Earth resistance is a key parameter in determining the efficiency of earthing

systems. In this article we look at the measurement of earth resistance.

A few fundamentals

1.1

Earth resistance and

earth impedance

The efficiency of an earthing system is principally determined by its impedance ZE. As can
be seen from figure , the earth impedance
can be expressed as in equation (1):
Z E = RE2 + X E2

(1)

RE = RD + RM + RC

(2)

1.3

As shown in equation(2), the earth resistance

RE is the sum of the dissipation resistance RD,
the resistance of the metal conductor that serves as the earth electrode RM and the resistance
of the earthing conductor RC, which runs between the main earthing busbar and the earth
electrode. The dissipation resistance RD is the
resistance between the earth electrode and the
surrounding soil. The reactance of the earthing
system XE can be expressed as:
RE =

UM

(3)

with
XM reactance of the metallic earth electrode
XC reactance of the earthing conductor.
For AC supply current the reactance of the earthing conductor is only significant in the case of
extended horizontal earthing strips or long earth
rods. In all other cases, the difference between
earth impedance and earth resistance is so
small that frequently no distinction is made between these two quantities. The relevant industrial standards also treat earth impedance and
earth resistance as identical.
As earthing measurements are carried out using
an AC supply, it is actually the earth impedance that is measured. If the measurement frequency is greater than 50Hz, a slightly larger
earth impedance is displayed. However, overestimating the earth impedance is not a problem, as it errs on the side of safety.

1.2

tems in low-voltage installations ([1], sections 411.5 and 411.6; [2]);

Joint earthing system for high-voltage protective earthing and functional earthing in
transformer substations;
Earthing system for the neutral earthing reactor of a medium-voltage distribution system.
In the case of lightning protection systems,
earthing measurements must be made even
when there is no requirement to comply with a
specific value. The results of repeat tests must
be compared with those of earlier measurements.

Requirements for
earthing measurements

Earthing measurements are necessary whenever compliance with a specified earth resistance or a particular earth impedance is required, as is the case in the following earthing systems:
Protective earth for TT and IT earthing sys-

Standards for
measuring instruments

The standards contain the requirements that

have to be met by the manufacturers of measuring equipment. For users, these standards
serve only informational purposes.
In low-voltage systems earthing measurements
must be made using equipment that complies
with the VDE0413 standards (VDE: Verband
der Elektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstechnik e.V./ engl.: Association for Electrical, Electronic & Information Technologies) (see [3],
sec.61.1). All equipment must comply with
the specifications in IEC 61557-1:2007 [4]. In
addition, equipment must also comply with the
following standards depending on the type of
device or measuring method for which it is used:
IEC 61557-5:2007 Equipment for measuring resistance to earth [5]
IEC 61557-6:2007 Equipment for testing,
measuring or monitoring protective measures
involving residual current devices [6]
IEC 61557-10:2007 Combined measuring
equipment [7].
Equipment manufactured in accordance with
earlier editions of the VDE0413 series of standards can of course also be used.

Avoiding hazards
and measuring errors

The process of measurement and any accompanying procedures (e.g. breaking standard
connections and making non-standard connections) must not pose a safety hazard ([3],
sec.61.1.3). The magnitude of the test voltage or the test current must be limited (see sections 3.1 and 4.1). Before breaking a connection that is required for electric shock prevention,
the entire power installation must be disconnected from the supply and locked out to prevent it being switched on again.
Any measurement that involves breaking connections (e.g. opening the inspection joint of a
lightning protection system) must never be carried out during a storm or whenever a storm
could be expected. Failure to comply could be
hazardous, particularly for the person performing the operation. After the measurement has
been completed, any connections that were
broken must be properly restored.
If the test current is split so that part of it runs
parallel to the earth electrode being measured,
the earth resistance displayed by the meter will
be too small. The person conducting the measurement must therefore be aware of everything
that is connected to the earth electrode under
test [8]. Measurements must only be carried
out by competent persons.

1.6

Taking the effects of

weather into account

The specific resistance of soil decreases with increasing temperature and increasing soil moisture levels. Whereas these effects are of minor
consequence for foundation earth electrodes in
buildings with a basement or for long (vertical)
rod electrodes, they have to be taken into account in the case of horizontal surface earth
electrodes.
Measurements made during cold, dry weather
remain unaffected, but measurement data recorded in warm weather or after a rain shower
have to be adjusted upward.

ZE

RD

1.4

Selecting the right

measuring equipment

It is not enough for users to simply follow the

(frequently unclear) instructions provided by
the manufacturer, they need to be aware of and
understand the measuring method they want
to apply. Measuring instruments that do not
make it clear which measuring method is being
applied should not be used.
Before purchasing equipment, users should request technical descriptions of the devices of interest as well as their performance data and, if
possible, instruction manuals, and should assess the equipment on the basis of this documentation.

XE

E. Hering, Dresden (Germany)

1.5

XM XC

Measuring earth resistance

RM RC
RE

Vector diagram of impedance in an

earthing system

Rd dissipation resistance; RE resistance of

the earthing system (earth resistance);
RM resistance of the metal conductor that
acts as the earth electrode; RC resistance of
the earthing conductor (e.g. connection lug,
cable); XE reactance of the earthing system;
XM reactance of the metal conductor that
acts as the earth electrode; XC reactance of
the earthing conductor; ZE earth impedance;
impedance angle.

1.7

Assessing
measurement results

Earth resistance meters are not error free. Measurement errors can occur even if the conditions specified in the relevant standards and instrument instruction manuals are complied
with and even in the absence of interference effects. The magnitude of an instruments operating error is listed on its technical specification
sheet or in its instruction manual. In those methods of measuring earth resistance that draw
current directly from the power source (see
sections2.4 and 4), additional measurement
uncertainty can be caused by random current
and voltage fluctuations in the supply during
the measurement.
Examples of possible operator errors include:
failure to take account of connections detrimental to the measurement process
connecting the instrument leads incorrectly
or selecting the wrong setting on the selector
switch of the instrument
inserting the auxiliary earth electrode or
probe in the wrong location
meter reading errors
failure to implement measures to reduce systematic measurement errors.
Results from first-time measurements should
be compared with the project specifications, results of repeat tests should be compared with
those of earlier measurements. If significant differences are apparent, the possible causes of
the discrepancy should be determined. The influence of weather on the measurement results
and how this can be taken into account is discussed in section1.6.

1.8

Test report

Measuring earth resistance is only one of several tests that have to be performed on earthing

Table

systems [9]. In general, the results from all the

tests are contained in a single test report. The
measurements performed and any accompanying action that is taken must be described precisely so that they can be reproduced at a later
date. Information that must be provided includes:
the measurement method used
the type of measuring instrument used
the positions of any selector switches, if
relevant
details of any connections that were broken
or made for the purposes of the measurement.
The results of the measurement must be stated
clearly and unambiguously. This also applies to
any weather-related adjustments of the results
that may have been made.
The test report is required by
[3], section61.1.6 concerning earthing systems in low-voltage networks
[10], annexE, sectionE.7.2.5 concerning
lightning protection systems
both standards apply if the earthing system
serves both purposes.

2
2.1

Overview of measurement
methods for RE
Principles

There is a wide degree of variation in the internal circuitry of the measuring instruments used
and the layout and arrangement of the external
measuring circuits. However, a common feature of all the methods is that they determine the
earth impedance by measuring the voltage
across the earthing system for a known test current. Leads that carry the test current outside of

the instrument are shown in red in the diagrams.

