Carl Levi - Gramsci and The Anarchists (1999)

Garl Levy
I
II
An
Gramsci and the Anarchists
Otford
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ISS" I 8\973 '4I9 (iI .rdbkU
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To Ih t' fll efll Or\' of Jam es J a il
Conl ents
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The h. lia:n An,u'"h1.I!;. 187(1
Tori ....... Anarch"",. 180-1'114

Gr1m$<' " Apprcnllce,h,p .nd til( \\3' Yea ...
Til( An, rchi,,, in T"on

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Prod"ell ' ,stn . " d Atlt;Jocooi,,,sm
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241

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List of Maps
Acknowled ge ments
M. n) Ind;I,J".I, h,,c hclrcJ "'" '" the C"""" of 'h,' book I ",wid
pant<ularl} hh 10 recall Sc'llio CapriOlllio, Do, id GoodU). Eha, Ekl'll.
An'on>oli. M. rro Jon:a,h:ln alliin. (lorn Roou:s and
Wulfl'.ng 'The s.uffs of,1I< lnlnnauonal for Soc..!
1l'''<Jf)' (Am"erdaml. AlbcUrt'fR!.a1' An." o.:h Rillliol ... IS"",lJI<olml.
Isu,u"" G... m"" (Rome!.nd 'be S, ... A!'Chi,c. of Bologn . 'hlon.
Ron.., .r<! TUJln iUl'I'h<:d '"''3.Iu.ab!. tItl'w,! .r<! .I",,,ys ex'",rncly
r l ."., ! "'Iluld hl . lo,hank ,s'Cf'h<n (onll" fo.-drn",mg ,he IwO maP'!
or T,mn all,! ,t.., of Soci.! !'<lIlC), and 1'010,;" ., Go!d,,,,,,hs
for
c""
1\
I2
2.1
J.!
(;<ovorhyoflt. li.naNrchi,rn.
D.. uibu,oon o(,he an.",hlsl P"'''''' 11.ly. 1900 !4
Tu,in.
Turin / " 'DUUJ, Agt>f"'02-26 A\&i\l$1 !9!7)
4. I
In .... n..:IIOO\.1.I)' ."'., and """",hIS! predom,,,,,nce In !o:o])',
1914 20
,he"
""
"
"
9J
In
LiSf
2 I
F 1151 Iss ue of LI> &001" MoJ.. ,nu. jounlal of lhe

School
. .......
U st of Tabl es
of Figures
2. I
2.2
4.1
!' ion, Me",bt.>hip (Tu.in a nd I'r<:>vi",,",: I \lOO . 14

Turin Ch.mbt. of Labour I1lOO-14
"""",h,sm and SyndICalism in I. , .....",
S.I
Tho\louoPl.n
""
".'"
- 1Abbreviation s
The Italian Anarchists, 1870--1914
ACS CPC
ACS f'S
,-
Meh" ,0 dtllo S ... ,o, Cuel l.no ]'olilioco Ccn'rok.
"",ni, io Ce<Ilraic dcllo Sralo,
del1'lllI<rnO. Dt=1ont
<II SICUf'C"UI. I)" IS;one Alfan Gcnenli c
AS\!
AST
11 Sf!
R,;(1..ll. RlIIYIt
M"nwio ci, Slim di

Fondo f'rtftuura. GabiDtllo.
"",h,vio d SlIlo<li Ton""

In'emOli""")ln,,i'"I. ofSoclsllllS'<><y, AmSl.r<i:tm
Tho .... "'h....

,any OIl'
,lit u.. fw /unc, ... of m&l."'11 "'" ....ull<'ll
c""""utl(>nallONh,.., _blc. K<<publt. .1..- "'" ....rJeoSUl' fOl "'"
_ _ ... II .. a ..... ,'" u m>d<mIlO "" ropubhco .. """ 10(\0) tho
u'
..,.,..,lull .............
AIr<.od} for tolD< ""'" publIC proo."UlOn '" ftono of
j ....... (Oloalt' ""', .... "'" ...01\<11 po."..
"'<01 if"
Ill<
0p'''' 'bc....."h, ... lh<y "'ill '"''' Karl M..... od
"'" "M.... f'II"'" I, "'",,Id "'" """"....... If donoR' ,n.1 of'h" kl'ld 'Il<
""&h' ....od ,,n """"
of Sociol< ., ,1>0 ...." 1'10 Qf
'hc 'j"" 11m"" up '0" h"n " .... P'or f", "" ..,," 1"0000pndo '0 proe .. ,J
<,,"'"
rro>"'''''
i,....,.,.....
i,,,,,,
Flhl'P" lUI'''. '01; "'''''IThICI' C,,"ea

Fifll. t .." >co ,,,,,", .... "" ouch ,h"'l ..... 'lwl" pl!>Ic:' i, ..... j .... >
lbrn: .... "" _ ..I unll1 112Iy ....n. tbcr< .....
""') > """y. Tkr< ..=: jvoI ""II ...... of iDoti,"'""I. _!<red
Ih"""""'" lul, ... Ie'''''''}'. <ado kodln, hOi """ hfc. cacb """td in luI.,..."
0011. k"""'''' """',n, of ].. only ho> """ d .. """ behe... nl
,'''' "'hoJ!c "oo1d be Clr<um<rnbed by h" parish bowwlory 11 ."... ''''' .. ,
0011'0<. he knew tll< p.)locetrull. he kncw ,lit 11118"""'c. ,t.cCOOTl of A"il."
.IKI 'h" r", h,m, w h.ly
Holy II;oJ "","'n< ,
""'ty, boo ..... f'lrt <>fll> l"'Pul" ioo .., "ni lN
arouod "" >doo, , "T\lIk
A'ld
.Iroc. " ....1>1<
'0 """ "Ie ,h .. idea aDd lhi, proptmrnc
""'tot".] <\pm.>Hln,
po>Io'".,
1"""'''''''', ,,,,,,.11,,,,, """"':"'"
..... ""'" Grunsci 'II Soc,al,,,,,,, < nall>' II G.-;,Jo tkI ",,,,.:No
If .... _ h " " art "'" <2t<ful
,he" mem... ",II ""rite ,baT

(j.."ano Sal,omlni. as quoted Ifl V M.n'o',ni. /.0
.,cage lId DIU/III
"rtil.
The his!ory of 1I.1i;,n 'Oafchi,m from ,IS In (h n"nn,(h

R"'OI!!,m<'ml.>, h> ,I> ,"tuallk'(nI<,ion b)' foK'II1\. has "",.r ,lie
0"'''''0<1 i, <Ieu.HI, I ,ball not such on . mbllio.b proJcc, her<, I
,..tlUld 10 11Ii""'.
q""''''''' rarely ]IOSCiIln I,alian I.boo< h,,,OO)'

"h) 110.. did the &lWChi>l mo'Cl1lColl ..... !H .. a "'13' p"" "rthe
Italian _,.1,;1 11'<1 labour ",'".. menl. wllil the
Tho f'I"I'h<"hc ..-onb ofGllC1.ono Sah emin; .. the of
Ihl> ,hapcer hl >t 100ft or [.,<$ fulfilled 11o.,onoamphy C<lnCc",1n8
haloa n anarth,sm h.. been I.ft mo,dy 10 liS . ... >e la >1 '",cnty.fi,'" yea". wilh the developmen, of. less dog,nall'
J i. ,Oj!uc
CQmp"""nlS of the lIJ<han left , thai" more ba' .ncN
>CCOunl uflh. trlI" .",.", hu \!n produce,J. Indttd, O<l" might SIIj ,"",
het"'''''"
for. '008 lime .he a"",di" mo'-."",,,! had suffmd an.' en tun " I'lie
than Salwm,n, IIad predicted for II II Iud '1aile "mply ben! ("'i""en.
relegaled '0 I frw fu<Jtnoc", gencnlly roroo<:m,n, "human colour' lI .. u

b cull. an ,"'<rnI'''$ "fltah"" plebei." ttIlture.

bYllu.rd ly ckstn In, close scM,ny.;
T"" ,ene",""ns of _iali"., bmh lu,,",j', and G",ms.ci',. could
no< .,.."d the 81"rel"" lendcn(:y 'hOI coloured ,"" hch.,ioo, of many
""doh,1> And 10 I certain degl' lo"nll Gramscl and Ihr gr,al
rcfomli>l Idrn"fiod the libonarian lradition IS 0"" of lhe palho logioal
.ymptom. oflb< ill- f.tcd poS1!I .. ,t.t. _IfT"."t i embodied lhe
It.han ",rjlOft of Sccott.d Inloma""".II" iIOCt.ltstn. "hM G"'m>ci'i
pohl"'.' clrter motl 'I1.d by dt>irc '0 C"li,ile Ind tra"",tnJ Ih l>
tradilion. \xlch rmI:Iln<d Ioclcd wilhln 1hc "'"iic c,,,,k ofltalian probInns
Ind l13hln obseso"",._ Both I <3rn<'d for. modtm 5O<' IelV iden.ificd .,
an ad, .new capll.IiOi ",hoc 11I>ItHlI"",. and 'cultu,""
prep;lrc 1M ",-ay (ox 5O<'i. h..,,_ liberal 113'y. they belie'cd, '" IS plaMueJ
wilh g... It.lj. th<y .houghl. ",,,,ar.. gb.all o f regions. gonmed
by pollll,al oillc. hardly ropre<cnt>tl\ 0 of lhe ""he. of.be ,.. t nUJ"'''Y
of Ihe I[aha" f'OIl" lal ion The llaha" parha lncltl " . s only a parody "f i"
COU"lell""" in IIOrlhem EurOj>< lnst.ad o f . d ,,) defot ...>d pany sy,lcm.
the ... e,;sled "!lXI.Ii",,s of clientele. '" here ptoo>ulily and =Iional
m", ... t >m<:d """" c"",;,,1 than modem .... " particl "'pre<cnting do"
or. coo.lilloo of dllS> ml .....,,_ In both poltllcal rh<1onc Itlly "
piclured IS I C"OUI\!I'Y prey to clIaoIic rioti"i- ptrptrual scandal-.J poI" ...-a1
adHntU",rj [..:h. In hi. own" I)', bopod Ihil ell'lloli.." "vuld "'" onl)"
destroy lhe Ch"....>t" ""II oflhe feudal _tho bul ,..). lhe ground"<><l f.,.. a
modem <.en>e o f I'<>hho._ The It.li.n peof'Ilc, 'hey fd . laded a -">Ie
'I'lflf. "001.1 wtcneh Italy ond Ihe It.h.n, into tile twentlcth
cen tLl ry_'
Th"", ,,-a . ho\o.'CI cr. a <""". 1d llT"",,,,,,, belweon Ihc>c two \'cry di\'cn;e
1'"IIt i,-.I ThIS dtlTerence centred Oft lime How loog would on;:
", w"" 1\" c'I'".I,,,,, to dfeot i" chln)l("S1 For- Tunm hi;r"'Y pru.
.. d >I .. 011<1 ", ... through ,he porrol.. """" o f ",formism r or-
"""w
{Iallan Anarchml. I iPQ-19/l
"'If
GtaIt\SCi, ",orld
aOld Impori_li.." hod "",,-en th," "" olution rould
be m..s. "Eo,n" thi, ",form"t >ntorpn:lallOO oflb<
d,.l<'<t"'_
For Tur:"', ....
and part .."",,!,/), democracy I " , ' "
.}-"""ymou. F", Gra"""t soci.li,m '. hean and """I were loe"ed tn lhe
modorn fac.O<)". in lhe prnklari." eommLlntt)" ofprodoccl"\ _T"",,, Ind
Gra""" t 10 Lll'! a f" hmoos It.".n phrasc - w."'irotdt..nerniri (broth ..
"ne lnlOi), for bolh, ,oclalism follo".d in t he foot'I'''' o f capil. II,1
InOOem.zalton Gramoci', idenlif,catton of .... i.li.m' I."gu.rd in tho
f....,ry prOlCl.nat Mlbe ....,.. ad\'a""cd """lIern ioo"""". wa, p"""'bly
eon.idorcd '00 'work"",,' for l"ura1t, bul both m"" Cut .be" te<:th In
5O<' ..1t51 Il101.""'111, thll. ""lit 1hc" "noe,.IIons ""lIt I mo<Ir-rn 100""",.1
"oRlng cl.". "'01" lIIII/Swtl in [lIly_ h " ".11 k",,"'n thai Gram><1 did
''''nlp! to "tdtn "","I"m', bose An 1I_"an """Iution rould no! be
carried 001 '" ,,!>out the .... pport oflhe ""'Illem PC"Soan"}. and th"",ghoul
h.. co"",r he for
a .,."Iogy, b'It trhe had gamed. senSlt" l1y
for soothcm p,,>b[cm,. he tiel., Jtmo'ed ,he honhem faclory prol"",,'1
from ii, ,-o"Suard rolc
A Sonlini.n int.lItu.l ... "si1t"o 10 lhe tnJuno. that h i, 01." island
h",! luffered tR Ltbe",'l ... [}'. G"'n'lSCl hal """,, p',lured a, 0"'" oflhe fcw
\\<>Iem Manim to delclop I colle ....... "&r1'nan policy In facl. "",ny
OIher tntollec'wtl .. he yunl<'d 10 hi. ""IiI" !Unol
50<'''')', "The ,..... ... nlr). and el-.-n lhe proIcunInlte<! jXasanu of.be Po
'aile)' "ho compo!oCtllM ""'JOn'Y of 1hc IlItb"n Soc,ah>! Pan) C
l"1',cnted Ihe c"''''lI''''''' of modem welall'l poIillc._ lie ",anted til<'
pta .. n" to aool\don lheir folkloric I tliOll of the world which he dofiOlcd
...en-", for a .\<i.nlif", outlook buono_Tlic rn'olu"",,"'Y
nonhcm prolel. " . 1 "ou lJ br,,"k Lhe cha",. of p<a>3 t\t bad" anlne,.
b) prodocli" ro""1"\ of c.pilali sm for l he full MI.tII.go
o f the hali.n PCOl>Ie_ Th. pc.",n"),. and lhoot< clernents of the faCIO<)'
proktanal "ho "c,"" .1111 under 11, mn"C""'. 1"'''''01, "''''"'' dttnocd
<oolam"\o1'N b) In oarlier Ufi>cicnttf", socI11". tradition. They rould IlOl
osc:apt from lbe ,'''''''''' circle o f no! Ind "",Ihy that Gram",i .alled
t.".."
M,,,,,,;,
,,,,,II
"''''tT1''"",O
Borh Tun,i and Gramsci rough'. bank "llaln" ',lib.

