.

, .

'

2002

/
'

/ &

...

/2002
ISBN: 960-538-207-5
: 30/3
Copyright 2000

& , 26222
: (061) 0314094, 0314206 : (061) 0317244
. 2121/1993


, .

 ,
.

ix

1.1

........................................................................................

1.2

...............................................................

1.3

.............................................. 14

1.4

................................................................ 19

1.5

................................................................. 23

37

2.1

............................................. 38

2.2

.................................. 42

2.3

.................................................................... 45
I................................................................. 53

II

55

57

3.1

.................................................................... 58

3.2

........................................................ 61

67

4.1

..................................................................................... 69

4.2

.......................................................... 72

4.3

........................................ 76

4.4

................................................. 79

95

5.1

................................. 96

5.2

................. 108
vii

viii

5.3

Kleene .......................................................................... 111

129

6.1

..................................................................... 130

6.2

............................... 134
II................................................................ 141

III

143

145

7.1

..................................... 146

7.2

................................................................. 152

7.3

, , Kleene ................................................. 155

165

8.1

..................................................................................... 166

8.2

....................................................................................... 170

8.3

..................................................... 175

189

9.1

............................................ 190

9.2

.................................................................. 197

10

205

10.1 .................................................. 206

10.2 .................................................. 211
III............................................................... 218

- Turing

221

223

229

234

.

.
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, , Alan Turing . ,
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ix

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Turing,
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Turing,
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50, McCulloch Pitt
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xi

xii

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1.1

.
. ,

A = f; ; ; : : : ; !g:
A 2 A.

A, A . d A.
,
2 A.
d 6
A \. . . "
.
,

N = f0; 1; 2; : : :g:

. fxj P (x)g
P (x). ,

fxj x 2 N x 2g;
P (x) \x 2 N x 2".
,
: f, , g,
\"
f, g. : f1; 2; 3g,
f2; 3; 1g f3; 2; 1g . ,

.
fa; f3; gg ,
.

.
fg .

, S

2000, S ,
.
A B A

B, A B A B.
, f1; 2g fa; 1; b; 2g,

fa; b; 1; 3; 4g.
fa; b; 1; 3; 4g, f1; 2g 6
\ "

,
. A
B, A = f1; 2g
B = f1; 2; f1; 2gg. :
1.1

1.1

1. .
2. .

A B
. , A
B B A.
A B

B A.

A0 A

A. ,
,
U ( )
:
A0 = fx 2 U j x 6
2 Ag:
, U
A
, A0
.
A B
,

A [ B A \ B,
A [ B = fx j x 2 A x 2 Bg

A \ B = fx j x 2 A x 2 Bg

( ),

. :
f1; 3; 4; 6g [ f2; 3; 4; 5g = f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g
f1; 3; 4; 6g \ f2; 3; 4; 5g = f3; 4g

. A1 ; A2 ; : : : , A1 ; A2 ; : : :
[
i

Ai = fx j x 2 Ai i 1g;

Ai .
A1 ; A2 ; : : : ; AN
N
\

i=1

Ai = fx j x 2 Ai 1 i N g;

A1 ; : : : ; AN .
, A B A
B:
A B = A \ B 0 = fx j x 2 A x 6
2 Bg:


. A; B C
, 1.1.
1.1.

De Morgan

1.1

A[B =B[A
A\B =B\A
(A [ B) [ C = A [ (B [ C)
(A \ B) \ C = A \ (B \ C)
A [ (B \ C) = (A [ B) \ (B [ C)
A \ (B [ C) = (A \ B) [ (B \ C)
(A [ B)0 = A0 \ B 0
(A \ B)0 = A0 [ B 0
(A0 )0 = A, A \ A0 = A [ A0 = U
A [ = A A \ =

8
1.1

De Morgan,
(A [ B)0 = A0 \ B 0 :

:
1. (A [ B)0 A0 \ B 0
2. A0 \ B 0 (A [ B)0 .
(A [ B)0 A0 \ B 0 . x 2 (A [ B)0 .
, x 6
2 (A [ B). x 6
2 A x 6
2 B x
A B, A [ B. x 2 A0 x 2 B 0 ,
x 2 A0 \ B 0 .
x 2 A0 \ B 0 . x 2 A0 x 2 B 0 ,
. , x 6
2 A x 6
2 B. x
A B, . x 6
2 (A [ B),
x 2 (A [ B)0 .

. (A [ B) A
(A [ B) A

=
=
=
=

1.2

1.2

(A [ B) \ A0

A0 \ (A [ B)
(A0

\ A) [

[ (A0

B\

A0

(A0

\ B)

BA

\ B)

,
(A C) (B C) = (A B) C.

A, A 2A P(A) A. , ,

A = f1; 2; 3g.

2A = f; f1g; f2g; f3g; f1; 2g; f1; 3g; f2; 3g; f1; 2; 3gg;

2A A, A.
A B (a; b), a 2 A b 2 B, A B.
(a; b) (b; a).
, A = f1; 2; 3g B = fa; bg,
fa; bg f1; 2; 3g = f(a; 1); (a; 2); (a; 3); (b; 1); (b; 2); (b; 3)g;

A1 A2 An n-

(a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an ), i, ai 2 Ai .
1.3
;

1.3

2
2 fg
fa; bg fa; b; ffa; bggg
fa; bg 2 fa; b; ffa; bggg
fa; b; fa; bgg fa; bg = fa; bg
fa; b; g = fa; bg
fg fa; b; g =
fag 2fa;fagg
fag 2 2fa;fagg

1.2
.
1.1
f A B
A B.
f; g h
f : A!B
f A B. A
f . a 2 A, f (a) ( f a)
B a a.

f g, A

N :

1. f : N ! N : f (x) = x2
2. g : A ! N : g(x) = x.
f A B,
y B x A
A. ,
,
x 2 N f (x) = 5. ,
f f ,

1.1

10

fy 2 Bj x 2 A f (x) = yg. ,
f
f0; 1; 4; 9; 16; g, g f0; 1; : : : ; Hg, H
.

. f :
1-1

A ! B 1-1, a; a0 2 A

f (a) 6
= f (a0 ). , N
, ,

h : N ! h(x) = x
.

f : A ! B , B

A. h
, :
h0 : ! N h0 (x) = x

, f : A ! B ,

. , h, ,
h .
, f : A ! B ,

y 2 B, x 2 A f (x) = y, f ,

y 2 B, x 2 A f (x) = y, f
. , y 2 B,

x 2 A f (x) = y, f 1 (y),
f 1 B A. f 1 (y) x 2 A
,
f (x) = y. x = f 1 (y)

f (f 1 (y)) = y. , x 2 A, f (f 1 (f (x))) = f (x).

f 1 f :
x 2 A, f 1 (f (x)) = x
y 2 B, f (f 1 (y)) = y

1.2
1.2

f : A !
B f .
f 1 B 2A . f 1 (y)
x 2 A f (x) = y. ,
f : ! N , x 2 y 2 N
,
, f 1 (y), y ,
.

11

1.4
f : N N ! N f (m; n) =
mn. ) . ) f 1 (8); f 1 (16). )
f 1 (2k ), k .
,
.

1.4

,
f : A ! B g : B ! C f (x) 2 B.
g(f (x)). , f; g
f B g(f (x))
C. h : A ! C

f g g f . , f

g
, g f

. , f (x) = log x
g(x) = x2 (g f )(x) = (log x)2 , (f g)(x) = log x2 .

f; g; h. hgf

: f (x). g
g(f (x)), h h(g(f (x))).

. , ,
, .
,
.
\ "
. f : A ! B
f A B x 2 A,
y 2 B (x; y) 2 f . y x
f (x).

A B
x 2 A y 2 B.

, A
B, B A.

A B. (x; y)
, x \" y. R

A B (x; y) xRy

12

(x; y) 2 R.
1.3
1.3

.
\=" x = y (x; y) 2 =. =
N N , N , f(0; 0); (1; 1); (2; 2); : : :g.
, N N
f (0; 1),
(0; 2), (1; 2),
(0; 3), (1; 3), (2; 3),
...g
\<".

. R A A.

1. R , ,
x 2 A, xRx.
.

2. R , x y A xRy,
yRx. ,
,
, .
\" , x y, y
x.
f(x; y) j x y g.

3. R , (x; y)
(y; x) R, xRy x 6
= y,
yRx. f(x; y) j x
yg.

4. R , x; y z A xRy
yRz, xRz. \<".
x < y y < z, x < z.

5. , R ,
. \=".
1.5

1.5

A . R A
,
(a; b) R, a
b. R; ; ;
; ;

13

R A A . x A,

[x]R ( [x] )
x,

[x]R = fa 2 AjaRxg;
a x.
R A,
A :
1. ,
2.
3. A.
1.1. R A.
R A.
:
.
[x] [x] a 2 A
aRx. )
, ) )
A .
) , [x]
x.
xRx. ) . [x]
[y]. ,
z. xRz zRy. R
xRy yRx, R . w
[x]. wRx,
wRy . z [y],
[x] [y]. [y] [x].
[y] = [x], .
,
.
.
) a 2 [a], ,
A .

1.6
. fA1 ; A2 ;
: : : ; An g A R A
: (a; b) R, a b
. R .

1.6

14

1.3
,

.
:
( )
.
,
. ,
,
. \"
, ,
.

, .
0 < 1 , 1 < 0 .
x < 5 x. x
f0; 1; 2; 3; 4g

. .

.
.
\ ."
, .
.

U ,
.
\p ) q"

p q , p q ( p ) q),

q p. \
0 C" \ ".
p = \2 < 3" q = \ " p q,

\p , q"

. p q ( p , q),

. \

1967" \ 33 2000" .

. (

15

^), p ^ q ,
p q .
. p ^ q T ()

\p ^ q"

1.2. p ^ q
p
F
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p^q
F
F
F
T

,
p q .
F ().
\ ."
.
( _), p _ q ,
p q , 1.3.

\p _ q"

,
\ ."
\ " .
1.3. p _ q
p
F
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p_q
F
T
T
T

, ( :)

. :p ( p) , p

.
, 1.1 [; \ 0 () ^; _
:, .
U ;

!. p ! q \ p, q".

\p ! q"

16

; p ! q ,

p q .
p ! q :

1. p . p ! q
q .
2. p . p ! q
p.
.
1.4
1.4

p q \ " \
". \ ,
". ;
, ( p
q ). ,
,
( p q ).
,
(p );
,
. p ! q
: p q.

.
1.4. p ! q
p
F
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p!q
T
T
F
T

(p ! q) , (:p _ q);
. , ,
p ! q
,
. \p
q". :
p q
q p
p q
q p

17

,

\)" \!". p; q ,
p ) q

, \x = 2"
\x2 4 = 0". \!" (
^, _) ,

.
! }

p } q , p
q .

p = \ "
q = \ 2001 "
p ! q

, p )

q. ! ) ,

. \"
p ! q, 1.20.

, p $ q \p

q" (p ! q) ^ (q ! p).

\p $ q"

, p q

.
p ! q q ! p

.
1.7

.
((p ^ q) _ (
p ^ q)) ! p
,
.
p
F
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p^q

p ^ q

(p ^ q) _ (
p ^ q)

((p ^ q) _ (
p ^ q)) ! p

1.7

18

, p ! q

, p q.
p , q p ) q.

p ! q

, q,
p, ( p).
,
1.1 .
:

1.5
1.5

m n . :
\ mn , m n ."
.
m , m = 2k + 1
k.
p ! q , p =\
mn " q =\ m n ".
, , ( p),
m n ( ) (
q). n . n = 2l l.
,
mn = (2k + 1)(2l) = 2(2kl + l)
mn
2t, t = 2kl + l.
.

. , .

p ! q. p ,
, q .

1.6

19

m; n.
,

1.6

\ m n , mn ."
,
p = \ m n " q = \ mn
". ( p).
k; l m = 2k +1 n = 2l +1.
t mn = 2t + 1. mn.
mn = (2k + 1)(2l + 1) = 4kl + 2k + 2l + 1 = 2(2kl + k + l) + 1 = 2t + 1
t = 2kl + k + 1. q ,
.

1.5 1.6
m n.
\ mn , m n
."
.

.

p ! q :q ! :p.
.

: \ , "
\ , ". :
p!q

,
,
,
,

:p _ q
q _ :p
:(:q) _ :p
:q ! :p

:
!

. \ " p ! q
:q :p .

.

1.4

. -

20

,
.
,
0 1. ,

a; b 0; 1 . ,

,
.

, .
.
fa; bg, ab,
abbb, bb bbaabb.
, .

.
.
.
u; v; w; x; y
z. , x abbba.
To x
, jxj. jabbbaj = 5, jbj = 1 jj = 0.

. = fa; bg,
fa; bg = f; a; b; aa; ab; ba; bb; aaa; aab; aba; abb; : : :g
.

. , ,
. :
, ,
. fa; bg

fg

fx 2 fa; bg j jxj g

fx 2 fa; bg j x ag

fx 2 fa; bg j x a bg
, ,
, . L0

21

L L.

. . x y

, x y, x y xy,
x
y. , abb = abb, aaa bbb = aaabbb,

make peace = makepeace. x

y, x y, z; w 2 ,
, y = zxw.

.
L1 L2 ,

\L1 L2 "

L1 L2 , L1 L2 ,
L1 L2 = fxy j x 2 L1 y 2 L2 g:
, L1 =f, g, L2 =f, , g,
L1 L2 =

f, gf, , g =

f, , ,
, , g

, L k 0,
k

}|

L = LL : : : L
k L. k = 0, L0 = fg, ,

L , k
k ,
k.

Kleene L

L . L

\L "

L,

1
[

Lk

k=0

= fx 2 j x = x1 x2 xk ; k 0 x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk 2 Lg
.
1.7
L , L = .
k 0 x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk 2 L, k = 0,
. L .

1.7

22

, L+ \L+ "

L,
L+ =

1
[

Lk

k=1

= fx 2 j x = x1 x2 xk ; k 1 x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xk 2 Lg
1.8

1.8

1. , L L+ L . L+ = L ;
2. L1 ; L2 fa; bg (L1 [ L2 ) 6
= L1 [ L2 .

L. ,
L
.
:
L1 = fab; bbg [ fbgfaa; bg
L2 = fx 2 fa; bg j a x g
,
L1 . ,
L2 :
a .
:
L3 = fx 2 j k; l; m 2 N f0g; kjxj + ljxj = mjxj g.
x, jxj = n,
k; l; m k n + ln = mn .
Fermat: mn
k; l . Fermat
Arithmetica: \
,
,
. ,
".

Andrew Wiles1 1994 Fermat :
. L3
!
1

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/proof/wiles.html

23

L3
,
.
,
.


.
1.9
, (, , Kleene),
:

1.9

1. L1 = fx 2 fa; bg j jxj g.
2. L2 = fx 2 fa; bg j x a,
g.

1.5
( ) G(V; E) (
) V ( ) E,

. 1.1().
V 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6 E
,
.
. , ,
(1; 3) (3; 1).
2

6
3

()

()

1.1. : ) )
,
(v1 ; v2 ; : : : ; vk ); k 1,

, ,
(vi ; vi+1 ) E, 1 i < k. To

24

1
2

1.2.

,
k 1. , a1 = ak , .

(1; 2; 4; 5) , (2; 4; 5; 2)

.
G(V; E) ,
. (u; v) E,
u v
(v; u). (u; v) E, u , v
. 1.1().

. R A A,
,

A (a; b)
. 1.1()

R = f(1; 2); (1; 3); (2; 2); (2; 3); (2; 4); (3; 2); (4; 3)g

, :
1.
.
2. ( )
.
,
1.2. ,
. 2, 3, 5 ,

4, 6, 7 . (u; v) , u
, v . 3 5
1.
. 1.2 ,
7. u
u.
, 4 . ,
.

, A,
.
1.1 ;
)
) fg
) fa; bg 2 fa; b; c; dg
) fa; bg ffa; bgg
) fa; bg 2 2fa;bg
) fa; bg 2fa;bg
) 2fa;bg 2fa;b;cg
) fa; b; g = fa; bg
1.2 :
) A [ (B A)

) A (A B)

) (A0 \ B 0 )0

) (A \ B) A
1.3 :
) A \ (A [ B) = A
) A [ (A \ B) = A
) A (B \ C) = (A B) [ (A C)

25

26

1.4 A; B; C
, .
) fxj x A B g
) fxj x A; B; Cg
1.5
) 2
) 2fa;b;cg 2fa;bg
) fag fb; cg f1g
1.6 f : N N ! N f (m; n) =
m + n. f 1-1 , f 1 (10)
f 1 (k). f 1 (k);

1.7 S f 2S <
A \ B = , f (A [ B) = f (A) + f (B)
A; B 2 2S .
) f () = 0
) f (A [ B) + f (A \ B) = f (A) + f (B)
1.8 (a; b) fa;b :
< ! < fa;b (x) = ax + b, x 2 <.
(a; b) fa;b ;
;
2

1.9 f g, h g, h (g f ) (h g) f , f = 2x, g = ex
h = x3 <.
1.10 f : A ! B g : B ! C h : A ! C
g f . h
) , ) , ) .

1.11 R = f(1,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (4,2)g S = f(1,3), (1,5),

(2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3), (4,4), (5,1), (5,5)g

f1; 2; 3; 4; 5g.

27

) R; S , .
)
1.5. ;
) R [ S R \ S.

,
1.12 R A A A.
.
, , .
1.13 f A B R
: a; b 2 A, aRb f (a) = f (b).

1.14 R A A , ,
.
f(x; y)j x yg
(
). R A A ,
a 2 A (b; a) 2 R b = a. ( )
:

) R = f (1,1), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,3), (4,3), (4,4)g A = f1; 2; 3; 4g.

) R A .

1.15
1.5. ;
1.16 a n b ( a b modulo n),
a b n, a b = kn,
k. n .

1.17 n .
1.18 S, R :
R = f(A; B)jA; B 2 2S A Bg
S ,
R;

28

1.19 R A.
B f : A ! B, a; b 2 A
aRb f (a) = f (b)
1.20 .
) .
) , .
)
.
) ,
.
) ,
.
1.21 ;
) 1 + 1 = 3, 2 + 2 = 4.
) 2 + 2 = 3 1 + 1 = 0.
) 1 + 1 = 2 2 + 2 = 4.
) 3 + 3 = 6 2 + 2 = 3.
) 1 + 1 = 3 2 + 2 = 5.
= 0.
) 3 2 = 1 2 6
1.22
.
) (p ! :q) ^ p
) :q ! :p

) (p ! q) ! q

) (p ! q) ^ (q ! r)
) p ^ (p ! q)

) p ! (:p ! q)
1.23 p _ q _ r _ s (:p ^ :q) ! (:r ! s)
.