Known measurement methods are listed in
table . The underlying circuit principles are
shown in figures to . The unusually long
names given here to the various methods ensure that the methods can be distinguished unambiguously.
Although there are clear differences between
the individual measurement methods, no one
particular method can be said to be ideal. Each
method has its own particular disadvantages
such as limited applicability, electric shock hazard, larger measurement errors or requiring
greater time and effort to complete. The various advantages and disadvantages of the individual measurement techniques are described in
more detail in sections 3 and 4. All of the methods discussed must only be carried out by
competent persons exercising due care and attention.
In those methods that do not draw current
directly from the supply (columns 1 to 6 in
table ), the measurement frequency used
will be at least 5Hz above or below the frequencies 16.7Hz, 50Hz and integer multiples thereof. This prevents interference from
supply frequency currents (interference currents) that can falsify measurement results.
In those methods that do draw current directly
from the supply (columns7 to 9 in table),
it is of course essential that the supply frequency and measuring frequency are identical. This
means that the interference effects mentioned
above cannot be ruled out when such methods
are used. However, these methods are simpler
to perform and offer advantages in terms of their
applicability.

Overview of earth resistance measuring methods

1

4
5
6
7
Designation based on internal circuitry
Balanced-bridge methods
Current-voltage methods
Distinction based on whether method draws current directly from supplyv)
yes
no
Distinction based on use of probe and/or auxiliary electrodew)
probe and
probe, no
no probe, no
probe and
probe, no
no probe, no
probe
auxiliary
auxiliary
auxiliary
auxiliary
auxiliary
auxiliary
electrode
electrode
electrodex), y)
electrode
electrode
electrodex)
(stakeless
method)
Figure
2
3b)z)
3c)
3a)
3b)
3c)
4a)
Detailed description in section
2.2
3.2
3.3
3.4
4.3
Detailed schematic of measurement method
5
6
7
11
v) For current-voltage techniques, this distiction is included in the method name.
w) All methods include this distinction as part of the method name.
x) Measures resistance of conductor loop via earth return path.
y) An earth resistance meter does not need to be inserted into the earthing conductor if a clamp-on resistance meter is
conductor.
z) In the case of balance-bridge methods, figure only applies to the exterior circuit.

PEN or neutral
conductor instead of probe

no probex)

4b)

4c)

4.4

4.5

12

13

placed around the earthing

L1
L2
L3
PEN

Earth resistance meter

UM
RE =
I

REC

Earth resistance meter

PSAC

UM

UM

ES

REC

RE

RF

I3 = 0

UM
RE =
I

RE

PSAC

U1

ES

ES

ES

U2

REC

I3 = 0

I1

Probe
Auxiliary
Earth
earth
electrode
electrode
a)

RF

RE

RE < Rloop
UM
Rloop =
I

Probe
Functional Earth
earth
electrode
electrode

Functional Earth
earth
electrode
electrode

b)

c)

Current-voltage methods that do not draw current directly from the power supply

RE

Earth
electrode

UM

R2

I2

I1

REC

PSAC

I1

CT

REC

PSAC

tr = I2 : I1 = 0.1; 1; 10; 100

L1
L2
L3
PEN

Probe

Auxiliary
earth
electrode

a) with probe and auxiliary electrode; b) with probe, but without an auxiliary electrode;
c) no probe, no auxiliary electrode (measures resistance of conductor loop via earth return path).
I test current; Rloop loop resistance; UM test voltage.

The balanced-bridge method

REC rectifier; I1 test (or measuring) current;

I2 Reference current; I3 current whose magnitude is zero when bridge is balanced;
C capacitor; N null detector; RE earth resistance being measured; R2 reference resistance; CT current transformer; U1 Voltage
across earth electrode under test; U2 reference voltage; tr transformation ratio of the
CT; PSAC AC power supply.

2.2

UM
RE =
I
Earth
resistance
meter

UM
RE =
I

L1
L2
L3
PEN
or N

UM
RE =
I

UM

The balanced-bridge method

The balanced-bridge method as described by

Behrend is one of the techniques for measuring
earth resistance that does not involve drawing
current directly from supply. Earth resistance
meters based on this method are no longer manufactured, as other more user-friendly instruments have now been developed for the same
sorts of applications. These new meters use the
so-called current-voltage method, which also
does not involve current being drawn from the
supply. Nevertheless the balanced-bridge method is described here because it is of fundamental importance to the development of earth
resistance measurement techniques and because meters based on this method are still in
use.
The measurement circuit for the balancedbridge method is shown in figure. The method involves driving an auxiliary earth electrode1) and a probe2) temporarily into the soil.
When the earth meter is in its balanced state,
there is no current flowing in the probe. The resistance to earth of the probe has therefore no
influence on the measurement result; it simply
lowers measurement sensitivity. Information on
the alignment and separation of the auxiliary

U0
UM

UM

I
V

V
S

UM

I
A

I
A

V
S

E
UE

RF

Probe
Functional
earth
electrode
a)

RE

Earth
electrode

RF

Functional
earth
electrode
b)

RE

Earth
electrode

RE

RF

Functional
earth
electrode
c)

Earth
electrode
U0 UM
Rloop <
I
RE < Rloop
UE < U0 UM

Current-voltage methods that draw current directly from the power supply
a) with probe; b) using PEN conductor or neutral conductor instead of probe;
c) no probe (measures resistance of conductor loop via earth return path);
U0 conductor-to-earth voltage

2.3

Other measurement methods

without supply current

Another group of methods for measuring earth

resistance that do not draw current directly
from the supply are the so-called current-voltage techniques illustrated in figure . The earth
resistance RE is determined from the voltage
UM that appears across the earth electrode and
across the socketsES and S, and the measured current I.
RE =

UM
I

(4)

Figure simply illustrates the principle of the

measurement and shows only a small part of
the complex circuitry within the earth resistance meter. Usually, the voltage UM and current I are not shown separately and the meter
only displays a digital reading of the earth resistance RE. If the AC supply source PSAC is a

constant-current generator, the earth resistance

can be displayed directly on the voltage meter.
When the balanced-bridge method was first developed, the only exterior circuit known was
that shown in figures and a). It was therefore usual to consider the circuitry inside the
meter and the exterior circuit as a single entity.
However, as indicated in columns 2 and 3 in
table , the same meter can be used for measurements with the exterior circuits shown in figures b) and c). Equally, the earth resistance meters used for the current-voltage methods that do not draw current directly from the
supply can be used like the meters designed
with the balanced-bridge circuit. The internal
circuits can therefore be freely combined with
the exterior circuits.

UM
RE =
I
Earth resistance meter

REC

PSAC
I

UM

ES

Earth
electrode

Auxiliary
earth
electrode

Probe

RE

Measurement methods with

current from the supply

3
3.1

Current-voltage method that

draws no supply current
Earth resistance meters

The four connection sockets are labelled as

shown in figure . Sockets for the supply
current path and for current measurement:
E Earth electrode (test object)
H Auxiliary earth electrode1)
Sockets for the voltage measurement path:
ES Earth electrode (or the probe located
close to the earth electrode when measuring
the soil resistivity)
S Probe2)
Normally when measuring the resistance to
earth, the socketsE and ES are connected to
one another via a removable link or via a contact strip within the meters selector switch as
this ensures that the earth electrode under test
is connected to both the current and voltage
measurement paths. If, in addition, a jumper is
placed between socketsH and S, the earth resistance meter can be used as a simple ohmmeter.
The frequency of the AC supply PSAC is at
least 5 Hz above or below the frequencies
16.7Hz and 50Hz and any integer multiples
thereof. Typically, the supply frequency is in the
range 41140Hz, though in some meters a
higher frequency is used. Some earth resistance
meters also offer the option of selecting the frequency. A number of meters with automatic frequency control (AFC) automatically switch to
that frequency offering the lowest level of interference.

