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Environmental Science and Engineering Lecture Notes
Environmental Science and Engineering Lecture Notes
in
Public awareness:
Environmental Pollution or problems cannot be solved by mere laws. Public participation is
an important aspect which serves the environmental Protection.
30-40% of public of developing country are aware of environmental. Problems but they
do not bother about it.
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only few developmental activities are made considering the environmental Aspects.
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Structure of Atmosphere:
Five Layers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Troposphere lower portion extends from 0-18 kms, temperatureStratosphere -18- 50 kms- Temperature (-2C to -56C )- Ozone layer
Mesosphere- extends from 50-85 kms- Temperature drops to (-95C)
Ionosphere or Thermosphere extends up to 500 kms. Temperature raises up to 1200C
Exosphere extends up to 1600 km- temperature very high due to solar radiation.
Functions of Atmosphere:
It maintains heat balance on the earth by absorbing IR radiation.
Oxygen support life on living organism.
Co2 - essential for photosynthetic activity of plants.
N2 - essential nutrient for plant growth.
Interior of Earth or Lithosphere:
Three major Zones
1. Crust top most layer- solid thickness 30 40 Km in continents and 5 6 km in oceans.
Rocks of the earth crust 3 types Igneous , Sedimentary, Metamorphic.
2. Mantle average density 3.3 Thickness 2860 density increases with depth.
3. Core (outer core solid , inner core liquid). depth 2900 km from the surface of the
earth density -12 not exact composition.
Functions of Lithosphere:
1. It is home for human beings and wild life.
2. It is store house of minerals and organic matter.
Functions of Ecosystems
Ecosystem characteristics
Structural features composition and organization
components constitute Structure of Ecosystem
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Food Chains
-
Grass
Grasshopper
Frog
snake
Hawk
(Grassland Ecosystem)
Grazing food chains Starts with green plants.
Grass
Rabbit
Phytoplanktons
Fox
Zooplanktons
Small fish
Carnivores (fish)
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Food Web
-
Producer
Herbivores
Carnivores
Top carnivores
Decomposers
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
FOOD CHAIN
Plants by photosynthesis convert solar energy into protoplasm. Small herbivores consume the
vegetable matter and convert into animal matter which in turn eaten by large carnivores. This
sequence of eaten and being eaten , produces transfer of food energy known as food chain.
Producers
Consumer I order
(Plants)
(Deer)
Consumer II order
(Tiger, Lion)
Decomposers
(Bacteria, fungi)
FOOD WEB:
The food relationship between various organisms is being depicted by linking all the possible
prey and predators of different food level. In an ecosystem linking of feeding habit relations will
provide a food web.
Mouse
Grass
snake
Rabbit
Grasshopper
Hawk
Lizard
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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
The energy biomass and number of organisms gradually decreases from the producer level to the
consumer level. The total mass of herbivores in an ecosystem will generally be less than the
total mass of plants. Similarly the total mass of carnivores will be less than the total mass of
herbivores. The graphical representation of the number, biomass and energy of various energy
levels is called ecological pyramid. In any ecological pyramid the producer forms the base and
the successive levels form the tires which can make the apex.
Types of ecological pyramids:
a) pyramid of numbers
b) pyramid of biomass
c) pyramid of energy
Eg. Grassland ecosystem pyramid of number upright pyramid
birds
insects
Worms
grass
Bacteria, fungi
Parasites
Birds
Tree
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Consumer
Decomposers :
fungi, bacteria
Functional components:
Ecological pyramids (upright)
lions
lizards
deers
trees
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GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
dominated by grass few shrubs and trees are also found rainfall average but erratic
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types depending on the climate
1. Tropical grass lands found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg. Savannas in
Africa. Animals Zebra, giraffes etc. fires are common in dry seasons termite
mounds produce methane leads to fire high in photosynthesis deliberate burning
leads to release of high CO2 global warming.
2. Temperate grasslands flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and very hot
summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow soil is quite fertile
cleaned for agriculture.
3. Polar grasslands found in arctic polar region organism arctic wolf, fox, etc. A
thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the year known as
permafrost summer insects and birds appear.
Components:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.
Functional components:
Ecological pyramid
birds
insects
Worms
grass
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Energy flow:
Grass
worms
Insects
Decomposition
sediments
c. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Types:
1. tropical desert-found in Africa-Sahara and Rajasthan Thar
2. temperate desert-south California-Majave
3. cold desert-China-Gobi desert
Characteristics:
1. Air is dry
2. Climate is hot
3. Annual rainfall is less than 25 cm
4. Vegetation is poor
d.AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh water
and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic ecosystems.
Types:
1. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem seasonal in nature organisms: algae,
aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often exposed to anthropogenic
pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing, swimming etc.
2. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem Zonation or stratification, especially
during summer is a common one.
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Types of lakes : Many types- oligotrophic lakes with less nutrient content eutrophic
lakes with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer contamination desert salt lakes
that contains high saline water due to over evaporation volcanic lakes formed by
water emitted from magma due to volcanic eruptions dystrophic lakes that contains
highly acidic water (low pH) endemic lakes lakes that contain many endemic species
etc.
3. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role. Oxygen and
nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face extreme difference in
climatic conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen deficiency as pond and lake
organisms. This is because large surface area of running water provides more oxygen
supply. The animals have very narrow range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency.