29

1.24 m n :
\m + n m
n "
1.25 i; j n , ij = n, i
p
j n.

p
n

1.26 A; B C , A \ B = C B,
A \ C = .

1.27 L1 ; L2 L1 L2 , L1 L2 .
1.28 = fa; bg L = fx 2 j a

b xg, , ,
L = .

1.29 L
) L = (L ) = (L+ ) = (L )+ ,
) L = L = ,
) fg = fg.
1.30 L = fa; bag ;
1.31
(, , .)
) L1 = fx 2 fa; bg j x bg
) L2 = fx 2 fa; bg j jxj g

) L3 = fx 2 fa; b; cg j x acg

.
.
, ,
.

30

,
. U .
. f
A B x A
B, x f (x).
f , A
B. H f , B
,
x A. , f .
f
f 1 . y B f 1 (y) x A
f (x) = y.
x A y B,
R
B. x y xRy.
R , x ,
xRx. H R , xRy, yRx. H R
, xRy yRz, xRz. ,
,
R , .
R.
x, [x], y
x R.

. p
. , , : : : ,
^, _, : !,
. p; q , p ^ q
. O p _ q ,

. :p p , p ! q
, p q .

p ! q :
p q.

. .
q p .
:q ! :p p ! q,

. , ,

q .

. ,

.
.
L1 L2 L1

Kleene L
L, L.

\" L2 .

.

,
. . ,

.
, .
.
, .

. ,
: )
)
.

1.1 A B,
A B. A B,
A B.

1. B A. A
A, A A.
2. S . ,
S; ,
. , , S.
\"
. , .
1.2 1.1
:

31

32

(A C) (B C)

= (A \ C 0 ) (B \ C 0 )
=

(A \ C 0 ) \ (B

(A \ C 0 ) \ (B 0

= ((A \

=
=
=

C 0)

De Morgan

[ C)

\ B 0 ) [ ((A \ C 0 ) \

(A \ (C 0

\ B 0 )) [ (A \

(A \ (B 0

C 0 )) [

(A \ (B 0

\ C 0 )0

\
\

C 0 )) [ (A \

(C 0
)

C)

\ C))

= (A \ (B 0 \ C 0 ))

= ((A \

B0) \ C 0)

= ((A B) C)

1.3 1.5.
1.5. 1.3

2
2 fg
fa; bg fa; b; ffa; bggg
fa; bg 2 fa; b; ffa; bggg
fa; b; fa; bgg fa; bg = fa; bg
fa; b; g = fa; bg
fg fa; b; g =
fag 2fa;fagg
fag 2 2fa;fagg

p
p

p
p

p
p
p
p
p

,
, ( ) .
,
.
,
.
. ,
fa; b; fa; bgg.

, ffa; bgg.

. fa; b; g
= fa; b; g \ 0 = fa; b; g \ U = fa; b; g.
.

. 2fa;fagg =
f; fag; ffagg; fa; faggg, fag . ,
a 2fa;fagg .
.
, , .
, ,
. , .
.
1.4 ) 1-1. ,
k m1 ; n1 , m2 ; n2 ,
m1 n1 = m2 n2 = k. .
10. 2 5 1 10. f
1-1. , k 2 N
. . k
1 k f .

) 1.2. f 1 (k) (m; n),

k. f 1 (8) = f(1; 8); (2; 4); (4; 2); (8; 1)g

f 1 (16) = f(1; 16); (2; 8); (4; 4); (8; 2); (16; 1)g.

) f 1 (2k ) (2i ; 2ki ), i

0 k. jf 1 (2k )j = k + 1.
1.5 R a
aRa, a
. . R
. a
b, aRb, b.
.
(a; b); (b; a) R.
. , . a
b b c, a c.
, a b c,
a c. , aRb bRc, aRc.
. -

, .
.
1.6 a
Ai , aRa . ,
, aRb, a b ,

33

34

bRa. , R . a
b b c, a; c
. ,
.
1.7 ^; _ !.
p
F
F
T
T

q
F
T
F
T

p
T
T
F
F

q
T
F
T
F

p^q
F
F
F
T

p ^ q (p ^ q) _ (
p ^ q)
T
T
F
F
F
F
F
T

((p ^ q) _ (
p ^ q)) ! p
F
T
T
T

. ,
.
. p ^ q
, p _ q , p ! q
p q .

p _ q,

.
p ^ q)) ! p p _ q .
((p ^ q) _ (
1.8
1. L L+ ,
L L+ L0 , fg. L

, L+
L , L+ .

2. L1 = fag L2 = fbg. (L1 [ L2 )

, L1 [ L2
a b.

1.9
. = fa; bg.
1. x L1 . x
, x
. L1 faa; ab;
ba; bbg . L1 = () .
2. M1 , a. a

b,
. M1 fagfbg+ fag.
b ,
M1 = fbg fagfbg+ fagfbg . M1
fagfbg M2 a,

. L2
M1 [ M2 . M1 (fg [ fagfbg ).
, .
.
.

35

36

.
,

.
set

composition

complement
union

relation

intersection

reflexive

difference

symmetric

commutative

transitive

associative

equivalence

distributive

partition

powerset

equivalence class

Cartesian product
n- ordered n-tuple

argument
contradiction

function

contrapositive

domain
range

language

image

string

one to one

concatenation

onto
bijection

directed graph

inverse

// node/vertex/edge

,
. ,


.

:
,
,
,

.

37

38

.

. ,
, .
, . ,

.

2.1
1.3
.
,
.

N
.
N .
2.1
2.1

N 1,
1 + 2 + 3 + + N = N (N + 1)=2:

,
,
.
N
.
N .
N
N
N
N

= 1:
= 2:
= 3:
= 4:

1
1+2
1+2+3
1+2+3+4

=
=
=
=

1(1 + 1)=2
2(2 + 1)=2
3(3 + 1)=2
4(4 + 1)=2

1 + 2 + 3 + 4
.
1+2+3 , 3(3 +1)=2,
4. N = 4
3(3 + 1)=2 + 4 = 4(3=2 + 1) = 4 5=2 = 4(4 + 1)=2

N . ;

N ,
N
, .
N ,
N = K. N = K
N = K + 1.
1 + 2 + + K + (K + 1) = (1 + 2 + + K) + (K + 1)

= K(K + 1)=2 + (K + 1) ( N = K)
= (K + 1)(K=2 + 1)
= (K + 1)(K + 2)=2
= (K + 1)((K + 1) + 1)=2

N = K + 1
N = K. K ,
N .
.
, N = 1; 2; 3.
N = K, N =
K + 1. N = 2 N = 3 .

. ,
.
: , N = 1 ,
N = K N = K + 1. .
N
,
.
N ,
. :
\ N 26 56 "
N = 1; : : : ; 999999 N = 1000000
.
1000000 1000001
.

,
,

,

39

40

...
K

K+1

...

...

2.1. \ "

. ,
,

N , .

P (N)
N , N0 .
,
:
: N0 .
P (N0 ).
: P (K)
K N0 .
: P (K + 1),
.
,
2.1.
, ,
, .
: ) )
K, K K + 1.
.
P
P (K) P (K + 1).
,
. ,
,

41

.
.
2.2
A; B jAj > jBj.
,
A B. ,
A B A
.
:
n \" m < n \",
.

:
B N . P (N )
:
\ N B A
jAj > jBj,
A B."
: N = 1. B
jAj > 1. f : A ! B,
A
B. f .
: P (K)
K 1. f : A ! B,
jBj = K jAj > jBj, f .
: jBj = K + 1, jAj > jBj f : A ! B
. b 2 B
f 1 (b).
, jf 1 (b)j 2 (
1.2), f
.
jf 1 (b)j 1. f 1 (b) b
A B g : A0 ! B 0 ,
A0 = Af 1 (b), B 0 = B fbg, f
. g ; ,
jB 0 j = K, jA0 j > jB 0 j, .
a1 ; a2 2 A0 g(a1 ) = g(a2 ). f (a1 ) = f (a2 )
f .

N ,

2.2

42

.
.
:
(N 1)(N + 1) = N 2 1
,

. P (K + 1)
.
2.1

2.1

, n 2,
p1
1

p1
2

+ +

p1
n

>

p
n

2.2

2.2

n3 + 2n, n 1,
. .

2.2
,
, .
:
2.3
2.3

P (N ) :
\ N 8,
."
. 8
5 + 3, . ,
, K 8
. K + 1;
P (K) K + 3 K + 5
, K + 1.
,
P (K 2) P (K 4) 3 5 ,
P (K + 1).

.
: P (K + 1),
P (K), P (N0 ), P (N0 +

43

1),. . . , P (K).
.

P (N )
N N0 .
:
: N0 .
P (N0 ).
: K N0 ,

P (N ) N K,
N0 N K.
: P (K + 1),
.

2.3.
2.3
( ) P (N ) :
\ N 8,
."
: N = 8.
5 + 3, .
: K 8 P (N )
8 N K.
: P (K + 1)
P (K 2). K 2
, K +1, K +1 = (K 2)+3.
P (K 2) .
: N 8, K 2 8 K 10.
P (N ) K 8,
K = 8 K = 9 .
,
K = 8: K + 1 = 9 3 + 3 + 3.
,
K = 9: K + 1 = 10 5 + 5.

K N0 .
K + 1 = 9,

2.3

44

K 2 = 6 .

K + 1 = 10.
.

\" ,
2.6.

.
2.4
2.4

N
.
Sort (List[1..N ])
// List[1..N ]
f
if (N 1)
return (List);
else
return (Merge (Sort(List[1..bN=2c]), Sort(List[bN=2c+1..N ])));
g
, List[1..N ] N , Merge
(List1, List2) ,
, . , Merge(f1; 4; 7; 10g,
f2; 5; 8g) = f1; 2; 4; 5; 7; 8; 10g.
Sort : , . ,
. ,
List[1::bN=2c ] List[bN=2c + 1::N] ( bN=2c
N=2) , Merge, .
Sort
N 1.
N . Merge ,
Sort.
: N = 1, Sort ( )
.
: K 1 N , 1 N K, Sort
N .
: K + 1 .
K +1 2, Sort Sort(List[1..b(K +1)=2c]) Sort(List[b(K +
1)=2c+1..(K +1)]). b(K +1)=2c, K +1b(K +
1)=2c. ,
. Merge,
.

45

;
: ,
P (K + 1)
,
N = K N .
.


.
.
2.3
1 ,
1. , N 2
.

2.3

2.3

, .
.
N0 . N = K,
N = K + 1.
2.1
,
. , :

.
. .
:
1. .
2. a 2 , a
.
3. x 2 a 2 , axa
.
4. ,
.

2.1

46

.
,
. ,
, ;
w .
N = jwj w .
: , N = 0, w = , w
1.
: K 0 x N , 0 N K
.

:
w K + 1. : K = 0, K + 1 = 1, w
,
.
2. K 1, K + 1 2, w
axa, a 2 x 2 .

x; x K 1 0 ,
w .

x . w
3.
,


. ,
N
.

.
2.2
2.2

w ( wR )
, w ,
. , R = .
.
1. w , wR = w = .
2. w = xa, a 2 x 2 , wR = (xa)R = axR .

47

x y, (xy)R =
y R xR . ()R = R R = .
y. P (N ) :
\ x; y 2 jyj = N , (xy)R = y R xR ."
P (N ) N 0.
: , N = 0, y = ,
(xy)R

=
=
=
=
=

(x)R
xR
xR
R xR
yR xR

( x = x)
( xR = xR )
( 1 , = R )

: K 0 x; y 2 ,

jyj = K, (xy)R = y R xR .

: , x; y 2 jyj = K + 1, (xy)R =

y R xR . jyj = K + 1 1 y za,
a 2 jzj = K. ,
(xy)R

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

(x(za))R
((xz)a)R
a(xz)R
az R xR
(az R )xR
(za)R xR
y R xR

( )
( 2 )
( (xz)R )
( 2 )

2.4
L f0; 1g :
1. 0 10 L.
2. x 2 L, x0 2 L.
3. x 2 L, x10 2 L
4. L, .
L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x 0 11g.

2.1 L = faaa; aaaaaaag. faN j N 12g L .

2.4

48

2.2 T n , n 1 .
2.3 ,
. h
2h+1 1 .
2.4 A
2jAj , jAj A.
2.5 N 0,
) 12 + 22 + + N 2 = N (N + 1)(2N + 1)=6,
) 1 2 3 + 2 3 4 + + N (N + 1)(N + 2) = N (N + 1)(N + 2)(N + 3)=4,
= 1.
) x0 + x1 + + xN = (xN +1 1)=(x 1), x 6
2.6 \"
. ;
: .
:
K .
: K + 1 .
a.
K, , , .
a b.
K, .
a b,
.
2.7 jxj, x.
x; y
) jxyj = jxj + jyj,
) jxk j = kjxj, k 0.
2.8 , x
) (xR )R = x,
) (xk )R = (xR )k .

49

2.9 2.4. Sort N Sort

N=2 , Merge
. T (N ) Sort N ,

T (N ) = 2 T (N=2) + c N
c N (;) Merge,
c. , N , N = 2M ,
T (N ) N (cM + 1) = N (c log2 N + 1)
,
2.10 n ,
A; B; C, (
).
A B C ,

. T (n) , T (n)
n .
: .
2.11 Ln , n . ,
, L1 = 2,
, L2 = 4, .
2.12 Fibonacci:
F0 = 0
F1 = 1
Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 ; n > 1
Fn =

p1 (n
5

^n ), = (1 +

p
p
5)=2 ^ = (1 5)=2.

,
,
.

50

P N
N0 .
P (N0 ),
P (K) K N0
P (K + 1),
.
P (K +1), P (K)
N . .
,
.
,
.

2.1
: p11 + p12 >
p
p
1 > 22 2 > 2, .

p
2 1+

p
2
2

>

p
2

: n = k,
p
p11 + p12 + + p1k > k.
:
p
1
1
1
1
p + p + + p + p
> k+1
k+1
1
2
k
k ,
p
p
p
1
1
> k + 1,
k + pk+1
. k + pk+1
.
p p
p
k + 1 k k + 1 + 1 > k + 1
p p
k k + 1 > k k(k + 1) > k2 ,
. k + 1 > k,
.
2.2 n 1, n3 + 2n 3.
: n = 1 13 + 2 = 3,
3.

: n = k, k3 + 2k
3. m k 3 + 2k = 3m.
: (k +
1)3 + 2(k + 1).
(k + 1)3 + 2(k + 1) = (k + 1)2 (k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
= (k2 + 2k + 1)(k + 1) + 2(k + 1)
= k3 + 3k 2 + 3k + 1 + 2(k + 1)
= (k3 + 2k) + (3k2 + 3k + 3)
= 3m + 3(k 2 + k + 1) ( )
= 3(m + k 2 + k + 1)
3.
, . , .
3.
.
2.3 , ,
N 2 .
: 2 , N = 2.
: K 2 N
2 N K, N

: K +1. K +1
, . ,
, P; Q
1 K + 1, K + 1 = P Q.
1 K + 1.
.
, K + 1 = P Q, K + 1
.
, . ,
. ,
,
.

51

52

2.4 L f0; 1g

M = fx 2 f0; 1g j x 0
11g.
1. 0 10 L.
2. x 2 L, x0 2 L.
3. x 2 L, x10 2 L.
4. L .
L M . 1, 2, 3
0 3
1 1. M L,

L = M . ,
x, jxj 1, x M ,

, L.
: jxj = 1, x = 0 x 1.
: k 0 x 2 M jxj k,
L.
: x 2 M , jxj = k + 1,

L. x 2 M ,
x = y0, jyj = k y 11. y = ,

x = 0, 1. y 0,
, , y 2 L, x = y0
L, 2. y 1

x = z10 z jzj < k. z

1, x 11.
z = , z 0 11.
x = 10, L
1. , z 2 L,
x = z10 3.

, . . .
x .
x y0 z10,
. 2
3 . ,
.

Induction
Basis
Inductive Hypothesis
Inductive Step
Strong Induction
Pigeonhole Principle
recursive definitions
palindrome

I
Epp, S. S. Discrete Mathematics with Applications, PWS Publishing Company,
Boston, 1995.
Knuth, D. E. Concrete Mathematics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1990.
Liu, C. L. Combinatorial Mathematics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980.
Polya, G. Induction and Analogy in Mathematics, Princeton University Press, 1954.
Stoll, R. R. Set Theory and Logic, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1963.

.
Epp. Liu


. .
Knuth,
.

Polya. ,
Stoll.

.

53

54

\ " \Discrete Mathematics".

1
L.
L.
, Kleene, .
. :
L1 = fab; bbg [ fbgfaa; bg

L2 = fx 2 fa; bg j x g

L1 fab; bbg fbgfaa; bg ,

,
L2
:
.
: .

,
, , , ( ),
.
II
, .

.

56

,
. ,
.

.
,
\" . ,
,
.

: ,
.
,

.
, III
\" , .

,
,
,
. .
.

:
,
,
Kleene,

,
,
.

57

58

. ,
.
,
.

3.1
,

.
,
;
,
;
,
,
.
.
3.1
3.1

L = fx 2 fa; bg j x ba bg. L
:
fa; bg fbagfa; bg fbg
ba (
fa; bg ) b (
fbg).

, ,

f; g; [; , .
f; g; [

(; ); + . ,

L = (a + b) ba(a + b) b
fa; bg = (a + b),

. , ab ,
a b.
, fa; ab; abb; abbb; : : :g,
b .

59

.
,

.
3.1

,
, ,
:

3.1

1. .
2. fg.
3. a 2 , a
fag.
4. r s Lr Ls ,
(rs), (r + s) (r )
Lr Ls , Lr [ Ls Lr .
5. ,
.
,
,
,
.

. a (a + )
,
. (a(ab)) ((aa)b).

.
4,
a + ba (a + b)a a + (ba).

, .

a + ba a + (ba).
a + b + c, ,
, (a + b) + c.
(r2 ) (rr), (r3 ) ((rr)r)
(r+ ) ((r )r). , r s
. a (a + )

(a+ b + b)

a b.

3.1
(a b ) (a + b) .

3.1

60

.
3.1.
, Kleene.
: L1 L2
, L1 [ L2 , L1 L2 L1 .
,
.

3.2

3.2

3.1.

3.1 , L1
L2 , L1 [ L2 .

. ,
,
.
3.2. .
: L
, N 0,
.
N
.
: N = 0, L = ,
3.1, .
: K 0 L
K .

3.3

3.3

: , jLj = K +1, L .
, L
L1 [ L2 , L1 K
L2 .
r1 L1 .
L2 r2 ( 3.2),
3.1, (r1 [ r2 )
L1 [ L2 .

