08-04-2023

Hydrology &Water Resource Engineering

Solved Problems on Hydrographs and

Hydrological cycles

Dr. S.Sarvanan
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli - 15.
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Overview of Presentation
• Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data
• optimum number of stations
• Minimum number of additional stations required
• Double ring- infiltrometer
• Ø index determination
• Intensity, Frequency and Return Period
• Direct Surface runoff using unit hydrograph (Convolution approach)
• Changing unit duration of unit hydrograph using S-Hydrograph
• Unit Hydrograph
• Synthetic Unit Hydrograph
– Snyder's Unit hydrograph
– Nash Unit Hydrograph
– Clark unit hydrograph
– SCS-dimensionless unit hydrograph

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Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data

1) Data for the base station and 5 surrounding stations are tabulated below. Find missing
data at ‘A’ using (i) modified normal ratio method and (ii) inverse distance method.

Station Daily Rainfall (cm) (Pi) Normal Rainfall (cm) (N)

A 9.7 100.3
B 8.3 109.5
C(base station) x 93.5
D 11.7 125.7
E 8.0 117.5
10% of Nx = 93.5*10/100= 9.35.

= 93.5+9.35= 102.85, 93.5-9.35= 84.15. Any of the values exceeding 102.85 Normal ratio method
must be implemented

Px=σ𝑛𝑘=1(𝑁𝑥/𝑁𝑖) ∗ 𝑃𝑖 Pi= missing year normal rainfall

Pi= 93.5/5{ (9.7/100.3)+ (8.3/109.5) + (11.7/125.7) +(8.0/117.5)

Pi=7.8cm

(ii) Using Inverse Distance Method

Station Weight (a)
B 0.44
C 0.68
D 1.38
E 0.59
F 0.22
Sum 3.31 1

a. Simple Arithmetic Method PA= 1/M [p1+p2+p3+…….Pm]

PA= ¼ *(2.5 + 3.4 + 1.5 + 2.2 + 1.8) =2.28 cm

b. Normal Ratio Method PA= Nx/M [p1/N1 + p2/n2 + p3/ n3+…….Pm/nm]

PA= (102 / 5) * ((2.5/114) + (3.4/122) + (1.5 / 95 )

+ (2.2/106) + (1.8/104)
=2.28 cm

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2.The optimum number of raingages corresponding to an assigned

percentage of error in estimation of mean areal rainfall can be
obtained as: N= (CV/ ε)^2
•One station per 520 km2 - in plains.
•One station per 260-390 km2– in regions of average elevation of 1000 m.
•One station per 130 km2– in predominantly hilly areas with heavy rainfall.
2) A catchment has six rain gage stations. In a year, the annual rainfalls recorded by the
gages are as follows:
Stations A B C D E F
Rainfall (cm) 82.6 102.9 180.3 110.3 98.8 136.7
For a 10% error in the estimation of mean rainfall, calculate optimum number of stations in
the catchment.
Solution:

Number of stations (m) = 6,

Mean precipitation = 82.6+102.9+180.3+110.3+98.8 +136.7 / 6 = 118.6 cm
Standard deviation of precipitation (S) = 35.04, CV=(100*(35.04)/118.6)=29.54
Error (ε) = 10%
N= (CV/ ε)^2;
N = (29.54/10)^2=8.7= 9
N= 9 Stations

3) A catchment area has seven raingauge stations. In a year the annual rainfall recorded
by the gauges are as follows:

Station A B C D E F G
Rainfall(cm) 130 142.1 118.2 108.5 165.2 102.1 146.9

For a 5% error in the estimation of mean rainfall, calculate the minimum number of additional
stations required to be established in the catchment.

P=(130+142.1+118.2+108.2+165.2+102.1+146.9)/7 = 130.42 cm

𝝈= ∑𝒎(𝑷𝒊−𝑷)𝟐/m-1 = ∑𝟕(𝑷𝒊−𝟏𝟎𝟑.𝟒𝟐)𝟐 /(7-1) = 22.5

Cv= 1𝟎𝟎∗𝝈/P = (100*22.5/130.42) =17.286

N=(Cv/5)^2= (117.286/5)^2 =12

Additional RG Required =12 – 7=5

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4. The normal annual precipitation of five rain gauge stations P, Q, R, S and T are
respectively 125, 102, 76, 113 and 137 cm. During a particular storm the precipitation
recorded by stations P,Q,R and S are 13.2, 9.2, 6.8 and 10.2 cm respectively. The
instrument at station T was inoperative during that storm. Estimate the rainfall at station T
during that storm?
• Navg = (125 + 102 + 76 + 113 + 137) / 5 = 110.6