Thus stream are worst victims of industrial pollution.
River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
Three phases: 1. mountain highlands rushing down water fall of water large quantity
of dissolved oxygen plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more oxygen are
found. 2. Second phase gentle slopes of hills warmer supports the growth of plants
and fishes that require less oxygen are seen. 3. Third phase: river shapes the land lots
of silts, nutrients are brought deposited in plains and delta very rich in biodiversity.
4. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface 2,50,000 species
huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. provide Fe, Mg, oils, natural gas, sand etc.
major sinks of carbon di oxide regulate biochemical cycles.
Two zones: coastal zone warm, nutrient rich, shallow high sunlight high primary
productivity. Open sea away from continental shelf vertically divided in to 3
zones. 1. euphotic zone abundant sunlight 2. bathyal zone dim sunlight 3.
abyssal zone dark zone worlds largest ecological unit.
Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean strongly affected by tidal actions very
rich in nutrients very rich in biodiversity also organisms are highly tolerant many
species are endemic high food productivity however to be protected from pollution.
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Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.
Functional components:
Ecological pyramid
birds
fishes
Worms,
insects
phytoplankton
Energy flow:
Phytoplankton
Insects
small fishes
huge fishes
Decomposition
sediments
INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the abbreviated word for biological diversity (bio-life or living organisms,
diversity-variety). Thus biodiversity is the total variety of life on our planet, the total number
of races, varieties and species. The sum of total of various types of microbes, plants and
animals (producers, consumers and decomposers) in a system.
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Biomes can be considered life zones, environment with similar climatic, topographic and soil
conditions and roughly comparable biological communities (Eg. Grassland, forest). The
biomes shelter an astounding variety of living organisms (from driest desert to dripping rain
forest, from highest mountain to deepest ocean trenches, life occurs in a marvelous spectrum
of size, shape, colour and inter relationship). The variety of living organisms, the
biodiversity, makes the world beautiful.
There are 1.4 million species known presently. But based on new discoveries, by research
expeditions, mainly in tropics, taxonomists estimate there are between 3-50 million different
species may be alive today. Insects make up more than one half of all known species and
may comprise more than 90% of all species on earth.
The concept of biodiversity may be analyzed in 3 different levels. They are
1 ecosystem diversity
2 species diversity
3 genetic diversity
Ecosystem or ecological diversity means the richness and complexity of a biological
community, including tropic levels, ecological processes (which capture energy), food webs
and material recycling.
Species diversity describes the number of kinds of organisms within individual communities
or ecosystems.
Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety of versions of same gene within individual
species.
Biodiversity Hotspots:
Most of the worlds biodiversity are near the equator especially tropical rain forest and coral
reefs. Of all the worlds species, only 10-15% live in North America and Europe.
The Malaysian Peninsula, for instance, has at least 8000 species of flowing plants, while
Britain, with an area twice as large, has only 1400 species. South America has 200 000
species of plants.
Areas isolated by water, desert or mountain can also have high conc. of unique species and
biodiversity. New Zealand, South Africa and California are all mid-latitude area isolated by
barriers that prevent mixing up of biological communities from other region and produce
rich, unusual collection of species.
Significance of Biodiversity:
Biosphere is a life supporting system to the human race. Each species in the biosphere has its
own significance.
It is the combination of different organisms that enables the biosphere to sustain human race.
Biodiversity is vital for a healthy biosphere.
Biodiversity is must for the stability and proper functioning of the biosphere.
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Besides these biodiversity is so important due to having consumptive use values, productive
use values, social values, ethical values and aesthetic values.
Benefits of biodiversity:
We benefit from other organism in many ways. Even insignificant organisms can play
irreplaceable roles in ecological systems or the source of genes or drugs that someday
become indispensable.
Food: Many wild plant species could make important contributions to human food suppliers
either as they are or as a source of material to improve domestic crops. About 80,000 edible
plants could be used by human.
Drugs and medicine: Living organisms provides many useful drugs and medicines. The
United Nations Development Programme derived from developing world plants, animals and
microbes to be more than $30 billion per year.
Eg. For natural medicinal products
Penicillin fungus is the source Antibiotic
Quinine chincona bark - Malaria treatment
Morphine poppy bark Analgesic
Twenty years before, once the drugs were not introduced, childhood leukemia was fatal.
Now the remission rate for childhood leukemia is 99%.
Ecological benefits:
Human life is inextricably linked to ecological services provided by other organisms.
Soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, solar energy absorption, nutrient
cycling and food production all depend on biodiversity. In many environments, high
diversity may help biological communities to withstand environmental stress better and to
recover more quickly than those with fewer species.
Threats to biodiversity:
Due to
Habitat loss
Deforestation activities (cutting trees for timber, removal of medicinal plants)
Production of hybrid seeds requires wild plants as raw material, farmers prefer hybrid
reeds, many plant species become extinct
Increase in the production of pharmaceutical companies made several number of
medicinal plants and species on the verge of extinction.
Removal of forest-cover for road laying and also due to soil erosion
Illegal trade of wild life
Population explosion, construction of dam, discharge of industrial effluents use of
pesticides.
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Fragmentation;
Habitat fragmentation reduces the biodiversity because many animals like bears and
large cats require large territories to subsist. Some forest birds reproduce only in deep forest
or habitat far from human settlement. A large island for example, can support more
individuals of given species and therefore less likely to suffer extinction due to genetic
problems and natural catastrophes.