,-""" o "", ltsm, bullhe COItIparuool cndi here, Gn",,,i's early
" .. inllu."".d b)' , .. riOlI. libena nan rumple<. and he el'cn .nded up
being confounded wnh an. rthi'l and 'y ndlealtSi hcrt" ,.s; Turati ', vaha 't!
<itf",,,,, of Ih. an.arthm . on ' he Olio.. Illlld. "-lIS loorc the in'pi"'" oralory
of. "lVIl who defended th" righl. o f 11""" on hi. 10 1\ bec' '' >e
of pr;IKlpl ... In mll>d. "ncr "'" def1of the autl><>nuri.n
thfC.lt1 in ,he 1891)0.. 1hc a""",ht<lS aoo ,yndiollm "-m: OImply p<imil1'"
,nMe1one al!<' """ialiou', G,,"nsci '$ .. lllionsh,p w"h lhem " .. nlOl'<:
ron","" and "omple', for," I>< " ..... ,ed. d'>I,n<lly liben.nan form of
during.1>< Fit1l W.,.W W." I'M' en red inoo "ortiog fnend,Jllp
'" ,'h I n:tTIlIfbbk groupofTorinae """,h,.. , As hu coonell rommu:tism
.merged In tbe "'.." (,I>< Red B,Cf\J\''''''. 1919- 20) i. bono ,I><
hlllnu,k. of Ihe anareh". and hentag._ \I) 11m In Ih"
,nttndllCI<>ry .hapter " ,<> shed tom( hght "" lhe cH.luII"" <>f'M hali,n
libenanan mo,,,,=' ber""" (lie rcw.>, '0 inTroduc.
O(he, (m,ell()-M""co
The 'iulit)' of a""reh,.tn, and a mote Il""",ic an" ,,."" lrad" ,oo ,h.II
chara.cle,ilod It,it "n s.eco"d I",ern.,ion.h., _ "h,m. can be .. plained
hy eum ioiog Ihre. majur lheme" Ih. of an.rchisms h;\,ory.
tit. W"I;, ,; li.\ of .he PS l. .. ><llh, ....,I,,"on of the [taha" laoou, ,,,,,,,.
menl in its p .. w., f""na,I", ""riod,
By [914 anl ,>1a",m In Its
f"nn I1.>d t.rcOOIe o ..",he[med hy
an ri""<>nIlly <Hlenu,d ."",.lI" pally, The .... n:him remai""d a ,,eak ..
pany. parado>"'"lly. ho" . , ... Il><i, ,"I ... , ..... 1Ied !lrong al lhe
IP"'" """s. Anarthl!ttl', s)mbol. .nd heritage OOrn",.,ed mal"" ... m
1... lian _ ... h,,- cullu ... Lnfonunatoly lhe dr""h, un,,1 "",.mly. of
"ud'!;S concoming Itaha" _1I1"m ti I p<lpUlar culture
th .. curi"", fOCI. Al'hough th"" I probkm "fJfeat ,n ",df. I
can ""Iy prc$en' ,he .. ad .. ""h btt*l ou,[t"" "f. popular soc,ah"",
1111, ean bc<1 be drfinoed .. the 'JtOOnd cul,u",. tit" I mean a "",wort
of ''''"tu,i"", bound '<>a<thc, by I<:n,",tCnll of locah'm. In,i,"'''''''' and
'"""ra"mu I'" QT\<n"",). I( cOllided "'I""trdly ",'h 'he Itahan ,laIc and
du,ing IOC"OU' <",e, e\On wi,h Ihe mon: ccn,raitud in>l;lu""n, of
Ih. I,il"u, and """i.li st The chambe, of I,bou r. the new
isolated 00" 1",,, indumi.1 SIlburt>. lhe agrotowns of Apo""
a"" [ m il i" .nd the "",,,pany to..-"s of I.,gu,i . and Umb" . [[
Kcommoda,N. 10 ,.,,,ying dcgrtts. a cull"re' Its ,.1 .. 0' a/f",,.d
(iraJ",",;', \Ia"i"" in ncpl"" and ]IO>IIi\O way. Gram",i', couo<il
e"nunun!5m did DOl "",rely spnng from tbe crucible of ,he World
and i" .-.'Olul"","ry afle"""'h. The ""'as of s.clf-manage",ent and an
aulonomou, culture. SO prom' ... nl ,n .he Gnun><:i of II><
b'"",1lJ 11><W. " . . . aln:ady ptcloCnl ,n ""'_"'r 1.. ly_ On the othe, hand.
,he ,nllability oftbe '>co""" cullo,.". Ind the drmagoguery!lut G... msc,
though' prt"Stnl. caused him", be c",..:.1 of 'h" ,radi.ioo
['U"'"
,t)
1'..,
The F irsl 1870-410--'

ltah3Jl lntnnat,onait,,,, ",a. IlI.I""d Ihrough a naltonal SlTUggk in an
agran." SOCtt1y. "here the c.,...,opt of' Italy' "'ti "m"cd '0 a ..... 11 band
"r ,ntollectuall. an..... and t.t1blJ\ ptn)' OOttrgCOlI... I'."hen the cmlnlll.,n&
"al. om"oo in ,he ';OIlIl'T)'<""', " di'hked. and II lime: it "-as "I'f"J5Cd
'(10th and l\3.il In ,he IS6O$ lhe soolh "'I' bluod .. d by a ferocious ci,-il
",or ,n ",lllch a rcak,lranll"Ulntr)-' 0JIp0Sed "hit, ","1 foll,o be r""'i[{ll
"ale. had <kgra.,k<J it> ,eligi"n, f..,."od ,t I" pay great"' In.. and
had ccns<npted i'l so", in", a d .. ,.nl anny, n.. brigand. ill ,"" soulh
'" lth Ihe Iklurbot ... tld tl .. Cathohc clelllY 0' ""crt inyoh-ed In 1000al
qua,,:.I . Other f0101' of 1" 010" Ih. .lId bread'h of tho
po",",ul. I" 1869. WayC of riOll, nc.,ly a popula, insurrection. wit
e."s.cd by tl>c inlmJut:,ion ofa Kroln , .. The I"lia" "atc', gcncrnl poItC)'
of IjualiJ",o (I""" <>n .n,eles "r pUrSued In order
to pay lhe dr1>ls or lhe "'lira o r 1\)"0lI01 hbtra"on, alio",,'oo the humble,
cllSsn_ Later. in 1872 and 18il . of mikes b""'. "", In \Iilan.
Tunn. Fior=tt and B<>l<>na. b)' ag".""" among sto...
croppers and l.ndlC!!s labourers in lhe Po \1110)'. To many""""'''' ,he
f"'gik ltali.n $1.0" al'l'<arrd on.he bnnl ofcollapx; ond" "'IS in 'his
.... IIng !lu. the InIC11l3I1<H111'''''''ge1 " ... 10rc<:<l'O admll INti
tho Inlemallorul "., haly',
In. . . pan),-' The bulk of'" membersh,p
"o".ist.d or ani,.n, rrom cc",ral and to.aplc,. and a ",,';onal n::pn::
,emot ion of inleilec'u.l nd ,,'''lenIS, Pro"" ti\'o WOlke, ",g.nlzat ionJ the were als<' allll
prt:CII""'" oflhc p,,,i,o Ope",,,,
1t.Il.no . lId up<!miJ",u
The le.derShip uf'he Ital ian InICrtIl1lonal cn"i!agN tlot ""'01"""" . s
'_,.1 , I'.,lh II>< y..... of di"""", in m,nd. ,hey
belt.. Nlhal 'he ",,"onal c"uld be o\Orturn<:<l'hrough anned
,n",r..."ioo. A donoo",,,,,i,(..,, til the COllnlJ};ode, "I.at [rnco M.I:ol<:>la
I<'fTI\etl 'propagando I' """Id pre-poIi,ical ",n,h i",o,
conscioul sociali.,
IIoth a pWtncd ..,,)It In 1874, and I "",milo
.. tion in lbe mountaLns oooth ofl\aplcs ,n 1877. " .... mL...",blo ra,I.,..,..

""oit' 1"""\'1<kt! the: orponun"y for the: go'Cmment to dc<lroy
the InternaTional, ond In .. I Sl'"os of my"""Qu' bomb explosiOlU and
'''"mpl< upon (he King's hfe. tlw: 11I.."",nonal "'I, oUl[av.cd.'
\\ ;th ,he c"".lung [t,Ii.n onan:b,sm railed to create
IOt'g la"in g na,i<mal "rl)anir,'ion n""I ,!,e befo .... ,1!e Fir<! Wotld
roN
w'"
upri>'' '
110r
War. The go. nnrnen. 11".y, "ruck hard<, a. 1M IJIa",h". "",,'rn'OCn.
,han" d,d ... he .oc,.i1Sl pany, "'n.",h,Sl' and In.,,,loold
bch."o u, "cre " lerotificd in oUI >lde II", rrolcc,ioll of
,0nSlilU, i"",,1 auar;lnICCS_ The llllreh", "",,'emen! " 3' d" I< i,icd .. e"he.
!errorisl or il\SUn',ioruSIIR CIw3cI.... 100 durin, p",-;oo, of """tal "'''''''
,ho IUIIln:hr>'" "",,cd ... ,he: u_1 "'3pog<>alS. AAc.lhe ""'..
of,he 1870. ,ho
aga,n rdllhe b-Iovo, of 1I1e Sl'1< ,n !he m,ddle
18SOS dYfI"g the firs, ma.. mikes of Po V.lley Imu,wn" (I.ndl ...
g.ric ulturn l I.bourers) La' e ... In ,he 1890s. 'oc aMrehi" """'emelll was
",rtua lly d eIIW)ed, The leA ""5 Ih"' OIcned IhwUIlI,,,,,, ,hc 1890s. bu,
lilt anarch,.!> "ell' panicularly hard hi' \\,ilh tilt fom"IIoo of 3 """';11oriented """i.hsl ,lit anarch.. f.iled 'o moun. ""'JOf "1'1'0'11100
bttlU>C uf'hlllt'Jlf"'Sion arxl 0
d'<One-n1a11OfL on 'heir _n "'ILk.
Under Giohll1 ,he .",rchim "("It .,,11 ponttLL,ed, Ahhough G,oh'"
had more ",.poel fo, ci,il ngh's Ih.n his prede<ciiOn. he was f .. from
bei ng libcn. nan Pohtieal repr<:$s;on ,e""",lly ,par.d ,he roo", moJc"!e
"""i.lists. buill>< inn.nsigenls. Ih. ,),nd",aIiSlS "nd ,I>< anarchISts could
be am-stcd for I "Ide ,-ariel)' ofpm.s ta", and <libel'! ,hat puni.hed publK:
den,grauoo oflhe m"",,,,,iIy 000 1111' poh_G.ohlll al"'a)-.1ricd 10 pm em
.narch,,1 or .) ....hc.h,' lead<nhlp from emelling '" lhe: young labou.
mo,'om<n', Al,hough be was pc,ftc,l;- preparI,o SU]lI'OI1 moderalo- I.d
."ikos. and e"e n r ' ."U.ilC .n' plo)'orS 10 selll . I>< orde ,ed lbe a""i' ,)1'
an.. n;h"llnd lynd,."hSI I>.bou. leaderS regul ly,
Anarchi., ht>lOIy" Iwder 10 fol[,o,. alier 1880 ufthe dis_
conllnuili.s of ,II leadersh,p and ,IS (q3", .."ooS W"h ,he: nse of lhe
IOS I aOO Its al'>OClaled
union 'he C""feder",o!1O
Generale del LIt'o", (CGLI, ' he h,,1<>f)' of hben .. i*n s<>(iahsrn br ' s
down in'o I sm.,!y of ,IS in fl ue,,,," un OIhe' i""",,,ioru .ueh.s th" PSI.
,he: CGL, the syndicali" uf labQur aOO II>< Uni""" Sin<hocak;
.he: """,,,,. of"'B,,,,,,,1 "",ial hi"Of)' ... he:re ",..,,,h,... ma,nuined I moo-.
CI)."in"""" physical prcsene . and ,be ""Ii,-idu.al b,oaraptucs of ,,, n>Or<:
na'oo ...1 karkt-<

/870-/9/4
...-

0;,,'; ..., -
"'
0 P"P'''
(189041
"""'o;mCII'
,,,,do:
pront,,..,",
",. 1.1.
c...>v.....

( .... 1.<0,. 'hooI_ .....

.. 0 Gooo..-oy(<d \ F". , .....___ H,,-.<>i_ n..-",,"/ AI'P""""'"
L""",,,,_ I 'l't0 _ pI"
Iralian " "a r<IIls "" S,' ndln ll s'" and Ihe S...., ... nd
1900-14
Althuuah!he InarchlSt mo'c-menl f.,1ed to """",",n MIll"""'" naIl(onal
.fter,he: di .. ppearatlC<' of!he In,oma.oonal. e ..... 'n arca'
be<:'lll<" stronghold" WOCIt: the: """rch,,,,. Ib"'"Wh tradition and 1"",.1
org.ni7.1Iio""1 ",.ns,h . ,"",i"0<1 pcn"". of rep.eSSlon. "IVmg as f"".1
PO'"'' d'Jnng ",,;,"1._ Anarch,s< !coJerShip "';!lln.ted and carfled oul
org:ln''''"''''
woo.
mo.I of itS
,n n'tal h.ly, Lnli! !he m,do.ne 19w... Tuscany. the:
l"mbnllnd ROfI\e mna,nro !he ""'"' of'be """-.mcm
d"',,,oo
Wnll III< effec1i.e ro:-pre"ion of the: 1890s. and ,he

of ,he:
ana",hi!. mo, ."",nl into <li>l"'''f,, 1fllCto oo." of organi7Jlllonali >l'
arid ."'i-"'SlL" ,za""".\i m. 'he . n.reh"" ."".. red endangered "'"h poli_
,ie.1 e. llncll"" In fact .be .no",h,st; mo<kmilN lhe:,. o]JI>C.1 b) pron,.lJy
rhe halian Anarchi.lS, 1/i7!}-1914
\I.p ' ./ O"onW"", o f th<

P"" in h. , y. 1900- 1"
,s.,."" . C.. I L",, 1810
'n;, " ". Good",. , \l .\. F", A"""'i, ", 1/0",,,,,,,.1"""
T."",,,,.I

London, ' 989. p. lJ)
.doptiog 'Y'><licali>1 argLllncnt . Through ,I",,, co",rol of ,mponan1 pow",

ba,es m ccmra l lt. ly's chambers of labour Rome. forexomple. h.d an
an,,,,his1 se<:relari.t for rno" o f the Gio li uian era 'he .n.",hi"$ WCIT
assured o f o'1!." iz.tIO".1 proleCtlOn,
The ,,,,,,,him were capable ofm,k,ng ,,","hng reappe.rat>:;cs. During
1he unsellkd period "pened by t he Liby.n W.r ( 19 11) and 'emporarily
do.ed ,,ith the World W.r, and laler during the "'-'''', 110. long
",,,,ling popular ity.nd COOItn"" y of """.-chi.", in M""",C.rrara. At>:;om,
PiQmbino. Romc .od 1ho i"d u,ui.1 hinlerl,nd. ac'ed
as a spri ngboar<l for n.tIO". , IT\'i,'.I, . On its own, however. narch"m
"''" a minor Eve n at ,h. pe.k of prewar .e'i"i'y. o n the eH o f ille
Red Wco: k. an a.-.:;hi", Mmbered no more ,it,n 9,000 10 J 0,000.,. Revi"al,
al,,"ys th rea'ened by "iolon' faclional which erupted
""''''<en anarc I"" cornnt uni >IS ad\'ocaling OO'H;ectarian labot:r
organi,.'ion. anll -organtzallon.1 ana.-clu" communlSIS who de'ested 1h.
Mul"tos,an,' ,n <iS1Cncc o n a sep'"'' naltOM I .nar<:h,s, org. nll" ion.
an.r<:h"" close ly as<ociated wi,h Ihe syndte. I; "I,bour organi""'i"", and
SI' md"',du.' ,,,, preachmg an el i,;<l .eSll>eltci,nt r<:pugnan"o the
Olher fac tion"
By ,hi: .arly twe""<th cen' u!), a patient o f anaITh", li fe had been
e>tabhshed and " ntamed Ill< oonn unlillhe bj'nniu rosso . lAcal tcrrilOria l
.'reas of "lla",hiS! were """omp' nied by contro l of a ch.mb<:,
of I.hour. or the ap]l<'"ronce o f" l.bourorien1ed weekly neWSp"pN.
The an.tchislS also c"",ributed labour Qrgan,zers 10 the CGL and Ihe
, ynd,c"Ii" mQvements, W;,h in (he lulonomous mil w.y wor\<crs "nton,
thl: SinJac.,o It. li ,ni (SH): 1hey ass umed a p<nn"nont I."dership, Tl>e al'" ac h""M inl1ucnce in 1M socialiS! F<xlol"'.. , ione
lI. li .n. Opera, Met.l lurg ici "" ioo)
The gr<:","" 'M",hl>ls ad"."xl was incre'>l ngly felt in
the syndIC,Ii" Italian sy ndicalism led be",,'dcnng li fo. "
S'aning olf as a facllOl' oflho SO<',ahSi Pany in 'he ea rly 1900>. ,t sphnt.
cre<l into a b ki doscope of local "","omo,,'S. iound ncW ",engt h in lhe
pre...., !Jnione $ iod acal. Itahana. "nd duri ng an,I.1 ftcr lhe
F irsl Wor ld War il w"me conlrollcd di rec, ly by anarchists,
iniluoneed de!>." . 1hroughout lix' It"ltan k it. On tho 0". haild. syndIC.h,'
inlelleclua ls ,'",.a'ed a iorm of 'PMet;an' soci.lisrn'h"' was su, picious of
all forms o f "ale ....
n"oni,m or prolec'ionism, .nd w" alltac'ed '0
\I arxt sm b<:e.usc 'he mo-d.", ",vrknlg <lass would modem,ze Itahan
cap il. lism by forcmg c'pi..,i" elM' 10 worn< and dlieient
and not para'itical o n the fa"u u", of ,he Italian "",e, For tno .. 1I0h.n
s;nJicah,'lhoo<oliei.n" non--cconomi, . rn<>ral were ce"'ral
for the f"",,,,ion of " working-c l,,, clile A prole .."" lhal roli od on
G,ohlli', i"'ouf' . nd "'as soft. "e--d by hi' pr,,!!rnm"'" of SlO1i>l social
lcgi.lalt"", Woo Id neyor womc the he roic lhey pmned Iheir hope s
un, l hc ,h""""ic,.,"s of synd icalism formed a close alliance and adnUtoi,on
for halta " freelude e<oonQmlSn such as Einaud i, ('ab,a'i and Girc11i . nd
Pare'o h,msel f looked on w ilh 'ymp"hy .m! ;nlere>l a, ,h. beginning, or
I
TJw /lallan AMrrhiJIJ_ Iii m 1914
Gru",fCI and 1M AnarrltlSu

the SlOOlCaliSI " 0.. thot <Jthcf hand, ,,0<I.'''i-<:1_
OtiI'nlttf'>. """h as h hppoComOOn'. "ttl:

of ",<lus.,.;.1 union"m
,h.
""'ft
,n haly. Tiley " ...... d

ronccp' of Ill: ("'lOry un" radlt' ,han til<
0< the cham be, of labour as lhe 1>;,,;, of mod< un"", J loweyc"
mOSI of (h. non_ . n.nohi" elements In the Pfewu i}'ndlcoli>l ,no' omelOi
",e", dttply ,"nu.need by Mau,n'3n huil'ge. This me'"' lha. lhey