0.2 s 0.2 s
s
RE'

approximately
flat section
RE'2

These methods can only be used in networks

with a direct connection to earth. As shown in
figure , the measurement involves drawing
the test current from the phase conductor of the
supply system. The meters used in this type of
measurement are primarily designed for testing
electrical safety systems involving residual current devices. The meters are generally connected to the supply via a flexible power lead
and an earthed safety plug.

RE'

2.4

RE'1

earth electrode and the probe is provided in

section 3.
The AC power source PSAC is located between
the connection point for the earth electrode under test (socket E) and that for the auxiliary
earth electrode (socketH). The AC source is
connected in series with the primary winding of
a current transformer CT. Connected to the secondary winding of the current transformer is a
variable voltage divider. The setting chosen for
the left part of the divider R2 (reference resistance) is displayed on the scale on the voltage
dividers control unit. A null detector N with a
rectifier REC in series is located between the variable tap point of the voltage divider and the
connection point for the probe (socketS). The
rectifier is driven by the AC power source. A capacitor C prevents any DC current from flowing
across the probe. One end of the voltage divider
is connected to the earth electrode being measured via the instrument sockets ES and E. The
transformation ratio tr of the current transformer can be switched to achieve the required
measurement range.
When balanced, the current I3 in the probe is
zero. The same current I1 therefore flows in the
auxiliary earth electrode and in the earth electrode under test. Additionally, the voltages U2
(reference voltage) and U1 are of the same
size. The voltage U1 corresponds to the earth
electrode voltage that drives the test current I1
in the earth resistance RE of the test object E,
whereas U2 is the voltage drop that maintains
the current I2 (reference current) in the reference resistor R2. The potential drops obey
Ohms law as expressed by the equations
U1 = I1 RE and U2 = I2 R2. If the transformation ratio of the current transformer tr = 1:1,
then I2 = I1 and the value of the earth resistance RE is equal to the selected reference resistance R2. The earth resistance can therefore
be read off the voltage divider scale mentioned
above. If another transformation ratio is used,
this must be multiplied by the value of the reference resistance R2, i. e. RE = tr R2.

Distance

Current-voltage

methods that do not

draw current directly from the power supply and that use a probe and an auxiliary
earth electrode

I test current; RE earth resistance being

measured; RE measured earth resistance;
UM test voltage

To protect against electric shocks, the open-circuit test voltage generated by the meter must
not exceed 50V (r.m.s.) and 70V (peak). In
the case of earth resistance meters used on
agricultural sites, these values must be halved.
Alternatively, the short-circuit current must not
exceed 3.5 mA r.m.s. and a peak value of
5 mA (see [5], sec. 4.5). If neither of these
conditions are met, the meter must switch off
automatically.
The meter is powered either by a battery, a
group of primary cells or a hand-driven generator, though the latter method is now rare. The
meter must indicate whether the end-point voltage of the power supply is sufficient to maintain proper instrument function (see [4],
sec.4.3).
When earth resistance is measured by a method that does not involve current being drawn
directly from the supply, the earth resistance RE
is computed as the quotient of the measured
voltage UM that appears across the earth electrode (and across the meter socketsES and S)
and the measured current I (that flows through
socketsE and H). Figure only indicates the
basic principle of the complex circuitry within

the meter. Usually, the voltage UM and current

I are not shown separately and the meter only
displays a digital reading of the earth resistance
RE. If the AC supply source is a constant-current generator, there is no need to measure the
current and calculate the quotient. In this case
a voltage meter can be calibrated to display the
earth resistance directly.
Most meters are equipped with a switch for selecting the type of measuring circuit, the measurement frequency and/or the measurement
range, and for switching the power on and off.
Most meters also have a button that is used to
initiate measurement. The earth resistance meter must also indicate that the resistance of
the auxiliary earth electrode and the probe are
within the specified limits (see [5], sec.4.4).
However, it is not advisable to rely too heavily
on a warning signal, because by the time a
warning signal has been issued, the limit may
have been exceeded by a significant amount.
User-friendly devices offer additional functions
such as:
warning signal or automatic cut-out if too
great an interference voltage is detected
warning signal or disabling of measurement
function if test current is too small
display of test current (for monitoring purposes only when measurements made with a
constant-current generator)
automatic measurement range selection
display hold function
data storage for transmitting or printing measurement results.

3.2

Methods using a probe and an

auxiliary earth electrode

3.2.1 Principle

As shown in figure , the earth electrode under test, an auxiliary earth electrode and the
probe are connected to the earth resistance meter. The test current I flows through the earth
electrode, the soil and the auxiliary earth electrode. The voltage UM that appears across the
earth resistance RE also appears across the meter socketsES and S. The earth resistance is
displayed as the value of UM divided by I.

3.2.2 Earth electrode (test object)

If socketE is connected to the beginning of the
earthing conductor (at the main earthing terminal), the earthing conductor will be included in
the measurement of the earth resistance. If, on
the other hand, socketE is connected directly
to the earth electrode, the resistance of the earthing conductor will not be included in the measurement. The difference, however, is usually
slight.
The resistance of the measuring leads will be included in the measurement. This will result in
an overestimation of the earth resistance and
thus yield a value that errs on the side of safety.
To reduce the magnitude of the error, it is expedient to position the earth resistance meter
close to the point of connection and to use a
short measuring lead. The resistance of the

measuring lead can of course be measured and

this value subtracted from the value displayed
by the earth resistance meter. If the effect of the
measuring leads resistance is to be avoided at
all costs, the jumper linking socketsE and the
ES must be removed and each socket connected to the earthing system by its own measuring lead.
The earth electrode under test must not be connected to any other earth electrodes as this
would falsify the result of the measurement. In
the TN earthing systems found in consumer installations, the earthing conductor must be disconnected from the main earthing busbar as the
latter is connected to the PEN conductor of the
supply network. This is not required in TT systems as the main earthing busbar is not connected to the neutral conductor of the power
supply network. If, nevertheless, the earthing
conductor is disconnected, the entire system
must be de-energized beforehand and locked
out to prevent it being switched on again.

3.2.3 Auxiliary electrode1)

The auxiliary earth electrode should be positioned as far away as possible from the earth electrode under test, so as to minimize the degree of
overlap between the potential gradient areas
(spheres of influence) surrounding the two
electrodes. The larger the electrodes, the farther
apart they must be. As a rough guide, the minimum distance apart can be taken to be three
times the depth of a rod earth electrode or the
average diameter of a ring earth electrode. The
figure of 40m that is found in the documentation provided by some manufacturers can only
be considered to be a rough average value.
Whether the chosen distance is appropriate will
be shown when the correct alignment and positioning of the electrodes is carried out (see
sec. 3.2.4).
The greater the resistivity of the soil, the longer
the auxiliary electrode needs to be and the deeper it needs to be driven into the ground. If the
resistance of the auxiliary earth electrode is too
large, measurement errors can arise, because,
for example, the constant current normally generated by the AC supply cannot then flow. In
such cases, it can prove useful to saturate the
area of ground being used for the measurement
with water.