Commercial products:
Smuggling of fuels, hides, horns and folk medicines also affect the biodiversity in an
abrupt manner.
Conservation of biodiversity:
In general biodiversity is generally disturbed by human activities. To solve the problems,
it is essential to protect our bio diversity by two ways.
1. In-situ or on-site conversion
2. Ex-situ conservation
In-situ conservation:
Conservation of species in its natural habitat, in place where the species normally occurs
The strategy involves establishing small or large protected areas, called protected areas
Today in world, there are 9800 protected areas and 1500 national parks
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Methods:
1. Nature or biosphere reserves (Eg) Nilgiri Bio reserve
2. national parks and sanctuaries (Eg) Mudumalai, vedanthangal
3. on farm and home garden conservation for plants, vegetables and fruits to
maintain traditional crop varieties.
Ex- situ conservation:
It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species under
partially or wholly controlled conditions in zoos, gardens and laboratories
The crucial issue for conservation is to identify those species which are more at risk of
extinction.
Methods:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Review questions:
1. Define Environmental science
Environmental science is the study of the environment, its biotic and abiotic components and
their interrelationships.
2. What are the important components of environment?
Abiotic or non-living components
Biotic or living component
Energy component
3. What are the processes involved in hydrological cycle?
Continuous evaporation, transpiration, precipitation of surface run off and ground water
4. Define biogeochemical cycle. Give example.
The continuous circulation of all the essential elements and compounds required for life, from
the environment to the organism and back to the environment.e.g., carbon cycle
5. What are the functions of lithosphere?
It is a home for human beings and wild lives.
It is a store house minerals and organic matters
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Natural sources
1. Volcanic eruption
2. Forest fires
3. Biological decay
Primary pollutants
secondary pollutants
particulate air
pollutants
(CO2, NOX)
pollutants
(dust, mist)
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S. No. Pollutant
Sources
Effects on human
Aldehydes
Thermal
Irritates nasal and respiratory tracts
decomposition of fats
and oils
Ammonia
Arsenic
Cadmium
Damages kidney
Chlorine
Chemical industries
Hydrocarbons
Unburnt
vapours
Hydrogen Sulfide
Sewage
refineries
Nitrogen oxides
Motor
exhaust
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10
Ozone
Photochemical
reactions
11
Sulphur dioxide
Coal
and
combustion
12
Suspended solids
Industrial
manufactures
Eye
irritation,
asthma,
suffocation, lung cancer
air
b)WATER POLLUTION:
Presence of foreign impurities (organic, inorganic, biological) in such quantities so as to
constitute a health hazard by lowering the water quality and making it unfit for use.
Causes:
Point source Ex: flow of water pollutants from sewerage system, industrial effluent etc.
Non-point source Ex: agricultural land (pesticides, fertilizers, mining, construction sites)
Classification of water pollutants:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
suspended matter
thermal discharge
pathogens (bacteria, fungi, protozoa fungi)
natural organic pollutants
synthetic organic pollutants
inorganic chemicals
radioactive waste, oil, sediments
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C) SOIL POLLUTION:The contamination of soil by human and natural activities which may cause harmful
effects on living beings.
Causes:
Industrial waste
Urban waste
Agricultural practices
Radioactive pollutants
Biological agent
d) MARINE POLLUTION:The discharge of waste substances into the sea resulting in harm to living resources,
hazards to human health, hindrance to fishery and impairment of quality for use of sea water.
Causes:
Sources:
Rivers
Catchment area
Oil drilling and shipment.
Effects:
waste disposal
oil spill
thermal pollution (plants located nearby coastal areas)
ship breaking activities
aquaculture practices
nuclear test conducted in seas and oceans
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Permissible
noise level(dB)
Day
Night
Industrial
75
70
Commercial
65
55
Residential
55
45
Silent Zone
50
40
90 dB
Calcutta
85 dB
Mumbai
82 dB
Delhi
80 dB
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The Union Government and all the state governments shall follow the guidelines of amendment
89 of env. (Protection) Rule 1986 framed under Env. (Protection) Act 1986 which says
1. The manufacture, sale or use of fire crackers generating noise level exceeding125dB shall
be prohibited.
2. For joined fire crackers the limit is taken as 5log 10 (N) dB; where N= no. of crackers
joined together
3. The use of fire crackers shall not be permitted except between 6.00a.m and 10p.m.
4. No crackers burning is permitted in/near silent zone areas near hospitals, educational
institutions, courts, religious places, etc.
5. The State Education Resource Centre shall take appropriate steps to educate students
about the ill effects of air and noise pollution.
Control of noise pollution:
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Direct mortality
Control measures:The following methods should be adopted to control thermal pollution
Cooling towers
Cooling ponds
Spray ponds
Medical X-rays
Radio isotopes
Nuclear test
Nuclear installations
Nuclear reactor
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:Any material that is thrown away or discarded as unwanted is considered as solid waste.