• % error = {(137 – 110.6)/137}*100% = 19.27% > 10%

• Px= 137/4 [(3.2/125) + (9.2/102)+ (6.8/76) + (10.2/113)] = 12.84 cm

Test for Consistency of Record

• Solution steps
1. Arrange in reverse order the data of: (Rainfall)
1. The annual rainfall of station X (𝑷𝒙)
2. The average rainfall of the group of base stations (𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈)
2. Calculate the accumulated precipitation of station X (∑ 𝑷𝒙) and the
accumulated values of average of the selected base group (∑ 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈).
3. Plot ∑ 𝑷𝒙 againest ∑ 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 for various consecutive time periods
{Double mass curve }
4. Locate the break in the slope of the resulting plot (which is the change in
precipitation regime of station X)
5. Correct the precipitation values at station X beyond the period of regime
change by:

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5. Test the consistency of the 22 years of data of the annual precipitation measured at the station A.
Rainfall data for the station a as well as the average annual rainfall measured at a group of eight
station A station 8
neighboring stations located in meteorologically
year )cm( average

)cm(
homogeneous regions are given as follows.
1946 177 143

1947 144 132

1948 178 146 ▪ In what year is a change in regime indicated?

▪ Adjust the record data at station A and
1949 162 147

1950 194 161

1951 168 155 determine the mean annual precipitation

1952 196 152

1953 144 117

1954 160 128

1955 196 193

1956 141 156

1957 158 164

1958 145 155

1959 132 143

1960 95 115

1961 148 135

1962 142 163

1963 140 135

1964 130 143

1965 137 130

1966 130 146

1967 163 161

s ta t i o n 8 c um. average a nn.

c u m . a n n . rainfall at r a i n f a l l fo r s t a t i o n s 8
year s ta t i o n A average
s ta t i o n A
)cm( )cm(
1967 163 163 161 161
1966 130 293 146 307
1965 137 430 130 437
1964 130 560 143 580
1963 140 700 135 715
1962 142 842 163 878
1961 148 990 135 1013
1960 95 1085 115 1128
1959 132 1217 143 1271
1958 145 1362 155 1426
1957 158 1520 164 1590
1956 141 1661 156 1746
1955 196 1857 193 1939
1954 160 2017 128 2067
1953 144 2161 117 2184
1952 196 2357 152 2336
1951 168 2525 155 2491
1950 194 2719 161 2652
1949 162 2881 147 2799
1948 178 3059 146 2945
1947 144 3203 132 3077
1946 177 3380 143 3220

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4
46
3.5
47
Accumulated annual rainfall at X 48
49
3 50
2.95-2.2
Mc= 0.9496 51 =0.75
in units of 103 cm

52
2.5
53 2.8-2.2
Ma = 1.172 54 =0.6

55
2
56
57
58
1.5 59
= 0.6 / 0.75 = 0.8
61 60 or
1 62 = 0.9496/1.172= 0.81
63
64
65
0.5 66
67

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

accumulated annual rainfall of 8 station mean in units of

6) The quantity of water added to a double ring- infiltrometer of 1.00 m diameter at

330 min interval to keep the water level constant is as follows:

Time (min.) 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

Quantity of water added(L) 0 10 9.2 8.6 8.2 8.0 8.0

Find 1. Rate of infiltration for every 30 min and plot the graph
2. Average rate of infiltration.

SOLUTION :
𝜋
Area of the ring = ∗ 12 = 0.786 m2
4
10∗10−3 60
Infiltration rate for 1st 30 min = 0.786 * 103* = 25.44 mm/hr.
30
9.2∗10−3 60
Infiltration rate for next 30 min = 0.786 * 103* = 23.40 mm/hr.
30

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8.6∗10−3 60
Infiltration rate for next 30 min = * 103* = 21.88 mm/hr.
0.786 30
8.2∗10−3 60
Infiltration rate for next 30 min = * 103* = 20.86 mm/hr.
0.786 30
8∗10−3 60
Infiltration rate for next 30 min = * 103* = 20.35mm/hr.
0.786 30

Total quantity of water added in 150 min till a steady state was achieved
= 10+9.2+8.6+8.2+8 = 44 lit.
44∗10−3∗60∗103
Therefore average rate of infiltration = = 22.39 mm/hr/m2
150∗0.786

7) The average precipitation during a storm over a catchment area of 10 km 2 is as

follow:
1. 40 mm/h for 1h.
2. 60 mm/h for 1h.
3. 30 mm/h for 1h.
The resulting hydrograph was plotted on a graph paper with the following scale.
1 cm = 1 h on x-axis, 1 cm = 10 m3/s on y-axis
If the area of the hydrograph was measured as 30 cm2, find the Ø index of infiltration

SOLUTION :
Total runoff observed = 30 * 10 * 3600 = 1.08 * 106 m3
Runoff from the storm assuming rate of infiltration to be Ø
40−Ø ∗1 60−Ø ∗1 30−Ø ∗1
= ( 1000 + 1000 + 1000 ) x 10 x 106
= (130 – 3 Ø) x 104 m3.
Therefore, (130 - 3Ø) x 104 = 1.08 x 106
Ø = 7.33 mm/h.