61

3.2
,
. .
3.2

,
L = f0; 1g,
. L , ,
,
;
,
,

L.

3.2

x = 1110111011111000111110
x 2 L. x
:
B

z }| {
z}|{ z }| {
x = |{z}
111 01110 11111
00 0111110

| {z }
A

x A
B. ,
. L
Kleene A B, L = (A + B) .
A B 1 01 0 ,
:
L = (1 + 01 0)
L . 1
1, Kleene.

L = (1 + 01 0) .

, ,
,
.
3.3
L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x 1 00g.
L :
0 1 0;
0 0. 0
1, 0 01.
1, L
2 L.
R = (1 + 01)+ 6

3.3

62

R, LR , L.
LR L L LR .

, LR
00. L
R.
.
3.4
3.4

.

. L = fa, b ,...,
w, A, B,..., Wg D = f0; 1; : : : ; 9g,

L(L + D + )7
.
,
L(L + D + ) .

3.4

3.4

00 (o 000 00).

3.5

3.5

L, 110.

,
3.1
;
3.2 N 0
.

3.3 ;
) (a + b ) \ (ab + ba + b a + (a b) ) =
) a b \ b a = a + b
) 0 1 \ a b =
) (r + s) = r + s

3.4 , L
= f0; 1g:
) 2 L. x L, x1, 0x L.
) ; 0; 00 L. x L, x1,
x10, x100 L.
,
L .
3.5 = f0; 1g. L,
) O L 0.
) O L 0.
) L 111.
) L 00 11.
) O L 01 010.
) L = fx 2 j x 0 1
x 0 1 1
0g.
3.6 :
) fx 2 f0; 1g j x

2g.

) fx 2 f0; 1; :::; 9g j x ,

5g.

3.7 :
) (11 + 0) (00 + 1)
) 0 1(0 10 1) 0
) 0 1(0 + 1)
) (00 + 01 + 10 + 11)
3.8 :
) (r + s) = r (sr )
) (r + s) = (r s )

63

64

3.9 3.8(),
,
(r1 + r2 +
+ rn ) n 1, ri
+.

,
3.10 r . ,
a 2 ra ,
.

3.11
.
3.12 L LR = fxR j x 2 Lg.
s abb(abaa + ba) (aaab) Ls
,
LR
s.
3.1, s, ,
Ls .

.

.
, , ,
.
,
normalfont.

3.1 = fa; bg. r = (a b )

s = (a+b) . Lr Ls .
, Lr Ls Ls Lr .
,

. x 2
a b.
a b .
x Kleene.

( x b, b
b , , x a,
a .)
3.2 L1 L2 r1 ; r2
. L1 [ L2 , L1 L2
L1 . (r1 + r2 ),
(r1 r2 ) r1 , 3.1, .
3.3

.
r, Lr
.

r.
: r , a 2 ,

Lr .

: k 0

n, 0 n k,
, .

: , r
k + 1 , .
r. (+),
(), r . , r
r1 + r2 r1 r2 , r1 , r2
. r
.
, . , .
\" .
Kleene.
3.4 L
00.
L 00
. l . l

0, 000. 0
1, l = (1 + 01) . ,
r ,

65

66

0. r = (1 + 10) .
L (1 + 01) 00(1 + 10) .
:

.
, .
. .
3.5 L
110. 110
, 11 1,
0. , 110
11 ( 0)
1 .
(0 + 10) . L (0 + 10) 1 .
. ,
,
. .
,
.

regular expression
regular language

. ,
,


.

:
,

,

,

,

,

,
67

68

L,

-
,
,
,
,
,

,
L,
,
,
,

.

.

. ,
,
.

69

,
,

. ,
,
.

4.1
.
,

. , x
, x,
.

\"
,
.
. -

. ,
x
.
x.
, ,
.

.

,

.
,
.
, ,
.
, .

70

,
. .
.
4.1
4.1

L x 2 f0; 1g
00. x L
,
.
00.
1010.
00,
00, 001. ,
0, 10100, ,
0010, .
1010 001 ,
.
,
. (00, 01, 10, 11)
. , 10,
10 .
0, 00
. 1010 .
, 1, 10 01,
01.
.
,
,
. (; 0; 1)
.
, ,
, .

4.1. ,
. ,

!

, \,
". ; 0; 1
. 00, 01, 10 11

, , .
, 01 (
01) 1,

71

0
00

01
1

0
1

10
0

1
1

11
1

4.1. 4.1

1
11. ,
10 0,
00.

,
. 1, 2, 3 ,
,
.

, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10 11.
.

,
. ,
,
,

.
4.1
= f0; 1g L
0.
L.

4.1

72

. .

,

.
.

. ,
.
:
, , ,
.
.
.
.

.
.
. ,
.
(/ , , .)
.
, ,
.
4.1

4.1

4.2
,
, .
.

73

4.1
( )
5- (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ), Q
,
, q0 2 Q , : Q ! Q ,
F Q .

4.1

M
. , M
q 2 Q a 2 , (q; a)
M .
, ,
. ,
4.1 .

0
1
00
01
10
11

0
1
0
1
00 01
10 11
00 01
10 11
00 01
10 11

L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x
00g.

,

,
.
q a (q; a).

,
1, 01 11.
: 0 10
,
1 11.
(
), (
),

A.
, 0 10
B.
, , 00, A B.

74

. 0 10 1 11,
1 .
A.
4.2.
0

1
1
A

B
0
1

00

A
B
00

0
1
B
A
00 A
00 A

4.2. 4.1.

: A
00:
1. B :
0, 0
. , 00 :
.

*
.
.
M .
M
q, ,
\ (q; x)"

x. (q; x).
Q Q
2.3. ,
(q; xa) (q; x),
M q
x. p . (q; xa)
, p a
(q; xa) = (p; a). p = (q; x),
(q; xa) = ( (q; x); a). ,
x = . ,
, (q; ) = q.
4.2

75

M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) . : Q ! Q
:

4.2

1. q 2 Q, (q; ) = q.
2. q 2 Q, x 2 a 2 , (q; xa) = ( (q; x); a).

4.2
(A; 0010)
4.2.
B. (
00 q00 ).

4.2

(A; 0010) = ( (A; 001); 0)

= (( (A; 00); 1); 0)
= ((( (A; 0); 0); 1); 0)
= ((( (A; 0); 0); 1); 0)
= (((( (A; ); 0); 0); 1); 0)
= ((((A; 0); 0); 1); 0)
= (((B; 0); 1); 0)
= ((q00 ; 1); 0)
= (A; 0)
= B

.
.
4.2
, x y
(q; xy) = ( (q; x); y).

4.2

M.
4.3
x 2 M =
(Q; ; q0 ; ; F ), , q0 x,
M , (q0 ; x) 2 F .
x M .
M , L(M ),
x M .

4.3

76

L
L.
L ( ;),
.

4.3
3 ( 3.1)
, Kleene.

.
,
, ,

. ,
L1 L2 ,
L1 \ L2 L1 L2 .

(
,
5),
.

,
L1 L2
, M1 = (P; ; p0 ; 1 ; F1 ) M2 =

\"

(Q; ; q0 ; 2 ; F2 ), . M =
(R; ; r0 ; ; F ), L1 \ L2 . M
M1 M2 ,

, .
M \"
. M [p; q] 2 P Q

( [ ] ( )
),
M1 p M2 q.
M [p0 ; q0 ] M1 ,
M2 p0 q0 . M [p; q]

a, [p0 ; q0 ]
,
M1 , M2 . p0 = 1 (p; a) q 0 = 2 (q; a). ,
M M1 , M2
. , M [p; q]
p 2 F1 q 2 F2 .

77

L1 L2 . M .
M L1
L2 , M [p; q]
p 2 F1 q 6
2 F2 . L01 L1
,
L01 = L1 .
. ;

4.1. L1 , L2 ,
L1 \ L2 , L1 L2 .
: L1 , L2
M1 = (P; ; p0 ; 1 ; F1 ) M2 = (Q; ; q0 ; 2 ; F2 ). M = (R; ;
r0 ; ; F ), L1 \ L2 , :
R =P Q
r0 = [p0 ; q0 ]
F = f[p; q] j p 2 F1 q 2 F2 g

: R ! R ([p; q]; a) = [1 (p; a); 2 (q; a)]

x 2 [p; q] M ,
([p; q]; x) = [1 (p; x); 2 (q; x)]

(4.1)

4.15.
x M ,
, ([p0 ; q0 ]; x) 2 F . (4.1)
[1 (p0 ; x); 2 (q0 ; x)] 2 F , ,
F , 1 (p0 ; x) 2 F1 2 (q0 ; x) 2 F2 .
x L1 ; L2 ,
L1 \ L2 .
L1 L2 .
F , F = f[p; q] j p 2 F1 q 6
2 F2 g.

, , .
:
,
\" .

78

4.3

,
L f0; 1g.
L0 = fx2 x1 x4 x3 x2n x2n1 j x1 x2 x3 x4 x2n1 x2n 2 Lg,
x = x1 x2 x3 x4 x2n1 x2n L
x2 x1 x4 x3 x2n x2n1 .
:
L.

4.3

,
.
4.3
4.3

M1 M2 4.3 :
L1
L2

= fx 2 f0; 1g j x g
= fx 2 f0; 1g j x 00:g

M2

M1

1
X

1
0

12

AX

AY

0
1

1
BX

1
0

AZ

12

AX

BZ

AZ
1

1
BY

AY

BX

1
0

1
BY

BZ

4.3.
L1 \ L2 ,
(p; q) 2 fA; BgfX; Y; Zg. [A; X],
0 [A; Y ], 1 (A; 0) = A

2 (X; 0) = Y . , ([A; X]; 1) = [B; X].

,

79

. ,
( 4.4)
.
. 4.3,
[A; Z], A Z
M1 M2 .
L1 L2 .

[A; X] [A; Y ].
4.4
:
1. L F , L [ F , L \ F
L F .
2. L F , L [ F
L F .

4.4
II
.
5,
.
.

, N ,

. N .
0
ZZ

MZ

0
0

ZM

1
MM

4.4.

4.4

80

4.4
4.4

4.4,
.

. ZZ,
.
0 , M Z M M ,
, , ZZ ZM ,
. 1
, , , .
,

.

4.5

4.5

:
1. L1 = fx 2 f0; 1g j x g.
2. L2 = fx 2 f0; 1g j x
g.

,
N , ;
.
.
,
;

. , 6,
, .
4.1,

. 010 1011
,
\" 0,
, .
, (
4.2),
11 01. ,
.

.

81

4.4
L . x; y; 2
L, z,
,
x y, xz yz
L.
x y , : z,
xz yz L .

0101 011 . 0101z L,
z 00, 011z. , 0101z 2 L,
011z 2 L.

4.2. L , n
. L
n .

: M L, S
n ,
L.
.
n S,
n .
x y . 4.4
,
z xz yz L. M
L, (q0 ; xz) (q0 ; yz)
. ,
(q0 ; xz) 6
= (q0 ; yz)
( 4.2),
= ( (q0 ; y); z)
( (q0 ; x); z) 6
p q (q0 ; x) (q0 ; y), .
(p; z) 6
= (q; z), p 6
= q
.

4.4

82

4.5
4.5

Ln n 1:
Ln = fx 2 f0; 1g j jxj n n- 1g:
Ln 2n .
4.2 2n ,
.
S n. S
2n . , x y, i, 1 i n.
i = n,
Ln , ( 4.4
,
z = ). , i < n. z
n i. xz yz
n- , . x y
Ln .

: .
4.3. P = fx 2 f0; 1g j x g
.
:
, n ,
P . 4.2,
m > n ,
P , P
m .
n P ,
.
m : 1, 11, 111 1i ,
i m. , 1k , 1j
k6
= j, z
1k z, 1j z . . z
01k . 1k z = 1k 01k , , 1j z = 1j 01k
.

4.6

4.6

, 4.2,
4.2 .

83

,
4.1
,
.
:

.

10, 20, 50
.

.
.
4.2 = f0; 1g.
:

) O L 0.
) L 111.
) L 00 11.
) O L 1
0.
4.3 L4 ( 4.5).
;
Ln ;
4.4 q M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) , x 2 (q0 ; x) = q. ,

M (
), .

4.5 4.5
0 1,
0 1 1 0. :
.

84

0
1

0
3

0
4

0,1

4.5.

M1

0
1

M2

2
1

0,1

0,1

0,1
0,1
0,1

0
M3

1
0

0
M4

0
A

0
B

1
1

4.6.

4.6 4.6;
4.7 , ,
.
) fx 2 f0; 1g j x
2g.

) fx 2 f0; 1; :::; 9g j x

5g.

4.8
0 1, ,

85

3. : ,
3.
.
4.9
:
) 0 1(0 + 1)
) (00 + 01 + 10 + 11)
) (0 + 01)
4.10 Mealy ,
a=w, \ a,
,
w". ,
. ,
,
. , Mealy 4.7
a 01 (
).
0/
M

1/
1/a

2
0/

4.7. Mealy
) Mealy, 4.1.
) Mealy
0 1 ;
) Mealy a,
, b .
) Mealy a 00 11
.
4.11 h .
h

86

:
h() =
h(xa) = h(x)h(a); x 2 ; a 2
, = f0; 1g, = fa; bg, h(0) = a h(1) = ab,
,
h(0010) = aaaba. , L , :
h(L) = fh(x)j x 2 Lg
, h( ) = fa; abg ,

a a b.

) L , h(L).
) M L ,

M 0 h1 (L) = fy 2 j h(y) 2 Lg. :

M 0 a 2 ,
M h(a).

4.12 IL . x; y 2 ,

xIL y x y L.
IL .

4.13 M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) L.

Lq = fx 2 j (q0 ; x) = qg

q. x; y 2 Lq xIL y.
4.14 Lp , Lq , p 6
= q,
IL ;
.
4.15 4.1. x 2 [p; q] M
([p; q]; x) = [1 (p; x); 2 (q; x)]:
4.16 L1 ; L2 .

L1 [ L2 L01 . L01 ,

87

1
M1

1
0

M2

1
M3

0,1

1
P

0
1

4.8. 4.17

4.17 4.8:
) M1 ; M2 M3 ;
) L1 [ L2 , L2 \ L3 , L1 L3 ,
L2 [ L3 , L2 L3 , L01 , L03 .

. .
,
, .
. ,
,
x M , ,
x - , x
. M
\" x L.
, M ,
, L.
M
.
q a, (q; a)
,
M . , (q; x)
, q x.

88

, M
.


.

.

. ,
.
,
. x; y ,
L, z
,
xz; yz L. n
, L
n . , L
,
.

4.1 L fx 2 f0; 1g j x g.

M
L. L

, M
\" x.
.
q0 ,
,
. .
0, q1 .
,
.
, q2 , .
,
x,
.
q3 , .
. 4.9.

89

q0

q1

q2

0,1

q3

4.9.

, . , .
- .

.
4.2
xy, ,
x, y,
(q; xy) = ( (q; x); y):
n y. p
x,
p = (q; x).
: n = 0. y .
(q; xy)

(q; x)

(q; x)

(p; )

( (q; x); )

( (q; x); y)

, 1

: k 0 y
k (q; xy) = ( (q; x); y).

: y, k +1.
y za, z k
a , :

90

(q; xy)

(q; xza)

(q; (xz)a)

( (q; xz); a)

O , 2

( ( (q; x); z); a)

( (p; z); a)

p = (q; x)

(p; za)

O , 2

( (q; x); za)

p = (q; x)

( (q; x); y)

y = za

4.5 :
1. L1 = fx 2 f0; 1g j x g.
L1 L,

4.4. ZZ ,
L.
.
; .

ZZ, ZM , M Z, M M . ZM , M Z, M M .
2. L2 = fx 2 f0; 1g j x
g. L2 ZZ, ZM , M Z,
M M . ZM , M Z, L2 .
, . , .
\" .
4.6 L fx 2 f0; 1g j x 00g M
4.2, .
M .
4.2, , ,
L.
. , 0 00.
z,
,
,
.

z :
z = 0 ! z 6
2 L 0z 2 L

z = ! z 6
2 L 00z 2 L

z = ! 0z 6
2 L 00z 2 L
0,
00 0 00.
, 4.2 L
.
.
.
.
. .
. .

,
.
4.3 M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F )
L. M 0
L0 = fx2 x1 x4 x3 x2n x2n1 j x1 x2 x3 x4 x2n1 x2n 2 Lg:
.
\" , a, b M ,
ba. ; M 0
M . M 0
q a. a
[q; a],
.
M q. (q; ba).
M 0 Q [ Q ,
M 0
:
1. 0 (q; a) = [q; a]
2. 0 ([q; a]; b) = (q; ba)

91

92

, n, q,
0 (q; x2 x1 x4 x3 x2n x2n1 ) = (q; x1 x2 x3 x4 x2n1 x2n ):
q0
. x2 x1 x4 x3 x2n x2n1 L0 ,
x1 x2 x3 x4 x2n1 x2n L.
: n = 0 0 (q; ) = q = (q; ).
: k 0
0 (q; x2 x1 x4 x3 x2k x2k1 ) = (q; x1 x2 x3 x4 x2k1 x2k )
= p

: n = k + 1.
0 (q; x2 x1 x4 x3 x2k x2k1 x2k+2 x2k+1 )

=
=
=

0 (p; x2k+2 x2k+1 )

0 ([p; x2k+2 ]; x2k+1 )
(p; x2k+1 x2k+2 )

0
0 , 1
0 , 2

(q; x1 x2 x3 x4 x2k1 x2k x2k+1 x2k+2 )
.
, .
,
.
.
. .
4.4
,
:
1. L F , L [ F ,
L \ F L F .

F 3.2,
(x1 + x2 + + xn ), xi

F . 4.1
.

2. L F ,
L [ F L F .

93

,
.
L [ F , L F . ,
, L .
L L1 [ L2 , L1 = L F L2 = L \ F .
L1 , L2 ,
( F ). ,
L.
L F . L F
.

, L M1 [ M2 , M1 = L [ F

M2 = F L. M1 , M2 ,
( F ).
, L. ,

, L [ F . L [ F

, . ,
.
, , ,
, .

automaton

transition function

state

transition table

state diagram

is accepted

input symbols

is recognized

initial state

distinguished

final state

94

,
. ,
,
.

:
,

,
,

,

,
,
- ,
- ,

,

,

95

96

-
()
()


-
-
-

Kleene

.
, ,
,
.
-
. ,
, ,
.
. , ,
, .

5.1
,
, .
q a,

.
1
. q a
: (q; a).
1

,
,
.