P" as bndge 10 I popIIla' "'"onah,m In [l>.ly. Some
ndicllisls ..... Impomllllin lhe: Crullon ohM "a,ioo.liSl A'iSOC11';.,n
and ,1>0 0)'11""'''' of
doc,""" and I"*'lic. thai ,ved OUI
niche for
fl$'Oi.m a fte. ' he ... t, When "'ar brol. Old In Furopt ,n 1914. ,heS(
w.,
s)ndocali'" <>ptcd for inlen.m;on. for rome, Frane.

end angered by I'n"sian feudalism . Others argued lh.I, through Ih.
I,uropcan " ar, the ha lo . " "'<lrking c l.ss w<lUld he p rcpar<ti for an inlc,na""",,1 "'Olul;oo Imln",,,,1 a>pee1' "'...... al"" lftS(nl War "u poc,urni
... Ikmocnotic c",..ado or as I l'e'nlunon, J)nd""I"m'. ,erNl ,iole""e
coold ""'" ....... '" th< """.."...."hl!! k'adcnhip abandoned
its .."rol of the '-'noon< Sirda<:.I. the aruroh, su finall) g:alnc:d comrol
of I "'\II'lers' OfJ.<3n"auoo of signifICant. If crnolic,
n o"c, hundred, of llIou ... nds of If
<0" '1';11'( tho .><iali>l t mlk UIllOn fedoralion, Ihc ( ( iI., to Ihe
il "wid h.,. '0 be co ... Mod ,hal lhe IlJI3l'<h,sts ",INlned a juno".- po""'"
Th" Jun,or pon"""hlp "'tIh lhe h.li.n _,aIiSI pan) .nd ,he CGL
.nll 1""UC",,I!he !empo and chi""".,. of len" In, poIi!ical cu"ure ,n
1,.1), ]'I", !,<",ulian"cs of!1Ie I.ahan Sotiolt>l PUl) 11'-" ,he
pol,,,al 'pace 'h'" .., cd th<m from ma1'llInalill"'on. " Fonned in 1892,
11 only IdopII ' he name PanilO Sot,ah<13 l!nh.no In 1895 , ThIS "'''I
a, ilS b inh, it "as coaht ion of forc", : lhe F.bian lik" s.:.;,.hs,
League ,)! ,' '' I.n. lhe Fasci Si.iha m, Ihe wnrlen>! p.ntlo
Opt .."o U' 1i3f\O, ,he ,1lonl ,'.hlCle of lhe Andrea COIla
Ind ,he '0'" of ,he Po Valley landlC'S' 10\I00I1''', ,he Rowluli"""ry
So.""l' p.ny of ,he R"""'8"'" ."., onglnal party t\ohl from In
umbr.ll. of

associ.l""" 10 si"3lctnmlb:r boo"" p,llny, "h'eh
omcllily " ... >1 i1> """,,""ion '0 an.",hlSm and or>:Jon,cd lhe Ma.,.,St
lOCiah,"1 a nd organ,unonal model oflhe srI) (German Soc ..1 Domoe,"lI. Pon)), Mombtllhip e'pandM ITOm 21,000 '" 1897 to 37,000 in
19 13, II> elec,oral In I\olion. 1poll. g"''' "' ,uffrag.
upanokd from 8 per cenl to ""aT "ni".rsal manhood suffrage III 1913
The """a!i""'prurN 9 ptr .tIll of the HII. in 1897 and 17 per ctlll by
1913. Tbt ch",f i",,,,""OO! of lhe pany i,..,ludcd 1M Gl'S (.he "",ialtll
......."""'.ry group), h"wli' (th< n:tlioooal pany ...... , . he: ",,,,,,,,,,I
d"CClOn'O and l'>e local secltonS the Gcnnans, bo".,,..-, 1M lu!ii1n
",n ...
we
party
lit,,, O1n1ro
nt:I..
"".JOnltI "'lI"niuuons,1IOf did ,he pr .. 10."ly

pan ......
'....""0."", "'E-'''"atlOl1' in a dl'IC,phno<! fO$h1Ol1 <l<
I. rly sound ...

Just a, Ita han hf. was ' lJ llla<gcly "" hi n. local d"". " . ion.
w, 100, "'NO SlXi. I; " pol itics, A $<)Ciali " presence was far more 1""','l$i>"e
"uhin the Ind rich poli'ic.1 ,"bcnl!"",. of the nonb<m
Indu,,,,ol Suburbs, E,,"ha- Rom.S"a. T.... any and ,\pul .. _ If the PSI u
an org.m:tat'(In and .. an <lretonl mach",e tmodro munoc the SPI) aile,
,I> prom",n, elre","1 " .. to".' ofll>< 18901, lhe ltah.n l"If1y ... hl upon
a c""lj,ion of l.ndl,,!. I.boon:'l"$. ni"ms, Indulmal ,,o,k.n Ind ,I><
wuc.te,J middl. ct..set quote d,ff.... n! fmm ,no G.nnan c..." The pos'_
""d lce .. ,,,I., ",110 oo,mnat.d ,h. IOCI.h.t porhamo .. ,a,, group. did
"Ill Ix: fully COn'.l\lInt with ,he co'l'u, of M .,.', Ind
t"",
Engels" .. rill!!p. Thr" kIlO\'> 1Wg. of n-, C""""""ISI ,Ifamlml) or C"PItal

"'IS from ,he 'Cllioos rnodettd by !he ..wehlS! Ca,lo
c.rl<TO,
11111 for th< ead=.nd r1lnk and file of!he pony much Of!helf poI'''cll
cduc.,ion "'" ",loa", (In .......,hlS! m:;Il ibel'lOnall IttcnlUrC, AnIl< lmoahsm,
Inu,mil,!.>,i,," ond ,nlra",ig"" "'publiczn,sm hnled 'na",hi,," to ,he
br."""" IOClOli" ""'I0"",n"
I'h. ro ll ing g.,.." a l that punc luated!1K: Oio l;I"',," ero illustra te
",'ion ...n a, ,he .ulTrage
,I>< adult m.l. popu!allon ofltaly_ " [n f.,I, through the chambers oflabou,
Ilbctun"" cullu", rell1lnnc:d key 10 th< COO$' .....'''"' of ...,.",1", lOC,ab,IOly
\>tfart 1914 ."., _iah>l CUlt= of """ ....... /lu""' " ... th<ttf"'"
ncl b)i ana",hLSt p<><m. and ><lIIp fou nd in abundancr
a, ,he chamb<ll. panoeulor!y of ' he .n.",hist poel. SIX>ologisl . nd
P'e. ro Gun The eh3'''b<.... of I.bour bound t"llCfh .. ,II" so"",,,,,nlS of
I"c.li ,m anod an" .",11.", s,, 11 fo und in ,,,, socia h" ,ubtu lmral hc.nlands,
and ,1><)' ",,'Oed .. ,h. "" .....
f".- g,ner1l( >lnk lh..1
Ik,elopcd in'o open ,""urm:lioos_ TI" ""rehl>J",nnue"".d IOCllh'l
.abcullU'" "'ted as .n 1IOOlT....I gI1Ipt, ,nc from 190410 1914. and l"N.
,,< .11011 see. In 1919 20, lloe Influ<n<e of the groat 'no",hlSl E,""o
Mal ...". (lSSJ 1932) in the c,i,is of 1898 or ,he RI Wed of 1914
he" how ' he a... ",hislS "-ere a1 the of prolc51 ""\'Ci
,h,1 ,,,, ",,tll. d I'aly u"" 1 !h. Grea, War, 11 TI",refl)l"o ,he lack of fOIl1,a l
""''''btrship w ilhi" Iho >""rehiS! O<]I;"ni'at ion! bef"", th e Fillt
\\'" doe!; 001 nttess.>.ily "",on t""tthey "on: '1WlI, ... liztd In the ILOI .. n
len.
The description oflhe )"""8 G,"","",', pol" ...1bel",f. thai Introduced
'h" chprer hon" a, I <Iou lun'hip ... uh ,he 'yndical"l In,.1Iec1W11s.
Ahhough we ",1111Of e""""nl.' Gram",i unlil C.... pI.. J, i' i, wocthwhlle
of d'!\'C1
,,,tl...
<0"'''''
"
""""",m.,
Inu,,,,,,,,O& OU' 3IJ!:wnetll. about lhe direc1 Iink.ob'CS ond Ok<:I"", .,fonni",
Ihat "o:d ,t... young Sard,",,,,, t" 'II<m. Gram"'i. like ,II< .yndirah<l mlol1"..1. Ind. indeed. like ""'ny radlCll. Ind .on>en'''''' ofall <Ir1pe .
" ... , oMc ..ed by til< (1IIu,.. oflM "'hll(l
,Not folio" o:d lhe
Along "'nh the Spa",.""". f't,rtlo. \'osca and An,on", Ubnola.
II< fdl''''u ,he Liberal SIa'e waS nolh'II(I 1el4'''''''' rnon..to... abortion.
,..,.,d,ng economic <I<'..,I0'''.... nl Ind degrading public lif.. Tho f.,l"",
1<, ,u",in produr"," and Ih. l"'!"Si"e""e of h.hln
hu""""m. had led to, c,,",,",J"IOnd,ni r.,lu", of'ho rt'IOdtrn "",k",& cia"
1 he "ate embodied ,II< an . ",ho,d "'dl\',duahlm of 1I.Ii.n daily lifc. "ill
g<l\Omcd by thc mlngue. of law,'.ro and ,he scmi-lilCralC in,d h
genl<i,. G,u",,,,; . nd lhe .ynd,c.lis's fO<lnd Ih"" ..,I u" on 10 III<" dilclnII13
In thc modem f""tory. II was In l ite
of Anuro LobrlOl. and En,"co
LCMt Ih .. , he ,p,ri'. if not 'he lettef. of Gr.lIl'lS(I' ca.ly lov ff.i,
the f""tory was (If" rt lquaU)' imporunl for Klllng lhe <lagc
for lhe fac'oryhased form. of "'Pn,U"Ofl ad,onco:d dunng ,I>< />Jcnnoo
"''''' ,,,,,.. lbe pi ........ ing effor1.by unlOO',U In ,he lnuncd,ale
pro:\Oo-al )c ..... TIle indUSlnal UHlon'iS "rcs.N,h:>, shi>p.floor democ,ac),
,"""Id ,I>< ba ... for Irsde u",on,"". Tho pre"" .)OOieoli5l' had
,n,,,,.pora,ed d<Tnan<h for
shop noor COOltol. ""8" p"-n'Y mel a
"'"" """" ,",Ii... nl inlemal OORtmIUoon s)'Stem ,No, for.shadowo:d lhe
Iw""w n>ll<>. TI>< ide. \lu., ,liI" Irade """", ...-as ba;ed 011 ,he "ortforce
of an ent,re foe'ol)" ""","N by Grami in hi' auad orr
e,.t).on"",ed unIOns, \1""1 ,mponanoly.'liI" i"",,,e. ,,'htch ,I>< lribu ... of
MII'ne'" indus"ial "ni""ism. r
Comoon,. employo:d of fO<'Of,e,
., ,I .. . . buildmg blods of I "",W ,nd"",ri.1 "'10. rcm .. ncd " ,lh
Gr .. "sci ,Xl G",m"" did 1101 ",.ttl 10 reahl.c , II.. Labriol nd Le"". hod
cnvi"'go:d ,II< I"uk u1I"'" in " ' ''''h II .. sam. ro le as h" fa.clory COII""", ' S
{i13m"" cnlicized , I>< ,yooi.. I;", for ", lying "" ,be ""de "nioo an
,,"'i,ulion. he .,.pl.,ntd. caught in ,I>< "-.bof ea plt,">""'""ons. Howe"c
G n,sci "'ould _gf ",,'h lhe ,)'nd,-.It'" ,No, MalAi'm idenlified
,.p;t:lh<rn' .""ltal COlltn<J,Cl,on 001 in ,he uh,m"e economic CT3$h or
'1'1 an in"olulll'u}" falling ... ,e o( profit. bul 'n ,I>< "ruggle on the fXlory
noor btI"ccn wod .... demandi,,* Nlf''''''nlgelT1l<n' and the indi_
,>dual 0" nef>ltip "r .1>< "pl ... In foct ,I>< i} Rlllcah,,,' uaok "noon
" .. meant II> <lP' I>UI oflM '),>IC!n, InJcro. GJanu<1 would Bi'e hi' """""
'0 ,Ire .yndtC.Ii" belief \lu.1 ,lie Ind,..ln.1 prolet .... , had '0 >how "",If
capable of tq>lxing rapll.t.h,m ""h more producti'''' .nd efflCie'"
i}"em . Gr">lllliCi " as tl>< he;,'o syndicalt'l prod""li, i,m and its pr.llOC of
,he ,,,.olled func,ion.l hl .... "'hy "f ,I>< fac.on Fo. lhe ,yndic.list. tbe
unIon wo$' ",urcc of """,al aUlhori,}. forming a new nallonally bast"
."'Sf
"or\.
,,,,.leT
' '!'PO
- 12-
W,,"
11I<)1"lar unity. r""r,dcd on ,ell prod""li.. rel>!;"n,- TI>< fact",)-ba.>ed

1111"'" u",f,o:d itaitan 1KIC'C1y. Gr.>nuci "",1><.1 ,be "'i'n
II>< factory rotl"",I. bu, In tn:Iny liS f"""""", wen:: ;Imll.o,.
"The 'l'nd;cali>l ,bcoreI.. ,,,,,,, Ind G... msci .I",.hart-d an 1,-er-l1(ln
"",-:mIs anarch,,,,,,." TIle e,""" relallon"",p. ......... cr. bc<vo'eC1t!he p""" ....
<yndIC.h>! _ '[I2f"<hl" "",,'cmcn's is hitrd '0 dotermillC "'ith
On II>< . .1 and .)roical" .. ,,or\..ed .... pp,ly tog<11><,.
bu, "n lhe nalio",l. formal. IMologlCallo"el.!he .onfrorn."on bo'ween
. nd 'ynd,calism for-eslu<.lo"eJ ""'ny of Groll'lS(i"s polomlC$
"tilt til< 'na",hi", in the ,.,:m o ,
on.rch ,.u beh ... 1 'h,,,
"ntOn' only $Cr.'cd .. 0 me' n$ to
.melioMe Ihe cond'''Oll< of ,he wot\.;ing cia,. and.
rnoc"
3$ "'<01'1, to mobili,c worket1 for ac, ion They
pos, ... ,."I""o,,",1)" """ie.y buil, on pl">;lh,y "f ",!!anizali"", bo.std
on (."." accord. Ih. unions be,ni only one "'''h In,IItubOn . AI,ho"JI
>lndK . li,m ,nheriled ,"""h of .",rchum5 .nn'5I>1i<m. ,I> eonlinual
of'I>< need f..,. ",pen, and fUDC""""1 di"urbo:d
,nany _,,",rchisls. althoui;h \101.'tSl>.n anarrhl<lS " ..... qUilc ciQsc.o I
func'ion.1 in""""'411o,, of ..,.,.I,""i,u""",. b,,, \lala"'"" and 0Ihc1
.u"Wthl<tS denounced tbe pnlJI<>Sn"", thai prod""'i"" "". a good in
I, "'" the dt.<tnbutl'c 000C<:Jl' io IIW'I'bo<umrnunl;l Kropotl..ios
belief lhat ,he Ilrn of "",ah,," "'as ,be full of!be fruns "f
labou,. "", ""''''I)" tl>< mond url,n work pro,ided. lNoI sc-paralN II><
anarch", I",dn,,,,, from GramK; and ,he
Grain"",', Marx"rn inheri, ..111>< J} rod",.II>' k g'>:y 'hrough ,I>< Il>rory
ofGo"'8"' Sorel. an<ll< .. '" frum I direcl INgcm"nl of [he "or\;
"I' Anu", l.ab"ol nd Enrico L.. Wh.t he m,..' defini,ely
\\..., a ;lyle. lang....e.nd rangc of .<:>OCel'I> "hien ,he<J"" ,cal .ynd ical i,,"

p<>p131i,ed. bul hi' orrlli",h,y lay i" a n<mp' '0 'yntl><",e
ofsyndicali'", "ilb a pol",",1 philowphy inn"orteo:d by 1I_lian nw-,<ieah,m and ,I>< \/an.ism of Ani"";" I.abriol. Throogh lhe pcdagOl!i,,"1
1 d,l"'" of nco->dclli,m. Grtlms.., "inlOd prod""c,,' ..,.illi,,,, to be
"",lized IhrouJI rallOll3.I
TIle you:ng Gram",i "35' >oolbcmcr.1 "'"" in a northem ",dus'nal
cil). In the no." , ....1"... 1 "in ,I>< 5pOCifIC characteristiCS of lhe
Tmnesc "orllns d ... and II< lIru '" 5<><lah". Iln3ITh .., ar<I.yndlcalist
m,,,elT1l<nt< bef"", 191..1 A of Twin', 'second cul,u,.. and II>
",I""ion,hip '0 """.1011 ,n",II.."""ls ",II be follo ....ed by an aCCOIIn! of
( ;rum""i's first e""""n"" ""h i, ,n Chapter Three
",,(Ie
d"'lIlg ,,,,,,.1
""'If
"JIO<''
-u