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8) Calculate the excess rainfall when P1,P2,P3 = The storm rainfall in cm/h = 3 cm/h; 5
cm/h; 4 cm/h
A = Catchment area = 50 km2
AH= Area of storm hydrograph = 100 cm2
S1 = Scale of time adopted to plot flood hydrograph: 1 cm = 1 h
S2 = Scale of Q adopted to plot flood hydrograph: 1 cm= 10 m3/s

Assume Ø index of infiltration = x cm/h.

3−𝑥 ∗1+ 5−𝑥 ∗1+ 4−𝑥 ∗1 ∗50∗106

Thus = 100*3600*10
100

By solving, x = 1.6 cm/h

The excess rainfall will be 1.4 cm/h ,
3.4 cm/h, 2.4 cm/h.
It may be noted that the excess rainfall
and the flood hydrograph start at the same time.

Estimation of missing Rainfall record

• Happens because of non – observation of rainfall by

observer or by failure of instrument installed

• Missing rainfall is approximated as follows:

• From the record of 3 stations
1
– Arithmetic mean method – Px = x (P1 + P2 + P3)
3
1 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑥 𝑁𝑥
– Normal Ratio method – Px = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑃𝐶
3 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐶
• From the record of 2 stations
– Ratio method

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Areal precipitation

Predicting watershed response to a given precipitation event requires knowledge

of the average rainfall that occurs over the watershed in a specified duration

This involves design of a network of rain gauges

Not many rain gauges are needed specially in flat watersheds

Three basic methods exist to derive areally averaged values from point rainfall
data:

• Arithmetic mean
• Thiessen polygon method
• Iso-hyetal method

Areal precipitation can also be estimated based on radar estimates, specially in

areas without the presence of adequate rain gauges

Areal precipitation | arithmetic mean

2.0”

Method is satisfactory
when 1.2”

• Gages are uniformly 1.8”

distributed
• Individual variations
aren’t far from mean 1.0”

rainfall
• Applied to smaller
watersheds
Watershed with rain gages and monthly
• Rainfall distributions
rainfall for February in inches
are not variable
𝟏. 𝟖 + 𝟏. 𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟎
= 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 𝒊𝒏.
𝟑

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Arithmetic Mean Method

• Simplest method for determining areal average

P1 = 10 mm
P1
P2 = 20 mm
P3 = 30 mm
P2
N
1
P=
N
 Pi
i =1
P3
10 + 20 + 30
P= = 20 mm
3

• Gages must be uniformly distributed

• Gage measurements should not vary greatly about
the mean

Thiessen Polygons Method

A
A E
E

F
F B
B
I 2 1 I
C
C
G
G
Stations are
joined to
D J D J obtain
A triangles
Take all the stations E

B F

I
C

Bisectors are drawn to G

form polygons
 p ia i
D J Pave =
08-04-2023
 20ai

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Thiessen polygon method

• Any point in the watershed receives the same
amount of rainfall as that at the nearest gage
• Rainfall recorded at a gage can be applied
to any point at a distance halfway to the next
P1
station in any direction
A1
• Steps in Thiessen polygon method
P2
1. Draw lines joining adjacent gages
2. Draw perpendicular bisectors to the lines A
created in step 1 2
P3
3. Extend the lines created in step 2 in both A
directions to form representative areas for 3

gages
4. Compute representative area for each
gage P1 = 10 mm, A1 = 12 Km2

5. Compute the areal average using the P2 = 20 mm, A2 = 15 Km2

1 N
following formula P =  Ai Pi P3 = 30 mm, A3 = 20 km2
A i =1
12 10 + 15  20 + 20  30
P= = 20.7 mm
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Areal precipitation | thiessen polygon

Thiessen polygons are built

up by drawing midlines, 2.0”
perpendicular bisectors,
between rain gages on a
map
1.2”

Value of rainfall measured 1.8”

by a rain gauge is assigned
to the area surrounding it

Multiplying the rainfall by its 1.0”

representative area, summing

the products for all rain gages
and dividing by total area Watershed with rain gages and monthly
gives weighed average of rainfall for February in inches
precipitation over the area