97

,
,
. ,
( )

. ,

.
,


,
.
,
.
;
.
5.1
5.1

L5 4.5
L5 = fx 2 f0; 1g j jxj 5 5 1g
,

(0 + 1) 1(0 + 1)(0 + 1)(0 + 1)(0 + 1)
,
, ,
25 = 32 .
, ,
5.1. , Ln
2n , n + 1.

0,1

q0

q1

0,1

q2

0,1

q3

0,1

q4

0,1

q5

5.1. L5
,
1, . ,
, 1.
q0 q1 ; ,

32 :

98

q0 1
,
. q1
. ,
,

.

, 2 .
, 0110000 ,
2
1 .
q1 ,
.
.
\" ,
.

-,
.
,
, ,
, .
5.2

5.2

5.2()
. (0 1 + 1 0)
,
.
,
5.2(),
,
. ,
,
.
q0 q3 ,
0 1 1 0, .
(0 1 + 1 0).

.
.
, Q
2

99
0

0
0,1

0
1

0
1

0,1

q0

0
1

q1

q3

0
1
1

q2

()

()

5.2. -
,
Q .
, (q; a)
, q a.
-, Q ( [
fg). , :

, ,
.
.
.
5.1
( ), 5 (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ), Q ,
, ,
q0 2 Q , : Q ! 2Q ,
F Q .

5.2
:

q0
q1
q2
q3

0
1

fq1 ; q2 g
fq1 g fq3 g

fq3 g fq2 g

5.2().

,
2Q ,

5.1

100

Q, Q. ,
( )
( - q0 ).
5.1 -. . -
,
.
4.2 (q; x),
M
q x.
H Q 2Q .

(q; xa), x a
. -
,
x
P . (q; xa)
P a.
P = (q; x),
(q; xa) = (P; a) = [p2P (p; a);
(q; ) = fqg. (
, P , (P; a) [ (P; x)]
[p2P (p; a) [ [p2P (p; x)], [ ]

P .)
5.2
5.2

M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) -. : Q ! 2Q
:
1. q 2 Q, (q; ) = fqg.
2. q 2 Q, x 2 , a 2 , (q; xa) = ( (q; x); a) = [p2 (q;x) (p; a).

5.3

(q0 ; 10) 5.1,

x = 10.
q0 ; q2 .

101
5.3

(q0 ; ) = fq0 g

(q0 ; 1) = (q0 ; 1)
= fq0 ; q1 g

(q0 ; 10) = ( (q; 1); 0)

= (fq0 ; q1 g; 0)
= (q0 ; 0) [ (q1 ; 0)
= fq0 g [ fq2 g
= fq0 ; q2 g

5.1
, q a, (q; a) = (q; a),
.
(q; xy) = ( (q; x); y)
( 5.5).

5.1

, x
M . M
x,
.
5.3
x 2
M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ), (q0 ; x) \ F 6
= .
M , L(M ),
x M .

5.3

-.
5.4
- ( -)
^ F ), Q; ; q0 F
5- (Q; ; q0 ; ;
^ : Q ( [ fg) ! 2Q
.

5.4

102

,
- ^
q
x.
\"
. ,
x,
- ,
.
^
^ (q0 ; ), q0
q0 -.
\(q)"

q 2 Q, (q) q -.

, (q) q
.
5.5

5.5

M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) -.
q 2 Q, (q) :
1. q 2 (q).
2. p 2 (q), (p; ) (q).
3. (q), 1 2.
S Q, (S) = [q2S (q), (q)
q 2 S.

(q)

(q) q
T q. , T
(p; ), p 2 T .

T -.
T . T (q).
5.4

103

(q3 ) 5.3().
T = fq3 g T = fq3 ; q5 g ,
T = fq3 ; q5 ; q0 g T = fq3 ; q5 ; q0 ; q1 ; q2 g .
T , (q3 ) = fq3 ; q5 ; q0 ; q1 ; q2 g.
,
q3 5.3()
-. ,
q3 q3 ; q5 ; q0 ; q1 ; q2 .

5.4

q1

q3

q0

q2

q5

q4

()

q1

q3

q0

q2

q5
q4

()

5.3. -
^
-.
5.6
^ F ) -. ^ : Q ! 2Q
M = (Q; ; q0 ; ;
:
1. q 2 Q, ^ (q; ) = (q).
2. q 2 Q, x 2 a 2 ,
^ ^ (q; x); a)) = ([ ^
^
^ (q; xa) = ((
p2 (q;x) (p; a))
= . L(M ),
x 2 M , ^ (q0 ; x) \ F 6
M , x
M .

5.5

5.6

104
5.5

5.3(). 101
:

q0 ! q1 ! q3 ! q5 ! q0 ! q1 ! q1 ! q3 ! q5
^ (q0 ; 101) q5 . ,
. ^ (q0 ; ), ^ (q0 ; 1),
^ (q0 ; 10) ^ (q0 ; 101).
^ (q0 ; ) = (q0 )
^

= fq0 ; q1 ; q2 g

^ ^ (q0 ; ); 1))
(q0 ; 1) = ((
^ 0 ; q1 ; q2 g; 1))
= ((fq

^ 1 ; 1) [ (q
^ 2 ; 1))
^ 0 ; 1) [ (q
= ((q
= ( [ fq3 g [ fq2 g)
= (fq3 ; q2 g)

= fq0 ; q1 ; q2 ; q3 ; q5 g

^ ^ (q0 ; 1); 0))

(q0 ; 10) = ((

^ 0 ; q1 ; q2 ; q3 ; q5 g; 0))
= ((fq

^ 1 ; 0) [ (q
^ 2 ; 0) [ (q
^ 3 ; 0) [ (q
^ 5 ; 0))
^ 0 ; 0) [ (q
= ((q

= ( [ fq1 g [ fq4 g [ [ )
= (fq1 ; q4 g)
= fq0 ; q1 ; q2 ; q4 ; q5 g

^ ^ (q0 ; 10); 1))

^ (q0 ; 101) = ((
^ 0 ; q1 ; q2 ; q4 ; q5 g; 1))
= ((fq

^ 1 ; 1) [ (q
^ 2 ; 1) [ (q
^ 4 ; 1) [ (q
^ 5 ; 1))
^ 0 ; 1) [ (q
= ((q

= ( [ fq3 g [ fq2 g [ [ )
= (fq3 ; q2 g)
= fq0 ; q1 ; q2 ; q3 ; q5 g
q5 ^ (q0 ; 101),
.

105

- -,
^ ) = .
q 2 Q, (q;
, ^ .
-, , (S) = S,
S Q.
-. :
^ , M ,
- M

.
^
: q M
- p.
q a. p
,
p a.
- q
, q . ,
-
.
5.1. L
^ F^ ). M
^ = (Q; ; q0 ; ;
- M
L.
: M
. ,
^ p q
M
-, M

. , q0
-, q0
M
.
q a
(q; a) = ^ (q; a):
5.6.
(q; a) = ^ (q; a)
= ^ (q; a)
^ a))
= ([p2^ (q;) (p;
^ a))
= ([p2(q) (p;

106

: (q; a) M
a, - -
a.
, M
q0
^ , - .
M
,
,
M , q0 M
, (q0 ; )
q0 .

F^ [ fq0 g, (q0 )
F =
F^ ,

x ,
(q0 ; x) = ^ (q0 ; x). ,
x = , (q0 ; ) = fq0 g, ^ (q0 ; ) = (q0 ).
jxj = 1.
: x = a a.
(q0 ; a) = ^ (q0 ; a). 5.2 ( 5.1) (q0 ; a) = (q; a) (q; a) ^ (q0 ; a).
: k 1 y 2
jyj = k, (q0 ; y) = ^ (q0 ; y).
: x = ya a 2 .
(q0 ; ya)

=
=
=
=

( (q0 ; y); a)
(^ (q0 ; y); a)
^ (^ (q0 ; y); a)
^ (q0 ; ya)

( 5.2)
( )
( )

(q0 ; x)
F , ^ (q0 ; x)
F^ , x
.
x = , F . (q0 ; ) = fq0 g
q0 F , ^ (q0 ; ), (q0 ),
.
x 6
= , (q0 ; x) = ^ (q0 ; x).
F^ ( x)
q0 F^ (

107

x). q0 F^ ,
= . q0 2 ^ (q0 ; x), ^ (q0 ; x)
(q0 ) \ F 6
(q0 ) (;) F^ .
.

1
1

1
1

()

()
5.4. - .
5.6
5.4()
5.4() -.
6.

5.6

^
(6; 1) = (((6);
1)
^
= ((f6;
5g; 1))
^ 1) [ (5;
^ 1))
= ((6;
= ( [ f6g)
= f5; 6g

^ 0) [ (6;
^ 0))
(6; 0) = ((6;
= ( [ )
=
.
1 , (1)
( 2).

5.2
- -
5.2().

5.2

108

5.2

-
,
-.
.
.

-
.

, .
,
. ,

.
,
.
M M 0
. ;
,
4.3
.

\"
. ,

. M 0
M a.
.
. M ,
M .
. M 0 ,
M .
M 0 [q0 ] (
[ ] f g -

), M q0 . M 0

[q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ] a,
[p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pl ] M . ,
q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk
, M p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pl .
[p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pl ] M 0
, 0 ([q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ]; a).
x M 0 ; M x,

109

(q0 ; x) M . , M ,
x, q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk
, M 0 , ,
[q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ], .
[q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ] , qi
.
5.2. L ,
M . M 0 ,
L.
: M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) L.
M 0 = (P; ; p0 ; 0 ; F 0 )
:
P = 2Q , Q.
p0 = [q0 ]
0 : P ! P 0 (p; a) = (p; a) = [q2p (q; a).
= g
F 0 = fp 2 P j p \ F 6
M 0
M . M q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ,
M 0 [q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ].
5.3.
M M 0
. x M 0 , 0 (p0 ; x) 2 F 0 .
F 0
(q0 ; x) \ F 6
= . , x M 0 ,
x M .

5.3
, x,
0 ([q0 ]; x) = [q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ] (q0 ; x) = fq1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk g:

,
.
,

.

5.3

110

0
1

0
[3,5,6]

1
1

1
1

1
1

()

[2,4]
0

[1]

[5,6]

[3]

1
1

1
0

0,1

()

5.5. .

5.7
5.7

5.5().
- 5.6.
M 0 5.5().
M 0 .
,
[1]. , 1,
3; 5 6. M 0 [3; 5; 6].
,
1 , 0.
M 0 , .
. [3; 5; 6]
1 M 5 6, 0 2
4. M 0 [5; 6] [2; 4]. ,
-
.
. ,
[1], [3; 5; 6], [5; 6] [2; 4].
M 0 64 (
f1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6g) .
. ,
, ,
,
.
,

.
;
- 5.4()

.

5.4

 Kleene

111

5.2 .
5.2();

5.3 Kleene
,

, , .
Kleene .
, R L,
L,
M
.
5.3. R
L, - L.
:
.

1. .
2. fg.
3. a 2 , a
fag.
4. r s Lr
Ls , (rs), (r + s) (r )
Lr Ls , Lr [ Ls Lr .
5. ,
.
,
4, - .
: R , a a 2 .
5.6 .
:
k 4.
: R k + 1
. r
s ,

5.4

112

q0

q0

() R =

() R =

q0

qf

() R = a

5.6. 5.3

L(r) L(s).
R. R
(r + s), (rs) (r ).
1: R = (r + s).
Mr = (Qr ; ; qr ; r ; Fr ) Ms = (Qs ; ; qs ; s ; Fs ),
r s. ,
. q0
. - M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ),
L(R), :
Q = Qr [ Qs [ fq0 g
F = Fr [ Fs
: Q ! Q,
(q0 ; ) = fqr ; qs g

r (q; a), q 2 Qr
(q; a) =
s (q; a), q 2 Qs
M 5.7(). Mr Ms

. , , (
;) .
,
q0
-. qr ,
x
fr . , qs , x
fs . M
q0 , Mr
,
qr fr Ms qs fs .
L(M ) = L(Mr ) [ L(Ms ).
2: R = (rs). Mr Ms ,
1. - M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F )
L(R) :

 Kleene

113

qr

Mr

fr

q0

qr

qs

Ms

Mr

fr

fs

qs

()

()

qr

Mr

q0

fr

()
5.7. - ) , ) ) Kleene

Q = Qr [ Qs
q0 = qr
F = Fs
: Q ! Q,
(fr ; ) = fqs g

r (q; a), q 2 Qr
(q; a) =
s (q; a), q 2 Qs
M 5.7().
Mr
Ms . , -
fr qs .
,
qr
fs , x x = x1 x2
,
x = x1 x2 . x1
qr fr x2 qs fs .
x1 2 L(Mr ) x2 2 L(Ms ). , x1 2 L(Mr )
x2 2 L(Ms ), x1 x2 L(M ). ,
x1 , -
fr qs x2 .
L(M ) = L(Mr )L(Ms ).

Ms

fs

114

3: R = (r ). Mr = (Qr ; ; qr ; r ; Fr )
L(r) q0 . - M =
(Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) L(R) :
Q = Qr [ fq0 g
F = fq0 g
: Q ! Q,
(q; a)
(q0 ; )
(fr ; )
(q; )

=
=
=
=

r (q; a) q 2 Qr
fqr g
r (fr ; ) [ fq0 g
= fr
r (q; ) q 6

M 5.7(). q0 ,
. x M ,
(x = ) q0 ,
Mr q0 ( ,
). xi
L(Mr ). x M ,
,
x = x1 x2 xk , k 0, xk 2 L(Mr ).
L(M ) = L(Mr ) .

.

.
.
.
5.8
5.8

R = (01) + 1 . H R
r1 + r2 , r1 = 01 r2 = 1. r1 r2
5.8, () () . r1 , r2

-.
() () . ,
() (). , r1 + r2 ().

.

5.5

5.5

R = (11 + 0) (00 + 1) .

 Kleene

115

()

()

()

()

()

()

()
5.8. - R = (01) + 1 .

5.4. M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F )
L, R L.
: p q
M p q.
R(p; q) .
L R(q0 ; f ), f 2 F ,
L R(q0 ; f ).
5.3, .
k ;
,

,
p q.

116

.
M 1
n k
,
. , k 0
Rk (p; q) :
,
Rk (p; q) = fx 2 j x p q
kg
R(p; q) Rn (p; q), n
.
Ri (p; q), 0 i n.
.
: R0 (p; q) p q

0. . ,
R0 (p; q) p q,
p = q.

fa j (p; a) = qg,
p 6
=q
0
R (p; q) =
fa j (p; a) = pg [ fg; p = q
: p q k, 0
k n 1, Rk (p; q) .
: Rk+1 (p; q).
Rk+1 (p; q) .
p q
k + 1,
1. Rk (p; q),
k + 1 ( pk+1 ),
2. Rk (p; pk+1 )(Rk (pk+1 ; pk+1 )) Rk (pk+1 ; q), Rk (p; pk+1 ) (
pk+1 ),
(Rk (pk+1 ; pk+1 )) (
M pk+1 pk+1 ),
Rk (pk+1 ; q) ( M pk+1
q).
Rk+1 (p; q)
Rk+1 (p; q) = Rk (p; q) + Rk (p; pk+1 )(Rk (pk+1 ; pk+1 )) Rk (pk+1 ; q)

. M

 Kleene

117

R = Rn (q0 ; f1 ) + Rn (q0 ; f2 ) + + Rn (q0 ; fm ),
q0 f1 ; f2 ; : : : ; fm M .

1
1
1

0
1

5.9. 5.9
5.9
M 5.9, L = fx 2
f0; 1g j x 00g.
Rk (p; q) 5.1.
. .
R2 (2; 2). R0 (2; 2)
R1 (2; 2).
R0 (2; 2)
2 . R1 (2; 2)
,
R1 (2; 2) = R0 (2; 2) + R0 (2; 1)(R0 (1; 1)) R0 (1; 2) = + 1(1 + ) 0 = + 1+ 0
R2 (2; 2)
R2 (2; 2) = R1 (2; 2) + R1 (2; 2)(R1 (2; 2)) R1 (2; 2)
= R1 (2; 2)(R1 (2; 2))
= ( + 1+ 0)( + 1+ 0)
= ( + 1+ 0)(1+ 0)
= (1+ 0)

. ,
( + r) = r , r .
(1+ 0) ; 2
3, 1 (

5.9

118

5.1. Rk (p; q).

Rk (1; 1)
Rk (1; 2)
Rk (1; 3)
Rk (2; 1)
Rk (2; 2)
Rk (2; 3)
Rk (3; 1)
Rk (3; 2)
Rk (3; 3)

k=0
1+
0

0
1

+0

k=1
1
1 0

1+
+ 1+ 0
0
1+
1+ 0
+0

k=2
1
1 0(1+ 0)
1 0(1+ 0) 0
(1+ 0) 1+
(1+ 0)
(1+ 0) 0
(1+ 0) 1+
(1+ 0)+
+ (1+ 0) 0

1), ( 1 )
2 ( 0). 11 0 = 1+ 0.

(1+ 0) .
,
5.9. ,
,
R2 (2; 3) , 2
( 0) 3. R2 (2; 3) = (1+ 0) 0.
, R2 (3; 2) , 3 1 ( 1)
R2 (1; 2) 2.

R2 (3; 2) = 1R2 (1; 2) = 11 0(1+ 0) = 1+ 0(1+ 0) = (1+ 0)+

5.9
5.9
()

.
3, :
R = R3 (1; 3)
= R2 (1; 3) + R2 (1; 3)(R2 (3; 3)) R2 (3; 3)
= 1 0(1+ 0) 0 + 1 0(1+ 0) 0( + (1+ 0) 0) ( + (1+ 0) 0)
= 1 0(1+ 0) 0 + 1 0(1+ 0) 0((1+ 0) 0) ( + (1+ 0) 0)
= 1 0(1+ 0) 0((1+ 0) 0)
= 1 0((1+ 0) 0)+

119

((1 0)+ 0)+

(0 + 1) 00,
. 5.4

,
.

.
0

1
2

5.10. 5.6
5.6

5.6

Rk (p; q)
5.10.

5.1
5.11; ) 10, ) 10101, ) 1001101, ) 011001, ) 10110110.
5.2
5.11.
1

0
1

0
1

1
0

M1
M2
5.11. .

1
0

120

5.3
.
) (0 + 1)(100) (1010)
) ((01 + 001) 0)
) ((0 1 ) 0 )
) (10 + 01) + 00(10 + 0) 11
) 1(01) + 0 101
5.4 5.12. : )
(f1g), ) (f3; 4g), ) ^ (1; 00), ) ^ (1; 10), ) ^ (1; 1010).

5.12. -.