NOles
I. Moch of thIS cbapItt .. ba;<:d Il(lOO -I ... h.. ,u.rt:h;srn. 1870- 1926',
in I) Good"ay led.). For .i n",..hiS'" Hw",u:o/ and n.e""'/U"1I1
Appr<}iJ"h,s. (I 01><100, 1989), I'P 'Ill. be.t
11\
"r It.. """'<",,,nl untol 1892 oS
J>ernicone.
I,,,,,di,", Pri nceton, 19'93. A 100<1 ",'e.,..icw ofthc
mo'-.",.nl <an b< round ,n Pet., Man;han. Dc..::J"d"'g 'he lmf'(l>.<,b/c.
A Ifi>l/Jr'o' q( l"",..hi,,,,. London. 19'92. PI' Tht ch,.flIahM
Ie,I,"n: E. SanLardli, /I soe."llSIffO o""",hi.... /..
M,lan. 19S9
and 1913 I"" ,$C'Il edilion): G. CcrnlO. Doll' o//a
JeIlIlN,"", NUa. Flott"" . 19n; p C. \I."n., Ss",,<, degli """..-h,,,;
dal But""m" .1/u/alr"Q (l861-1892!. M,lJn. 1974: Slam. d.-g/r
ana,., h,,,! i',,[',,", ',p<X1J <leg" all<'nlalj MIlan. 1981. A. DaJ.,
L 'oMn-h,., ",o In fla/w "" punlO d"",.,,/j
Ilell a"wrh"",,, Ila/wno. MIlan. 1984
A . A)I)f Ro . li<-ri"ori popolo, Rome, 1966, "0 1. II. pp, 50 I,
3 Thi, has bttn a tT\lOJOI lheme of .. ve ...1 ,,(II'\., by Richard Be llamy
nd OalTO" Scho<:ter 5. R. MoJtrn I'll/ian &xi,,1 T/rrorl'
poIitie, from P"r'U' k} ,At Cambridge. 1987.
R. Ikllamy. Lib.:rull,,,, and $on<t,.Cambridgc. 1992. pp.
105-56. R Ikllomy Ind 0 Scheele . C,.,.,.<, alld IIw lIa/i"" Ssll/t.
I>bncile.. e
.. The he>! IoCcOUn, of ,he Firs, 1",u''IlItOooal in Engl,sh i. Pemico ....
IIllli"" Ifnarrhl,,,,. Of ... R. 110:>1<11 Ila/.m Soc,,,liJl .I1",,,..,..nl
Unglm f/iJ61) 18S11.
yott. 1958 ,
5 G C"Il<lcloro, Slol'ia d 'llalia ",odema.
1970, \ 01 VI. P 54
6. P"m ,<""". Ana",hi,m. PI' 77----S I
7. On Ih. onginl of !he of a ..,."aI <ce.
\\oolf.:f limOI')' 0{ I ' OD-186(,. LoroIon. 1919. PI' 4 ]9---JO
8 P C \h,.ml. fA bil""".Jrl 11m.,.., (la-6- '111.
""Ian. 1958; S. De Coralo. 'M'gi>l"uul3. ... rch"" JO'<"rl>O. U
,i\:t1ld;> doll. Nnd> dol
Ri, iJta II, ,"ona Conl""'pOrtUlea.
13. J\O J. 1984. PI'.121-72.
9 f or lhe ,"]pI the g<"'<T3-1 ",1>lIon,hIP" discu,std 'n. G. 1'orpp,.
Mo<lo" , . Sr'''fN'''' poIi'ico mllgllt","m 1870-1921. R.ri.
1972. R CnnON . nd A. S.nrumo..o .. "",,rch,el < 5OCla/i,,,
0110 fine ,M!'''''t><:ento in Iralia, M,lan. 198 L J. " Da"i,. Conj/i(l
"nd C,m/ml. Order in /9/h nnlU')' Jul.I. B.. 1988.
I'P 21 7 17; R B Jc"",,n, ['/>uf)' "nd ()rJ('" J1.- n.ffN} anti
o(lMI"n PuN,c Poilrr. 1848 /0 Cri,iJ o(tlw 1890;, Jo-ew
1'0""";"
"'<(}\l"'
1",Ii"
"ew
Ii .",
M.'.... .
"
10
It
I
/I"/i",, A ..",...hiJIJ. IIi"O /9/4
\'on.. 1991. A. De Grand, 'GI01111, and ,he Soc..h,.,'. on SI"''''''''

M DI Scala (w I. /la/ian Soc,alwft Ikr..n P<>Iilia aM U"",ry.
Amhorsl. 19%. PI' 2J--.17. (0 s..cchelll, 'CQruroilo """ iale c donuc-Iho
CQtIIIO Ilell'luh. <Ii,p'Ila. lIil'iS'" Ss""ca Jell':fnan:hif,.,." "01, 3.
no, I. 1996 , pr, 93-1 0-4
L. LOlli. La Imim""" rill' ''', Flon:""., 1912. ,\ p<,nd,x. Ta bk III,
M . "",,,mol;, ' 11 mo'lmcn'" ana.-chico ilaliaoo nc l 19 14' StQ",,"
I'olilir". \01 13.1913. pp ::!H-5-I.
M Anwnooli.nd G. Ck>'tl:o (W<), II ftnli"calO f"""',ul "allanl
WIg'''' al(a,'rnnoo / <;>0'_192'. \li!.n.
Tor "'C"le"', of 5. G. B. hnon:i. I/.illd",ali;"",
"a/ia"". 1977; () 0 Robcn Sp.J'call"
Chapel 11111. 1979: A De CIemc<!II.
TraJ'ltQn tJruJ Ilalll'"
I'<>IIIiro Jot:,.,/e nd 5tndtJi'4Iil_ rj,'OIU:"'''''rTO /900---1915, R(IrnC.
1983. C. l. Il.nmnd, 'ReH,1 ulionary S)nd".IL\m on h.ly. in \fa.-cd
"an dc. Lindcn 000 \1 aynt 'r hOfpe (WI), RI!\'o/.tion"rJ SJ',d,ro/jJm
I., Aldo,,""!, 1990. pp 139---5-1. M AIIIO,
llIoli. ' 11 s,ndacalismo ri'-Oll'"io","O lIah.,oo. in \I,"';zio An",,,,ol,.
II .<ind", aU,mo il""an,,. ,,'i/Iim' al (""i.,,,o. S,udi
1997, PI' 125-S6.
>lOOIC.hlt onlcllecll..H '<'<. I). \1aI\>OOO. :frjkro LaINTo/" ,I
in 1111/1". Tunn, 19"0: E Zag'Ha.
F,,,,/.''''.
11
"""",,,/i.It/,,
I/antl"'" "f'r"iJioniJlffQ Stirtl 'apln.

1'175; RIO!I. II J'ind"ca!m" o "I'OIw:i,;""r!o In II"/,a . Bari. 1976;
Roben,. W. L ';tiMrono til

I'Mi," Mil. n. 1983. r. F.,LlII. S""iu del ""Ii""o
/Julle orlglni all" /If' crm, M ilan. 1996
11 hH' (,,,,,,dOl" sec. M. Anum ">Ii. 'Silllhcah.mo ri",lu,io"",;o
C lI1odolli "'Pn'lZa'i , I: <lal """"'110 indusmal,>u d, r ,hPJX> Corridonl
'" "nda<-all nal!ionali d'iOO 4>1,,' (1911 1914)'. R":t'rt'M
I. 1976. PI'. 14 -0; O."hu)OOlCal." ongiMOh.,......11Wt
000 f01>C"m see. Roberu. Syntliralil, Tratfition: J. J. Tingbiano.
f.J",w"Jo From R"'o!WIIl1II<UJ'
l!ca/iJ'" '" fuseil",. , .....'
s,....
h.n..I991
II 0,,,,, ..". o(,he f'S1 n be f""nd in J. A D"Ii. 'Soo,ahsm .nd lhe

I>" ...... 'ng Cl as, on Italy beU>rc 1914'. in D,ck (ka ry (ed). L,,/J.Qwr
",,,I ';'ww/w .I/ol',",'nu ill Eul'Ol't' ""(or' /914, O,ford . 1989, pp
IX2 210. I. !>hller. From 10 MM,' !'O/illC." I'ali,," &X,al,,", in
t/"'(;",Imian Fro, 1900--19! 4. Kont, 1990. G a nd S Frdtle
I,,<hj, II JQ(-,o/,.,,,,,, nd mr.:ogiom<, d 1mllo 189:-/916: Z . Ciull'ol.
el". U OTlj:",i glol""ona. Bari. 1992. \ 1
,,-
RMloIr.. III'SJ t 10 l'/aSCi/a <hI plJn,/o dl ............ 1892- 1912. Ban.

1992; C. 'The Italian 5o<;,ah", Pany aM ,he Second In' ...
""norul'. l.a""", lIutory' 11. ....,...... "01. 58. no. 1. 1993. 1'1'- 18-25;
S. n. Seala IN.), IMh"n Social",,,. and IImon-.
Amhon.!. 1996.
16 M MUII.uSh. ltalwn l.allo"" 1'111-1 19 /4. New YOlk. 1991
F"r "'o_k,,oj,., of Itali .n puUCII' 1I I). vi . Conjlic' al1l1
Comrol. 1'. 241, Jon,,". !ibn/)' and Onl.,. PI'. 84, lSI; J. Dunn_II.
'La",' and Qrdo, on Gioliman A C.>c SI..dy of l11e Pro, ""'0 o f
Ilolog",,' HIs.tory' (Nan.,I_", 1995. ,01 25. 00 3, 1'1> 38 1
'"
1'_ Thc ,hl.fbtoal'lptut< of M.aLatcsu oro 1.1, "C1tbu, rnco

" ....' 1922, L. Fabbri, "'altlln/a. I'"""",, ".ple .
1951, \ It.ohards, I{altll/!jw Ufr& Ideas, London, 19M AI..,_
G, Lalldl, 'Mllatesta. \lcrl ioo doll. pnma imemuionale alia "I'J'OSi.
Zlone .1 fASC,,,,,O . del MuJt<> dd Ruo'!:""cn,,,, '01. 28.
198). 1'1', 121 56; M Too ErricoMalalf>la Baku"ln'
La JU" f",."W;WM gio"'ItIi/e nell 'amhicme Nlpolt"l"na (/868 18731.
'- . ples, 1988. I It"" 1> do. h "",,h "1'10 of ' ''I''e". 's life. C.
L<\'y. " 1>1.10>13 In hile', A,,",,/, <hila
,01. 15, 11181, pp 2" 5-70; C lev)", '\b l.,CSla In london Tho En
of 1>j.'lIOIIl i,o. In Lucio SpOIIZI and Anum Tooi (e<isl. A Celt',")'
{'ahan Em,!:""!OII'o Briroin IIIliIb 10 19Ii1h. Fr," """,Ie
.....n! W TIlt /rali,,"iJl. ,'01 11. 1993.1'P 25-42. C. U .,y, 'Chari>ma
."d 5.xlal Monment> ; Em<o and h.li.n AIIJrehism"
Iml,.. "<>1 . 1_ no. 2. 1998 , rr. 2(}5 I 7,
For PIC I'" 1( M Am""'''h. Pi.ln, (;oFi, ,I ..
ddl,ma,rni(u. S,uJi e P" . 1995
1 Ikl l.my and Schc<lcr. G"'lWd 'he Italian Sm,e
19 O. Sch<.""Ie<. G",,,,,d and tJw TItt"<H")'o{{","mnal fN"""CrtK... AId<-!
1boc, 1991, 1'1' "5. 56--7.
20_ Anlon,oli, 'Sindaca lismo ri,-olw:iooIario llaliano 0 modelli "'Ian it
uli' I' In gtnCf3.1 =. M. Malalc.u.. 'Grarn><:i c il sindac.h.mo
n,otUl.IO,,""O. R. f."ioni ",,1 "'ppano 111. .""tisi sWriOg",flCl C
gUldlzlo dl ,.1"",'. SrorirlN>. ,,,,I 10. 00. I. 1981, 1'1'. Hi
57. F $01<10111. /.a slru""", d..r </Qmlnoo ltd ",via
:;0"",;0 e "fi glo.ane GFa,""ri, \I ilan. 1985, .\1 . Mar!ell i, G .. ml( i
o I. .onsili.", . in RUllIlO<ro Gi .. omin i. D Losuroo and
Mld,do Mm.l h (t,h). Gromsd I 'lIal,a. L.rbloo. 199 1. 1'1>. 3311-411
21 G U SoKI c gli ...."'h'" "3h,,",', II.J(""' ..... Sro,,,...... "01
or
5,"'" I. 1915, pp. 179---f18; G U, hlnoui. 'Pokmtche: ITa
"

ri,-oiUlIOllm f ....",hoc, i..Ii"", ""I1'o:Iio KooIl1l1m.,

.'itvnt:......
,01. 11.00. I. 1981, PI'- 495-512; R...a./1 su.dMal""", ,-;"aIJC1OfIQT'IO,
1'1' 209-12; Robntl.. 1M 50"'1<1"0/0;/ T",JIII01I, Pr. 71
12 M Anronioh. 'Emco M.Ia1<>L>, r Otl-'niual.lonc """"". c il . ;0<11.
\ 1889 19141. ,n ", ,,,,,.,ioli, A:iOfU' d",,"a .'''l>anr:
0l><,ru,,, Sindacali.mu r;."I..-:,onarlo " a""n-h/j,"o Ira
I" d,1I c il jo.!W"'o. Mn"Ju" . 1990, pp . 201 64 ;
p .nd lhe: lnarth,s! ,",ol"!ion'. An"rch",
Stud"". '01 1. no. I. 1995.1'1>. 25-44
- 2Torillcsc Anarchism, 1870-1914

Torinnt An arl: hism: 1870-1900
Dunnaw
R""'1l""""rlo. Picdmoot.... labour politics "ere .,....n'IlIUy
e""",,'"IIIO J10'01
e>".
e--'ef! small Piedmont.", cLl'<1 such as ROcIi. and