3.2.4 Probe2)
As the internal resistance of the voltage measurement path is very large, the resistance of the
probe and therefore the size of the probe is of
minor importance. The preferred location of the
probe is on the straight line between the earth
electrode and the auxiliary earth electrode at a
position where it has minimum interaction with
the spheres of influence of the two electrodes
(see diagram in figure).
If one were to carry out a series of measurements with different distances between the
earth electrode and the probe the results would
form a curve whose ends are relatively steep
while the intermediate section of the curve is

flatter. If the distance between the earth electrode and the auxiliary electrode is large enough,
the curve will have an approximately horizontal
central section in which the measured resistance to earth is essentially independent of
electrode separation.
This central section must be determined by at
least three measurements. The midpoint of the
central section is not midway between the earth
electrode and the auxiliary earth electrode, but
lies closer to the auxiliary earth electrode as the
spatial extent of the spheres of influence associated with the two earth electrodes differ. In
general, the optimum separation between the
earth electrode and the probe is about two
thirds of the distance between the earth electrode and the auxiliary earth electrode3).

3.2.5 Limitations of method

If no portion of the resistance vs. distance curve is approximately horizontal, then the distance between the earth electrode under test
and the auxiliary earth electrode is too small.
If the curve exhibits an unusual profile, buried
metal installations (e. g. water pipes) are very
probably influencing the measurement. In
such conditions it is not possible to achieve
usable results from the measurement. Measurement may be possible if the electrodes can
be laid out perpendicular to their original direction or perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the buried metal installation or so that
they run away from and not above the buried
metal installation.
It is also not possible to achieve reliable results
if the earth electrode under test is surrounded
by other earth electrodes, for example in areas
with a high density of buildings. Furthermore
measurement is impossible whenever the auxiliary earth electrode and the probe cannot
be positioned in the right locations. In all such
cases, another measurement technique must
be selected.

3.3

Method using a probe but no

auxiliary earth electrode

3.3.1 Principle

As shown in figure, the functional earth of

the supply network acts as a replacement for
the auxiliary earth electrode. It is extremely
1) In some publications the auxiliary electrode is
also referred to as the outer test electrode, or current test stake.
2) In some publications the probe is also referred to
as the inner test electrode, or voltage test stake.
3) Some manufacturers state that the distance between the earth electrode and the probe should
be half the distance between the earth electrode
and the auxiliary earth electrode. That is incorrect.
Other companies recommend placing the probe at
a distance from the earth electrode that is always
62 % of the separation between the earth and
the auxiliary earth electrode. This method is thus
sometimes referred to as the 62 % method. The
62 % mark generally gives a good approximation
of the correct location. But the optimum position
must always be determined by moving the probe
to neighbouring positions.

important to ensure that the connection is not

accidentally made to one of the phase conductors.
In a TN system, the Hsocket of the meter has
to be connected (for instance, via the earthing
contact of a plug) to the protective earth (PE)
conductor, which itself has been branched off
the PEN conductor. The meter socketE is connected to the earthing conductor, which has to
be disconnected from the main earthing busbar.
Supply networks configured with the TT earthing system have a neutral conductor instead of
the PEN conductor. This has to be treated as a
live conductor even though it is connected to a
functional earth. Applying this method of measuring earth resistance to a TT system would
therefore involve connecting the earth resistance meter to the neutral conductor. The method is therefore not approved for use with TT
systems.

L1
L2
L3
PEN
PEN

L1
L2
L3
PEN
PEN
MEB

MEB

PE N

Earth resistance meter

Earth resistance meter

REC

REC

PSAC

PSAC
I

UM

A
ES

The method does not function in a TN system

if the electrode being measured is strongly coupled or if it is connected via a metal conductor
to another earth electrode that itself is connected to the PEN conductor. This would result
in the test current flowing in the wrong path so
that the display on the earth resistance meter
would be smaller than the true value of the resistance to earth. This is discussed in more detail in section 3.4.2.

3.4

Method without a probe and

an auxiliary earth electrode
(stakeless method)

RF

RE

Functional
earth
electrode

ES

EC

EC

3.3.2 Problems in the TN system

UM

PE N

UM
RE =
I

Earth
Probe
electrode

Current-voltage methods that do not

draw current directly from the power supply and that use a probe but no auxiliary
earth electrode

EC earthing conductor; MEB main earthing

busbar; RB resistance to earth of the functional earth electrode

Rloop < RE
RF

RE

Functional
earth
electrode

UM
Rloop =
I
Earth
electrode

Current-voltage methods that do not

draw current directly from the power
supply and that use neither a probe nor
an auxiliary earth electrode (resistance
of conductor loop via earth return path)
Rloop loop resistance.

3.4.1 Principle

This method (illustrated in figure ) is an

earth-loop resistance measurement because it
involves measuring the resistance of a conductor loop via an earth return path. The S and
H sockets of the earth resistance meter are connected together. The advantage of this method
is that neither an auxiliary earth electrode nor a
probe need to be used.
In a TN system the earthing conductor (EC) is
disconnected from the main earthing busbar
(MEB) and the earth resistance meter is inserted between them. This method is not suitable
for measurements on a consumer installations
with a TT earthing system.
The resistance measurement displayed on the
meter includes the resistance to earth of the
functional earth and the resistance of the
PEN conductor. If they were accurately known,
these values could be subtracted from the resistance displayed on the meter. However, they
are difficult to determine, because the functional earth in a TN system comprises not only the
functional earth electrode shown in figure,
it is also connected to numerous earths in the
consumer installations of neighbouring buildings. The error that is introduced by measuring these additional resistances results in an
overestimation of the earth resistance, yielding
a value that errs on the side of safety.

3.4.2 Problems in TN systems

The problem mentioned earlier in secton3.3.2
can also arise when measuring earth resistance
without an auxiliary earth electrode and without
a probe. Some examples of configurations where problems can arise are shown in figure .
Temporary remedial measures include:
Disconnecting the metal connection between
the earth electrodes as shown in figure b).
Disconnecting the second earth electrode
from the PEN conductor, if permitted by the
owner. The residual influence of the second
earth electrode on the earth resistance measurement is not a disadvantage, as it acts to
improve the performance of the first earth
electrode.
More details can be found in reference [8].

3.5

Stakeless methods (no probe,

no auxiliary earth electrode)
using a clamp-on ohmmeter

This is a variation on the measurement method

described in section3.4. This technique differs
from that shown in figure in that instead of
inserting an earth resistance meter into the earthing conductor, a clamp-on ohmmeter (COM)
is placed around the earthing conductor (see figure ). The clamp-on ohmmeter contains
both a current-to-voltage transformer (a voltage

inducing clamp, VIC) and a current transformer

(a current measuring clamp CMC). Models
available include:
Chauvin Arnoux Earth Clamps C.A 6410,
C.A6412 or C.A64154);
Fluke Earth Ground Clamp Meter 16305).
The meter displays the resistance calculated as
the quotient of the voltage induced by the VIC
in the earthing conductor and the resulting test
current registered by the CMC. In this case the
resistance is the loop resistance Rloop, or more
precisely the loop impedance (see section
3.4.1).
Another solution (no separate diagram provided) involves clamping two split-core current
transformers around the earthing conductor,
one of which functions like the voltage-inducing
clamp VIC while the other corresponds to the
current measuring clamp CMC that measures

4) Induced voltage: approx. 60 mV; frequency:

2403 Hz; inner diameter of clamp jaw: 32 mm.
Data provided without warranty.
5) Induced voltage: approx. 30 mV; frequency:
1667 Hz; inner diameter of clamp jaw: 23 mm.
Data provided without warranty.
6) On its own, the expression selective earth measurement is ambiguous, as other earth resistance
measurement techniques are also selective, e.g.
those presented in sections 3.4, 3.5 and 4.6.