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Areal precipitation | iso-hyetal method

When rainfall is highly variable, or

when high accuracy is required
more rain gages are needed

Iso-hyetal method involves drawing

of contour lines with equal rainfall
depth (iso-hyets)It’s a little arbitrary
to make iso-hyets and may require 30mm
experience
20mm
Topography and storm patterns are
helpful in making iso-hyets
10mm

Rainfall calculation is based on

finding average rainfall between
each pair of contours, multiplying by
the between them, totaling these Watershed with rain gages and monthly
products and dividing by total area rainfall for February in inches

Areal precipitation | thiessen polygon

Value of rainfall measured by

a rain gauge is assigned to the
area surrounding it B 2.0
”

Multiplying the rainfall by its

representative area, summing C 1.2
”
the products for all rain gages 1.8
”
and dividing by total area A
gives weighed average of
precipitation over the area
D
1.0
”

𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝒌𝒎𝟐 𝒄𝒎
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = =𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 𝒄𝒎
𝟗𝟖 𝒌𝒎𝟐

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Example: Using Thiesen Polygon Method, find average rainfall over a catchment. The data
is:
Rain Gauge Station A B C D E
Polygon Area (km2) 40 45 38 30 43
Precipitation (mm) 30.8 33.4 34.6 32.6 24.6
Solution:

Pav =
 ( A  P ) = 6085.6 = 31.53 mm
A 193

3.Isohytel method.
• An isohyet is a line, on a rainfall map of the basin, joining places of equal
rainfall readings.
• An isohyetal map showing contours of equal rainfall presents a more
accurate picture of the rainfall distribution over the basin.
• Average rainfall can be computed by the following expression.
Advantages: The isohytel method is the most elaborate and accurate than other
methods.
Procedure
1. From the rainfall values recorded at various rain-gauge stations, prepare the
isohyetal map.
2. Measure the areas enclosed between successive isohyets with the help of planimeter.
3. Multiply each of these areas by the average rainfall between the isohyets.
4. Compute the average rainfall applying the given formula.
11 12
10 13
14
  P1 + P2  
  A  2 

Pav =
A
14
10
11
12 13

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Example: Using Isohyetal Method, find average rainfall over a catchment. The data is:
Isohyetes (cm) 12 13 14 15 16 17
Area b/w Isohyetes (km2) 22 80 110 89 70
Average Precipitation (cm) 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5

P +P 
 A 2
1

2

 = 5484.5 = 14.78 cm
P =
A
av
371

Isohyetal method
• Steps
– Construct isohyets (rainfall 10
contours)
– Compute area between 20
each pair of adjacent P1
isohyets (Ai) A1=5 , p1 = 5
– Compute average A2=18 , p2 =
precipitation for each pair 15
of adjacent isohyets (pi) P2
A3=12 , p3 =
– Compute areal average
using the following formula 25

P3
30 A4=12 , p3 =
1M N
PP ==  Ai pA P
i i i
35
iA=1 i =1

5  5 + 18 15 + 12  25 + 12  35
P= = 21.6 mm
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The infiltration capacities of an area at different intervals of time are indicated in

table below.
Find an equation for the infiltration capacity in the exponential form

Time t (hr) 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00
Infiltration
10.4 5.6 3.2 2.1 1.5 1.2 1.1 1 1
capacity f (cm/h)

Let the equation for the Infiltration Capacity curve be

f = f c + ( f o − f c )e − Kt

Here, f c = 1 cm/h; f 0 = 10.4 cm/h

t 0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00

f 10.4 5.6 3.2 2.1 1.5 1.2 1.1 1 1
f −f c 9.40 4.60 2.20 1.10 0.58 0.20 0.10 0.00 0.00
log10 (f −
0.973 0.663 0.324 0.042 -0.301 -0.699 -1
fc)

From the graph: slope of the straight

line
−1
= −0.760
K log 10 e
−1
K = = 3.03
− 0.760 log 10 (2.718)

The infiltration Eqn. is;

f = f c + ( f 0 − f c )e −kt
f = 1 + (10 .4 − 1)e −3.03t
f = 1 + 9.4e −3.03t

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NEXRAD
• NEXt generation RADar: is a doppler radar used for obtaining weather
information
• A signal is emitted from the radar which returns after striking a rainfall drop
• Returned signals from the radar are analyzed to compute the rainfall intensity
and integrated over time to get the precipitation

http://radar.weather.gov/radar.php?rid=twx&product=N0R&overlay=
NEXRAD Tower 11101111&loop=no

Global Rainfall

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