Types: Garbage or food waste
Rubbish
Agricultural waste
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Industrial waste
Hazardous waste
Cause: Over population
Affluence
Technology
Effects: Health hazard
Environmental impact
Control measures:Solid waste management include the waste generation
Solid waste generation
Collection of waste
Transportation
Storage
Segregation of waste
Disposal methods
Land fills
Incineration
Composting
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Waste utilization
o Reuse
o Recycling
o Reclamation
Role of an individual in prevention of pollution;-
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Control measures:
1. Government can inform the earthquake prone zone and caution residence
2. building should be designed to withstand tremors
CYCLONE:
Cyclone is meteorological phenomena intense depressions forming over the open
oceans and moving towards the land
Effects:
1. Depends on the intensity of the cyclone
2. Damage to human life crops roads, transport, communication could be very heavy
Control measures:
1. planting more trees on hostel areas
2. construction of dams
3. Radar system is used to detect cyclone eg.Cyclone in AP
LANDSLIDES;
The movement of eart materials like coherent rock, mud, soil and debris from
higher region to lower due to gravitational pull is called landslide
Causes:
1. Earthquake, shock, vibration
2. Deep water ground mining
3. movement of heavy vehicles on the unstable sleepy region
Effects:
1. Increase erosion of soil
2. block the roads
3. damage the houses, crop yield, life stock
Control measures:
1. Planting of deep rooted vegetation
2. Encouragement for construction of bridges water ways
3. Create national parks, sanctuaries biosphere.e.g.land slides in U.P
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Review questions
1. Give any three methods of air pollution control equipment
Catalytic converters
Cyclone collectors
Electrostatic precipitators
2. What is smog?
It is a mixture of smoke and fog which forms droplets that remain suspended in the air.
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Resources
Renewable
Non renewable
Continuous
Extrinsic
FOREST RESOURCES:
Forests are one of the most important resources of the world. Apart from having high
commercial importance they provide high environmental services also. They act as a blanket on
the surface of the earth.
Around 1/3rd of world land area was found to be forests. 1/5 th of world forests were
found in Brazil and 6-7% was in Canada and USA. But the matter under high concern is the
declination of forest cover year by year.
USES OF FOREST:
Commercial uses: Forests provide timber, fire wood, food material, resin, gum, non edible oils,
drugs, medicine, rubber, fibers, bamboo and many other important items.
Ecological uses:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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5. Soil conservation hold solid particles tightly and prevent soil erosion wind breaks
6. Pollution moderators: absorb toxic gases and purify air reduce noise pollution
OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS:
Human beings depend heavily on forests for food, shelter, wood, fuel and medicine with
growing civilization etc. shooted up resulting in large scale mining, road building and
clearing of forests.
Excessive use of charcoal, fuel wood, expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial
areas and overgrazing have lead to over exploitation and rapid degradation of forests.
DEFORESTATION:
The total forest area of the world in 1900 was 7000 million hectares -1975 2900 mha
2000 2300 mha.
Deforestation rate intemperate countries are relatively moderate. But it is alarming in
tropical countries. It is estimated that in next 60 years we would lose more than 90% of our
tropical forest.
INDIAN STATUS:
Stabilized since 1982, with about 0.04% declaration per year between 1982 - 90. During
this period it is estimated that about 1.44 mha land was brought under afforestation. As per
our NFP, we have a target of achieving 33% forest area. But we still have only 19.27% of
our land area covered by forests(satellite data).
MAJOR CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION:
1. Shifting of Cultivation 300 million people 5 lakh hectares of forest for slash and burn
culture
2. fuel requirement
3. raw materials for industrial use
4. developmental projects
5. growing food needs
6. overgrazing
CONSEQUENCES OF DEFORESTATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Downstream problems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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WATER RESOURCES
Water is an indispensible resource. Around 97% of world surface is covered with water. Most
of the animals and plants have 60-65% of water in their body.
Unique features of water
1. High specific heat
2. High latent heat of vapourisation
3. Good solvent for oxygen, nutrients and pollutants
4. Anomalous expansion on freezing
5. High surface tension
Global distribution of water is very much random depending on the geographical conditions.
The availability of water decreases in the following order.
1. Tropical rain forest
2. Temperate regions
3. Deserts
Water is used for domestic, irrigation and also industrial purposes
Out of the total available water 75% is used for agriculture, 20% for industrial usage. In our
country ~93% of water is used for agricultural purposes.
Ground water:
9.86% of fresh water is ground water and it is 35-50% greater than surface water.
Aquifer: The layer of soil which is permeable has the ability to store water is called an aquifer. It
is generally made up of gravel, sand etc.
Unconfined aquifer: it is covered by permeable layer. The recharge of this layer is by rainfall or
snowmelt.
Confined aquifer: sandwiched between impermeable layers. The recharge is through unconfined
aquifer layers.
Over utilization of ground water:
Over utilization of water leads to rapid depletion of water resources, ground subsidence,
lowering of water table and water logging.
Effects of over utilization of ground water:
Reasons: Economic development, rapid industrial growth and population explosion
The use of ground water and surface water rates which are higher than that of recharge
ultimately leads to
Water scarcity
Water logging
Salination
alkalization
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Drought :
Unpredictable delay in climatic condition occurring due to monsoon rain failure.
Types:
Meterological : in order of month or year, actual moisture supply at a given place consistently
falls below critical level.
Hydrological: deficiency in surface and subsurface water supplies
Agricultural: inadequate soil moisture to meet the need of a particular crop at particular time or
susceptibility of crops during different stages in its development
Socioeconomic: reduction in the availability of food and social securing of people
Causes:
Deforestation and lesser rainfalls coupled with cutting of trees for timber leads to
desertifictation.