L1
L2
L3
PEN

L1
L2
L3
PEN

L1
L2
L3
PEN
PEN
MEB

ES

ES

IV

I = IE1 + Icpl
IE1 < Icpl
RM < RE1

I = IE1 + Icpl
IE1 < 0
Icpl < I
RM RE1

CMC COM
for
VIC Rloop

UM

Icpl
Icpl

EC

E2

E2

RF

RE

Functional
earth
electrode

Earth
electrode

Rcpl
RE1

RE1

RE2
IE1

IE2

IE12 = 0

IE2 = 0

Method as in figure but with a

a) Small distance and therefore small coupling resistance Rcpl between the earth electrode under
test E1 and a second earth electrode E2 that is connected to the PEN conductor. b) Metallic
connection to a second earth electrode that is itself connected to the PEN conductor.
Icpl current causing measurement error; RE1 earth resistance being measured; RM earth resistance displayed on meter.

3.6

Earth resistance meter

E ES

The earth resistance measurement described in

this section6) is used if the earth electrode under test cannot or should not be disconnected
from other earth electrodes to which it is wired
in parallel. This method is based on the technique using a probe and auxiliary earth electrode
that is discussed in section3.2, but in this variant (see figure a)) a special earth resistance
meter (Fluke 1623 or 1625) and an additional
clamp-on current transformer (CMC) are required. The current measuring clamp CMC is clamped around the earthing conductor EC con-

S H

clamp-on ohmmeter rather than an

earth resistance meter

EC earthing conductor; VIC voltage-inducing clamp; CMC current measuring clamp;

COM clamp-on ohmmeter.

Earthed conductor
e. g. counterpoise

Earth resistance meter

UM
RE =
I

E ES

S H
UM
RE1 =
IE1

Other earth
electrodes

IP

I
IE

CMC

Lattice-type EC
pylon
SCT

EC
RE

Selective earth resistance

measurements using a probe,
an auxiliary earth electrode
and a clamp-on ohmmeter

Test
object
a)

RE < Rloop

RE2

Cases involving a TN system in which the method shown in fig. is not suitable

the test current. The clamps are connected to a

special earth resistance meter (Fluke Earth
Ground Tester 1623 or 1625). Depending on
which of the Fluke meters is used, either EI1623 or EI-1625 selective/stakeless clamp
set is required. The advantage in both cases is
that the earthing conductor does not need to be
disconnected, making measurement safer and
quicker. The problem discussed in section
3.4.2 can also arise in these cases.
If this method is used to make measurements
on consumer installations, they must be designed with a TN earthing system. The method is
suitable for measuring the resistance to earth of
a pylon in an overhead power transmission line
if the clamps can be fitted around the earthing
conductor.

PE N

EC

IV

Auxiliary
Other Probe earth
electrode
earth
electrodes

IP
IE

IE1

IE2

IE3

IE4

RE1

RE2

RE3

RE4

Test object
(pyton stubs)

Auxiliary
Probe earth
electrode

b)

Selective earth resistance measurements using a probe, an auxiliary earth

electrode and split-core current transformers
a) Test object whose earthing conductor can be clamped by a split-core current transformer;
b) Pylon whose legs can be clamped by a split-core current transformer near the foundation
of the pylon
IE part of test current flowing through the earth electrode under test to the auxiliary earth
electrode; IE1 to IE4 parts of IE flowing in the pylon legs and stubs; IP portion of the test
current flowing to the auxiliary earth electrode via the other parallel earth electrodes (current
path through soil not shown in part b) of figure).

L1
L2
L3
N

L1
L2
L3
PEN
RCD

nected to the earth electrode under test and

connected to a multi-pole socket on the earth
resistance meter. When the meter is connected
in this way and the rotary selector switch has
been set appropriately, IP, the portion of the test
current I flowing via the other parallel earth
electrodes, has no effect on measurement result
so that the branch current IE recorded by current measuring clamp CMC is solely responsible for determining the resistance to earth RE
displayed by the meter.
Figure b) shows the measurement circuit
used when dealing with a steel-lattice electricity pylon that cannot be electrically disconnected from the earthed conductor (e. g. counterpoise, PEN conductor or neutral conductor).
As the pylon structure serves as the earthing
conductor EC, it is clearly not possible to clamp
a CMC around the earthing conductor as in figurea). In this case, measurements are made by consecutively clamping a splitcore transformer SCT (Fluke EI-162BN7)) around the four
pylon legs that are connected to the four pylon
stubs that act as earth electrodes. The earth resistance meter displays the resistances RE1 to
RE4 consecutively. The resulting earth resistance RE of the four mast feet, which are connected to one another through the steel lattice
structure, can be calculated by equation (5):
RE =

4
4.1

UM
RE =
I

UM
RE =
I

PE

PE

MEB

MEB

Earth
resistance
meter

Earth
resistance
meter
L

UM

UM

I
V

A
E

I
V

EC

EC
RF

Functional
earth
a) electrode

Probe

RE

RF

RE

Earth
electrode

Functional
earth
b) electrode

Probe

Earth
electrode

Current-voltage methods that draw current directly from the power supply and
that use a probe
a) Installation with TN system; b) Installation with TT system
EC earthing conductor; RCD residual current device; I test current; MEB Main earthing busbar;
RF resistance of functional earth; RE earth resistance being measured; UM test voltage

1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
RE1 RE2 RE3 RE4

(5)

Measurement methods that

draw current from supply

UM
RE =
I

Measuring equipment

The meters used for this type of measurement

are designed primarily for testing electrical
safety systems that make use of residual current devices. To ensure the simplest and safest
connection to the power supply, the meters are
typically equipped with a flexible power cable
and an earthed safety plug. The meters also
have a socket S for the probe (see figures
and 13 ). The socketE is used to connect
the meter to the earth electrode under test unless one of the cores (protective earth core) of
the flexible power cable and the earth contacts
on the plug are used for this purpose. As the test
meters are classified as ClassII equipment (see
ref. [4], sec. 4.5), the core and the plugs
earth contact do not serve as protection against
shock hazards.
The meters do not have their own power source unless this is needed for some other type of
measurement. Some meters may have an additional connector socket for a current measuring
clamp.

L1
L2
L3
N

L1
L2
L3
PEN
RCD

UM
RE =
I

PE

MEB

PE
MEB

Earth
resistance
meter

Earth
resistance
meter
L

EC
UM

UM

I
V

I
V

A
E

A
E

EC
RF

Functional
earth
a) electrode

RE

Earth
electrode

RF

Functional
earth
b) electrode

RE

Earth
electrode

12 Current-voltage methods that draw current directly from the power supply and
that use the PEN or neutral conductor instead of a probe
7) The jaws of the split-core transformer are dimensioned for large rectangular-section conductors
such as the legs of high-voltage pylons.

a) Installation with TN system;

b) Installation with TT system

L1
L2
L3
PEN
U0 UM
Rloop <
I
RE < Rloop

UE < U0 UM

L1
L2
L3
N
U0 UM
Rloop <
I
RE < Rloop

PE

N PE

UE < U0 UM

MEB

Earth
resistance
meter

RCD

Earth
resistance
meter

MEB
L

UM

UM

U0

U0
EC

UM

UM

I
V

A
E

A
E

EC
RF

UE

UE

RE

Functional
earth
a) electrode

RF

Earth
electrode

RE

Functional
earth
b) electrode

Earth
electrode

13 Current-voltage methods that draw current directly from the power supply and
that do not use a probe
a) Installation with TN system; b) Installation with TT system
Rloop loop resistance; U0 conductor-to-earth voltage; UE voltage across tested earth electrode
L1
L2
L3
N
UM
RE =
I