AI.,$.i"dria i:>oa>lW of >1n)1'1gor lef'.,.-ing fIIO\cmcn ,han Tunn . R",,'51."". kag"'" .... re ",t.l.,. """ ",an,., ,n Tunn, ...
enou,;an I,bmlli lrn
f",'o",.. d tho IClng_SI.nding tradlUon ormutull .iJ and "<><:>pOt'lion. AI
lea,l ""0 1 th. 1870s. the ral her <"c"she nct",orl: of UrOOn mUlual .id
"",ieli.,.rId cOOfl'C''''U''OI W<TO oom,na'w by tlOCIT MII'l:w'$ honorary
and ... ere rare boron: tho "nko, of the 1870s. I
As ol;e .. 1Icre in haly. the ImomallOn.I,n Turin emerged Ih,,,,,,h
,.there<! .5 ruult of di ... "Llh umficatioo ud
.n ttlUllll)' $Iron,
[001'1 "L1h ,he Pari. ('''''''''u .... For 1M
part. ho"c\cr. II", local of the Imcm;ollonallacLed that cooling<:1l1
ret"""
f."', ....
of middlo""I ... Ri>MgrlOKnro ,,,,.,,, .. s (""00 10 more Imp;>n.m m>rS

of Int ....."on. I;5.
and 100,1 anl5ll11$ aliacheJ 10
II><"
,nsllt\ltion" "I."mg Ihe Inlemllio,,,Ii,,, w'th greal
m,,''''''''
&'''''''y.
'\1'1'1<1011 '
'rho .n.""h ,s,s only g.med broader SlJrpol1 "I><n Ihey """uunl<""d
on,,,,n. d,,,,,,,,hon,w "... ,h moJoral. CI"DUrion poli.;.>; .nd ,Ik: mon:
''''''e Inle"..lIonah", nunured ,I>< Iolonl """"'''"'''' preoem in "1O",boD
"f coop:r.I'i'o and mUlloal.id "",lei,.,.' bu, tho dl;.asuw, Imema.ionaliSl
n"ngs in 1874.n..t 1177 Clu.c..I!be SUl'J'fUS1OII of,I>< Tonncsc ""-"I0I'l
Tonnest ..n:hl"'" enlem! ...,.' phDe of<le>elopmem "'ith tile C'SIabli.h
m ..""fthe PanitoOpcn.IO in 1883 ThoIMtChl>l>bn::flyand
Comblll<:d I"""k, on parli.",.n,aoy """,.h\Jl1 ,,"h tel;,'. Iobour "'Kanl"'"
",..,. =I\Il\ln8' I.rge ,""tinge"t of .n... ''''''' .... bakeD. m,lS"", and Ar>Cllal
""rler<. An.rch"t, "ore ofle" f"unJ
head "f"",,13n'. loogues,
r,'." .'olu'ion.ry """ali"'. " I", f. ,oured I'."liamentary m"cKY,
rc>l",e'cd .he onarch"" ," "n",h,,,. donllna!cd ,mpon. nl loe.la.d.
n,,,,"p:lper-. (II and /I IIal,aM) "hlk I,." populor
.narchlll PrtU,mll' TillIS .nd Ga:::ella Oprroia. p<opop.ed
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!lIC pan) ,heu ,mporlance b}' os d'Mnll:"'51cd of """ai,,,,,. rIOt
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e<;L,bI"hed hoorgti. .cles. forwng .Ihance. " i'ft n'"hc.lliberals 'Imp.!lhelle 10 (for "ample. jOl,mal, such "' Hi/a'rna
yoong TO<ine>e .u.c h I. utg, Li""ud, ond ,he ""'-'lhom
foo,, Fran<:c>co Niui. .. c<"$
OC," n Icft" 'ng G,olmi.n, ond lhe r .. nlto Socia""a-l'"'
The ",I\tr aroup of rn,ddlo--cl",. \1organ.t>J 'of"
bccoltlC polit"''''nr.. OOOllC<:tlnil,he Iltcrary.t>J
'0 ,1\0 sl"lIod ",,",lng cbs! Tht" poli'ical pros: ... mltlC
of mun"-Ipal "",i''',m and ,1\0 of ",ort", coopen.u,cs
rem.1111Ctl ,III, or'he 1oc.1 pan)' r", ,he .... " 2{) )'oars T.-..k unioni ..."""
and e'en ".re boIh YeO)' ofton iano<ed. but.<O ""re OIhe,
con,cn,iOll' ' .."" uch ... ,he Sou!llCm QuUl,on .,Id "'publicam>rn . "
Soc,. lism f<lr .\ l"'lIon "'cam. rathcr \'aaocJy dofined hurnani'ari..."",
R.form of socicty'l abu"", would be ad".",d slowly. ' hroogh ,he '1'1'1;';0
"Oft of ,!Ie n"" PO,"1\ i., sciene.. ond. ponte"la,l} for Morgart. 'hrough
!lIC J'<OP-li"'''''' ofC","""", $Q1;.!an')'. ",,,,,ina "01I ........ 'mg middle--ciaos
COft' 10 115 14 rOSilll bm ac:conllllllod 10nn.... panK:u!.>n"". ,nd
lombroo.o, ""Cn'ptJ; '0 WICO' <T so-<:.lIed racl.1 dtflh.. nccs .1\0
'impu,,"e' If',o"",,-,,,,' "'-'U1ltem lICasan' and ,he '.mnl) '. 1IIrd-"ortma
II<II"IhMI "Ilrl; .. r. fill<rrd ,IIC rn:rpaaand> oftbe -1M'''''' Labour
m"'o",,,,,1 f", mon) to C"",,,
TIte
of "'X-,.h'm pro' "ltd. """,I " leal ", [hor 'h , n cohe .... n'
I'rol!-mm ,no; i, "Ai t .... med,um "I"eh 1"""111 ,, ' rdonn, wuc
pOl'ul' ''<cd Ldmonoo [)e Amici. h,s h'cral)' . .. 11, '0 """ah;,",
lit, ",nlno.n,.1 pol i.i.. 1 no,d. ",os...-.J the Itto"" il i.""" <>f d......, .
'""""eralll'" . 00 d\ I, 111Iu i'm. and hi, <'<!I' Ily Oft the 'IIy 'OIIne,1 In '"e
1890. ull<lt,hnod In ad,oeacy of "orkcl1' organilll'''''' Org .. ,,"'lton
dofu'itllll\o ,iu"NI of unc"",rollable populor ...olene. ,. CIt Amici, moJc
"","'-Ii.." I"'!...I*
Ii""",! rnKldIe--cIb> olee'()r1t<:. :t
1\1 ron., wMloa--clas. <><p.ni""lIons "ert d,,>Jcd a. 10 ,,bethe, or nat
"'pla rommu,,",,1 ."bs,dy f.,.- ,1\0 Cham!:tt, of Labour. Ind<! ,he
,.,nam,ng al\ltr<hi,,, cau>cd a trmporary en ... ,n 'M
body. bu, ,b'l
" .. qwd ly 0\0"",,11'1c . Local municip.1 ..,d.h"n was
'weahnK
to ' he labour ""OHmen '- Endor.cmc"i of w", ker cooperat,,,,,. fou nd
"u\e'l'read IUppon '" a e,t;- "'n" a 100W hls'Of)' of 8<>O<""On"m TM
A>'''''';'7i""" (;;:n""'l< degh Or<n, (I\{j(). " .. AlJcallLa
T"'111.'" (, \CT) and III<- "odm' COOJlCral11 ........ ''''''ro!led
"log'''''
'(>'
't>
"'w
'.1)'
b)- m<><I<r,o _ ... h<1>. and far ,he 1IC.\t ](I ,he" leado"hip ,,-utl.od
in l&n&rn ""h moJenn. politte ... n, ,""h .. Margan. n.c Chamber of
Labou,
rd""oly un",a<ht;d b)' ,he repro;->lOd of the 1890s """na
10 ". COdlrol by ,he modcrnlC$. It bul 'I. toop< ... ,;,-. mm."",nl.
re""';',cd "'r"''IC"'a''''c of a "nail 5e<:lion of ,1\0 worting da.s. IIC'"
5.000 ,"embers in ,hi, <kcaJc. I'he sk,ll od and , ",san
follo".rs of municipa l ""iali,,,, ","",Iy their oldeT",odeMo
a,soc i,"onism 0' "nO """ ,n>lllUltOltS," The eicc,inn of 189"1 .
.."""il'!l""" l"'" on", ,II<- doII-nf.1I ofCnSpO. pro"ed ,hat boIh 'hi' COMl,lu,
ency and ,II<- "nhghl.nod middle d "ere preparrd to follow
!><>CI'"'''' programn... n.c !><>C ... IiSlS plod"o 10 ehnunal. !lIC ..... ulo'''.
middle mo. ,. publIC ......>en. coupIod "lth me., Of'Il'liirion 1<1 the '..,uhcm
de<pot' C""" and ,IIC authontarian Gc:ncr:all'elkll" appealed.o!llC liberal
Pi-cdrnot1le>e." bu. SOC lali.m 31", g ......
onler, Punng lbe M,lallCSe
nOl' (F",II IIi Maggio) of 1898. Turin under ,he "PllCals of itS
le,de"hip. remained quiet . TIIC do" nfall of Pc llou nd ,he accession 10
powcrof 7... ".l1lklh and lh"" Giolim aPIICan;d 10 m.ny TorillC'>C !><>Clah,!>
"00 I,be,"" ahk. a> "'CIOI)' for peac.ful proarel, ,, e polthC'.
",<1
A narch ll m I" Turin: 19 00-19 10

Afit,- doe 181\Ot anan;h"m IoI.l !lIC "' ...... I\olm1o& 'mportane<: " bncny
J'O'R,,;ed. ll\o en.pian repre"'ion _nd .IN: .1tIC,c"'" of lhe Pln"o
s.::.c,ah>llt len nu.l) a decade', PI' in ,IS h.. ,,,ry. In 1900 a local .""reh,..
w,i,ing ,n" ,bon,li'ed new edlltOO of L 'O,.,Jine dt:sc,;bed
yoars of
!Iocr' " Ik'" cen 1900 "Id 1914. Tori ne", """rehi", ",""'ined
ally in, ign if,..nt Police TCpon. indt<.,e no "",re ,h 20 Of 30 acti,'e
a"'reh'Sh ""Iween 1897 and 1910. ""d e>tll on th ve of 'he Red Week
In 1914. the . n.""h,.,,; probably d id "'" .. .d ''''y.1n"", po';liOft unul 1910. A brief legaliza'ion io
18'1; ended "lIh ,he follo",na .h. \!ilo""," tom. One)OU
Ial., !lIC ...."hlSls reappeaml. bu,lhe" acl,' Ily " .. redooed '0 recoi, ;na
nc ... """""" and ltalf.beartodl) ,"'c"enlna "' me.:ting> of !he
AGO l' p.mpltktc-enng and "",I propopnda cotI"nll<'d in ,1\0 1900&.
"""'tly due 10 tIN: effon. of
.",rch..". Dvmon,co Z.1\ a"oro and
""soi"'" II.{lCCU (or, a' II<- .. a, L,b(ro T.""rcdi. ble' '0 u,umc:
"""" in'por1 ... ",. ,n to""",",, ,1"Tiog ,he 1920,) Annlll<-r anarchist. M.rio
Gi,.J>, was I." "elJl-.nown pub lid y bu' l.ad "S w riteT ,n the
chIef r<rtoolCals o f lh. an. rehiS! prest. Tlnercd, .nd Gioda "cre boolh
prim.,.. and .WJIn..'tl .... ional proonil"'-':< a f"" )'0"",
R<>:ea SIIJ'POr'Cd
It", L'b) on W.r (1911-1912). GIOO.b ,.-roIe fmI",,".ly fOf ,he
',i,
'w"
lat.,
-11-
......,hi" prtO> ""Ill 1914 "hen lit bamc In early and ,mponan,
loft" ,tog in'en .. ,\<Onl" , -':.,'onh.I." in Tun" I,!"I!" (ircoJi di 1111<11
(II<!<,.I CI",lts) app<:artd and d,ed ""ul.rly. bUI a <cnsc uf COl"i
lacklnll- :' Tilt JIlO>cmcm f.Mil to pubh$h.
nu,ly
umil 1M "'''''', can bt dctecttd Inlerun,ng
In lhc lI'" "mJ.,en ur 1902 .od 111<
""'gglc of COI!On
,,<a'<1'5 fou r yea" laltr, Duri ng the 1'.lO6 $<,c nloon wen:
.m:,ltd al'" InlenCIlI"' In. demon"TlIti,," lh.1 I<d 10 cla sh"\
1M police and lite tn."C1,,,,, of. barricade in tM c"y Cettlrt H"",'e' or.
'hli group c.n bt tonsidered only ..
II)' mort: Impof1J.nt lhan
".,os
,,"'''''c
""h
n""
Za""oro,"
In order 10 uMMand Iho n" i,.1 of lt lxru".n _ i, lism. lit. moool
",,, lI ned ", Ch.p!Of 0... w ill be emr loyed 10 .,pl . in how ' ..... 11 "","e ,I>< In.urhl$l:i inH"""".d 11>< com",,,,, oultUrt of'M new
menl
Indu-aial "orilln, dis. ofTurin's suburb>.
,,,,,h
The AIl lomobi lr C ll y
IU''''
.,,,,n,my.
TM or. '.>1 indu",i.1

sU$lallltil by dynlm,c
mob,l 00 ....gl"".nng Industries. oxc-urred" i!lt,n 1M fiNlkcack oftltc
1\\Cnll,lh ctmu'}. In a manc, of y""'" lhe nld. sorn""kn' 1",lucntlte
""$ 'TlIn.fonned into It.ly', r tl'micr Ind Ll >lnal "ny.,1><1 ,,",W
,ndu", i, 1r'lJllnll eli .. fOO' p,.."ion, of ",nUt"'" andl'Qw,,, ",Ih
tho lraditionallanded . nd profcsslOfl:lI cla.s<:s
runn
demOgnplH' .. pJoo..on"" it drev. ml""nl' ka, ,nil
"".(by Alpl"" ".lIt)" ''-' II. f..:1O<'c," It. populallon 1il",,,111
for SS 1""
of Pied""'nt's during the 19O();,M The """t <lntm"i.
,hange "",urrcd '" n.w "o,kc, suburb> where IndU.If}' tool. roOl, AUI ...
mobile and .ngineenng roc'''''c.
t".blishcd """iok lhe old
mun,ei""I.""""" blmcT (,he d<l.:Mlhank. to lite .Itnf.,.,ioo ofTonn
II> htnt.rland.'" A, Pf""p<n,y n:rLfJ't'led. aficr lhe .hod., of II .. 1890>.
TOO',!\tsI: w<>rk.rs "ore f""ed by ,"natlOn,ry n:nl. to hoo.ing in
,I..", onu,!t,oormng ,.,bums. 130'11" s."" 1'",,10 from 4.0Ct0 in
,n 190 I 10 OHr 2 1.000 I.n leafS I.,or: Same", di M,I,,,,,.oo Bum.,. dl
laMa tiihlfold ,,"'
lIy 191 L ,hesr suOOrbi w,,,, bti,. ,wlfll'ed in
of rum m'grant$.
In JUS1'WO ye." (1907 9) 50,000 Alpine lTIOunl.",rs "nd Po Valley
p<:".nl' CO"'e tu Tu ri n 10 join. growing indu'ltlal .tlny."
T",o-,hirt Of the "a l Tunn '.
coontod for mort: than of I'll'timon!"' ,,,,"I In 1911
.'perim<cd'
,:<"'
",.,t
""'"<'I
14 P<:' of til< J'OI'Illori<>" o(Pledl""" 1 " .. s ",gaged ,n ,ndu,

'nal r Uf)" ilS: bul ,," IL 79,000 indu,ltlal wor" " Thtln. ,1<><><1 IIe.,ly
20 p(r 00"' of it> ,uI.1 " Th.n) -lhree p<:r crnt <)f lhe ,nojusltI.1 wOlkers
"ero tmpl",ed In lhe rapidl) ""nd,nll: cngll>t<tllIj tr>de,. "h,1c ,I><
men: >Ia&fWI",ooon ""II> cmplo)-ed:!O per tenl. By 1911 Tunn
.Iroad)' had 6500 tar w",kers. more ,h.n 25 per of all .-;
a'
"
.ntl' lol'Ou '" engmc<f1 "g,

Car "oRcrs w= ,..,..-.Ily highly Mulled mal..: ooly in !be- I.., prew",
j",an did any Of un>killcd "ortCt. appr.,)4 Car .. .,n.... 'n
tho I"'"" or real'5 "-.... .Iinllxn>nlhe .,,,,",,,,1 paSt and !be- m<dunlll
fUlur., bctn lnt,ned'l thelt Ik, II, ,n ta,lw.)' 'hop$ ."d coach.
ftn'" that r roc,okd lhe ",du s!nal boom'!
III le.I th:>n a decade from it> In,ro,bc"on as. s.nobbi'h toy fOO" P,N'
"",n'esc "'tS""'fal>. lhc lU,omobIle bad brooIgbI fooh. boomi. ,nd'"try,
"01 only dId ;, Sl/f'PIr trams, bu$n and moror can, buI mart"" and nWIO<;leu, ofhlghl)' workers. and 0
g""'p of ral.nled .n"'pre""urs pro> the "'\lrediO"I' f'" ," 5UCC<!o$.
(;'0' annl Agnolli. lhe domlurg<" heh",d F,at. Slood OUI. bu, I>< had mlUly
eompc1l1on un"I,he fi ... ",,,1 crash of 1907 and a runher rallonalWlt>Ofl
""nns the " a'.
Spa. Ital . St.l. RapId ond 1.ll<ICI' eompeled for
",.. km and "ortt",,"
Asnelli ",emplolled 'hIS in"",",,,. caplt olist ehle Hi $ m
IIIJ'IrI'lIJIcopitaI '0 'run" was malchtd by. sbmoo-d. heno,oicm
that .1'I.lped. ., of med,."ics and JI<"""< toolflllkcr,;. and!illrtlC\lmt'S
""'pic manual . nuckus o f ,k,lkd worIL ..... of 'e<:hn,c,an and
ace\l "om.d to f""lot)' NlldltIOll' ,') Agnello bUll! ''0"" ""
crn",,.. ,ub$idttcd hou>lng 000 .",ouraged job mobiloty "'Ilh'" IllS )'OU lIg
Indu\ln,1 emplrc Ht ,.",ailled ,II< """ Ik"",vro. ,,'hich
'
Fi.,.
,,-m"'"
mlL,,:uJ><d an ""hJhtcnf I><"rt" r.-pt<I<o

