiontorewardsandpunishment.

TransactionalandTransformational
(
(Burns
1978))
Transactional
Transactional leaderengagesothersinthe
leader engages others in the
reciprocalactivityofexchangingonethingfor
another (participatory/dynamic)
another.(participatory/dynamic)
TTransformational
f
i
l leaderexaminesand
l d
i
d
searchesfortheneedsandmotivesofothers
whileseekingahigheragendaofneeds.
hil
ki
hi h
d f
d
(visionary/changeagent)

Transformational Leadership
TransformationalLeadership
Assumptions
Peoplewillfollowapersonwhoinspiresthem.
Apersonwithvisionandpassioncanachieve
greatthings.
Thewaytogetthingsdoneisbyinjecting
enthusiasm and energy
enthusiasmandenergy.

ComponentsofTransformational
Leadership
d h
Developthevision
p
Startswiththedevelopmentofavision,aviewof
thefuturethatwillexciteandconvertpotential
followers (This vision may be developed by the
followers.(Thisvisionmaybedevelopedbythe
leader,bytheseniorteamormayemergefroma
broadseriesofdiscussions.Theleadermustbuy
incompletely.)
SSellthevision
ll h i i
Sellthevisionimmediatelyandcontinually.
Createtrust
Create trust
Relyonpersonalintegrity
Transformational leaders are selling themselves as well as

Finding the Way

FindingtheWay
Findthewayforwards:
Find
the way forwards:
Pathmaybeclear otherssimplyneedto
follow
Pathmayneedtobeexploredtogether
Directionwillnotalwaysbeknown
Leaderguidesalongthecourse
g
g
TransformationalLeaderwillacceptthatthere
Transformational
Leader will accept that there
willbefailuresandblindcanyonsalongthe
way As long as they feel progress is being

Leadingthecharge
TransformationalLeadersarealwaysvisible
Willstanduptobecountedratherthanhide
Will stand up to be counted rather than hide
behindtheirtroops.
Theyshowbytheirattitudesandactionshow
Th
h b th i ttit d
d ti
h
everyoneelseshouldbehave.
Theymakecontinuedeffortstomotivateand
rallytheirfollowers,constantlydoingthe
rounds,listening,soothingandenergizing.
Theirunswervingcommitmentkeepspeople
going,particularlythroughthedarkertimes
whensomemayquestionwhetherthevision

Transformational Leadership
TransformationalLeadership
One
OneofthemethodstheTransformationalLeader
of the methods the Transformational Leader
usestosustainmotivationisintheuseof
ceremonies,ritualsandotherculturalsymbolism.
,
y
Smallchangesgetbighurrahs,pumpinguptheir
significanceasindicatorsofrealprogress.
(CultureCreators)
Overall,theybalancetheirattentionbetween
y
actionthatcreatesprogressandthementalstate
oftheirfollowers.
Transformationalleadersarepeopleoriented

Meta Leadership
MetaLeadership
Workingacrossorganizations
Working across organizations

LeadUp

FiveDimensionsofMetaLeadership
i
i
i
f
d hi

L
LeadtheSilo

Lead

Person
as
TheTh
Leader

Connectivity

Women'ssLeadershipStyle
Women
Leadership Style
Effectivenessmostoftendependsuponthefit
Effectiveness
most often depends upon the fit
betweenthesettingandthemanagement
gender.
gender
W
Womenstypicallymorementoring,coaching

i ll
i
hi
styleismorefavorablyreceivedinfemale
d i
dominatedprofessions.
d
f i
Mensmoretypicallycommandandcontrol
styleiswellreceivedinmaledominated

What the "studies"

Whatthe
studies show:
show:
Maleandfemaleleadersareequallyeffective
Male and female leaders are equally effective
Womenwereperceivedtobemoresuccessin
i d b
i
femaleorientedsettingsandmalesinmale
orientedsettings
i
d
i
Womenhavebeenfoundtobemore
democratic,encouragingparticipation,and
,
g gp
p
,
menmoreautocratic,directingperformance.
(EaglyandJohnson,1990)

Studies In2003:
Studies
In 2003:
Women
Womenhavebeenshowntobeslightlymore
have been shown to be slightly more
likelythanmentohavethetransformational
leadershipstyle,inwhichthemanageracts
morelikeagoodteacherorcoachand
encouragescreativesolutionstoproblems.
Especiallysuitedtothecontemporaryworkplace

Womenalsoappeartorewardgood
performancemorethanmen
Menaremorelikelytocriticizesubordinates
andbelesshandson

Words of Caution
WordsofCaution
Psychologistssuggestthattheremaynot
Psychologists
suggest that there may not bean
be an
innatemanagementstyle
Womenmaysoftentheirapproachtoavoid
thebossywomansyndrome
h b

d
Researchonlyshowsaveragetendenciesany
onemanorwomanmayhavemorefeminine
y
ormasculinestyles

Research in the Workplace

ResearchintheWorkplace
BureauofLaborStatistics
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Nearlyoneoffourchiefexecutivesisnowa
woman reflectsthe#ofwomenwhoowntheir
woman
reflects the # of women who own their
ownbusinesses.InFortune500 womenhold
onlyabout1outof20topmanagementpositions.
Researchersareinterestedinthequestionof
q
whetheramanagementstylemoreassociated
withwomen lessauthoritarian,morenurturing
approach willclickastheworkplacegenerally
shiftstomoreteamorientedstructuresthat
thrive under a less directive approach

Leadership Practices Inventory

LeadershipPracticesInventory
JamesKouzesandBarryPosnerdevelopeda
survey (The Leadership Practices Inventory)
survey(TheLeadershipPracticesInventory)
thataskedpeoplewhich,ofalistofcommon
characteristics of leaders were in their
characteristicsofleaders,were,intheir
experiencesofbeingledbyothers,theseven
top things they look for admire and would
topthingstheylookfor,admireandwould
willinglyfollow.
75,000peopleover20years

Kouzes/Posner'sLeadershipInventory
(Inorderofpriority)

Honest
Honest
Forwardlooking
Competent
Competent
Inspiring
I t lli t
Intelligent
Fairminded
Broadminded
Supportive
Straightforward
Dependable

Kouzes/Posner'ssInventory(con
Kouzes/Posner
Inventory (con't)
t)

Cooperative
Cooperative
Determined
Imaginative
Imaginative
Ambitious
C
Courageous
Caring
Mature
Loyal
Selfcontrolled
Independent

Keys to Successful Leadership

KeystoSuccessfulLeadership
ModeltheWay
Model the Way
InspireaSharedVision
i
Sh d i i
ChallengetheProcess
EnableotherstoAct
EncouragetheHeart

A good leader
Agoodleader

Isapersonwithintegritywhoiscommittedto
i hi
i
h i
i d
theorganizationandthepeoplewhowork
togethertoaccomplishtheorganizations
h
li h h
i i
mission;thispersonleadsbyexample,
communicateswithoutceasing,andshows
i
ih
i
d h
care,concern,andconsistencyinalldealings.

Resources:
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/leadership_theories.htm

http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/blleadershipquiz.htm

TheLeadershipChallenge,4thEdition
J
JamesM.Kouzes,BarryZ.Posner
M K
B
Z P
August2007,JosseyBass