Pollution of soil with solid waste, industrial effluents etc makes land useless and dry
Population explosion in man and livestock leads to enhanced requirement of timber, fuel
wood, grazing
Shifting cultivation
Effects:
Loss of biodiversity
Control measures
Watershed management
Prevent deforestation
Encourage afforestation
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Political resources
Terrorism
Military targets
Development disputes
Causes:
Euphrates, Nile, Ganges - plataneous in upper basin, reduced in lower basin due to
extensive use.
Conflicts management:
Power must be given to national water authority and river basin authority
and river s-basin authority for equitable distribution of basin waterdemand fo0r nationalization of water needs
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MINERAL RESOURCES
Environmental impacts of over extraction of mineral resources:
Depending on the conditions of terrain and depth of ore deposits 2 types of mining
operations are carried out. 1. open cast mining and 2. underground mining. In both
types each steps in mining processing produce several environmental effects such as,
Deforestation takes place due to removal of vegetal covers.
Great volume of debris has been generated which disrupt the surface and ground water
circulation. It also reduces the water carrying capacity of streams very close to mining
area
The stacking of over burden and building of soil banks creates problems of landslides
Under ground fire in coalmines is a hazard that is difficult to control
Mining and ore processing normally causes air pollution and water pollution
The acid water generated in coalmines can pose a serious problem of water pollution,
which adversely affects the flora and fauna.
Deeper excavation of ground causes lowering of water table, which leads to drying of
wells or sea water intrusion
In stone quarries, blasting of rocks not only annoying the people nearby, but also cause
hazard from fly rocks and dusts and damage to buildings due to vibrations
The disposal of waste material produced after concentrations of ore create increase concentration
of heavy metals and toxic elements in the environment.
FOOD RESOURCES:
PROBLEMS FACED BY FOOD RESOURCES
Overgrazing
modern agriculture
Land degradation
Soil erosion
micronutrients imbalance
nitrate pollution
Eutrophication
Pesticide related problems
Water logging
Salinity
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Land degradation-leads to organically poor, dry, compacted soil cannot be used for
further cultivation
Soil erosion-cover of vegetation gets removed from soil
Loss of useful species-good quality grasses and herbs with high nutritive value, when
grazed lose even the root stocks which carry the reserve food for regeneration get
destroyed which gives raise to secondary species like parthenium, Lantane, Xanthium etc
To prevent match the forage supplement to the herds requirement.eg.Switch grass
Modern agriculture:
The practice through which specific plant species are cared and managed so as to obtain
maximum yield of consumable parts of plants agriculture
Makes use of hybrid seeds and selected and single crop variety, high tech equipment and
lots of energy subsides in the form of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation water e.g. green
revolution
Damage to soil
Water contamination
Water scarcity
Global climate change
Water logging-results when soil is over irrigated
Soil salinity-increase plant productivity, interferes with water uptake by plants
Fossil fuels and pesticides produce air pollution
Impacts related to high yielding varieties:
Monoculture ie the same genotype is grown over vast areas. Disease spread easily
Micronutrient imbalance e.g Zinc deficiency-affect soil productivity
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Energy
renewable
Advantage
Energy
non
renewable
1. Wide availability
2. Low cost
3. Decentralized power
production
4. Low pollution
5. Available for the
future
1. Available in high
concentrated form
2. Easy to store
3. Reliable supply
4. Lower cost
Disadvantage
1. Unreliable supply
2. Produced in small
quantity
3. Difficult to store
4. Cost more
1.highly pollution
Available only in few places
High running cost
Limited supply and will one
day get exhausted
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Hydro power:
Comes from damming of rivers and utilization of high pressure, its kinetic energy is
transformed into turbine blades and used to generate electricity
Tidal Energy
Uses the natural motion of tides to fill reservoirs which are then slowly discharged through
electricity producing turbines
Ocean thermal energy
Energy available due to the difference in water temperature. The surface of the tropical ocean
and at deeper level is called OTE. A difference of 20 0c or more is required for operating OTE
power plants.
Geothermal energy
Energy harassed from the hot rocks inside earth. eg. natural geysers in Manikaran,kully,sohana
Biomass energy
Organic matter produced by plants
Types:
1.Energy plantations:
Solar energy is trapped by green plants through photosynthesis and converted to biomass e.g
Leucaema,Sugarcane, sweet sorghum, Sweetbeet aquatic weeds like hyacinth, Sea
weeds,potato,cereal-energy plantations
Produce energy by burning directly or by getting converted into burnable gas or converted to
fuels by fermentation.
Petro crops
Latex containing plants Euphorbias, oil palms rich in hydrocarbons and yield oil like substance
under high temperature and pressure-refined to form gasoline
LAND RESOURCE
Land is critically important national resource which supports all living organisms including
plants and animals. The soil profile of land determines its ability to serve socio-economic needs.
It has been estimated that more than 5000 million tonnees of top soil is eroded annually
along with 5 million tones of nutrients. About 1/3 of this is lost in sea while the rest in
reservoirs and rivers leading to flood.
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About 38% of the area in India suffers from moderate to high degree of water based
erosion. The per capita availability of land in the country has declined from 1.37 hectare in 1901
to 0.33 hectare in 2000. All these lands cannot be utilized for agricultural purpose. Some land
would be required for other activities (to maintain urban area).