L1
L2
L3
N
UM
RE =
I
UE = UM

RCD
N

MEB

Earth
resistance
meter
L

UM
V I
E

UM
V I
E

A
E

I IP

IP

IE

CMC

EC

Functional Probe
earth
electrode

EC

RE

Earth
electrode

MEB

IE

CMC

RF

PE

Earth
resistance
meter

RF

Other
earth
electrodes

Functional Probe
earth
electrode

RE

Earth
electrode

Other
earth
electrodes

Figures to 14 show the basic principles of the

complicated circuitry inside these meters. In
most of these meters, the actual measurement
process (including any gradual increase in the
test current that may be involved) is carried out
automatically. Rather than displaying the measured voltage and current separately, the resistance to earth is computed and displayed digitally on the meter.
A selector switch enables the type of measurement, measurement technique, measurement
circuit, parameter range and/or measurement
sequence to be chosen. Most meters are fitted
with a START button to initiate the measurement process. User-friendly devices offer additional functions such as:
Multiple measurements with display of average result
Smoothing function
Display hold function
Data storage for transmitting or printing measurement results.
To provide protection against electric shock, the
meter must switch off automatically as soon as
it causes a fault voltage greater than 50V in
the earthing system being measured. If a variable resistor is used to increase the test current,
the current must not exceed 3.5mA at the beginning of the measurement (see ref. [6],
sec.4.7). Measurements in which the test current is increased gradually and measurements
in which the current is only allowed to flow at
maximum strength for a short period are both
common.
The difficulty associated with drawing current
directly from the power supply is that the measurement is made at the supply frequency and
interference currents that originate in the power
supply or that are carried via earth can easily introduce measurement errors. The larger the test
current, the less effect these sources of interference will have. It is therefore expedient to work
with a large test current. However, a large test
current can itself be problematic when the meter is connected behind a residual current device, as it can cause the RCD to trigger. This can
be avoided by using one of the following procedures:
Ensuring that the magnitude of the test current is only half that of the rated residual current IN of the RCD.
Connecting the meter in front of the RCD or
to a circuit that is not equipped with an RCD.
According to the manufacturer Chauvin
Arnoux the patented ALT system used in its
C.A6115N and C.A6456 Earth Clamps
enables these devices to make earth resistance measurements using a larger test current even if connected behind a 30mA RCD.
Whenever interference effects may play a role,
several measurements should be conducted
and the results compared with one another.

14 Selective earth resistance measurement methods that draw current directly from
the power supply and that use a probe and a clamp-on ammeter

4.2

a) Installation with TN system; b) Installation with TT system

IE portion of test current flowing to the earth electrode under test; IF portion of test current
flowing to the other earth electrodes; CMC current measuring clamp

The meter is typically connected to the power

supply via its earthed safety plug. If the plug is

Connections to power supply

and earth electrode

inserted incorrectly, no hazard arises but no

measurement is possible. Although not shown
in the figures, the internal circuitry of most of
the meters only functions if the meter is connected to the phase conductor and to the neutral conductor.
The test current can induce accidental triggering of an upstream RCD. This may need to be
taken into account when connecting the meter
(see discussion in section4.1 above).
Depending on the type of meter used, the earth
electrode to be measured is
either connected directly to socketE of the
meter (see fig. in section2)
or (in most cases) is connected to the meter
via the plugs earth contact as shown in figures to 14 .
Connections between the earth electrode
under test and other earth electrodes would
yield erroneous results. It is for this reason that
when measurements are made on consumer installations with a TN earthing system, the earthing conductor EC has to be separated from the
main earthing busbar MEB (see figures a) to
14 a)) as the latter is connected via the PEN
conductor of the service cable and the supply
network to other earth electrodes. Disconnection is not required in a TT system as the main
earthing busbar is not linked to the neutral line
of the supply network and the connection can
be made as shown in figures b) to 14 b).

4.3

Methods using a probe

This method is the most accurate of the techniques that draw current directly from the supply provided that the probe can be inserted into the soil at a suitable location. A schematic of
the measurement set-up is shown in figure .
The probe has to be located so that it is outside
the sphere of influence of the earth electrode.
The voltage UM between the socketsE and S
generates the test current I in the earth electrode.

4.4

Method using the PEN conductor or neutral conductor

instead of a probe

This measuring techniques can be used whenever it is not possible to insert a probe into the
ground at the right location. In this method (see
figure12 ) the probe is replaced by connecting
socket S of the meter to the PEN or PE conductor in a TN system or to the neutral conductor in a TT system. Caution! The neutral
conductor must be treated as if it is live, even
though it is earthed.
The value displayed by the meter includes the
resistance to earth of the functional earth electrode. This will overestimate the resistance of
the earth electrode and thus yield a value that
errs on the side of safety.
The voltages generated by operating currents
and by fault currents in the functional earth or
in the PEN conductor or neutral conductor of
the power supply system can result in erroneous measurement results. The accuracy of
this technique is therefore lower than that

10

achievable using the method described in

section4.3.

4.5

Method without a probe

This method (illustrated schematically in figure ) involves measuring the resistance of a

conductor loop via an earth return path. In this
method, the voltage across the test object (UE)
is not measured directly. It is determined as the
difference between the potential drop between
the phase conductor and earth when the test resistance is switched off (U0) and that when the
test current I is flowing (UM). The resistance value measured includes the resistances of the
functional earth, the transformer and the phase
conductor. This will result in an overestimation
of the earth resistance and thus yield a value
that errs on the side of safety.
This method is particularly attractive as it can
be performed with a minimum of effort. But it
suffers from the weakness that supply load fluctuations that happen to occur simultaneously
while the measurement is being made will
cause significant additional measurement errors. To limit these errors, it is therefore expedient to work with a large test current. It is also
advisable to perform numerous measurements,
to reject any extreme values recorded and to
compute the mean value from the remaining
measurement data.

4.6

References
[1] IEC 60364-4-41:205 Erection of power installations with nominal voltages up to 1000 V Part
4-41: Protection for safety Protection against
electric shock.
[2] Hering, E.: Schutzerder des TT-Systems (engl.:
Protective earthing in the TT system). Elektropraktiker, Berlin 59 (2005) 5, p.370-373.
[3] IEC 60364-6:2006-02 Low-voltage electrical installations Part 6: Verification.
[4] IEC 61557-1:2007 Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective measures
Part 1: General requirements.
[5] IEC 61557-5:2007 Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective measures
Part 5: Resistance to earth.
[6] IEC 61557-6:2007 Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective measures
Part 6: Effectiveness of residual current devices
(RCD) in TT, TN and IT systems.
[7] IEC 61557-10:2000 Equipment for testing,
measuring or monitoring of protective measures
Part 10: Combined measuring equipment for
testing, measuring or monitoring of protective
measures.
[8] Hering, E.: Probleme mit einem der Erdungsmeverfahren beim TN-System (engl.: Problems
with an earth resistance measurement technique
in a TN system). Elektropraktiker, Berlin 53
(1999) 9, p.820-822.
[9] Hering, E.: Durchgangsprfungen an Erdungsanlagen [Continuity testing in earthing systems].
Elektropraktiker, Berlin 59 (2005) 11, p.888891 und in diesem Sonderdruck.
[10]DIN EN 62305-3 (VDE 0185-305-3):2006-10:
Protection against lightning Part 3: Physical damage to structures and life hazard.