.. >
rot""" ""'"I, .... folio,.. JTl<I"""" of.,\ .. blo<" ..
on.j
'''er' ...... til< ,,>II< rooli' i" of tho ,ra<i ;,,,,,,,,1 m<td,ant'l"0fe,;. ion.1 rul in
.1,Ie of !/Ie ,,')'. r<plaCIf'i " "itlt polil:y ",*",<01 _mi ...pol ","wnw
...... 1h. """,......1 "'''M'I- _i.1 Jo<r\o<t<. MIII.-noJom ...' _ of
dJ<
1JrtwI....,onaI,.""""""''''''
., Torinesc P arIllo 19(H)-14

Munl<Ip;>1 .o,,,,,hlm ran into il$ ftN maJO< en." du"ng ,he n<'W era of
Indu'trial rela,i"", u!J>cred ,0 by Glol'''i Dunniliho fIN "av.
25 -
11901-2) 1',,110" "'g lbe leg.lizalioo Ofl",M uni"" ,.;:"n,y by z.."",dclh,

Ih. co...xmncJ , .. "rike'" for lhe i' imm,,,urily," Mm'
len ,he pony in I",.. Y."'" bull11t 1"'1,11<,3'>0 (Nofn. 'i"'llan .
etC. 1 rrrnlI,nl and OOm, .... od pany lik (H'" ,fl11t pany stf\td
3' lilt" (i...,nOll INch"... " demanded handling. ,\1'10' 1900
po\lI,l., .1I,.1lC'" 01"'" parti"" "en: "m:; in any c.... radl<.1
ism .nd ",pub li c,n"", h"d . I""yl ",-"Cn thin On Iho Wilh Ih.
npltoo of ,ympal""U<: "",lIIl11g from lhe Gioh",.n U,
de"eals and hberals c,ohed.n .Uta"". dLf...,led aptMl lhe socl.llhslS.
"'I"""iall) afier til< I9().I general mike alienated fooner 'Uppor'lefS o,tII<
(....1"".
PSI ..
M"rgori', i n,cnli"" o f w,,-' ,"Iher p;1tlICII< .lIcmpt '"
I'3por ,be <11.<1'1" ,!hm the r.formiil camp. Sluhng some 'hunder
f.om ond anarchi" ",,000""1< ,nto lhe borpin, In hi. rbr-ioric
\Iorpri Idem if..,.;! lhe e""my of .0mIL"" as ,II-deflnl spttulaIOf\.
the '<<'lm.Ipl n"",llIy' and the Chu",h. Aft .... 1904. "hen G,oh!1l beSon
"'''''IIIl! Cllho IL"'. elUde anticle," li , m o'crshooowed Ihe ori8 inol
oflhe 1890s. AnlH:lorn:.li .m W
I' I"" TIl<J6' ",dely
weapon In In'e""Ii""'. arK",,1 of popul .. , rho!onc I. "os
.',,;ornp;>n,I mInimal programme-.-nbrg.""""", of
\1f1in and be,, and m<>re f'I'.. lOble >0<111
bin MOtiari
anJ h is f. llow kept . ",o.lhor eye on Iho" an,1
lowor."nddlc-cla .. ""'cr<. Uok"'l1 care 10 >uruu"", md""lri.1 m;!i'.""y
.r.dct Ie", d..,....!" """'" .,
In ,he long run. 'h', projectl .Illl""e ran 111'0'"'''' of ,ns"""""nt
,ble oonlnodi<t;"", and 'Olen gradually turned
''''')' Imm m<."m ,,., 1s."" ali,,,, ., Ihe ww ins \\o,",,,,'g
popula'ion
""" and P'<>1igt Wilh lhe 1913 lhe f,rst ur.lcr
mlInIIood ",tfflgc. ,hey ,""Ung he""lly 10 okl1e.1 ond
""I,<>nal,., ...nd"I>I'" "The m,h"",ll>b. f<>r tbc" pan .... "h tbc CM:cpt>On
of Ag<lCllI. rtmaLncd 1c.unachcd ",GlOIllli', fonu ofhbcrali<m, mplo)er
,)nd.c ..". oj>pC.ffd wirh n o .hon ,i me and adoptcd moo: in,,"nligent
pUhcit' Ih.n had ",,,,,,,d, By Ihe "or indu,tn .li ,,, follo".d
.",fo1111 policee. f01111,,1311 b)' lhe.r .)'nd,eates S",l", "'eff to<olcn
Ih11)llgh IocloUl, and """" "",ed mil".n" ... <ff blackhS1e<J from .11
[acl<>1">C!>. whik m<mhen .tfme<J tn Ind"",;.l d"'PUIO fina"",al
o,d
I"" ')
Funl\e'lIIo",. ",du'lriahm began 10 cOIIC""e of
'hemsd'e as a ",p;,"10 producti,-c cia... bcl>olden ". il'" ", lilt 'L,,,,)''''s'
nor 'h" 'profcs"'''' ",110 OOmIlUled proc<cdini> on pa,lia""",""
IlIe ... fom"" soc,absll, for the" 1*'.
coouolleJ no! reprfSCI1ted
IUIUf!I'lm'ted
of."" Tl>ri1lCSC "orkinll c1"". This "oecond
0"""
5\',=.
cI.,.
____
H _
e __
" .. :.1
T"".
-26
,9,.
r",,,,
''''' '.>!
'w".,'"
"""be<
""i""'"'
"
r. ..d. l. flO"
CUI'Ure' mll" .. td agOIllS! llIe pol"If' <>( and e'm Agn<"lh

h:>d 1>ec0l11C amb<, .len' 10".,.,,15 hi. OIiginal political ,muogy
D) 1910. The Lib} ' " War dl"",'dy demo),"" ,\gno ll i" COl" " lOellO},
b)' ' tlmu lallng a ...!ion,liil in Tu,in's mIddle ol>S5es.
Agnclli's fiN anempts a1 inlrodu.:lng tbt rodin....,,, "fT.,Jon"" ",10 I w',
f.."onc< . Ionl .. ilh Iong-tenn unIon Oonlracu.. " . '" met

by 'hal 'C'f)" eli of . . be !wi hdped nunu",
1..<:r" lIllIly the g.""f1Ilioo de<en.,.j felOnm,m foo- rc'oluo ''''''',)'
$<)Ciali ,m TI" ". ""'" IOC "l<J<Iom ""'klnll d'll . n<! the IIIJu>lmh s
increa"nl!l)' Gioll ll 13n llberali,,,,."
LIl,,1 the of ,he "ar Morpo-i 000 hi' alh.,
nonl:llntd for
"''''''''e<.! f,om ,be Ie,., of po"er in ,he I<><al I'-'rI) At 11 GrlJu ad
PnpoIo. 1"" 1<><.1
In tbt AGO. or 10 \be: parly .""",,lII,lhe} fClBlltd supreme, bul lhe" COII .. It""""y "., ,10" Iy belOS "1",,led
Ai; the g<'nern"011 oflhc 18'XJs flo,".J .way from lhe
party. ocli\1,.; "'e,,, not plac.d by hi 1910
lhe Io<al parly haJ Ie .. !hon ;n 1897." A HC\I "",i3I'!<11 .rl)l.C
In lhe wburbo. II> dr.>,.n. both in I!'ffiI!!"Ipl"UI
'>p;><e and "",ial ria,s from lhe pony lcade"h", of the cmlre AIl.,,I'HO.he C'f',cenl'" ofT.".i"""" ooci"lism "",'eJ from middl.-ci'I'
e";- COnlre lhe"., in<iuSlnallub",m whe", "g"''' In an ifTOgul ... f'!h l0n
hy the '>cto!ld CUllU"'-
,-
T.n. ",",
a.
hen I InduSCriali"n8 oi.y weh 1 had the <ame 10",_

of un",n""ion f"u nd el""" lie", In 1",ly, I 10M only e>'abh,h<d
r,Iln wilh lhe Fir11 W",ld \\ar. h'" the "'''''' popul.. Cll:lmher
of Labwr all<1 had on ul",on)in
Organ"-,,"onal hfe for f1Inl4l>d. file "Men" ,o""rally Idcn"ficd
,.uh an oO,,'al bu, in<llluUon the Itga,.. in the ... m,_
offICi.l_ ",ml-<,Iando"ine f..,Of) 101"".. 1oommlhlOO. 1>0( In croft Of
100"",i . 1f,,IoMi"" .' Tl>e "'lem,1 commi"ion, in an,l llrge
f'I'O' IJed gremet c""'"'''u''y of Ofga "' '"''0!1 "'ere
aJ l1y
"'."cepred b) """",,,td ...d non-unioolLt'd .like," f\n"ttn I \lO6 and 1911
5etI",,,,f<hop tloor 'mICro ,neiclont> COIIC"",,,, . . "'etllme
pal. mlcnIiIl dl"'pltnc 000 PICtt-"M ""c. ..... nagtd b) In,ornal
cor>ln"""NI, only adt'f'!.-d by .he lrade union" hcn a broode, ,Inke
=<kd coor-din.,iOll ..
-28
'"
lOll
'.'00
. 1 "
1:'19
191"
',1:1
r_l_l.
'p , _ , . -
,-,-,.,
,.,
,.,
"",,,.Ii,t """spap<f.
O rga Ol lla lion.: 1900-14
,.'
lqll
"'''a

,.,
"''''''!lCe
-Iorin ,,
Moot.,.. ..... 1_ .. "
uoo
'.'00
19,0
9,"9
" .91)
2HJj
9.11'
19,1
,912
,911
9.JJI
9.111
I'JOO 10
MIJOf dunng ,h,; p"'iod broke Old ,n 1901. 1902. 19().I. 1906.
1907 . ",1 1</011. TYl,.e ally. Iinke "as chls,e",d . rou"d &(11"'"'
suike. "hoch brou&hl00,b and !o tile forefronl
F, <II If",f<>nlH! lrade un""'''!> ond s.oci:>li>I dcpullCS ;ought to us.: dutt'
.... "'" to pr<SSIlItU ,be g<l'ornn'IeI1I in lileirpubl'" procWnll!1OO5.localll.nl
InSl,lUfions foond In factories and ""'ghbourhoods hod ",u.O",CI'$ .'tream"', '0
;1> do<.><s on Con<> Siccanli. d,d rq>' .... n.. ti'cs of lhe P.""" Soc .. h,,"
and ,be of Labour 01T>C1ally endont:.he """ernen'. bu, from
Ille 1907
"""am. ... oopnllCd Io;adershrp of anarchi'" and .)nd.cal.
1, III,e,,ene<!., ,he facIO'}' and nciKhbourboOO Ie'el ' 0 load
.
.
"
Il",,,he. Ih. ( 'hambe. of Labour Mm.oolOK '")'WI<l<:
' el1OlI
, <> .,'II.
1to, "'. ", "r a Ie",,} 'PO/ll."e"y' bocamc Olea",r .,
'gena,'ion 01' 1910" aulned _
infl"""'" In lhe 1..00",
""I.e
i", ..,,,..
-29-
Tht ,gc""ral '" 1'109. foil"" ,na ,lie of tile Sl"'ni.h

I,bena,,,," <ducat",,,,,h'l r""",,><o i, emblcmal,C or.1I
IIIes.c urb.ln upri5l1lg'_ II hal'JlC""'d durin, period of relalll e indl.l5I ....1
"lien onl""",1 cornonlUIOf\S ll:ad bent J,c'c ... ",.. by the
N""",lteleso. J'<lOl'I of Inu"hi<l. l),ndi"ah51 and Idl .... lnl
soe-,al"l "od...
r.."ones and pulled "'" """'en, Wltb lite car
In the un. 10.000 'IrcamC\l OUI
.ub<trbt_ An
.narrh,,, rc""'mb<;...d lite
as
"f a much ,,-ioc, int.,.
""10 ... 1 """',"en'- ',\11 ,ite rnOlled. all ,he },,,,"h ,,(Europe.
" only ,. Turin ", .,.cu,um had al", aroused lhe . ntt.deri,,"1
"'Hldledoss f""'nI'''''', IF..,.." "-'d hccn OI"IC) and Ilk: Morgari Inlegmlim.
but Ihere "as a ,h , Il' demo",.",," bet"'.. n <I", ,uburnan
.nd lhe, mo,e p<:ac" t'ul prOtest! In Ihe cily Cen're, Indu.tria l ",,,,ke,,,
''''ph'SOl'''' ,t,eor
me ... ly lhe C\lIKalor bul lhe leader of Co tal""
'),nd'c.h,m"
"."cd
""'''''''''ra''"" pan
"r
'F..,..,,. "'"
Robelhou"", .. ".s "'" unl)' 1.'Plfed by polo"c' In 11.ly indu5Irialrot>.

lion happ<net>doy_ Ind<-cd lhe
" ... '" lh1t liS prkl'"oncrs ... called Ilineti'''"11 by
the fOllnes<: " The leader offlO\1 ".oJ app.alled by the "ba.,m"ly
own .""'''luetIC). and not a 1,"lc ,. bu1 dill"" car .. 0Ji. ....
romklcred ,t.:m ... I,,,, ,he of a ""'........ >ddlc or mJddI"",ras, p<:f'$(tn
\buII,"" Ganoo. a )OU"g an,,,,,h,s, "0 .","11 OtICOUnl...- "as
''''Ie 1lnl""Ised b} youn" U""'et>l1y ,nldl.. rual, woo I<>oked down 01'
",anu,1 "011,., Ik,nll a ,"oddO\.ko,. II< .....1100. "",.m he had 10 a Ni".
'" hI> own ,ol u" oll 10 le"<hnic. 1 "nd o"n i", tnt d., icc, 10 help
h1m catty 0111 hIS Job 50
"("od nMe S) nd ica li , m 1900 10
In Its pn:>t<r<yndio. li!olI!'u,\<:.I kfl '1\IIIIn'illt"' fact,on g,'herod .uppon
through enl"' ...... of the l"nHl ,ndu>tn:ol PO"ltCS of the ,dorm,>ts, 11""",-....
11
dc, tloped ", coherent pl." thai "0111<1 xtuaJJy coonl,na'. pony
pohttc) and the poh.,,,, of ,he Chamber of labou,' A.ftco, ,he 1904
smle. syndlCaliS! rxtion " . C$labl.>hed " By 190Il
haJ bttn geet"" fmm the pony. I,hou,h lhe .. >iyk rcma",..d. Icg.acy
roo- ,he post.1 91 0 :\cw Loll, lin/,k. OIhoo, arca, of oynd",."" growth
Tunn ""i.her produ..;ed not played
any maJO<
.yn,loeah". "rn: "'" tl obit to d;,lodg< Morga" fron, """cr. as they had
bndly "",ee<:<led .n <k>lng 10 F ,1,Pf'O Tuntl; in Milan."
""'<1"
""" '0
-30
g'."es,
Ounng 'IS finl ,...,e. lile S}ndieAItIl mo,,,,,,,,n' f(lUnd ,I>

<ul'f'O" in a ncI,..od or <'irr"'i Ji ,..wJ, lha, rrnc-rged from .nll
m,I".Ul5l.nd pro-Itu."i ... R",oIultOrl In I90S. whICh """""""
s,gnirtcanl .uppon from the IndUSIn.' "orr.,ng dus." Torquato "anni
I_ .i, il ""Il' ....... ) ond Alfredo Polkdro IttOfU)' en''''. JOUmaliS! ond
rutu", publi>h<T of , ... n.I."""s of SLI,'OI11C l"fflItu"') Slionul"ed the..
"onnt;<,ed campoi grt" hcljl<nlllO pub],1/1 5In", of <)"nd",ol 'SI rc\Oo-.papcn.
(II Grid" 1907-8. lA ,"'Ir.ale I90R. and
1'l(9), 1'"lk<lro and ".nnl "'l!oN for rou, (,od bkJC.) .IIi.""..
of.1I the ,.J\w,;i,'I. IA S<><""," I""ocated on ,n,um:<:lional general
.,,, . denounced Inlegnl r<m. and mercilessly I'mpouned
""m"goglC a n, i..d moait.m , I'o llc\!ro h.d 1,,'c,1 in I'.ris for "me a nd
h.d bc<ome discipk o f Gu,I ... lien. _. nd Iht F... ,,,,h .nt i-mihtoriSI
w''''e f"'G",olly for fA SlJ.oak (Othe, ifRgul.,-s a t", eon'f!b
uled Challes 'l.lal.,o. Roben M,chell. r .,;co Lwno, non,to Mus",lilll
.nd Luig' Fa bbn-t'
In eonnec'ion .. "h his propo.g)IIom of the 11.". ...1 Slriko ant;
m,IoW1<m. Polled'" iauno.hed n I... ltan _lion of ,he Anlt -\t.lila,i"
An',-m,ltt ... " led to coon appear
for publtc01ion .nd d,.tnbutton of fOtb,ddon material al local
ba."""l, II Gr-iJo PmlewrlQ co..
more <ntirtt:llCly ...-uh ,nd",
'nal problem ... disrmss.ng nO\j rc(rm'5I ltadt", .uppon of,he closed
shop in tor lon,Hctm and
og""""""".
... he 11.1. CO<lll"1oCt of 1906 oj The .. "" .... pal'<"'" "''''cd .. 'ra,n,ng
gro,,,,J, fo< }ouns<r woo1;<I'$. "here 1l1li1\:1"",. ,)nd;';.Ii" nd
e,<o"J Iongtctm
ca"'p.lig",na OSllm1sO\'omm<nlai .!"b,It.Hon
,,,,mod ,,,,,If
a,I",,,,,,,,,,
""'h
.110.",,",
intl"" " . 1co"n""