5.5 M , x; y 2 q 2 Q
(q; xy) = ( (q; x); y) = [p2 (q;x) (p; y)
5.6 M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) - S; T Q.
:
) (S) = [p2S (p).
) ((S)) = (S).
) (S [ T ) = (S) [ (T ).
) (S \ T ) = (S) \ (T ).
5.7 M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) L.
M -
,
;

121

5.8-5.10 4.1: L
L0 .
5.8 L .
:
) Prefix(L)= fx 2 j xy 2 L y 2 g. Prefix(L)

L: x
y 2 xy 2 L.

) Suffix(L)= fy 2 j xy 2 L x 2 g. Suffix(L)
L: y
x 2 xy 2 L.
5.9 L .
:
) Max(L)= fx 2 Lj xy 2 L y = g. Max(L)
x 2 L ,
= xy 2 L.
y 6

) Min(L)= fx 2 Lj x Lg.
Min(L) x 2 L

, y x, x = yw,
= , y 2 L.
w 6
5.10 L .

.
) Reverse(L) = fx 2 j xR 2 Lg. Reverse(L)

L.

) Half(L) = fx 2 j xy 2 L y jyj = jxjg. Half(L)

L.

5.11 M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; ff g)
f .

;
M :
) - q0
q0 .
) - f
f .

122

5.12 L(R),
R = (0+1) (010+101)(0+1) .
.
5.13 - 5.3();
.
5.14 5.13
-.

1
0

M1

4
0

M2
0

0,1
0

0
2

M3

1
0

M4

5.13. .

5.15
,
5.3. .
) 101(00) 10 + 1 01
) (10) + (100) (10 + 0 )
) ((1 + 01) + (0 + 01) )
5.16 M1 M2 5.13, L1 L2 .
:
) L1 L2

123

) L1 + L2 L1
) L1 L2 + (L2 L1 )
5.17 5.4
5.14.
0

M1

M2

2
1

0,1

0,1

M3

1
1
0

0
4

2
0,1

0,1
0

M4

1
1

0
1

5.14. .

.
()
-
. ,
,
.

, -.

, .
.

,

124

. , M
M 0 M . M 0
: M 0
,
M , a. M 0
\" M
.
,
.
Kleene .
R
L(R).

. ,
.

p q.

.

5.1 M -
. (q; a) = (q; a), q
a.
(q; a)

=
=
=
=

(q; a)

S
(p; a)

Sp2 (q;)
p2fqg (p; a)

a = a
5.2, 2
5.2, 1

(q; a)

5.2 5.1
5.15().
- 0 1 0-
1 1- 3.
- 2. .
^
(0; 1) = (((0);
1)
^
= ((f0;
1; 2g; 1))
^ 1)))
^ 1) [ (2;
^ 1) [ (1;
= ((0;
= ( [ f3g [ f2g)

125
0

0,1

0
1

0
3

[1,3]

[1]

0,1
1

[0]

[3]

0
1

[2,3]

[2]

()

()

5.15. 5.2 5.4

= f3; 2g

^ 0)))
^ 0) [ (2;
^ 0) [ (1;
(0; 0) = ((0;
= ( [ f1g [ f3g)
= f1; 3g
0 , (0) =
f0; 1; 2g .
, . ,
. (q) q

-
q.
5.3 0 M 0
M 0 . ,
x,
0 ([q0 ]; x) = [q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ] (q0 ; x) = fq1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk g:
: x = , 0 ([q0 ]; ) = [q0 ] (q0 ; ) = fq0 g.
:
k.
: xa k + 1.
0 ,
0 ([q0 ]; xa)

=
=
=

0 ( 0 ([q0 ]; x); a)
0 ([q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk ]; a)
(q1 ; a) [ (q2 ; a) [ [ (qk ; a)

0,1

126

,
(q0 ; xa)

=
=
=

( (q0 ; x); a)
(fq1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qk g; a)

(q1 ; a) [ (q2 ; a) [ [ (qk ; a)

,
.
5.4 -
5.15().
5.2(). .
[0] 0 1
3. 0 ([0]; 0) = [1; 3]. , 0 ([0]; 1) = [2; 3]. [1; 3]
0 1
3. , 0, 1,
. , 0 ([1; 3]; 0) = [1]. , 1,
[3]. , 0 ([1; 3]; 1) = [3]. ,
1 0 [2; 3] [2] [3]. 3
. 0 ([3]; 0) = 0 ([3]; 1) = [].
, . , .
.
: [p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pk ]
a,
, , pi
a.
5.5 R = (11 + 0) (00 + 1)
5.16. r4 r3 11 + 0.
(00 + 1) (11 + 0) ,
.
\", -,
.
5.6 Rk (p; q) 5.2.
,
R3 (1; 2).
R3 (1; 2) = R2 (1; 2) + R2 (1; 3)(R2 (3; 3)) R2 (3; 2)
= 1 0+ + 1 0+ 1((1 + 01 0)0 1) (1 + 01 0)0

127
1

r2 = 0

r1 = 11

r3 = r1 + r2
1

r5 = r 4* = (11+ 0) *

r4 = r1 + r2

s5 = (00 + 1) *

R = r 5 s5
5.16. R = (11 + 0) (00 + 1) .
,

,
.

R = Rn (1; f1 ) + Rn (1; f2 ) + + Rn (1; fm ), fi 2 F ,
\"
,
Rn (1; fi ).
, . ,
,
, R2 (1; 2); R2 (1; 3); R2 (3; 3); R2 (3; 2),
R3 (1; 2),

128

5.2. Rk (p; q).

Rk (1; 1)
Rk (1; 2)
Rk (1; 3)
Rk (2; 1)
Rk (2; 2)
Rk (2; 3)
Rk (3; 1)
Rk (3; 2)
Rk (3; 3)

k=0
1+
0

+0
1
0
1

k=1
1+
1 0

+0
1
01
1 + 01 0

k=2
1+
1 0+
1 0+ 1

0
0 1
01
(1 + 01 0)0
+ (1 + 01 0)0 1

.
5.2, .
, .
.
5.4.

nondeterminism
- -transitions
subset construction method
prefix
suffix

, .

,

.

:
,

,

,

,

,

,
.
129

130

.
,
,
\".
. ,
.
, , .

6.1
4 , P
,
P = fx 2 f0; 1g j x g:

P P .

.
,
L .
x; y 2 L,

z, x y,
,
xz yz L. x y
, :
z, xz yz L .

4.2 , S n
, L
n .
; :

131

1. N ( ) S
,
L.
2. N .
m L
m . ,
, L
m ,
.
\"

, .
\" ,
,
.
P S = f1; 11; 111; : : :g.
S, 1i ,
i, , 01j ,
i j
,
.
i .
P . .
6.1
L = f0n 1n j n 0g.
,
.
4.2 S f0n j n 0g.
0i , 0j , i 6
= j, S. z
; H z
, , L. z = 1i .
0i z 2 L 0j z 6
2 L. S
.

6.1

6.1
L = fai bj ck j k > i + jg
S = fan j n 0g.

,
.

6.1

132

Kleene ( 3.3)
.
,
.
6.1. [ ] L .
n x 2 L, jxj n,
x = uvw, u; v w
juvj n,
v6
=
uv m w 2 L, m 0
: M = (Q; ; ; q0 ; F ) n ,
L.
x l n, M (
, L ).
x x = a1 a2 al qi
i
x,
qi = (q0 ; a1 a2 ai ):
n ,
n + 1 q0 ; q1 ; ; qn
.
i; j, i 6
= j, qi = qj . ai+1 aj
qi qi .
u = a1 ai , v = ai+1 aj
w = aj+1 al . (qi ; v) = qi , v
,
x x.
6.1.

v
u
q0

w
qi

qf

6.1.
u M q0 qi , v qi
qi w qi .
v ,

133

(q0 ; uv m w) = qf , m 0 uv m w 2 L,
m 0. juvj n
jvj =
60.

,
L \"
v , v,
L.
L.
, .
.
,
-
.
n, , .
, , n
L.
x, jxj n,
= , m 0
x = uvw, juvj n v 6

uvm w 2 L. x.

x, .
2 L (
; m, uvm w 6
m).
,
.
6.2

L = f0k 1k j k 0g. L n
6.1. n,
x . x = 0n 1n .
u; v; w, x = uvw, .
juvj n v 6
= .
uv , 0i
i. v 0j , j > 0.
uv m w 2 L, m 0. uv m w.
uv m w

= (uv)v m1 w
= 0k (0j )m1 0nk 1n , w = 0nk 1n , uv = 0k
= 0n+j(m1) 1n

L
. m = 1.
.
m = 0. uv0 w = uw = 0nj 1n ,
j > 0. L .

6.2

134

x
n. 0n 1n
n n
0 2 1 2 , . uv
.
: v = 0i 1j , m > 1 uvm w
10, L. v

.
x .

: x
u; v w.
.
u; v; w.
6.3

6.3

L = f1k j k g. n 6.1 x = 1p ,
p > n ( p
). 6.1, x uvw.
juj = a; jvj = b 6
= 0 jwj = c. m
uv m w = 1a 1mb 1c L
a + mb + c . a + b + c = p,
p + (m 1)b 2.
m = p + 1.
p + (m 1)b = p + pb = p(b + 1)
,
2.

6.2

6.2

L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x g
.

6.2
,
x \" \", x
M .
: x
L(M );
,

,
.

: ,
; ;
,
;
.
6.2. L
M n ,
1. , x
n M ,
2. , x
n jxj < 2n M .
: x
n M , L .
, x
M . jxj n, x uvw,
jvj =
60. uv 0 w = uw
L, . jxj < n.
x n jxj < 2n, L
uv m w; m 0
. , L ,
x jxj n, . jxj < 2n,
. , z
2n. z uvw
uw z
. uw
n 2n 1 z .
.

6.2
M ,
.
n
,
x n .
.
x n
2n M . , L .
.

. 2n n, L.

135

136

.
6.3

6.3

L(M1 ) = L(M2 )

,
;

M1 ; M2 L = (L(M1 )L(M2 ))[(L(M2 )

L(M1 )). M1 ; M2
L .
,
6.2 .

L(M1 ) \ L(M2 ) =

, ,
.
L = L(M1 ) \ L(M2 ) L = .
6.4

6.4

:
1. A M1 ; M2 , L(M1 ) L(M2 );
2. R1 ; R2 , ;

,
.
.
.
x
M .

. \"
. ,
Turing,
,
,
.
, ,
!

.

137

6.1 .
) L = f1m 0n 1m+n j m; n 0g.
) L = fx 2 f0; 1g j

g.

) L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x g.
6.2 . L
. p q, q > 0,
m 0, L p+mq.
L = f1k j k

g .

6.3 ;
.
) L = f12n j n 0g.
2

) L = f1n j n 0g.
) L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x

g.

) L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x g.
) L = fxxj x 2 f0; 1g g.
) L = fxxR j x 2 f0; 1g g.
) L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x

4g.

6.4 ; .
) L1 L2 L2 , L1 .
) L1 L2 L2 , L1 .
) .
) L , L0 ( L)
.
) L1 L2 , L1 [ L2 .
) L1 L2 , L1 \ L2 .

138

6.5 .
) M -, L(M ) , , ;
) M -, M
;
) M
R ;
) M1 ; M2 ;
6.6 L M ,
,

) L = ,
) L .

L.

.

,
,
,
, .
, , . ,
( )
,
, ,
Turing.
,
!

6.1 L = fai bj ck j k >

i + jg , L
a b,
c. .
= j,
ai ; aj i 6

S = fan j n 0g
z. i < j.
i; j. H z , ,
,
L. z = ci+1 .
2 L,
ai z = ai ci+1 2 L, i + 1 > i, aj z = aj ci+1 6

j i + 1. S
, L .
z b, .
.
, . , .

.
6.2
L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x g
.

L M n
L. 6.1 ,
n, x . x = 0n 1n ,
6.2. L
. 11001100, 010101, .
L, x .
u; v; w x = uvw,
.
= . uv
juvj n v 6

, 0i i. v
0j j > 0. 6.2, uv m w

0n+j(m1) 1n . m = 0 uv 0 w = uw = 0nj 1n ,
j > 0. ,
L .
L
. L .
M = L \ 0 1 .

M f0k 1k j k 0g, .

139

140

, L
.
6.3

M ,
M 0 , .
M ,
.
, L(M ) .

. ,
.
, ,
. ,

( 6.1,
). ,
.
.
, .
, , \" .
6.4
1. A M1 ; M2 , L(M1 ) L(M2 );
,
, L(M1 ) L(M2 ),

L(M1 ) L(M2 ). L(M1 ) L(M2 )

. , :
,
M L(M1 ) L(M2 )
L(M ) = . \", L(M1 )
L(M2 ).
2. R1 ; R2 , ;
.
,

,
.
.
.
, .
.

.
.

Pumping Lemma
Decision Problems
Decision Algorithms

II
Bar-Hillel, Y., M. Perles and E. Shamir. \On Formal Properties of Simple
Phase Structure Grammars", in Zeitschrift fur Phonetik Sprachwissenshhaft und
Kommunikations-forschung, pp. 143-172, 14, 1961.
Cohen, D. I. A. Introduction to Computer Theory, Wiley, New York, 1986.
Hopcroft, J. E. and J. D. Ullman. Introduction to Automta, Theory, Languages
and Computation, 2nd Ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1979.
Kleene, S. C. \Representation of Events by Nerve Sets", in Automata Studies, pp.
3-42, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1956.
Lewis, H. R. and C. Papadimitriou. Elements of the Theory of Computation,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1981.
J. C. Martin. Introduction to Languages and the Theory of Computation, McGrawHill, 1991.
McCulloch, W. S. and W. Pitts. \A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in
Nervous Activity", in Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, pp. 115-133, 5, 1943.
M. O. Rabin and D. Scott. \Finite Automata and their Decision Problems", in
IBM Journal of Research and Development, pp. 114-125, 3, 1959.
M. Sipser. Introduction to the Theory of Computation, PWS Publishing Company,
Boston, 1998.

II. Lewis Papadimitriou,
, Hopcroft
Ullman

141

142

. Cohen, Martin Sipser

.
, \ "!

,
,
.
.
McCulloch, W. S. and W. Pitts (1943)
. Kleene (1956).
Rabin Scott (1959).
Bar-Hillel, M. Perles E. Shamir
(1961).

II :
.
,
,
f0n 1n j n 0g, .
III ,

.
, .

.
.
.
.
.
,
,
8,
. :
,
,
.
,
. 9

144

,
.

.
, 10, ,
.

.

,
.
,
, .

:
()
,

, ,

,
,
,
,
,

,

,
,
Kleene.

145

146

-
()
,




, , Kleene

.

.
,
.
,

. ,
,
Kleene.

7.1


,
. ,
,
.
, ,
.

147

7.1
L,
:

7.1

1. 2 L.
2. S 2 L 0S1 2 L.
3. L .
L = f0n 1n j n 0g,
.
( ) , ,
\" ,
0n 1n .
S
L,
1. S !
2. S ! 0S1
! \ ".

S

L. , 000111 :
S ) 0S1 ) 00S11 ) 000S111 ) 000111 = 000111
S 0; 1 . S -

.
7.1
() G = (V; ; S; R),
V ,
V \ = , S 2 V R
A ! , A 2 V 2 (V [ ) .

, G = (V; ; S; P ) ( ), (V [ )

. ; 2
(V [ ) , )G ( ) ,
), -

G. ,

7.1

148

= 1 A2 = 1 2 , ) ,
,
A ! G. .

) ,

, = k 1 = 0 ) 1 )
k = . 0 ) 1 ) n ,
n 0 n
n.
7.2

7.2

G = (V; ; S; P ) .
G
,
S. ,

L(G) = fx 2 j S ) xg:
L (),
G L = L(G).

7.2
7.2

P f0; 1g .
; 0; 1 , x
P , 0x0, 1x1 P . P
G = (fSg; f0; 1g; S; R), R
S!j0j1
S ! 0S0 j 1S1
, S, .
R .
,
\|" \". S ! 0S0 j 1S1
S ! 0S0 S ! 1S1. G
:
S ) 0S0 ) 01S10 ) 011S110 ) 0110110
S ! 0S0,
S ! 1S1 S ! 0.

: 01S10,
0110110. 01, 10

S S 01S10.
,
S ! 1S1 S
,
1S1 .
.

149

7.1

.

7.1

\" .
,
,
.

.
7.3
G = (V; ; S; R) V = fSg, = f+; ; =; ; (; ); x; yg R

7.3

S ! S + S j S S j S=S j S S j (S) j x j y
.

,
+, , =, , .
,
x; y
. x + x y :
S )S+S )x+S )x+SS )x+xS )x+xy
S )SS )S+SS )x+SS )x+xS )x+xy
,
\",
S + S ,
x x y, x + (x y).
. S S
(x + x) y.
x + x y, x + (x y) (x + x) y,
+.

.
, ,

. .

150

( 10),

. ,
,

, 7.3.
,

, .

.
,
, G,
.
7.2

7.2

S ! SS j (S) j
, .
S ! (S)S j

.
7.4
7.4

L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x
0 1g.
7.1 L .
0 2 L. x L,
0x, x0 L.
S ! 0 j 0S j S0
,
.
x; y 2 L.
0 1, x; y
0 1.
L. ,
x y.
S ! 1SS j S1S j SS1
G
S ! 0 j 0S j S0 j 1SS j S1S j SS1

151

L
,
L(G) L. :
+

\ 2 (V [ ) S ) ( )

), S 0
1."
S ,
, , 0
S ! 0. , 0 1.
k S.
: k = 1. G.
,
S 0 1.
:
S k .
+

: S ) k + 1 , S ) 0 k

0 2 (V [ ) 0 ) .
, 0 S 0

1 .
0 (S ! 0S j S0)
S (S ! 1SS j S1S j SS1) S 0
,
(S ! 0). .
,

L L L(G).
L = L(G). :
\ x 2 L k 1, x
+
G S ) x."
: k = 1. x = 0 x
S ! 0.
:
x, jxj k.
: jxj = k + 1,
x x = y1, x = 1y x = 0y0.
1, x = y1: 0 y
1, x

152

0 1. y y1 y2 ,
y1 ; y2 0 1.
k, ,
+

G. S ) y1 S ) y2 .
x = y1 y2 1; S ! SS1
:

S ) SS1 ) y1 S1 ) y1 y2 1 = x
2, x = 1y:
x
+

S ) 1SS ) 1y1 S ) 1y1 y2 = x

3, x = 0y0: y 1, x
S ! 0S j S0 S ! 0.
x y1 1y2 , y1 ; y2
. x
+

S ) S1S ) y1 1S ) y1 1y2 = x
.
7.3

7.3

S ! AA
A ! AAA j bA j Ab j a
x 2 fa; bg , a
.