Selective earth resistance

measurements using a probe
and a clamp-on ammeter

The method selective earth resistance measurement8) is used if, for the purposes of the
measurement, the earth electrode under test
cannot or should not be disconnected from other earth electrodes to which it is wired in parallel. It is based on the method using a probe discussed in section4.3, but in this variant (see
figure14 ) a special earth resistance meter
(Chauvin Arnoux C.A.6115N or C.A.6456)
and an additional current measuring clamp
CMC are required. The current measuring
clamp is connected to a multipole socket on the
meter and the clamp jaws are placed around
the earthing conductor EC connected to the
earth electrode under test.
If the meter is connected in this way and if the
rotary selector switch set appropriately, IP, the
portion of the measuring current I flowing via
the other parallel earth electrodes, has no effect
on measurement result so that the branch current IE recorded by the current measuring clamp
CMC is solely responsible for determining the
resistance to earth RE displayed by the meter.

8) On its own, the expression selective earth measurement is ambiguous, as other earth resistance
measurement techniques are also selective, e. g.
those presented in sections 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6.

Continuity testing
in earthing systems
E. Hering, Dresden (Germany)
Continuity tests are carried out to verify that conductors, in this case metal
conductors, are unbroken. This article describes the extent to which continuity
testing in earthing systems is required and possible and also discusses the test
equipment that can be used. In terms of continuity there is no significant difference between the initial test and repeat tests, despite the fact that they are
treated separately in the relevant standards.

1
1.1

Reasons for and limits of

continuity testing
Earthing conductor and
main earthing busbar

The earthing system must be connected to the

main earthing busbar (MEB) of the electrical installation. This is necessary
a) to provide protection against electric shock
([1], sec. 441.3.1; [2], sec. 542.1.2)
b) to provide a connection to earth for overvoltage protection devices even if the building is
not equipped with a lightning protection system ([3], figuresA.1 to A.5)
c) in buildings with a lightning protection system ([4], sections5.4.1, 6.2.1, 6.2.5 and
E.6.2)
d) in buildings with an antenna requiring lightning protection
e) for foundation earth electrodes ([5], sections4 and 5.4).
The conductor between the main earthing
busbar and the earthing system is an earthing
conductor and/or an equipotential bonding conductor (protective bonding conductor and/or
lightning protection bonding conductor).
The continuity of this conductor must be tested
([6], section612.2; [4], sectionE.7.2.4; [5],
section7).

1.2

Ring earth electrodes

Continuity testing on ring earth electrodes is advisable for the following reasons:
a) Earth resistance measurements, which are
required by the applicable standards but are
not dealt with in this article, are unable to detect any break in the ring. While any discontinuity will not lead to an increase in the resistance to earth, it can have a significant detrimental effect on the efficiency of the
voltage protection, as the surge currents are
forced to flow via another path.
b) Repeated continuity testing on older ring
earth electrodes can, if carried out in the form
of resistance measurements, identify reductions in the conductor cross-section (as a result of corrosion) by registering an increased
resistance.
In order for continuity testing to be possible, a
buried ring earth electrode must have at least

two soil entry points, while a foundation earth

electrode must be equipped with at least two
connection points. The more of these hook-up
points there are available, the easier it is to carry out continuity testing.
In reinforced concrete foundations, it is not possible to detect a break in the ring of the foundation earth electrode. This is not dangerous,
however, as the break is effectively bridged by
the steel reinforcing bars within the foundation.
In this case, continuity testing can only serve to
verify that the connection between the connection points and the ring is intact.

1.3

Linear earth electrodes

Continuity testing is not possible with vertical

earth rods and elongated horizontal earth electrodes (star or crows foot configurations) as these electrodes only have a single soil entry point.
If there is a break in the earth electrode near to
where it enters the soil, this may be detectable
as increased earth resistance.

Hazard avoidance

The process of measurement and any accompanying procedures (e.g. breaking standard
connections and making non-standard connections) must not pose a safety hazard. If the
earth electrode also functions as the protective

earthing of a TT or IT earthing system as detailed in [1], its connection to the MEB may only
be broken if the electrical installation has been
disconnected from the power source or power
generator.
Tests that involve breaking connections (e.g.
opening the inspection joint of a lightning protection system) must never be carried out during a storm or whenever a storm could expected. Failure to comply could be hazardous,
particularly for the person doing the testing.
For safety reasons, the use of voltages greater
than 25V should be avoided. Small voltages
are anyway advisable for continuity testing (see
[6], sec.612.2). The testing and measuring
equipment used must comply with the specifications in the relevant standard (see ref.[7]).
Resistance measurements are typically carried
out using equipment that conforms with the
specifications in reference [8]. However, earth
resistance meters that meet the requirements in
reference [9] can also be used.

3
3.1

Test methods
Principles

The person carrying out the test must be

aware of all connections between the earthing
system and other electrical and non-electrical
installations. Examples of the latter include
pipe systems or metallic structural components
of a building. An unknown connection can falsify the test results. The continuity test can be
carried out most simply if the conductor under
test can be disconnected at least on one side.
This assumes, however, that the broken connection can be reliably re-stored after testing.
To facilitate continuity testing on lightning protection systems, it is normal to open the inspection joints at the soil entry points or connection terminals.
Figure illustrates test circuits that can be
used when no other conductor is connected in
parallel to the test object. The continuity tester
shown in figure a) consists of at least a power
source and an indicator, e.g. a lamp. To increase the test current, a resistance can be con-

11

PS

PS

PLC

a)

PLC CAM2

TC

TC

CAM

CAM

b)

G
3

CT

a)

CT

b)

c)

PS

I2
2
CA2
CA1
G
I1
I
PS

I2 I3 = I4 I1
I3
CA4
CA3
3
I4 4

c)

a) Without determining the resistance of the

conductor
b) Resistance of conductor determined by
making an additional voltage measurement
PLC conductor connected in parallel (can
also be a second test conductor)
VM low-voltage voltmeter
CAM position of clamp-on ammeter
CAM2 second position of clamp-on ammeter
when PLC is a second test conductor

Examples of continuity tests when ring

earth electrode is open

nected in parallel to the indicator. According to

the recommendation in reference [6], section612.2, the power source should generate
an open circuit voltage of between 4 and 24V
and the test current should be at least 0.2A.
Some continuity testers produce an acoustic
signal if the resistance measured exceeds a
user-adjustable limit.
In figure b) the resistance is determined
using a milliohmmeter. The advantage of the
four-wire connection shown is that the result of
the measurement is not affected by the resistances of the measuring leads. If a bridge is installed between the connection sockets 1 and
2 or between sockets 3 and 4 or if the meter
only has two sockets and only two measuring
leads are used, the resistances of the leads
must be subtracted from the resistance value
displayed by the meter. In order to measure the
resistance of the leads their ends are connected
together. Instead of using a milliohmmeter an
earth resistance meter can be used as shown in
figure c) provided that the meter has a resistance measuring range down to 0.1, or lower if possible. The remarks made about the meter connections in figure b) apply here analogously.
As indicated in figured), the resistance can
also be measured by means of a clamp-on ohmmeter such as the Earth Clamp1) C.A 6410
manufactured by Chauvin Arnoux. The resistance of the measuring lead needed to close the
circuit must be subtracted from the resistance
value displayed by the meter. If one or more
conductors are connected in parallel to the test
object, the same procedures discussed with regard to figure can be used. A power source
is connected to the ends of the conductor under
test. In figurea) continuity is verified when

a current is detected by a clamp-on ammeter

that is clamped around the conductor under
test TC. If, as shown in figureb), a voltmeter
for measuring small voltages is connected
across the conductor under test, the resistance
of the conductor can be determined by dividing
the measured voltage by the measured current.
Continuity testing is carried out preferentially
with alternating current, e.g. from a transformer
or from an earth resistance meter. If a DC
source is used, then a special type of clamp-on
ammeter is required that contains a current
sensor based on the Hall effect instead of a current transformer.