Effective steps have to be taken for preventing diversion of land suitable for sustainable
farming to non-farm uses. Simultaneously, degraded lands and waste lands have to be improved
by ecological restoration. The Department of Land Resources was setup in April 1999 by
ministry of Rural Development to act as nodal agency for land resource management.
Land Degradation:
Land degradation is defined as the reduction in soil capacity to produce in terms of quality,
quantity goods and services. The definition is also based on
1. sustainability or ability to produce continuously and indefinitely.
2. quality of land resource that makes it sustainable or resistant to degradation
3. carrying capacity or the number of people and animals the land can normally support
without significant stress.
Landscapes generally undergo degradation but are usually compensated by natures inherent
recovering ability. Whenever degradation occur exceeding natures restorative capacity, the
result will be a disaster.
Man induced landslides:
The hill slopes are prone to land slides, landslips, rockslides etc. These hazardous features have
reduced the overall progress of the region as they obstruct the roads, communication media and
water flow. There are two types of slides
1. slides due to natural factors
2. slides induced by man and his activities
Some of the human activities that cause land sliding are
massive deforestation
erratic agricultural practices
road building
Unscientific quarrying etc.
Engineering. Constructions
Soil erosion:
1. Terracing: Terracing reduces soil erosion on steep slopes by concerting the land into a
series of broad, level terraces. This retains water for crops at each level and reduces soil
erosion by water run off.
2. Contour Farming: This method is adopted for gently sloped land. This involves planting
crops in rows across the contour of gently sloped land.
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3. Alley Cropping or Agro forestry: In this method crops are planted together in strips or
alleys between trees and shrubs that can provide fruits and fuel wood. The trees and
shrubs provide shade which reduce water loss by evaporation and preserve soil moisture.
Wind Breaks or Shelter Belts: Wind breaks and shelter belts or trees are established to reduce
wind erosion and also for retaining soil moisture.
ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES:
Natural resources-forest,water,soil,food,mineral and energy
Overuse of these resources cause problems
Conserve water:
Dont keep water taps running
Install water saving toilets
Check forwater leaks
Reuse soapy water
Use drip and sprinkling irrigation
Conserveenergy
Turn off lights,fan when not in use
Use solarcooker for cooking
Try riding bicycle
Protect soil:
Dont uproot plants
Grow grass which binds soil andprevent erosion
Make compost
Use green manure
Dont over irrigate
Use mixed cropping
EQUITABLE USEOF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE IFE STYLE:
Most developed countries like USA, Canada, Japan, Australia have 22% of natural
resources, use 88%.73%of its energy and command 85%of its income
Less developed countries has 78% of population, 12% Usage of natural resources, 27%
of energy, 15% of income
Gap arises due to increase in population distribution of resources and wealth
Problem solved by equitable distribution of resources and wealth
Global consensus has to be reached for more balanced distribution of basic resources like
safe drinking water, food, fuel etc. So poor low developed countries able to sustain their
life
Two basic cause of unsustainability are over population in poor countries and over
consumption of resources by rich countries generate wastes
Rich countries lower down their consumption level
Poor countries fulfilled by providing them resources
Review questions
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A symbiotic relationship between consumer human race and producer natural system
Compatibility between ecology and economics
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Solution:
Use public transport instead of motor cycles
Energy consumption must be minimized
Use solar and wind energy
Impose strict laws, penalty, and energy audit
Water conservation:
Process of saving water for future utilization
Water source:
Fresh water
River
Stream
Pond
Ocean
Need for water conservation:
Population increases water requirement also increases
Due to deforestation annual rainfall decreases
Over exploitation of ground water
Ways of water conservation
Reducing evaporation loss
Reducing irrigation loss
Reuse water
Avoid sewage discharge
Water conservation method
Rain water harvesting
Watershed management
Rain water harvesting
Objective:
To meet increasing demands of water
Raise water table by recharging ground water
Reduce ground water contamination from salt water intrusion
Roof top rainwater harvesting
Involves collecting water that falls on roof of house
Rainwater from roof top, road surface, play ground diverted to surface tank
Advantages of rainwater harvesting
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Loss of land
Loss of recourse
Unsatisfactory comp[enasation
Social and cultura problems
Changes in tradition of indigenous people
Spread of disease
Submergence of valuable forest
Waterlogging
Extinction of wild life
Environmental ethics:Over exploitation of forests, land, water as well as various living components of
biosphere and failure to tackle the problem of pollution and environmental degradation are
exposing the humanly to the thread of a global environment crisis.
It emphasis that real development cannot occur unless the strategies which are formulated
are implemented are environmentally sustainable. Even though our government is
formulating several rules, regulations, policies, laws, it is the duty of each and every one to
protect our nature.
Therefore human beings are ethically responsible for the preservation of the worlds
ecological integrity. The environment ethics literally means conscious efforts to protect
environment and to maintain its stability from the pollutants. Following are some of the
ways to safeguard environment.
1. To sacrifice the consumption of some of the good which reduces environment quality
2. Minimize the resource utilization and conservation
3. Adopt sustainable and eco friendly development. (e.g) reduction of waste, recycling,
waste management and harvesting non conventional energy
If we change as individuals then the society will also change by itself. The society is
nothing but an extension of the individual.
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Parameter
MDC
LDC
No. of people
low
High
Low
Waste generated
Low
high
Over all environmental impact of these two types of consumerism may be same or even
greater in case of MDC.