7.2
7.1 7.2 , .
.
, ,
.
7.1,
00.
x = 100101000
:

153

1
10
100
1001
10010
100101
1001010
10010100
100101000

1
1
S

0
1

S
S
A
F
S
A
S
A
F
F

7.1. L = fx 2 f0; 1g j x 00g.

) ,

S ) 1S ) 10A ) 100F ) 1001S ) 10010A )

100101S ) 1001010A ) 10010100F ) 100101000F

.

S ! 1S, S ! 0A, A ! 0F , F ! 1S, A ! 1S, F ! 0F
100101000F .
F ! , F .

S; A; F . , p 2 Q a 2 ,

(p; a) = q, p ! aq,
,
f 2 F f ! .

,
,
.
.
7.3
G = (V; ; S; R) ,

A!a
A!
a 2 A; B 2 V .

A ! aB

7.3

154

, .
7.1. L ,
G.
: .

, . M = (Q; ; ; q0 ; F )
L G = (V; ; S; R)
:
V =Q
S = q0
R = fp ! aq j (p; a) = qg [ ff ! j f 2 F g
,
L(G) = L. (
7.3) x 2

(q0 ; x) = p S ) xp
x L(M ). (q0 ; x) = f ,

f , S ) xf .

f ! S ) x, x 2 L(G).

L(M ) L(G). , x 2 L(G) S ) x.

f ! ,

f 2 F , S ) xf ) x. (q0 ; x) = f x 2 L(M ).
L(G) L(M ) .
G = (V; ; S; R)
M = (Q; ; ; q0 ;
F ),
Q=V
q0 = S
F = ff g

: Q ,

(A; a) = B A ! aB, A; B 2 V a 2 .

(A; a) = f A ! a, A 2 V a 2 .
(A; ) = f A ! , A 2 V .

, M . f
,
.
x 2

S ) x (S; x) = f

, , Kleene

155

, x 2 L(G) S ) x, (S; x) = f x 2 L(M ).

, x 2 L(M ), (S; x) = f , S ) x.
x 2 L(G) .

7.1 .

, A ! B
,
7.3. ,
.
7.4
, M2
M4 5.13 5.

7.4

7.3 , , Kleene
L1 = fx 2 f0; 1g j x 0

1g 7.4. S A,
G1 :
A ! 0 j 0A j A0 j 1AA j A1A j AA1

, L2 fx 2 f0; 1g j x 1

0g, G2 0 1.
B ,
B ! 1 j 1B j B1 j 0BB j B0B j BB0

L x 2 f0; 1g 0

1. L
L1 , L2 . S
S ! A j B, G1 G2 ,

L1 , L2 .

.

Kleene .
7.2.
, Kleene.

156

:
G1 = (V1 ; ; S1 ; R1 ) G2 = (V2 ; ; S2 ; R2 )
, L1 L2 . L1 [ L2 , L1 L2 L1 .
: V1 \ V2 = ,
, . S .
G = (V; ; S; R) L1 L2
:
V = V1 [ V2 [ fSg
R = R1 [ R2 [ fS ! S1 j S2 g
G L1 [ L2 S
S ! S1 S ! S2 .

x 2 S ) x S1 ) x S2 ) x.
x 2 L, x 2 L1 x 2 L2 .
: G
L1 L2 . R
R = R1 [ R2 [ fS ! S1 S2 g

x S ) x, x

x1 x2 S1 ) x1 S2 ) x2 . x 2 L1 L2 ,
x1 2 L1 x2 2 L2 .
Kleene: L1 G
x = x1 x2 xk ,
xi 2 L1 . S ,
R1
S ! S1 S j

S ) S1 S ) S1 S1 S ) S1 S1 S1 S ) S1 S1 S1
S1 ,
S ! . S1
L1 , x = x1 x2 xk 2 L(G),
xi 2 L1 x 2 L1 .

7.5

7.5

V1 V2
. ,
V1 \ V2 6
= .

157

7.5
L = fai bj ck j j = i + kg.
7.2 L .
L = L1 L2 L3 ,
a, b c, . . L1
aa, L2 b L3 c, L aabc,
b a c.
. ai bj ck , j = i + k

ai bi+k ck = ai bi bk ck

7.5

L L1 , L2 ,
L1 = fai bi j i 0g

L2 = fbk ck j k 0g

,
. L1
A ! aAb j
L2
C ! bCc j
S L1 , L2
L = L1 L2 :
S ! AC
A ! aAb j
C ! bCc j
abbbcc = (ab)(b2 c2 ) :
S ) AC ) aAbC ) abC ) abbCc ) abbbCcc ) abbbcc

7.6
, 7.2,
.

7.1 fa; bg .
7.2 :
) fai bj ck j i = j + kg

7.6

158

= i + kg
) fai bj ck j j 6
) fai bj ck j i = j i = kg
) fai bj j i j 2ig
) fai bj ck dl j i + j = k + l i > lg
) fan bn j n 0g
7.3 7.1 x 2 p 2 P
(q0 ; x) = p

S ) xp

7.4 G
S ! aS j Sb j a j b
L(G) ba.
7.5 .

.
7.6 G
S ! aB j bA

A ! aS j bAA j a

B ! bS j aBB j b

L(G) x 2 fa; bg+

a b.

7.7
:
S ! aA j bC

A ! aS j bB

B ! aC j bA

C ! aB j bS j

7.8 ,

A ! a, A ! Ba, A !
A; B a .
L ,
G L = L(G).

159

7.9 .
) (a + b) aba(a + b)
) (01) 1(10 + 1)
7.10 .
.
) S ! ABA,

A ! aA j ,

) S ! A j B,

A ! aAb j ab,

B ! bB j
B ! aBb j

(),
,
. ,
, ,
.
, ,
,
.
,
.
, ,
Kleene.
.

7.1
.
.
, x , ,
, .

S ! 0S0 j 1S1 j A

160

, S,
A,
.
A ! 0B1 j 1B0
B ,
B ! 0B j 1B j
.

,
. , 011100
:
S ) 0S0 ) 0A0 ) 01A00 ) 01B00 ) 011B00 ) 0111B00 ) 011100
, . , .
.
7.2
S ! SS j (S) j
,
()
S ) SS ) S ) (S) ) ()
S ) (S) ) ()

S ! (S)S j
, x
k , . k = 1,
.
k .
x k + 1 .
S ) (S)S. y; z
,
k S, x = (y)z.

. x.

161

7.3 , 7.4,

S ! AA

A ! AAA j bA j Ab j a
L = fx 2 fa; bg j a x

g.

.
+

\ 2 (V [ ) S ) , A a
0."

, , A a
,
A ! a. a
. k
S.
: k = 1. S ) AA 1,
.

:
S k .
+

: S ) k + 1 , S ) 0 k
0 2 (V [ ) 0 ) .

, 0 , A a
.
A (S ! AA, A ! AAA)
A a (A ! a)
,
A a (A ! bA j Ab).

, L(G) L.

, L
G. x L.

a
b. ab a
:
S ) AA
) AAAA
) AbAAA

) Ab bAAA
) ab baAA

A ! AAA
A ! Ab
A ! Ab,
A ! a,

162

AA ab aAA.
. L L(G)
.

. . 7.4 .
7.4 M2 M4 5.13,
5.
,
, V1 ; V2 ; V3 ; V4 . G2 ,
M2 , V1 :
V1 ! 0V2 j 0V3
V2 ! 1V4
V3 ! 0V4
V4 ! 0V4 j V1 j
V4 ! , V4 ,

V4 ! V1 , - 4
1.
. -
.
, G4 :
V1 ! 0V2 j 0V3 j
V2 ! 1V1 j V4
V3 ! 1V4
V4 ! 0V4 j 1V4
, .
, : ) (p; a) = q
,
p ! aq. ) f , f ! .
7.5 7.2

V1 V2 .
= .
V1 \ V2 6

S1 ! AB, A ! a, B ! b
S2 ! BC, B ! d, C ! c

163

ab dc, .
, B,
,
S ) S1 ) AB ) aB ) ad
.
7.6 , 7.2,
.
r; s ,
(r + s), (rs) r .
L(r); L(s), r; s, 7.2
L(r)[L(s),
L(r)L(s) L(r) .

, , a, a 2 . . H , .
, S ! , a
,
S ! a. , ,
.

Context Free Grammars
, Variables, terminal symbols
Derivations
Ambiguous grammar
Parsing

164

,
.
,
,
.

:
,
,

,
,

,

,

,

,
,

,
,

.

165

166

-
()

.

,

.
. ,
,

. , , .
.

8.1

.

, ,
,

.
,
;

.
,
. ,
;

167

,
. L = f0n 1n j n 0g
\" ,
.
.
8.1

,
L = fyy R j y 2 fa; bg g:
x L, M
.

.
x = abaaba.
, , .
, x (, ,
, . . . ),
,
(. . . , , , ).
.
,
.
,

.

,
.
.
. (
) .
.

.

Q .
Q , q0 , q1 q2 .
q0 , .
q1
. ,
. ,
. ,
, q2 ,

8.1

168

.
q0 q1 .
, x;

,
,
.

: q, a
Z .
.

,
\ ", (q; a; Z) = (p; )
p Z 2 .

Z = ,
Y = Y Z,
.
,
-,
,
.
Q ( [ )

Q .

, ;
,

Z0 , .

, \" .
,
,
.
(q; a; Z) = f(p1 ; 1 ); (p2 ; 2 ); : : : ; (pn ; n )g
pi i
Z ,
q a.
(q; ; Z) = f(p1 ; 1 ); (p2 ; 2 ); : : : ; (pn ; n )g
, Z
, pi Z
i . n

169

.
:
: Q ( [ ) !( ) Q
,
(Q ( [ ) ) (Q )
8.1

L. q0 , q1 q2 , q0
q2 . 8.1.
1-2 (
Z0 ). 3-4
Z, a b.
Z, .
3 4 : ,
a b.
Z .
5-6 .
,
q1
7 8.
,
.
Z0 , , 9,
q2 .

8.1. L = fxxR jx 2 g

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

q0
q0
q0
q0
q0
q0
q1
q1
q1
(

a
Z0
b
Z0
a
Z
b
Z

Z0

Z
a
a
b
b

Z0
)

(q0 ; aZ0 )
(q0 ; bZ0 )
(q0 ; aZ)
(q0 ; bZ)
(q1 ; Z0 )
(q1 ; Z)
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; )
(q2 ; Z0 )

Z=ab
Z=ab
Z=ab

()

8.1
()

170

\" .
x = abba.

1
4
6
8
8
9

q0
q0
q0
q1
q1
q1
q2

abba
bba
ba
ba
a

Z0
aZ0
baZ0
baZ0
aZ0
Z0
Z0

, x = abbb.

1
4
6
8

q0
q0
q0
q1
q1

abbb
Z0
bbb
aZ0
bb
baZ0
bb
baZ0
b
aZ0
\"

,
.
8.1

8.1

L = fan b2n j n 0g.

8.2

. .

171

8.1
( ), 7- (Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; F ),
Q ,
, q0 2 Q , Z0 2
,

8.1

: Q ( [ ) ! ( ) Q
F Q .

8.2
M M 0
.

8.2

. ,
,
.
,
,
8.1.
8.2
() M 3- (q; x; ),
q M , x 2
2
,
.

8.2

M = (Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; F )
(q; ax; Z) j=M (p; x; )
,
(q; ax; Z)
(p; x; ), q,
a Z ,
p Z , (q; a; Z)
(p; ). a = , ,
-, M
. ,
(q; x; ) j=M (p; y; ), (q; x; ) (p; y; )

.
.

(\j=")

172

8.3
8.3

M = (Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; F ) . x 2
M ,
(q0 ; x; Z0 ) j=M (f; ; )
2 f 2 F . H x M
(q0 ; x; Z0 ) j=M (q; ; )
q 2 Q. , Lf (M ) Le (M )
M .

, M (q0 ; x; Z0 ) M
,
x .
. , . ,
,
,
M . F
.

,

. ,
, .
8.3

8.3

L
8.1.

,

.
\"
.
, .
.
8.1. L
M ,
M 0 .

173

: , L M = (Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; F ),
M 0 = (Q0 ; ; 0 ; q00 ; Z0 ; 0 ; ).
M 0 M
, M 0 ,
M .
M ,
, M .
M ,
x, , M
,
, ; ,
x M 0 8.3,
,
M 0 M .
? ,
Z0 . , .
M f 2 F , M 0
,
qe , -,
. M 0 :
Q0 = Q [ fq00 ; qe g

6
0 = [ f?g, ? 2

0 :

q00

Z0

(q0 ; Z0 ?)

(qe ; Z)
(qe ; )

f 2 F
Z 2 0

( M )
f
qe

Z
Z

M 0 ? Z0
M
. M
,
f 2 F , M 0 qe
.
x 2 Lf (M ). (q0 ; x; Z0 ) j=M (f; ; )
f 2 F 2 . M
M 0 , (q0 ; x; Z0 ) j=M 0 (f; ; ).
: ,
, 1
,
1

174

. ,
(q; x; ) j=M 0 (p; y; )

(q; x; ) j=M 0 (p; y; )
2 . 8.2.

(q00 ; x; Z0 )

j=M 0
j=M 0
j=M 0
j=M 0

(q0 ; x; Z0 ?)
(f; ; ?)
(qe ; ; ?)
(qe ; ; )

qe

x 2 Le (M 0 ) Lf (M ) Le (M 0 ).

x 2 Le (M 0 ). ?
qe .
(q00 ; x; Z0 ) j=M 0 (q0 ; x; Z0 ?) j=M 0 (qe ; ; ?) j=M 0 (qe ; ; )
qe ,
(q0 ; x; Z0 ?) j=M 0 (f; ; ?), f 2 F 2 .
(q0 ; x; Z0 ) j=M 0
(f; ; )
(q0 ; x; Z0 ) j=M (f; ; ). x 2 Lf (M )
Le (M 0 ) Lf (M ), .

L M 0 = (Q0 ; ; 0 ; q00 ; Z0 ;
0 ; ) M = (Q; ; ; q0 ;
Z0 ; ; F ).

8.3.

. ,
.
8.1 , (q0 ; ba; baZ0 )
: (q1 ; ba; baZ0 )
(q0 ; a; bbaZ0 ). q1 - 8 8.1, b
, 4, Z = b.

(q; ; Z),
(q; a; Z), a 2 .

175

8.4
M = (Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; F )
:

8.4

1. q 2 Q, a 2 [ fg Z 2 , (q; a; Z)
.
2. q 2 Q Z 2 , (q; ; Z) 6
= , a 2 ,
(q; a; Z) = .

, 5,
,
, .
. ,
8.1
.
8.4
L = fx 2
f0; 1g j 0 x 1g.

8.4

8.3

.
,
.

,
.
x
, G.

x
G. :
1.
, .
2. A , A !
G.
,
x
.

176

8.2.
.
: G = (V; ; S; R) . M =
(Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; F ), G, :
Q = fq0 ; q1 ; f g

= V [ [ fZ0 g, Z0 6
2V [
F = ff g

q0

Z0

(q1 ; SZ0 )

q1

(q1 ; )

S.
,
a 2 .

q1

(q1 ; )

q1

Z0

(f; Z0 )

A ,
A ! .

L(G) L(M ).

\ S ) x (q0 ; x; Z0 ) j= (f; ; Z0 )."

,
:

\ S ) x, x 2 2 V (V [ ) [ fg,
(q0 ; x; Z0 ) j= (q1 ; ; Z0 )."
= . (q0 ; x; Z0 ) j=
(q1 ; ; Z0 ) j= (f; ; Z0 ) x 2 L(M ).

, x
G, x 2
, x
,
.
n x.
: 0, x = = S.
(q0 ; ; Z0 ) j= (q1 ; ; SZ0 ), 0, .

: , S ) x,
n k, (q0 ; x; Z0 ) j= (q1 ; ; Z0 ).

: k + 1 x. k
x1 A,
x1 , A 2 V 2 (V [ ) .

(q0 ; x1 ; Z0 ) j= (q1 ; ; AZ0 )

(8.1)

177

,
x k + 1,
A A ! x2 ,
x2 2 2 (V [ ) , .

S ) x1 A ) x1 x2 = x
x = x1 x2 = . ,
x = x1 x2
(q0 ; x; Z0 ) =
j=
j=
j=
=

(q0 ; x1 x2 ; Z0 )
(q1 ; x2 ; AZ0 )
(q1 ; x2 ; x2 Z0 )
(q1 ; ; Z0 )
(q1 ; ; Z0 )

(8.1)
2, A ! x2
1,
=

.

:
(q0 ; x1 ; Z0 ) j= (q1 ; ; AZ0 ), (q0 ; x1 x2 ; Z0 ) j= (q1 ; x2 ; AZ0 )

.
8.6.
, L(M ) L(G),

\ (q1 ; x; SZ0 ) j= (q1 ; ; Z0 ), x 2 2
(V [ ) ,

S ) x."
= , x 2 L(M ),
0 S 3
f . x 2 L(G)
. , n .
: 0, (q1 ; x; SZ0 ) = (q1 ; ; Z0 ).

x = = S S ) S.
: , (q1 ; x; SZ0 ) j= (q1 ; ; Z0 ),

n k , S ) x.
: (q1 ; x; SZ0 ) j= (q1 ; ; Z0 ) k + 1 .
k (q1 ; x; SZ0 ) j= (q1 ; a; Z0 )
(q1 ; a; Z0 ) j= (q1 ; ; Z0 ), a 2 [ fg 2 (V [ ) .
x = ya y 2 .
k (q1 ; y; SZ0 ) j= (q1 ; ; Z0 )

S ) y.

178

2,
3. , a 2 , (q1 ; a; aZ0 ) j=
(q1 ; ; Z0 )

. = a S ) y = ya = x.
, a = , (q1 ; ; BZ0 ) j=
(q1 ; ; Z0 ) B

B ! . y = x, = B, = S ) xB ) x = x.

8.2
8.2

G = (fSg; f0; 1g; S; fS ! 0S1 j g),

L = f0n 1n j n 0g. 8.2
M = (fq0 ; q1 ; f g; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; ff g), = f0; 1g, = fS; Z0 ; 0; 1g
:

0
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
3

q0
q1
q1
q1
q1
q1
(

Z0
0
0
1
1

Z0
)

(q1 ; SZ0 )
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; 0S1)
(q1 ; )
(f; Z0 )

0
1
S ! 0S1
S!
()

x = 0011
.
,

. \".