a) Testing connections 1 and 3 and the left section of the ring

b) Testing connections 2 and 3 and the right
section of the ring
c) Testing the entire ring earth electrode

3.2

3
b)

CT

2
CA2
G

PS

a)

mV VM

Continuity testing circuits that measure the current in a conductor that has
another conductor connected to it in
parallel

12

1
CA1

Continuity testing in ring earth

electrodes that can be opened

This section describes examples of continuity

tests performed on ring-shaped foundation
earth electrodes. Many of these tests can also
be carried out in the same way on buried ring
earth electrodes.
As already mentioned in section 1.2, the ease
of performing a continuity test and the reliability of the results obtained depends on the number and arrangement of connection points or
soil entry points. Being able to open the ring
earth electrode considerably simplifies continuity testing. These factors should be taken into
account when planning the earthing system.
The test circuits shown in figures to can
only be used if the ring can be opened at least
one location. Foundation earth electrodes can
be opened when there are two adjacent, flushfloor connection points that are linked conductively to one another via a bridging strip that
closes the ring. Buried ring earth electrodes
may have an inspection joint located in an underfloor inspection box.

Examples of continuity tests when ring

earth electrode has not been opened
a) Analogous to fig. a);
b) Analogous to fig. b);
c) Four tests on a foundation earth electrode
with a cross connector and four connection
points
I measured current; I1 to I4 partial currents;
CA1 to CA4 positions of clamp-on ammeter

Figure shows the ring opened for testing. In

the test circuits shown in figure continuity
is verified by detecting current in the relevant
parts of the ring by means of a clamp-on ammeter at the bridging strip or the underfloor inspection joint. In the test scenario shown in figure, the resistance of the ring is measured
at the bridging strip or the underfloor inspection
joint using a clamp-on ohmmeter (see Earth
Clamp in section3.1).

3.3

Continuity testing in ring

earth systems that cannot be
opened

If the ring earth electrode has at least four connection points, a break in ring continuity can be
identified by sequentially measuring the resistance between two neighbouring connection
points. The small resistances of the conductors
that run between the point of connection of the
meter leads and the ring have to be subtracted
from the resistance displayed on the ohmmeter.
Although the soil and, in the case of a foundation earth electrode, also the concrete are connected in parallel to the metal conductor, they
have no significant effect on the measurement
result because their resistivity is very much
greater than that of steel.
If the ring is uninterrupted, the resistance measured is that of a parallel circuit comprising the
1) The semicircular jaws of the clamp contain two
transformers. The purpose of one is to induce a
voltage in the conductor, the other measures the
resulting current. The clamp is closed when the
jaws have been placed around the conductor. The
display on the clamp meter displays a resistance
value computed by dividing the value of the induced voltage by the current flowing in the conductor.

If the ring is unbroken, the resistance measured

across any pair of neighbouring connection
points is expressed by equation(4):
COM

Ro = RP

(3 R ) = 3 R
(4 R ) 4
P

(4)

Continuity testing using a clamp-on

ohmmeter positioned at the point COM

If the ring is broken (i.e. open), the resistance

RC measured across the two connection points
enclosing the break will be:

(43)R

Rc = 3
m

OM

Discontinuity

Verifying a discontinuity as an increased resistance resulting from the

longer current path

section of the earth ring enclosed by the measuring leads and the series circuit that makes
up the remaining part of the ring. If the earth
ring electrode is broken at some point between
the measuring leads (see figure ), the resistance measured is that of the remaining part of
the ring. If the measurement is made on one
part of the ring, the resistance of that part alone
is measured.
Example calculation 1
The ring earth electrode has four connection
points. Those parts of the ring located between
the connection points have the resistances
R1R4. If the ring is unbroken, the resistance
RO (O is used here to symbolize the intact
earth ring electrode) measured across the two
connection points that enclose the part of the
ring with the resistance R1 is given by:
1
RE =
(1)
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
RE1 RE2 RE3 RE4
However, if the part of the ring with the resistance R1 is broken, the resistance RC measured
across those same connection points (C is
used here to symbolize a ring with a continuity
break) will now be given by equation(2).
RC = R2 + R3 + R4

(2)

Example calculation 2
Situation as in example calculation 1 but each
of the four sections of the ring has the same resistance RP.
RP = R1 = R2 = R3 = R4

(5)

RC = 3 RP

o=

4Ro

(6)

If the measurement is therefore made across

those connection points enclosing the discontinuity, the resistance measured will be three
times the resistance of the partial resistance RP
and four times the resistance that would be
measured if the ring were unbroken.
If the number of connection points is greater
than four, the same computational methodology can be used with the exception that equations(1) and (2) would then contain additional terms for the additional sections of the ring,
and the factors in equations(4) and (5) would
be larger.
If the earth ring electrode has only two connection points, it may be possible to carry out testing in accordance with figure b) (see section3.1). However, this would require being
able to clamp a clamp-on ammeter around the
two parts of the ring that are connected in parallel to the power source. If this is to be attempted on a buried ring earth electrode, the
clamp can, for instance, be located on each
side of a soil entry point. If the measurement is
an initial measurement, then the earthing channel in the relevant areas must not be backfilled
until the measurement has been made. If the
measurement is a repeat measurement, it can
be carried out, for example, when material has
to be removed from the earthing channel in order to check on the state of corrosion of the
earth electrode.

References
[1] IEC 60364-4-41:2005 Erection of power installations with nominal voltages up to 1000 V Part
4-41: Protection for safety Protection against
electric shock.
[2] DIN VDE 0100-540 (VDE 0100-540):2007-06
Low-voltage electrical installations Part5-54:
Selection and erection of electrical equipment
Earthing arrangements, protective conductors and
protective bonding conductors.
[3] Prestandard DIN V VDE V 0100-534 (VDE V
0100-534):1999-04 Electrical installations of
buildings Part 5-34: Selection and erection of
equipment Devices for protection against overvoltages.
[4] EN 62305-3:2006 Protection against lightning
Part 3: Physical damage to structures and life hazard (IEC 62305-3:2006).
[5] DIN 18014:2007-09 Foundation earth electrodes.
[6] IEC 60364-6:2006-02 Low-voltage electrical installations Part 6: Verification.
[7] EN 61557-1:2007 Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective measures Part
1: General requirements (equivalent to IEC
61557-1).
[8] EN 61557-4:2007 Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective measures Part
4: Resistance of earth connection and equipotential bonding (equivalent to IEC 61557-4).
[9] EN 61557-5:2007 Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective measures Part
5: Resistance to earth (equivalent to IEC 615575).

Test report

Continuity testing is only one of several tests

that have to be performed on earthing systems.
In general, the results from all the tests are contained in a single test report.
The tests performed and any accompanying action that is taken must be described precisely
so that they can be reproduced at a later date.
All test and measurement results must be stated clearly and precisely. If the earth electrode
serves as a lightning protection earth electrode,
the test report must comply with the specifications in reference[4], sec.E.7.2.5.

(3)

13