,ynd;';,1i,m" li,,1 ".'C ran ",,,,I ub i. p,oble m._ SynJ,
,. Ii m
,uc"",,<.Ied on conlrolhng !he Cbalnher orlabol", Rofo"'''''''
eonlrolkd ,he m.,n ,'ohng bloc! i" eomm,ncr mOClmlP. alld
.. ,he '''''lnbe.-.hip may
-IOIl>OIimo> Sj'mp;othued ""b """'"
of ,)ndicali.nI, obJeclion, 10 ",f"","" Iradc'Hn,on
for 'I> full "III problem.,,,, II he." S}'nJ;cali= >Oughl to
,,,rrum"," Ih" ><Tiou. ,.... k ...,. by ...r,,,,,."ng pro"""ial industrial
un""" lhal .. 'ould bn:ak the Il"P of the e ...1\ ""i"",_ Wllil. lhey ra,,,,,d
Importano qUCSI""" about the (l1Ia""'nted t\aIU", of'he 1\0.10... ,not!< """'"
,no' ... ncnl. ,heir argumentS
"on th< do)' bef"'" lhe c\. oflhe "."
Tl>< ... forrniSlS curU,I"" In""h of !yndlC.luOl at Ita" for
alkr 1907. by ,'''' >n,lil"""" oflhc t:."hItmber of Laboo,
SO ,hal S<""ral ",semblio. 00 longe' dcltl>crau\'o pow ... , OJ'
d""j',ng lhe ') ,HI,c.I"" OCc<SS '0 111<-. i ' '''''t fOf\lm,. ref""""I> h<.>pctilo
In
"\'0'
ha,.
"",'cr
"'rPO"
one,,"
Gcamsci ami ,Ite

con,mI .he u>aKc of tho: gmeraJ \.triko .. oapon, tbo:trlIy ""''''trng SW'(IriS(
mobriLfal1OrU lila. had f'''quendy undom"nod !he" "u,honty.'" Ioo"""tly,
""".,,", .hI' llndocal",', C2mp3lgns 1<,l1Im"o.I tho .""... h,>! I1l01l ... ''''''
mT,,,.n OII<e .,.,n'
,,,,,,In!
d"""",
Th e Secund C . n tra' ;o n: 19W- 14

,\rool><l 1910 I :le<:ond gODeTa'ion ofl""al socialIsts .ook ,h.1pc , Compo$<.-d
<>f .. If-N .... '1'd ,,<rl.... 1"'in8 in ,he o<pandi"8 ... buro., thl'y
10 Morgan Ind orher 'et...",. The FNctPJOno
GiO\.nil., Soc .. lisu IFGS, Yoo"-8 Soc,.h,lI) S(,,1'd as a 1""''' bal.t.
d ... ml_"ns ItIIImlhtansm; furth<-r <putrcd on .ft....... """ of'he l.byan
V,ar and ,he ''"In<'nHlg Europe;on .. tuatiQn The.. )\I<In/l .... ialt>lI.nachrd
,hem.. h OJ; '0 a """ "'a". of <yndicII", m,l,unoy. "h,eh th..,atcnnllhe
heg"lDO"y of Ihe CGL Iknlto M",,,,hnl, lbe brilliant )'<lung Nltor of
h'm",', bMno II .... polltiul hero. fl is oo,h IllIfIuage colling for " hlocro
It".-o of >o<i,li"5, ."arc h,sts, s),oo lool l'" and 011\<" 'Irrcgula" ' t>e<.m.
therr rrogrJmmc, A now ""'''''''ing uppa (ml mob) was d,><o,'.ml
by .ho Toril"''' mIddle cl asses, but collce.i". "01."". ""' "'" lhe ""ul.
of the .n. of iuno .. nl "'ne"", "hotn Joomalists $0 i"dly
pon .. )<'11 II haoJ "$ OWn 1"".1 root>'"
Common CUilUfll. pOli.ical and imellec .... 1npcncnc"'lnfonncd.he
arly ","<'S of.he of 1910, Re, "I'd "f1"O""'O wa, probabl)'
the IlIOSl Import.nl Whllc middle.., .. ., inldlccrual, driftl'd ."ay from
.he carller g."",.,"""" """,.1o,m '0".,,1, ....,.,okali." ,m1lOlI.
Ir;t and "."oMli" "'iontallOn$. the y""ngtr . . ><Xlalil"
rela",od I In moreri. ll st phil""""hic . A popu lar pos ilh;,m
coupk..J with. d'.'AI.e for city con.", inlClicclu. ls d;;finc<l their """ialism,
Craft rndc I. y a' the bottom of thIs "'orl"", cuho .... ,
""" bu,l. 00 m_"try or industnal In .he suburb, c"''' pride,
cU5l0l".nd we .. hst manlay
m,ud Io&"'her" The
1>Obll'd I>orghi nf'he InduWl11 hmlm.nd c",,".1'd I <OmntW".
,anon 'r"" nunurO<l by 'nlerconnocled, Inf"",,,,1
of ..,Iali, <'S.
,,--orl.t'"I" and "",gltbour-->... The .,,,, l'nlIJOf InduslnalsublJrbs
Ikqo
Son I'aolo Ind Illr",,,,, di l<otrlano, U"lrk( older "..ncr SClII<mcm. (Bocx<>
Don for e.atnrlc "llIeh atU,..,led poon:r _00 10.. skiliN worke .. ) ,he..
two suburlli wc", ulmoo.l'Of1\p.... ly populaled by ",l lled wort"" .mployed
fo< lhe mOSt 1"'n '" .he '," IOI""bile ''''' ilia!), i,><lUSI!lC" BM,io", di ).1, I.no
contained I row of m.jor ioou,IT i. 1 facIO/ie,. (Off"""" Mcrallurgiche.
Brnetl! t IAT.... ocl ""II. AnsaJdo San Gioqj,o. Grandi Motori, Fondc"e
FIAT IlIlou.1'd In one of the c..,lnrl ,UffI$. Vi. Cuneo.)
"'1'""",,",0<1
,,=
net,,""',
- 32
F"",1crie Subolpl"". we""ing mIll ond. denS(ly pxked "'SlnCI of ..... 11

and mcd,um-sote<i a"ra<:'1'd .n e,'er

pOpULoI"'" '0 Lnlil 1910 Bamen di MIlano" as ,ul olf from ,he <l1y
CCRire r...,l,njj I 1ram Irnk, me three ","lk "'a. ",,-ely. If e'e .
"nd<;.ukcn Ikrrgo San Paolo "as "Inuilly an .ulon",n"'" loou"".1
from an oid., ....
sbop Ind""nol
bas. located do,"" 10 thOCI'Y o<m'e"
l.org" San 1'0010, lIke Barri.,. di MllallO, bot.n a ",,.1 ""tl.me,,'
umil .he end ofll1c "..,lu'Y, By 1911 the populattOn stood 0' ef
4.000, 113, '"11 8rQVo1'l from. meT< fo'" huOO"'" In 1920 IJorgo SanPaolu
had .. populo""" 0\'" 20,000. ikrrl!o $on Paolo had "" ,mpres,,,,. ,,,.Jus
1n.1 nlre 1911. Cor f"".ones ,,,,,b .. l.ancra 4I90S), Spa (1905).
Cherubmi (I 911 Oraton( 1904) ond __ .. led tndu,tri<'S such ." \\0511"1
1>Ou$CO ,,,.J [)"b\:( ,he" door; an "ilb,n a decad<:, bmo ['cn If
InduW), b.r"" .... dorm""'" r.atu.., of ," landscape, rural mcmor;e,
",,,,,,,,,,d YOUnll ,",or\crS , ,,,,.Iled rompinH ll1rough "1"'" field. in lhe ..
,,=
,,,,,,II
y....,"
\ IIjj"'UOn broullhl <--pc<: ilic pOlr'r<J l lrlldlllon, "uh .nd ,",",igra""
..ttlod on the !.Olne Ry 1919 onl)' 2S ptr orSan Poolo '. popula.
"on "0'" ""1,,,. born TOIi"... M<>I' rt<:.nl ".,,,al, came from rural
Pilmonr. II1Ilnl) "oj d, s..s. and \,.1 dt (i""en;, One '1""na of lhe
.uburb '. pop<Ilalloo " ... Apulia" 1"" only grOIlfI ohoulh
cmm..o ml,,...I<: m..",'dy during Ihcst ya.,.. ') Soc,al", poIl'lC. p""
oomi""'N in Borg<> San I'aolo .nd imm'i"'nll (c;.pcclalll the Apulia",,)
"'e", ImpOrunlln I""al pony ""'i."'....
R,1m,'", dl M,I.no had a Il<lGtblo .,,"'.. ,," p'.!o<nc., ",inf_cd th,ough
nn " "j!,-a",," of \'e,coll<,e , No,"",$< .nd ili"lIe-,< [>O",.n15," G."no
",c.ll s th.llh. V,,,,dle,,,
'the mo,' c"",b''',,e,.he """t rno lu
tional)" O<I"'<;:I . lly II .. anarchi,... . . In II .. \'.",d1ose III''''', ".fe
51A)tlgltoIJ,' " In f"". the mcn>ory 01 (,alleani', ':11\';'1<:,
amoo&S' the ric .... OIl... " .. Innsm"'od unlly from the geno .. trun;. of
,he I sso. and llvougII thc<c lnlJnnlS lOT""" The VClttIk>c Sf'Olt
of 'Gallcanl, Inbunc, ,,"" ,n AnlCnca. had done .hlngs
TIre B",n.S( had Ih<" ""'n ana",h,s! leader - 'ro"n","", Con<QniIl """",ah>! and _"lId"';c'!. ed,lf1r of a,ena', IA Thon lhere
"as dl' .' anielical influme. of "",iali" Dr \tam ",hn al ... p",.chc" to
the ru",1 ",,,",or> " ' Iho 18905, .nd "ho.. "'op,an .... iahsm "a' c",nN
10 thlS irnlu,rri.1 ci'y " In 1905. bltta Imke o f Vo",o llc<c nee "orku,
" .. strunKly ."pportN In B .,;e", ,I, \1l!."". alk! onc of i.. major
pollllcal dtmon",-alions w soIrda.ny pIOIl'llln favour <>fthe >tnlcn.71
The c<:"'," of Ikr<go Son Paolo "'lIS ioc.ra1 a1 I'uIu.o I'..-..::h,cra, .. "",h
".,e
33
c"fI!.m1 Ihc <I\'(he, a prim.!) .d,ool aOO Loca l

donIOII"ral",n, IteI'I' alld lhe 1"".1 fIOpul""" 10<:>1< their piJueg'Ula
aroulld ,1 ,"In aCrf} ,l>IJI1i prC'C,,,clS, In ,ubum. su<h " San Paolo
hfe I..WUmN arUII,r Ih... in oldol pon, of Turin d...,lo ",1.'''ely felHr cof...1Id ,,,,aura",,_ lI'hor<f"", b!xame. """lral pan or
h fc, On.e uldllm.:, ;"'"' ie" I brlicII ,hal '''rectl,', crealW ,he fo.;ling
lila, ,he 1><Hxt. "as '","Ur one ""Sk: family',"
PuI""" "e", d,,,,,,dy dfC'C,etl by ,1150 """...1 .mongo"...",._ Many
IoInkl.'S We'" Inf""""l r'K1w<>d. ,hal ,died on I"",al
lJIorI<<'(pcO 10 .UO\Ol tolls 10 an "'f'3od and neighOOurs.o help f=l hungr)
chlld",n ,.. SoIldo",) ,he",f"", f""lId its <u" ... once in the wIly Ii, ... of
lubulbon mh:lb".n,. "'" from the oily. lhe !m:11,fe of!l",
...o..n, and !he Sf'lnI of a ",asarol 'illlS<
10 Turin by these Immi.
ann ' sh3pcd the ':J<:IfId In "h":h PO;;I' 1910 _iali<l$ matun:d,"
,,,,,,,,,,1
Su burba n
Tbc grow,," ofTQOIIfS< 5O<'1.h.m Incr 1900 w", t...s<d upon ",,'
In,,,,,,_
1>OrIS pol"",.1 dul:>s.1Id f""l<l<'y inl ........1e","m",inn., A..... "'hi... ymOOI,

.nd ."Itu", ",mal""J "ukly and readily digr<lw by radical aOO
1101 So ",d,c,' wor\.CI"I.
Polollul club lif. ""JO)'eJ a ft .... ph .., of VO" Ih III lhe 1880s alld
bul ;1 diN ""! IIIIh rhe ri.., of lhe mi<l,lIe..,la,s """ialist' In the
II"ddlc I890s, I rom 1905 4 l>ew aroll Ih i. e, ,de m, gathering stealn by
1910. ' 00 b!xommg Ihe ch'rnele".", f.alure oflhe new SOCialism of 'he
prell., yea", Tbc f,rst 110,'0 of 'yn<lic.h>t aeli,,,}, cOITl<ided ",,, 10 III<
I'ro lIfer.""n of '''':011 Vi JIU<Ii .Mwll In 1905
clubs we .. fi,,,ndeJ
and o ' lte" ""'i'tlt In 1910.
,a p" n oJ of .Ugll.nt ""',a liS! gmwlh.
lhe 1"".1 soc .. hsi CI",Ie. "C'" 4 I>rlaht <pot, F""r yoors lale, If>e """,ali st
,;o",lel had 1,000 members. " ilh tl",,, , trong ... "'1",,,enl.tion In
Ootll" Sa" Paolo .",1 fhnicra 01 M,lano" TI", eirel.. "'ere ol<ely alhed
W, Qlod >QIIlCIlInrl oo.n,n.{c<""d Its
door.. to w.II, "'""",h,st. aOO "'hot nun-party members
"1P',fic.n' pre!.mOe on the$c local orpnlnotion<"
The iC"",,"onal cbange by lhe soci.liS! mo'e.
men! dunnS 'hese )cara IS ",nC'C'I in the VO" lh of the ... d.", and ",he,
J"".h nelghbou,hood orglruullOOJ_ '"oung f""n<kn of!he new clubs fdt
.he all'l1OJ.phtre In older dnnllns loxII", 100 fnvolous. Ballis.. Santh ....
f.,u>e """'",un, .. nlllll""'. arril"d from ,'''' \ '=ell= and ""Ipcd fOlm
Ihc""" club.n San Paolo, 1[< "","111 Ih., '"." if,,,,,) "-'-'" ""lItd
n",
' ' 11'
wine: laW"", Ihey "0'" . lready pohhc,,I' OJ M.no Moot'8M"" . ),,,,,ng