Global value %
USA
India
Population
4.7
16
Production of goods
21
Energy use
25
25
CFC Production
22
0.7
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1. Advises industries for treating the waste water and gases use of technology achieve
prescribed std.
2. Encourage recycling and reusing the wastes
3. Encourage recovery of biogas, energy and reusable matter
4. Discharge of effluents and emissions into environment is permitted by SPCB after taking
into account capacity of the receiving water body
5. To emphasize clean technology to increase fuel efficiency and decrease environmental
pollutants
The act provides for environmental Audit for checking complying with the environmental
laws and regulations.
Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
Salient features
1. Prevention, control and abatement of air pollution
2. Air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substance
(including noise) in the atmosphere in such a concentration that may be or tend to be
harmful to human being or any other living creature or plants or property or environment.
3. Noise pollution inserted in 1987
4. CPCB & SPCB similar to water pollution board
5. Section 20 provides for emission std to auto mobile
6. Section 19 provides for SG to declare air pollution control area in consultation with
SPCB
7. Direction of PCB can be appealed in the appellate authority.
Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974:
Maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing and controlling its
pollution. The salient features and provisions of Act are summed as follows.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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2. Wild life sanctuaries, National parks etc. are prohibited from exploration except with CG
prior approval.
3. Cultivation of coffee, rubber, tea (cash crop), fruit bearing trees, oil yielding trees, trees of
medicinal values are also prohibited in reserved forest area with out prior approval from CG.
Has this may create imbalance to ecology of the forest.
4. Tusser (a type of silk yielding insect) cultivation in forest area is allowed since it
discourages monoculture practices in forests and improves biodiversity.
5. Plantation of mulberry for rearing silk worm is prohibited.
6. Proposal sent to CG for non-forestry activity must have a cost benefit analysis and
environmental impact statement (EIS).
Environmental Legislation
1972 June 5th Environment was first discussed as an agenda in UN conference on Human
Environment. There after every year 5th June is celebrated as Environment Day.
Constitutional Provisions:
Added in 1976 Article 48A The state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment
and to safeguard forests and wildlife of the country
Article 51A (g): It shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural
environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living
creatures.
By these two articles one constitution makes environment protection and conservation as one of
our fundamental duties.
Central and state pollution control Board:
Central pollution control Board (CPCB):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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2. Lays std for effluents to take samples from streams, wells or trade effluents or sewage
passing through an industry. Samples taken are analysed at recognized labs. If the
sample is not confirming to the water quality std, then the unit is neglected
3. Every industry to obtain consent from PCB before commencing an effluent unit by
applying in prescribed form with fee.
Enforcement of environmental legislation major issues
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Review Questions
1. Define the term environmental ethics.
Environmental ethics refers to the issues, principals and guidelines relating to human
interactions with their environment
2. What are the effects of global warming?
Increase the sea level
Negative effect on crop production and forest growth
Decrease the water resource
Increase the drought
3. Explain the factors affecting watershed
Overgrazing, deforestation, mining, construction activities degrades watershed
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Smoke control
Landuse
Pest control
Water pollution
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Allowscouples to describe their family size and also time spacing of their
offspring
Provide importance, knowledge and benefits of their small family to people
Education in held and family welfare system
Sex education awareness
WHO estimated 50% of worlds married couples adopted family planning measures, 300 million
couples not assessed to family planning
Environment and human health:
Environment is defined as man along with his surroundings, which consists of biotic, abiotic and
sociological components. Therefore, when we cause danger to these components, which
surrounds us, they in turn affect our health.
The environmental dangers created by man are many: Population explosion, unregulated
urbanization, creating water, air and landscape pollution, deforestation, desertification, use of
pesticides in agriculture etc. Every one of these has implications for the health of the individual
as well as society as a whole. None can be ignored because the scale of potential calamity is
increasing day by day.
Health hazards may be arising from: water contamination or pollution, air pollution, use of
pesticides enters through food chain, radiation effect of nuclear water, diseases caused from
improper disposal of solid wastes and also due to noise pollution.
Human rights:
1. Human rights means that a human being must enjoy on this earth
2. Foundation of human was laid in 13th century. But positive hopes for all people for a
happy, dignified and secured living condition wee raised only after Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) by UNO on 1012.1948
3. It highlights on protection to all individuals against injustice and human right violation
4. UNDHR defines specific rights to life, liberty, security, freedom of thought, association,
freedom of movement right of equal pay for equal work, right to form or join union, right
to health care, education etc.
5. Universal declaration rights are universal but disparity between developing and
developed countries.
6. Poverty and population leads to violation of human rights.
WHO estimates
-One out of every five is malnourished, lacks clean drinking water, lacks hygienic
conditions and health facilities.
-one out of 3 lack fuel for cooking
-1/5 is desperately poor
-every year 40 million people die due to contaminated water
7. Acute scarcity of employment
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8. Merit of universal education and child labour prevention is of much less importance than
his struggle for existence
9. Developed and developing country give importance only to respect to human rights and
non social economic rights respectively.
Value Education:
Education is one of the most important tools in bringing about socioeconomic and
cultural progress of a country. The objective of education should not be merely coaching the
students to get through the exams with good results and get some good job. Education does not
simply mean acquiring information but using the resources within the limits of ethical value.
The scientific and technological advancements have shrunk the world into a village. But
in the drive to development man has become too materialistic, self centered and over ambitious.