0
2.1
1.1
2.1
1.1
2.2
1.2
1.2
3

q0
q1
q1
q1
q1
q1
q1
q1
q1
f

0011
0011
0011
011
011
11
11
1

Z0
SZ0
0S1Z0
S1Z0
0S11Z0
S11Z0
11Z0
1Z0
Z0
Z0

S
) 0S1
) 00S11
) 0011

8.2,
.

179

, G x,
M x .
: x
M
G, . ,
,
.
.
.

[p; Z; q]

p q
Z .
a, p q1 Z
,
Z1 Z2 Zn ; a
,
,
,
.
Zi q.
q1
q2 Z1 , q2 q3
Z2 , . . . , qn1 qn Zn1
qn q Zn .
q2 ; : : : ; qn ,

[p; Z; q] ! a[q1 ; Z1 ; q2 ][q2 ; Z2 ; q3 ] [qn1 ; Zn1 ; qn ][qn ; Zn ; q]
q2 ; : : : ; qn ,
(p; a; Z) (q1 ; Z1 Z2 Zn ).

Z ,
[p; Z; q] ! a

,

, 8.1
. G; q0
,
.
Z0 ( ), S
G,
S ! [q0 ; Z0 ; q]

180

q.
8.3.
.
: M = (Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; ) .
G = (V; ; S; R) M
:
V = fSg [ f[p; Z; q] j p; q 2 Q Z 2 g.
R :
1. S ! [q0 ; Z0 ; q], q 2 Q.

2. [p; Z; q] ! a, p; q 2 Q, a 2 [ fg Z 2
(p; a; Z) (q; ).
3. [p; Z; qn+1 ] ! a[q1 ; Z1 ; q2 ][q2 ; Z2 ; q3 ] [qn1 ; Zn1 ; qn ][qn ; Zn ; qn+1 ],
n 1, p; q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qn+1 2 Q, a 2 [fg Z; Z1 ; Z2 ; : : : ;
Zn 2 (p; a; Z) (q1 ; Z1 Z2 Zn ).
L(G) = L(M ) :

\(p; x; Z) j= (q; ; ) [p; Z; q] ) x,

p; q 2 Q, Z 2 x 2 ."
8.3. x 2 Le (M ), (q0 ; x; Z0 ) j= (q; ; ), q 2

Q. [q0 ; Z0 ; q] ) x. S ! [q0 ; Z0 ; q]

G, S ) x x 2 L(G). , x 2

L(G) S ) [q0 ; Z0 ; q] ) x, q 2 Q. (q0 ; x; Z0 ) j=

(q; ; ) x 2 Le (M ).
n

\ (p; x; Z) j= (q; ; ), [p; Z; q] ) x."

: n = 1, x 2 .
(p; x; Z) (q; ).
( 2) [p; Z; q] ) x .
:
n k.
:
,
k + 1, k 1. x
x = ay, a 2 [ fg y 2 .
a,
q1 Z

181

Z1 Z2 Zm , Zi 2 . , (p; a; Z)
(q1 ; Z1 Z2 Zm )

(p; x; Z) = (p; ay; Z) j= (q1 ; y; Z1 Z2 Zm )
,
k + 1
. y1 ; y2 ; : : : ; ym 2
i, 1 i m,
qi qi+1 , yi Zi
,
, , Zi+1 Zm . ( i = m
qm qm+1 = q
.) , y = y1 y2 ym 1 i m,
(qi ; yi ; Zi ) j= (qi+1 ; ; ).

[qi ; Zi ; qi+1 ] ) yi , ,
( 3)
[p; Z; q] ! a[q1 ; Z1 ; q2 ][q2 ; Z2 ; q3 ] [qm1 ; Zm1 ; qm ][qm ; Zm ; q],
qm+1 = q. , ,

[p; Z; q] ) ay1 y2 ym = ay = x
, n ,

\ [p; Z; q] ) x (p; x; Z) j= (q; ; )."

: [p; Z; q] ) x. x 2
. (p; x; Z)
(q; ), (p; x; Z) j= (q; ; ).
:
n k.
:
k + 1, k 1.

[p; Z; q] ) a[q1 ; Z1 ; q2 ][q2 ; Z2 ; q3 ] [qm1 ; Zm1 ; qm ][qm ; Zm ; q]

q1 ; : : : ; qm 2 Q, a 2 [ fg
Z1 Z2 Zm 2 , (q; a; Z) (q1 ; Z1 Z2 Zm ).
x, [qi ; Zi ; qi+1 ]
xi , x = ax1 x2 xm .
1 i m
(qi ; xi ; Zi ) j= (qi+1 ; ; )

182

(q; x; Z) = (q; ax1 x2 xm ; Z) j= (q1 ; x1 x2 xm ; Z1 Z2 Zm )

(q2 ; x2 xm ; Z2 Zm ), : : :, (qm ; xm ; Zm )
(q; ; ), .

8.3
8.3

M = (fq0 ; q1 g; f0; 1g; fa; Z0 g; q0 ; Z0 ; ; )

:

1
2
3
4
5
6

q0
q0
q0
q0
q1
q1
(

1
Z0
1
a
0
a

Z0
1
a
0
Z0
)

(q0 ; aZ0 )
(q0 ; aa)
(q1 ; a)
(q0 ; )
(q1 ; )
(q0 ; Z0 )
()

G = (V; f0; 1g; S; R)

M .
V = fS, [q0 ; a; q0 ], [q0 ; a; q1 ], [q1 ; a; q0 ], [q1 ; a; q1 ], [q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ], [q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ], [q1 ; Z0 ;

q0 ], [q1 ; Z0 ; q1 ]g. R
S.
S ! [q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ] S ! [q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ]

[q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ] [q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ],
(q0 ; 1; Z0 ) = (q0 ; aZ0 ) ( 1).
[q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q0 ][q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ]
[q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q1 ][q1 ; Z0 ; q0 ]
[q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q0 ][q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ]
[q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q1 ][q1 ; Z0 ; q1 ]
(q0 ; 1; a) = (q0 ; aa) ( 2)
[q0 ; a; q0 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q0 ][q0 ; a; q0 ]
[q0 ; a; q0 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q1 ][q1 ; a; q0 ]
[q0 ; a; q1 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q0 ][q0 ; a; q1 ]
[q0 ; a; q1 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q1 ][q1 ; a; q1 ]

183

, (q0 ; 0; a) = (q1 ; a) ( 3)
[q0 ; a; q0 ] ! 0[q1 ; a; q0 ]
[q0 ; a; q1 ] ! 0[q1 ; a; q1 ]
(q0 ; ; Z0 ) = (q0 ; ) ( 4) (q1 ; 1; a) = (q1 ; ) ( 5)
[q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ] ! [q1 ; a; q1 ] ! 1
(q1 ; 0; Z0 ) = (q0 ; Z0 ) ( 6)
[q1 ; Z0 ; q0 ] ! 0[q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ]
[q1 ; Z0 ; q1 ] ! 0[q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ]
[q0 ; a; q0 ]
[q1 ; a; q0 ] .
,

. :
S ! [q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ]
[q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ] ! 1[q0 ; a; q1 ][q1 ; Z0 ; q0 ]
[q0 ; a; q1 ] ! 0[q1 ; a; q1 ]

[q1 ; Z0 ; q0 ] ! 0[q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ]
[q0 ; Z0 ; q0 ] !
[q1 ; a; q1 ] ! 1

,
.
;

8.1 = fa; bg. :

) ,
) a,
) ,
)
.
8.2 , (q; x; ) j=M 0 (p; y; ), (q; x; ) j=M 0
(p; y; ) 2 .
8.3 , L M 0 ,
M .

184

8.4 = fa; bg.

) fx 2 j o a b xg.
) fx 2 j o a b

xg.

) fxcxR j x 2 g.
) L(G), G = (fV g; ; S; R) R = fS ! SS j [S] j g.
8.5 L , x; y, x 6
= y,

y = xz, z 2 , x
,
y.
L .
8.6 M (p; x; ) j=M (q; ; )
(q; y; ) j=M (r; ; ), (p; xy; ) j=M (r; ; ).

8.7 M
M 0 , : 0 (q; a; Z) = (p; ),
jj 2.
8.8 L
k . L;
8.9 M1 ; M2 L1 ; L2 .
L1 [ L2 , L1 L2 L1 .
8.10 :
) S ! SS j aSb j ab.
) S ! SS j [S] j .
\" , 8.2.
8.11 :

185

1
2
3
4
5
6

q0
q0
q0
q1
q1
q1
(

0
Z0
0
a
1
a
1
a

Z0
)

(q0 ; aZ0 )
(q0 ; aa)
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; )
()

,
.
, :
,
.

,
:
,

.
,
.
.
. ,
. ,
.
.

.
.
. .

8.1 M L = fan b2n j n 0g

186

1
2
3
4
5

q0
q1
q1
q2
q2
(

a
Z0
a
a
b
a
b
a

Z0
)

(q1 ; aaZ0 )
(q1 ; aaa)
(q2 ; )
(q2 ; )
(q3 ; Z0 )
()

, a , a
b a ( 1-2).
b, M q2
b a ( 3-4). b
q3 , .
q0 , .
, . , .
.
8.2 M = (Q; ; q0 ; ; F ) L. M 0 = (Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; 0 ; F )
L M
. M ,
0 :
0 (p; a; Z0 ) = (q; Z0 ) (p; a) = q
,
M 0 M
Z0 .

,
. ,
. , . .
8.3

8.1

9.
q2 , Z0 .

(q1 ; ; Z0 ) = (q2 ; )
8.4 L = fx 2 f0; 1g j

0 1g :

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

187

q0
q0
q1
q1
q1
q1
q1
(

0
Z0
1
Z0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0

Z0
)

(q1 ; 0Z0 )
(q1 ; 1Z0 )
(q1 ; 00)
(q1 ; 11)
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; )
(q0 ; Z0 )
()

q0 .
( 1-2)
q1 . q1 ,
( 3-4), ( 5-6). 0
0, 1. 0
1,
q0 ( 7).

Stack
Pushdown automaton
Instantaneous description
Production

188

.
,
,
.

:
,

,

,
,

,

,

,

,
189

190

.

.
,
.
.

,
.
.
, , .
.

9.1
6
, .
: ,
, ,
,

(

191

6.1). , z z = uvw,
u; v; w 2 , jvj > 0, uvi w
.

. , v z, v; x
,
.

. . , G
A ,

S ) uAy ) uvAxy ) uvwxy

u; v; w; x; y 2 . A ) vAx A ) w.

A ) vAx ) v 2 Ax2 ) v3 Ax3

uwy, uvwxy, uv2 wx2 y, : : :
L(G).

u; v; w; x; y, ,
.
,
,
,
.
:
. A ! , A -

, .

S )S+S )x+S )x+SS )x+xS )x+xy
9.1.

,
. .

192

9.1.

,
.
,
,

( , 2.2).
,
, . (
9.1
, .)
9.1. m 1,
cm , c ,
, m.
: m.
:
\ T ,
m ( m),
T cm ."
: m = 1 c .
:
m cm .
: m + 1
cm+1 . .
c ,

193

m.
cm .
,
c cm cm+1 .

.
9.1. [ ] L . n z 2 L, jzj n,
z = uvwxy, u; v; w; x
y
jvxj > 0,
jvwxj n
uv i wxi y 2 L, i 0
: G = (V; ; S; R) m ,
L.
z, jzj n, n G
,

S ) uAy ) uvAxy ) uvwxy

A u; v; w; x y
.
uv i wxi y L.
c
G.
z c ,
c.
n = cm+1 z L
jzj n. 9.1, z
m + 1. P .
P , m + 1
,
.
A, .
w z, A

( A ) w), vwx A

( A ) vAx). u y

z, z = uvwxy ( S ) uAy).
9.2.
A
vwx. m+1 jvwxj cm+1 = n.

194

9.2.

v x ,
P A
P , A .
,

m + 1,
z n = cm+1 . ,
9.1, . jvxj > 0 .

.
,

.
n ,
. , , n .
z
jzj n, z = uvwxy, jvwxj n
jvxj > 0, i 0 uv i wxi y 2 L .

z.
z, . ;
2 L (
i, uv i wxi y 6
i).

:
z,
,
u; v; w; x y. .

195

u; v; w; x; y.
,
.
9.1
L = f0k 1k 2k j k 0g. ,
0
1, 2.
.
L n
9.1. , n,
z n . z = 0n 1n 2n .
u; v; w; x; y, z = uvwxy,
. ,
jvwxj n, v x
uv i wxi y L i 0. vwx n,
vwx ( )
0; 1; 2. , , v x
, vx .
uv 2 wx2 y v x
. uv 2 wx2 y 6
2 L.
.

9.1

9.1
L = fx 2 f0; 1; 2g j 0 x
1 2g. L
.

:
.
9.2.
.
: L1
L2 , , L = L1 \L2 ,
L .
f0n 1n 2n j n 0g ,
L1 L2 L1 \L2 = f0n 1n 2n j n
0g. . L1 = f0n 1n 2m j n; m 0g
L2 = f0m 1n 2n j n; m 0g, .

0, 1 2 .

9.1

196

. ( 9.7).

M , M1 M2 L(M1 ) \ L(M2 ).
M .

M [X; Y ] X Y
M1 M2 ,

;
\ Reg =

, ,
,
, .
9.3. L1 L2
L1 \L2 .
: M1 = (Q1 ; ; ; q1 ; Z0 ; 1 ; F1 )
L1 M2 = (Q2 ; ; q2 ; 2 ; F2 )
L2 . L = L1 \ L2
M = (Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; F ) :
Q = Q1 Q2
F = F1 F2
p 2 Q1 , q 2 Q2 , a 2 Z 2 ,
:
([p; q]; a; Z) = f([p0 ; q 0 ]; )j 1 (p; a; Z) (p0 ; a) 2 (q; a) = q 0 g
([p; q]; ; Z) = f([p0 ; q]; )j 1 (p; ; Z) (p0 ; a)g

M
,
M1 M2 ,
M1 . M1 y
p M2
y q, M
y [p; q] .
, p 2 Q1 , q 2 Q2 , y; z 2 2 ,
k 0 ( 9.12)

\(q1 ; yz; Z0 ) j=kM1 (p; z; ) 2 (q2 ; y) = q

([q1 ; q2 ]; yz; Z0 ) j=kM ([p; q]; z; )."

197

, x 2 L(M1 ), (q1 ; x; Z0 ) j=M1 (p; ; )

p 2 F1 , x 2 L(M2 ), 2 (q2 ; x) = q
q 2 F2 , ([q1 ; q2 ]; x; Z0 ) j=M ([p; q]; ; ), [p; q] 2 F ,
x 2 L(M ) .

9.2
L = fx 2 fa; bg j x a b,
abbg .
, L1 = fx 2
fa; bg j x a bg
, L2 = fx 2 fa; bg j x abbg,
abb .
9.3 L .

9.2

9.2
6.2
.

M , L(M ) , ,
, .
,

.

,
,
.

, ,
,
, . .


x;
x G.
,

M M x .
,
.
. ; ,
x. x ;
.
x.

198

,
, ,

.
,
G ,
G G0
:
1. A ! , 2 ,
2. A ! , 2 (V [ ) jj 2.
, , G0
,
A .
2jxj
x G0 . :
k, k < 2jxj, x
2jxj. x, x
G0 G.
G
G0 , A ! ,
B.
;

A ! (
-), .
, S ! ,
2 L(G).

G = (V; ; S; R). :

-
1. A ! G, B ! 1 A2 ,
1 ; 2 2 (V [ ) , B ! 1 2 .

2. A ! , A = S.
3. 1 2
G.
,
. ,
A !

199

,
B ! 1 A2 . ,

B ! 1 2 .
, G0 S ! , 2 L(G0 ),

x 2 L(G0 )
A ! .
A ! B

( ).

A ) B. B !
A ! , jj 2 A ! B

G0 . . A ) B
, .
-
.
.

A ) B ) ,
A ! .

x G.
, .

,
.
9.4. L
G
1. , z,
jzj < n n G, z
G,
2. , z
n jzj < 2n G.
: n
( 9.1). z
n, G, L .
z, jzj n L(G).
A z z = uvwxy,
jvxj > 0. uv 0 wx0 y = uwy
L, . jzj < n.
, L(G) ,
,
z 2 L(G) n jzj < 2n.

200

6.2 .

9.4
L(G) G.
i, 0 i < n, i

G. , L(G) = . i,
n i < 2n, i, L(G).
, , .

. ,
, ,
, ., .
.
9.2

9.2

,
,
.

9.1
.
9.2 9.15
aabb.
9.3 L = fai bj ai bj j i; j 0g .
9.4 ,
9.3
= fxxj x 2 fa; bg g ;
9.5
.
) fai bj ck j i < j < kg.
) fap j p g.
) fai bj j j = i2 g.

201

9.6 ;
.
) fx 2 fa; b; cg j x a; b cg.
) fxxxj x 2 fa; b; cg g.
) fxayj x; y 2 fa; bg jxj = jyjg.
) fx 2 fa; bg j b x
ag.

) fxyxj x; y 2 fa; bg jxj 1g.

) fan bn j n 1g.
9.7
.
9.8 9.2
. ( )
.
;
9.9 L . LR ,
;
9.10 h ,
u; v 2 , h(uv) = h(u)h(v) (
4.11). , L , h(L) .
9.11 L = fbabaab ban1 ban bj n 1g.
9.10 L .

9.12 9.3.
p 2 Q1 , q 2 Q2 , y; z 2 , 2 k 0
(q1 ; yz; Z0 ) j=kM1 (p; z; ) 2 (q2 ; y) = q
([q1 ; q2 ]; yz; Z0 ) j=kM ([p; q]; z; )
9.13 Chomsky. ( )
A ! A ! BC, 2
A; B; C .

Chomsky

202

9.14 n ,
Chomsky;
9.15
A ! A ! B S ! ,
.

) S ! ABA
) S ! AB j

A ! aA j

B ! bB j

A ! aASb j a

B ! bS

9.16 Chomsky.
9.17 L R ,
L R; R L;
9.18 L F ,
L F ; L [ F ;
=j i6
= kg .
9.19 L = fai bj ck j i 6
.

L . ,
,
.
,
,
,
,
,
. , .

, ,
.

9.1
L = fx 2 f0; 1; 2g j 0 x

1 2g .

0 1 0
2, .
n . z = 0n 1n+1 2n+1 ,
L. jzj > n,

9.1. z = uvwxy, jvxj > 0, jvwxj n uvi wxi y 2 L,

i 0.

: v x

0, jvwxj n 2.

uv 2 wx2 y 0 2
L.
, v x 0, 1 2.
uv 0 wx0 y 0
L.
9.2 L1 L2 .
,

L1 L2 .
,
L1 L2 L1 \ L02 ,

L02 L2 . L2 ,

. 9.3
L1 \L02 .
,
.

Pumping Lemma
Decision Problems
Decision Algorithms
/ Derivation/Parsing Trees

203

204

,

.

.

:

,

,
,

,


.
205

206

.
,

\ ".
,
,
. ,
,
\ ".
,
,
.

10.1

. ,
x + x y x + (x y) (x + x) y
.

, 7
.

,
, ,
.

.

207

.
,
. L =
f0n 1n j n 0g, S ! 0S1
S ! .

L, ,
,
-

8.2.
. L
$ L0 = L$.
S ! T $ T ! 0T 1 j .

\L0 = L$"

8.2
M = (fp; q; f g; ; ; p; Z0 ; ; ff g), = f0; 1; $g, = fS; T; Z0 g

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

p
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
(

Z0

S
0
0
1
1

T
$
$

Z0
)

(q; SZ0 )
(q; T $)
(q; )
(q; )
(q; 0T 1)
(q; )
(q; )
(f; Z0 )

S ! T$
0
1
T ! 0T 1
T !
$
()

,

.
. ,
1, 4 5,
( 8.2,
0011).
.
:

.
, .

\
"

208

. M
, , T ,
4 5 .
4 T 0T 1,
0,

T .
\" ,
. ,
0, T 0T 1,
1, T .
M
.

0
1
2
2.1
3
3.1
4
5
6
7

p
q
q
q0
q
q1
q0
q1
q
q1
(

Z0

S
0

0
1

T
$
$

Z0
)

(q; SZ0 )
(q; T $)
(q0 ; )
(q; )
(q1 ; )
(q; )
(q0 ; 0T 1)
(q1 ; )
(q; )
(f; Z0 )

S ! T$

T ! 0T 1
T !

0
0
1
1

()

q (0 1)
q0 ; q1 ( 2 3).
0 1
( 2:1 3:1). T ,
0T 1 ( 4),

T ( 5).
,
.
,
8.2.

. ,
. ,

209

.
.
S ! aSb j abS j aSbS j ab

S ! aSbS j
,
-.

a. , ,
S ,
a.
.

S ! aT

T ! Sb j bS j SbS j b

,
T , , \Sb". X
\Sb"
S ! aT

T ! SbX j bX
X!Sj

.

:
:
A ! A !
, 6
= , A0

A ! A0 A0 ! j .

210

.
:
S !S +T
S!T

T !T x

T !x

x S.
:
S T , x.
S S + T S T , x + x.
S S + T , x + x + x, .

, .

S ! S + T ,
.
.
:
A ! Ai , 1 i m
A ! i , 1 i n, i

A, A0
A ! i A0 , A0 ! i A0 A0 ! , i

S ! S + T j T .

+T T .
S 0

S ! T S0

S 0 ! +T S 0
S0 !

T ! T x j x
T ! xT 0

T 0 ! xT 0
T0 !

211

. ,
,
LL(1),
. k 1 , LL(k).
10.1
, LL(1) .
S ! aAb j aAA j aB j bbA
A ! aAb j ab
B ! bBa j ba

10.1

10.2

,
( )
( ).

. (
), (

\
"

).
: \"
\" ,
.

,
.
-
8.2.
10.1. \ ".
: G = (V; ; S; R) . M =
(Q; ; ; q0 ; Z0 ; ; F ) G :
Q = fp; f g

= V [ [ fZ0 g, Z0 6
2V [
F = ff g

212

(p; a)

(p; A)

(f; )

,
a 2 .

R A,
A ! .

1 .
2
. ,
,
, . ,
S,
3.

. 2
R
8.2.
,
R , .
,

G, L(M ) = L(G). H
8.2.
,
.

( 10.3) :

\ S ) x , x 2 2 (V [ ) ,
(p; x; R Z0 ) j= (p; ; SZ0 )."
= , x ,
(p; x; Z0 ) j= (p; ; SZ0 ) j= (f; ; Z0 ), x
. .

213

S ! E$

E !E +T
E!T

T !T x
T !x

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

p
p
p
p
p
p
p
(

$E

T +E

xT

S
)

(p; a)
(p; S)
(p; E)
(p; E)
(p; T )
(p; T )
(f; )

a 2 fx; +; ; $g
S ! E$
E ! E + T
E ! T
T ! T x
T ! x
()

3, T + E
E :

3.1
3.2
3.3

p
pT
p+

T
+
E

(pT ; )
(p+ ; )
(p; E)

T
+
E

.


. , T ,
T T ! T x,

, T S ! S + T ,
.

,
T ! T x T ! x
x.

.
T + x T .

.

214

a, ,

b.
R (V [ ) , . ,

(a; b) R, a
b . ,

S ) Abx ) abx.

,
(a)R A A ! a, a b
(a; b) 2 R.

, 10.1.
10.1. -

1
2

3
4

p
p

a
Z
(p; aZ)
a
T
(p; aT )

p
p$

S ! E$

$
(p$ ; )

E
(p; S)
T ! T x T ! x

x
(px;1 ; )

(px;2 ; )

T
(p; T )

Z
(p; T Z)

5
6
7
8

p
px;1
px;2
px;1

9
10
11
12

E ! E + T
p
pT;a;1
pT;a;2
pT;a;1

13

a 2 , Z 2 fZ0 ; E; +; g
a6
2 f+; $g

T !T x
T ! x, Z 6
=

E ! T a 2 f+; $g
a
T
(pT;a;1 ; )

+
(pT;a;2 ; )

E
(p; aE)
E !E+T

Z
(p; T Z)
E ! T, Z 6
=+

S
( )

(f; )
()

:
(Z0 , E, + ), (x, $),

215

(S)
(T ).

, .

, .

10.1 :
) S ! aA

A ! aA j bA j

) S ! aSb j bSa j
10.2 LL(1) :
) S ! () j x j (A)
) S ! SA j ab

A ! S j A; S

A ! aAbb j ab

10.3 10.1 :

\ S ) x , x 2 2
(V [ ) ,
(p; x; R Z0 ) j= (p; ; SZ0 )."

10.4 ,
.
10.5 L$
10.2(). ;
10.6 .
L$.
S ! E$

E !E+T jET jT

T ! T F j T =F j F

F ! (E) j x

216

.
,
.

.
,
,
.
.
,
.
.

: ,

,
.
.
R.
a b
, (a; b) 2 R.

,
.

10.1
S ! aAb j aAA j aB j bbA
A ! aAb j ab

B ! bBa j ba

. S a
X.
S ! aX j bbA

X ! Ab j AA j B

217

X A
S:
S ! aX j bbA

X ! AY j B
Y !bjA

A-,
a.
A ! aZ

Z ! Ab j b

B-
B ! bW

W ! Ba j a

,
.
LL(1)
,
.

Parsing
Top down Parsing
Bottom up Parsing
Parser
Left Factoring
Left Recursion
Lookahead
- Shift-reduce Parser
Precedence Relation

218

III
A.V. Aho and J.D. Ullman. Principles of Compiler Design, Addison-Wesley,
Reading, 1977.
Bar-Hillel, Y., M. Perles and E. Shamir \On Formal Properties of Simple Phase
Structure Grammars", in Zeitschrift fur Phonetik Sprachwissenshhaft und Kommunikations-forschung, pp. 143-172, 14, 1961.
N. Chomsky \Three Models for the Description of Languages", in IRE Transactions
on Information Theory, 2, no. 3, (1956), pp. 113-114
N. Chomsky \On Certain Formal Properties of Grammars", in Information and
Control, 2, no. 2, (1959), pp. 137-167.
N. Chomsky \Context Free Grammars and Pushdown Storage", in Quarterly Progress Report, 65, MIT Lab, Cambridge, Mass., (1962), pp. 187-194.
N. Chomsky and G.A. Miller \Finite-state Languages", in Information and Control, 1, (1958), pp. 91-112.
J. Evey \Application of Pushdown Store Machines", in Proceedings of the 1963
Fall Joint Computer Conference, Montreal, AFIPS Press, 1963, 1, pp. 215-217.
Hopcroft, J. E. and J. D. Ullman. Introduction to Automta, Theory, Languages
and Computation, 2nd Ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1979.
J.D. Ichbiah and S.P. Morse \A Technique for Generating almost Optimal FloydEvans Productions for Precedence Grammars", in Communications of the ACM, 13,
no. 8, (1970) pp. 501-508.
D.E. Knuth \Top Down Syntax Analysis", in Acta Informatica, 1, no. 2, (1971)
pp. 79-110.
Lewis, H. R. and C. Papadimitriou. Elements of the Theory of Computation,
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1981.
P.M. Lewis and R.E. Stearns \Syntax Directed Translation", in Journal of ACM,
15, no. 3, (1968) pp. 465-488.
J. C. Martin, Introduction to Languages and the Theory of Computation, Mc
Graw-Hill, New York, 1991.
M. Sipser, Introduction to the Theory of Computation, PWS Publishing Company,
Boston, 1998.
A.G. Oettinger \Automatic Syntactic Analysis and the Pushdown Store", in Proceedings of Symposia in Applied Mathematics, Vol. 12, Providence R.I., American
Mathematical Society, 1961.
M.P. Schutzenberger \On Context Free languages and Pushdown Automata", in
Information and Control, 6, no. 3 (1963), pp. 246-264.
S. Sippu and E. Soisalon-Soininen Parsing Theory, Springer-Verlag, New York,
1987.

II
III.
Aho Ullman,
Sippu Soisalon-Soininen.

Chomsky (1956) (1959),

Chomsky Miller (1958).
Oettinger (1961),
Chomsky (1962), Evey (1963) Schutzenberger (1963). To
Bar-Hillel, M. Perles
E. Shamir (1961). LL(1)
Lewis R.E. Stearns (1968) Knuth (1971),
Ichbiah Morse (1970).

219

220


TURING

II III
,
fan bn cn j n 0g.

\" ,

.
, , Alan Turing,
,
\ ".
\ ",
. O Turing,

,
.
,

.

Turing ,
.


\ ".
221

222

Turing
,
. ,
,
, ,
.
,
.

.
,
,
,
.

;
\ ",
. ,
,
,
.

,
, ,
;
Turing, .


. . ,
. ,
,
Turing .

.



.


,

,
.
,
.

1
1.1 , , , , , , , .
1.2 A [ B, A \ B, A [ B, .
1.4 (A [ B) (A \ B), (A [ B [ C) (A \ B \ C).
1.5 fg, ffcg; fa; cg; fb; cg; fa; b; cgg, f(a; b; 1); (a; c; 1)g.
1.6 f 1 (10) = f(0; 10); (1; 9); (2; 8); (3; 7); (4; 6); (5; 5); (6; 4); (7; 3); (8; 2); (9; 1);
(10; 0)g. f 1 (k) k + 1.

1
1.8 a 6
(y) = (y b)=a.
= 0. fa;b

1.10 ) 1-1. ) g g 1 (C) f (A).

1.12 . . . .

;
1.13 R .
1.14 f2; 4g, f0g, fg.
1.18 fg, ffag; fbg; fcgg, ffa; bg; fb; cg; fa; cgg, ffa; b; cgg.

,
1.19 f
.
1.20 , , , , .
223

224

1.21 .
1.22 p ^ :q, p ! q, p _ q, (:p ^ :q) _ (:p ^ r) _ (q ^ r), p ^ q, T .
1.28 L .
L .

1.30 a b.
1.31 L1 = fa; bg fbbgfa; bg , L2 = () , L3 = c (a + bc ) .

2
2.1 12
3 7.
2.6 K = 1,
.
2.9 M .
2.10 n 1 B,

C . C n 1
B C. T (n) = 2T (n
1) + 1. T (n) = 2n 1.

2.11 L(n) = L(n 1) + n.

3
3.1 = .
3.3 , , , .
3.4 0 1 , ( + 0 + 00)(1 + 10 + 100) .
3.5 ) 1 01 01 , ) (0 + 1) 01 0(0 + 1) , ) (0 + 10 + 110) ( + 1 + 11), )
( + 1)(01) (0 + ), ) (0 + 1) 010(0 + 1) , ) (01 + 10)
3.6 (0 + 1) 0, (0 + 5) .
3.12 r; s , (rs)R = (sR rR ), (r + s)R = (rR + sR )
(r )R = (rR ) .

4
4.1 = f10; 20; 50; Kg, K
.

.
4.4 ,
x .
,
x.
4.5 2, 0 1. 3.

,
.
4.6 L1 = (01) 0, L2 = , L3 = (10 + 01) , L4 = (00) + (00) 11(11) .
4.8 , 0, 1 2.
K 0 2K (modulo 3),
1 2K + 1 (modulo 3).
4.12 IL .
,
,
4.14 .
,
.
4.16
.

5
5.2 L1 = (10 + 101) , L2 = (01 + 10) (11 + 00)
5.4 ) f1; 2; 5; 6; 3g, ) f3; 4; 1; 2; 5; 6g ) f4; 1; 2; 5; 6; 3g, ) f4; 1; 2; 5; 6; 3g, )
f4, 1, 2, 5, 6, 3g.
5.6 ) , ) ) )
5.7 6
2 L, L+ .
5.8 5.11.

225

226

5.10 ) . ;
) (, )
.
5.13 L = (0 1 + 1 0) .

6
6.2 q = jvj p = juj + jwj.
6.3 () ().
6.4 ) ) ) ) ) ) .
6.5 ) .
) L(M ) = L1 L1 = fg.
) R.
) L(M1 ) [ L(M2 ) = .
6.6 ) L1 L = , L1 = .
L L1 = ;

) L0 .
L .

7
7.1 S ! aSa j bSb j a j b.
7.2 ) ai bj ck ak+j bj ck = ak aj bj ck .
, ) .
) a b.
) fai bj ck dl j i + j = k + lg
, i + j = k + l i = l, i > l i < l.

) fan bn j n 0g
b b a
= j.
ai bj , i 6
.

7.7 fa; bg
a b.

227

,
7.10 ) a b a .
, a (
,
,
b) A .
,
A,
.
S ! aA j

A ! aA j bB j

B ! bB j aA0 j

A0 ! aA0 j

,
) fak bk +(ab)k j k 0g.
,
ab
,
A B.
.
S ! aAb j abB j ab j

A ! aAb j ab

B ! abB j ab

8
8.5 M L
, M
x x 2 L. y

x, y
.

8.7
2.
8.8 H L . k ,

. .
8.10 ) :

228

0
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
3

q0
q1
q1
q1
q1
q1
q1
(

Z0
[
[
]
]

Z0
)

(q1 ; SZ0 )
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; )
(q1 ; SS)
(q1 ; [S])
(q1 ; )
(f; Z0 )

[
]
S ! SS
S ! [S]
S!
()

8.11 :
S ! [q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ]

[q0 ; Z0 ; q1 ] ! 0[q0 ; a; q1 ][q1 ; Z0 ; q1 ]

[q1 ; a; q1 ] ! 0[q0 ; a; q1 ][q1 ; a; q1 ]
[q0 ; a; q1 ] ! 1

[q1 ; Z0 ; q1 ] !
[q1 ; a; q1 ] !

[q1 ; a; q1 ] ! 1

9
9.4 M \ fa b a b g = L.
9.6 ) ) ) ) ) )
9.8 .
9.9 LR .
9.11 h(L) , h(a) = aa h(b) = a;
;
9.13
.
Chomsky.
9.14 , n = 2m+1 , m
.
9.17 L R 9.3. H R L .
9.18 .



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Turing.


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229

230

M ,
.
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M q , (q; )
.


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Kleene, . ,
,

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231

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.

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232

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(compilation)
.

, ,
,
.
.
,
.

, .
Turing
.
.

. , Alan Turing
1936, Turing. ,
,
.

. ,
.

. ,
.

.

233

,
,
, 55
, 134-137, 197-200
, 20
, 18
. . . , 16
, 17

, 172
, 172-175
, 172
, 75
, 101
-, 103
, 22, 55, 75, 101
, 211
, 45
, 12
,
,
, 19
, 7
, 10

, 121
, 46
, 10
, 12

, 18
, 19
, 19
, 18
,
, 38, 42
, 41

, 171
, 73

, 210
, 210
, 149
, 168, 171
, 149
, 149
Kleene, 21
, 215
, x, 143, 171

, 172
, 172
, 176
, 172175
, 175
, 171
, 171
, 176178
, 23, 71

, 40, 43

, 23
, 143,
147
, 148
, 178-182
,
, 148
, 155
Kleene, 155
, 195
, 195
, 196

, 175
, 193195
, 215

234

235

, 23
, 191
, 211

, 71
, 97
,
, 81
, 81
, 82,
130
, 8
, 6
, 8

, 14
, 147
Chomsky, 201
, 59, 111
, , Kleene , 60, 111
, , , 77
, 153
, 154
, 58
, 59
, 59
, 115-119
, 109
, 71
, 8
, 59

, 135
, 199
, 5
, 12
, 60, 111, 155
, 23
Kleene
, Kleene
, Kleene

, 10

, 155
, 60, 111
, 6
, 19
, 40, 43
, 40, 43
,

, 10
, 121
, x
, 7

-, 198
, 137
, 198
, 193
-, -
, 132
-
, 134,
, 105
197
, 171
, 14
, 98
, 14
-, 102
, 14
, 102
LL(k) , 211

, 14

-, -
,
, 27
, 12

Kleene, 111

, 42

236

, 147
, 14
, 211
,
, 82, 130
, 133, 134

, 108-111
, 96
, 168, 170
,
99
, 101
, 108
, 99

-, 101
, 103
, 105
L1 [ L2 , L1 L2 , L ,
111
, 101
, 20
,

Turing, ix, 136, 222
, 136
, 70
, 199

,
176-178
, 9
, 60, 135

, 135
, 199
, x, 55, 73
, 75
, 108
, 75
,
,
,
, 14
, 73
, 23
, 208

, 136, 150
, 197-200
, 134-137
, 121
, 7

-, 102
, 79, 83

, 149
, 59

, ,

, 171
, 175
,
20
De Morgan, 7
,
20
, 40
, 101

, 75

, 12
, 148
, 15
, 5

, 5
,
, 195
, 45
, 77
, 167- , 10
170

, 82, 130
, 171
,
, 99
-, 101
209
, 73
, 148

, 21
, 155
, 60, 111
, 21
, 11
, 5
, 14
, 5
, 7
, 5
, xi, 144, 206
, 211
, 206

-, 211

, 211

, 207
,
213-215
,
207-211

, 12
, 12
, 12
, 12
, 12
, 214
, 143, 167

, , 167

, 171
, 99
, 73
, 147

, 196
, 195
, 77
, 6
Turing, ix, 136, 222

237