Value based education has a very significant role in providing proper direction to youth to
inculcate positive attitude and to teach them the distinction between right and wrong. It teaches
them to be compassionate, peace loving, helpful, generous and tolerant so that they can move
towards more harmonious, peaceful, enjoyable and sustainable future. Value education help in
arriving value based judgements based on practical understanding of various natural principles.
Value education increases awareness about our national history, our cultural heritage,
national pride, constitutional rights and duties, national integration, aommunity development and
environment.
It is crucial to the retention of national identity, peaceful and harmonious society.
Education should give overall development of the student personality. The main of education is
to produce citizens with sound character and health. Good citizens are the only hope for the
progress and prosperity of the country. Life based upon good principles is an essential requisite.
Therefore moral education should be included in the school curriculum. The curriculum
should provide enough opportunity for pupils to acquire a considerable amount of knowledge
that is essential for morally responsible living in our democratic society.
Value education shall prepare individuals for participation in social life and acceptance of
social rules.
Schools should provide a healthy environment for sharing responsibilities of community
life and relationships.
Value based environmental education:
Environmental education is something that every person should be well versed with. The
principles of ecology and fundamentals of environment help to create a sense of earth citizenship
and a sense of care for the earth and its resources - a sense of commitment towards the
management of the resources in a sustainable way so that our children and grand children too
have a safe and clean planet.
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Following the Supreme Court directives 1998 environmental education has been included in the
curriculum right from the school stage to university level. The objective of it is to make
everyone environment literate. Let us see how environmental education can be made value
based one.
1. Preparation of text books materials on environmental education to built a positive
attitude towards environmental factors.
2. Social values like love, tolerance, compassion can be woven into env. Education. This
will help to nurture all forms of life and biodiversity.
3. Cultural and religious values: Our culture and religions teach us not to exploit nature
but to perform such functions which project and sacred nature. Therefore these values
can be added up with env. Education.
4. Env. Education should stress on earth centric views rather than human centric view such
that it include the ethical values.
5. Global values: Stress on the concept human is part of nature and all natural processes are
inter linked and they are in harmony. If this harmony is disturbed it may lead to
imbalance in ecology and catastrophic results.
6. Spiritual values: highlights on self contentment, discipline, reduction of wants etc. This
will reduce our consumerist approach
If the mentioned values are incorporated in env. education, the goal of sustainable
development and env. conservation can be easily attained. Value based env. education
can bring about a total transformation of our mind set, our attitudes and life style to
protect nature.
HIV/AIDS
AIDS-Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
Acquired means disease is not hereditary but develops after birth from contact with a disease
causing agent. Immune deficiency means that the disease is characterized by a weakening of
immune system
HIV-Human immuno deficiency virus cause AIDS disease.virus is passed through iinfected
blood,semen
Transmission of AIDS
Prostitution
Homosexual activity
Use of contaminated syringe in blood transfusion and drug addicts
Maternal-fetal transmission
Symptoms:
Persistent fever
Fatique, weekness
Diarrhea
Wait loss
Low number of T cells in blood
Swelling lymph nodes, neck
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Susceptible to infections
Treatment:
AZT-Azidi thymidine
DDI Dideoxyinosine
Screening test:
ELISA-Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbant Assay
Western blot
Polymer chain reaction
Saliva and urine test
Branched DNA test
Immuno fluorescent antibody assay
The major precautions to avoid AIDS
education
prevention of blood borne HIV transmission
primary health care
counseling services
drug treatment
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Remote sensing-Graphical Interface System are useful for coral reef mapping and ocean
resources. They are also useful to access the loss of biodiversity/hot spots etc.
Review questions:
1. What do you mean by carrying capacity of population?
The maximum popu;lation size that an ecosystem can support under particular
environmental condition
2. What are the reasons for population explosion?
Improved sanitary conditions
Better heath care increase in productivity of agriculture and industry
3. What are the factors influencing human population
Unwanted fertility
To increase the income for family and support
Lack of knowledge on population control methods
4. What is silicosis and asbestosis?
Silicosis is caused due t contamination of free silica
Asbestosis is due to asbestos fibres deposited in lungs
5. List any four vector borne disease
Malaria
Dengue
Filaria
Encephalitis
6. What is ameobiasis?Give its source.
7. This is a water borne disease, caused by amoeba i.e., Entameoba histolytica and
charecterised by liquid stools with mucous and blood
Source; food chain-fruits, vegetables, contaminated drinking water, cold drink
8. What are the two primary strains of HIV
HIV-1 Strain
HIV -2 strain
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Hearing damage
Domestic sewage
Industrial effluents
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Synthetic detergents
Agro chemicals
Oil
Thermal pollutants
Run off from land fills
Pollution prevention
Pollution control
The
proper
control
measures
practiced
to
minimize the pollution
level.
Primary pollutants
Secondary pollutants
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Advantage
Energy
non
renewable
Disadvantage
Wide availability
Unreliable supply
Low cost
Produced
in
small
Decentralized
power
quantity
production
Difficult to store
Low pollution
Cost more
Available for the future
Available
in
high highly pollution
concentrated form
Available only in few places
Easy to store
Reliable supply
High running cost
Lower cost
Limited supply and will one
day get exhausted
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Subsurface drainage and bio drainage by trees like Eucalyptus trees are adopted
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