soc .. h,{ of JOIIl>h II"ddle..,lu! origin. woo I.ft hi, f.mil)' 10 becnme.
f... OI)' "JlI"fnllce and on;: of the ""'" artieulalc In ,he new dub.
1\'(311c<t how ;1$ mcmbrrsli,p m<d <oll3ln reput.tlon (or pII"tan"m.
tnrn: W'I 1m dnnk ..,d IwIlly..,y S",mng 311he new dub, Ahhoogh he
'1u",klyadded In hit mo:m<lS Illal '00< or IWO 'I ...... were n,,'er refused
b)' an)oo<' _"' C.mlilio Ra,era, lnother fum", communi.,. lI,;t<3 in her
of 'greal moral rig.,..,-.
memo,1S II\:iI ,"" clubs gene .. ltd ..,
Inlclk<;,,,,,l di"'''''"" ,he batt'" of i<leu' replaetd all nlghl dnnkmg
Paolo Itobolll, I furu", pOII"- In "'" Communt! PMI}, then a
bo",ly lllCr.lle flCtory II orI...-. mnrmbcr< !be dUM ...school, of pn<:licol
ocpnllllUI)[l. IIb..-C ,,-<>den could learn new intenC'Cl\I3.l ",ill . "'"n
<lebalina IC'Chniques and diKu!4 In,",,"-Ionnal e,en",_*'
!)unoa local sinkes or 0111011 campaIgn>. m<t"ng' couLd continue
for III" 01 1"-= 411)'" The- dub in San Paolo at", ..,,I a, a surrogale
(or ,'''' In,tll\lll llhen they w"",'empontri]y driven fmm.be
faclQOr<,
club Iocall in riAlza Pe'IChlolll .".... t('d lI'<>rke,.. dunng
l\OOO"m" lu""h bn:alJ. 100 >.peh.ts """Id ,urge lround il>
.s.- e\On on lI ...kdl)'s'
rhe """ club> Imr", ... iIC libra"e., Although .ystematic
n:oords
no! bftn prese,,-..d ofwl\:ll mombenh,p ",ad. =1 ,estlmony
il fai,ly 100",",,,,. of("""ntes, Robot" Ittallcd 0011 ,!Ie m"mbrrship 111
<;.n 1'0010 u,eJ 0<1C IS Ih. ct"lrep,C'Ce of discu .. ion They beg.n
\\
I/u,h". thoncarri.d 00 to Jack LO[l(km', Iron
.00 fo!!owtd "P ",adinllloo..
of oarly 1",""" Nh-o< IH UI), \\ott",
book, o f "",i. li"
cuilun: ZIllu .ltd Ana,,,1e h.",'c 'rhcy WCT" OIIr
educati o,,. he cotll'lud..,.. A 1I0no ri, liben. ri ... I". mmrc pn:JominateJ
'We lbou' M.n', he ,doeJ. 'b!x.",., we h,d h i. ponn'" in our
"""',nl! room, """",.,,,.,o..ay ""e k""" a\lou{ Marx;,", would h< cxaggcr.tc-d becu,,><: M.,,'. bi>ok. "ert \ 00 heal'Y for our ,"omach,. II",y "e",
100 '01"",,,,,",,, 111>10:..1 11'< ,ud the booI-.s ofC.fiero, lhe poel!)' of Ma"o
lhe booL.s of Pierro Gori. the poel_'"
5.1111" . roc . n. _iah,,-, immcr:>td in anarch,,\ dasslc._
CO"'lWSI Q{ Brf(JI/" "' ex"" ..... ly popu lar, L"";,,, \llchel's
ICCOO .. oflhe Commune andlhe J)3mphlcl. of 1'3010 \'al"", foiloll'I
in pref.n:""e, anl;.m,lita,iSl olld om ido" ..1 pornpblelS mack up {he
., Yoo.l'i a, ,dty d,gr'ltd lhe , "ther OOmba<1IC rhetoric
of \bria Rygiel, CorT'ldooIi. Rocca and Gu,""" Hen t, Corri
don'-. and RYile,'. RQmP''''' (0l'l'<1/r Raw) Wti
rQd b)' ",'..-yoroe" .-\n!I-nuhlMUrn wu I ehorffOCCllP"'''''' during 1IIe..
y..... IIGruIoiki popt>lo mil campaign 'broughout 1912 and lhe fGS
.,"""f'hcre
n..
1\:1".
nrt
"'ndi>,'
-3S-
r,,,,
iI, IfK">soge Into the rounl!}'""" d" nn8 wcekenJ .. d oych.I,

tou .... pre",,",ng to "I)r\;; .... Oft Ihe e, lis of n"lnanSIII 100 ..
!.ibe!tan.n"m thtrefote .ffect.:d ,he enUre "eIA left," IIh ""'IIIhS!s
<II',nunng pamphlets .. nUen by an ,oomdoah,t .""",hlS! like Rocca as
",.dily., .ho>< by the ,nduwi, 1 .yndloah<l Comd"<1I. hen a young
",f'>I11"" ..xi.lt" like GIUSqlpC ROlnna ,harN Ihl< ""gIn ' k .sub",""""
III .... i"'kfl<al group ,n IIo!x<> San Paolo _ft",

" ... "" ""'i_Jl\II"an" ... " oil . .:dlll"1I G;",,,,,,, So..,,,/,,,,, in I'll I
1912. ",hieh (Icd'red '",ar on war'. ,"d lu. , efun"" m OliO cooI",,,.d a
mung repubhean ele",c"' '0 II' Th,s repubh<anism jOl".,d ,he "",iahS!>
,,"h tht hbo-narilns. and ",on8 100 ""Ii, e conling<nl of rC"flubloc""
plin'",", in SI." Paolo temenled a Inplc alh.".,. between all Ih''''' groups.
'>J"" allt ,,,,,.s "ere wn w.eted lilt g,,,",,1 office. of 'he local
aoo cirel.\o. aoo aft" ,he llbYln \1, miliunl ml<idIe",I .... naliooah.m
made iHlppa""". on ,he .uws. "hlCh forced al\ZtchiSIS and "",Ntll",
'0 osl>bll,h ",If-<lofonce uni" a1 dc.mon""'tions to proI<'" 'hem<el"". fl<)'"
by "allon.l i" )'oulh,,"
f=',

Cn,,"Ih:

,\ hbenan ... ,,"i"ol sllmu laled by the Fel"fe. e""oIlOO 8>1hcred pace
aft.r 1911. Al\ZtchiSls .ook leadml roles In lhe 1912 ca. wodrrs
t"" am,m,l"an., f<>ll"" ,nl!he LIbj."J.n W and the Red Wk
<If

In May Iho l'led'''''''le\.< _nalthi", OI'8"nlled a pro, Inc ...11I,",,><"J_

a;""", f'ii"mOtl".... , al,hough n .."..,ned .. <air. "" Inll 10 bo;:kC1"'
Inl runn had II, 0"". tar more efl"I"e. Flse," Libenano .ioc. 191 2,
B.I"f;<ra d, Mil.".., ""'" the Cent .. of the Clly'. libertan,n
"""'re
tile .... reh'''. d .. ,.. .... ppon from lradltional hbenonan causes high ""''',
hIgh prices and limilal"'" of poh.e p""...... In the ,uburbs .. lauons "nh
lhe police "' .... "tdiff.ren, a' ,he bool of"m<5, and "'hen Morgan and
Cn.. h", """,ally 'pon>Ol".:d parh .. ocn,.!)' 1l" 1'0 "renKlhe" ,he poltee
I""'e. lhe )OI>ng anareh"" p'lleretllarg< '" Iltei' local proi<'SIl ....
(".,.lini " I i >om<!lunll ofa . f<>lk <11',,1' for lhe anarrhlStS. 'rne reform"t
rflncmberetl b) Gan"" for helng a slu", I.r.hord I" ,he p<J\lUll.
d""icI of VallCh,gh. ("1 It .. 0 .... "ho explOIts ten.n" . ,,<1 the" loa, ,I ..
.000!lI.J:< 10 Wme and JJlt3L abo", soci.lism. ')."
Tbe anarthlS" also seemed 10 lu.H had a mea.u ... of ."rrcU on
.upport for cl,,>nti abstcntlon. In Octobe. 191) th"y mounled
<I<,,\on,,"'llOn which d.. w 12.000 in", the mlln piaua of llam< .. d;
\hl,,,,,,"
,no""",,,,".
Cirroio
di Stud, Soci,,/i
f 'enw
no. ,nnurnce lhal .""reh"m ....c.. upon ,he Torinc<e wl)r\;;ing cia"
from 1910 (0 1922 " .. <Ioscly """nted to the hi\I<JI}" of ,It;; Fcm:.
( ,rele . It pN' idod ", ib le proflie for a modorn fonn of anoreln.!m
anrborod lA ,he indus",ol prolel.nat. 10 Sani ..... dl M,laoo" pl.1jed an
analogous role to the ""'Ullist dub ,n 8o<BO Sl.n I'l0010 both ".,,.. oecond
homel aoo schools fo. young sclf-educated w",h ... ,"
Tutln' , <If Ibo Mooe'" S<bool I'r<scntod ""'cral "0\01
fc.ttIre'I fin>. 11> f"",,",ion in "'" .... k< of Fmet"s <xeculIOd " .... inlC1lcled
., .n Iltomati,.., '0 tile .tready T.,..,,,,, ... . . ,,a 1'"""lare
(PoOpIe" Un"o"'''yl : runn h.d hosted Iho ft ... t PO!'OI .."
Houoocd in 19(0). 001 by 1907 115 m"derat. m,<ldle",lan "'.nlz<n had
alie"",ed """'ing..d .... stPdl'nlS." One founder of ,ho Fe"". Clrele
.,pl,uned llw lho Un"='ta PO!)Obre had bc<:ome '00 ob> IOWIly. mIddle.
cia ... I",Iltu"oo, whore '<)IIly ,he ""'kilt
gn, .nd "ery f.... wl)r\;;on;",
'Th. (, Ihe "nle, ronll",.ed, 'j, abo due to the fac,!hot it ,.I rare Ihattlw:
.. is sufficiently edut: d '0 "ndem.nIl ,he arglU"l"ltnl' of ,hue
'peake"', .. 1>0 fonhe most "m.sa'" f.. mous prof<SOOtS and 1.")'efS ....
Se<0l1ll1)'. ,ho 'r", i,IC'. Fe",,! Ci.de - "n hke 'ho polt<y of the SI"'""h
educallonalill d,d no! fttnti' lIS i" pup,ll bul ,)""Ih "ho
had m:enlly Ieli publIC school for ,he wod,Itop.'DO The Ferrer Clrele
C.n be "",""dere<! part of a w><le. hropean c(>n'ompo"'!}, ,onden.cy'o
marry ,,,If.. MlICatioo aoo md io.1synllical ist polilie, In ,nanr
it bore
luiking lO.he BrllLsb Plebs L.agues iUld 'he.lthen."
""hools localed "'i,h ,he Fmo;:h bow'..... du tral";! I.' 11$ re.1 tmpOrl.,..".
lay In III<: c",aU"" "h
of,MUStn.1 milt .. nls. Dunng'"
of exist.n.c. il ' IlractN ,""on" of pup ils" 00 la'., pia) cd prom Inent 101
,n lhe chi.r .onnic1,
the 19L 2 "j'ndlC.hst car
"orlt1S' !!nke 10 ,toe 19W occupation of lbe f""lones, Ilu, onhle ,toe
Un""",I' p'l\X,I.re " "as alll1O>1 ..clu,",'dy composed ofwl)r\;;ins-class
lIu<ien1>. 'cry fe", ,mll,lI ... cla", ,nd;, Illu.\, e'.,. "enlured out to R.N ..".
di Mil""". Ga.i"" I of ckrl" and a' mos, ,bm: Il<
fou, Inareb", Inlcncttual, ponICtp3.'ing In the Cirele', "",i"i"<I, Its

po,ili"'SI anJ m>tenah>! - d,(fertd 111
""en' from the Un,,c ... iti Popolore The: auiding 'P;nl. ho ... e' . " ...
Ikons.: IOu,1 y proletarian. s",!"e"",s outside in'c,,enllOl1.
a..",hiStS "' ,he cen' .. of lhe C, .. Ie, II<t[\ ,.... look.d '0
'wo S01J " e' (,f LuigI Molina,i . ,he: .n.rehi" la" ycr ..
li",e support .. oftht L,mOTSIIio l'opolno in M,I .... puhli\hed its maga7lnt
tha, pro>><Ied the young .""rehtStS "n11 an 1:11" of
d.,...
"'Y'
1I<fItT'I"""
f,,,,,,
or
-37 -
0'
.narrh", ela"tc., Spencer, an<! In", ,n, D""o.,,;,on. of

f .... lo"e. b'rth control and ,he Chu,ch don"nated pages, LuigI r abbn 's
and OmllC uloo la'Ottcro'$ .hon li,cd La .ll(xkr"u (1J.o Ioall',
19121 d"SI'minatN to"",'. "h,1e Mohnari. f allbn
and Z.'.Il<.'l'O publi5bed ....... ll JCnC'S of lnarclu ... ,ynd"ahSl and rIt'O 'rncts ,hoI probably "'''N as pohlical Jlnl ....... ,n the School, OJ
Although ,he r e"", C lrde f"urode" " or< mo," radlc. 1 'h an
""" ali" l'O'illYI".I, lhey ih.ared phll'"'-'Phlcal p'inciples, The an.n:hlll
",hool,"" ,", Fabbr, p l.. ned In 1912 Ihat Ihe " l ockm School "U
h!>cn.rian b.U5C " ,I'atISI'mded ,he older radi",,1 hbcnol &""nd for
"",,,,Iy Cd"","Od, Ed"",'i"" IIad to be camN Od o"b.de and
,<-.
the po),ti,al ix<w"",n Man .nd Baku",n Wt'" fully

Indly;Ju:o list . narehi$l5 Ktmed to h"e ,no rhilosophy
on Ni(1)sehe and Stime.'" POW)' . nd an wc ... more
pnrular Rapi .. rdi, (inri, CarduccI 100 Guiu; " .... "",mon""" by many
.ruden's. ... ,hty IIad been in the San r.olo club. \lll'. lantern .ho".
on
ltah." "",,,.r<, a Iho. l", grotlP for
",>I'I.c" ,,,., .nd .ma leu, theatric , l,
popular p.>!, imc,
",. (,rele c"" .. nu. lly Undo.--'!Ined il5 ",ri""'I>e5s. btl, the re"", Cirrle
" . . dj, lded to ocoonwnodatr I:.>tl! iIUdy and """""uon, One room, rc5<'f'c.l
for donees, led "", 'n I eounyard "'th ba c(lllt1, The "'her room ,,-..
&""ed to <:d""",on.1 "",iwie,. \\ hen it ",IS (""nd! In 1909 one or its
;"tcnlion, w... to combal ,he . poht'cll "'or1<ers' <porting d ub> Football
""s f",,,,ned upon. Inlread In. Circle Ofl"nlzed donce .. lheatricals, poetry
rtt'llll., cyc list loul1l, and picnics IS
n.eC,rele "'IINlIJIOII its mt:mbcr$1O
,hoI' fltt ,uno and money
'0 " Noc'Oonlns SU('('C<.Sfully furo,..,r a de<ode. Lectures anJ cou"<"
we", at a n "lelllCllla!), 101 01, but stude n' s " . '" .... '0 read at
ho"...."j comr lcte occasion. 1II ,illCn "'''gnnlCl\t!. The most '1>I:':"'lf"1
ones "'.... gn"" fo limn.. en,hu"Mm, h"e "",oiOIl 'ur.ay,'
!t.suIllI) '''0 or thn:e \enafhl ",11ect the lilM;nanan poII"n lSm
dwnpione<! b)' lho Circle', tea<her$, (Nu.-uran/ls", aNl ReligIOn, P<>Ilfirul
1,1!><-<1\ l'o .... e'
.nd >l) forth) ' " In. O n:le al'" <>pOI,ly
Jt>cU>.>I:d frce 10' e,
rroble!'!\$ and e,en held .." .dl>l:""on dane.,
" I"" prudblo ,halt local _illi" dub> ' f or the: common """,,Ie
i, "-" liboo '0 di,;cu>I
,hlnp", Gori"" rttJlb II'
"".ompanylng Ihtmc . ClltlOUSly

!" 'itry Ci>Ur>C ... nlCd
to h.. e bee n a poreo",. 1 f.""",ite II. Pom.p., ... Logi. B,rro,,' h... how"
In the el" of Bnh.h p lebe i... cul'ure, the lIali .......... p"""" e '<loIt -}"""",If' medicone, npldly bemll" tpt
by speeoah ..,ion ,',
SI000n' reading I"ofermce, malehed ,hooe of the San Paolo club o.
popoklri (prople's Jules Vemc "'" ext"."...,I)'
popular In Mil an .nd Turo . nd ( i."no ",. d "'8 10,f/()()
LIMN Sea . Na,uru lly, . ,,,,,,,hlS' d . '"e< wen: h"., ily represented
MO$t', 11It Rdigwo<. ser.-W as If! '.tl!eist
Allemp"
21 \1=', dialectical "",.nah.m were '""" sue""",ful. bu,
Tho h,.tt. Cirel. cltalyzed the a!\:lre"'" "",,,,me,11 In ,he .uburbl. TlIr
<en,ral COft of ..", 1lI Cons;$tN of25 fo JO former )OUI<g ...,111"" .nd
,ynd",ahw; who had cut tho" political 'mh to 'Ianni', and PIIII""",',
. . her c.mpalgns. The School'l "n",cdl3l< populanl)' awakened older
a n.reh i." "ho jl>tncd fo"'e' with the new recfUi". III Dame.a di M,lano
'heref"", b<'c""", fhe cent", or inJUltnal but tbe "e... al""
less important @:fOUPOinlk>rlloSanr.olo.ndB.im..... dihi7.7 . "
"" ,I><: .':nlre oflhe new anarch,sm ...'at the Gruppo Barno", dl
a !l\Crc do",n or ca. aoo f,," nd!),
-" ho ",a;ntai OC(I ,m<illi"".
ufmih .. "" y in lotal r80!0.i.... n.'(ch ing fro m 1910 '0 1920 . Tho I .rre.
C,rele helgh .. ncd ,be" ""'P""" .... Thrt)llgh its offk., COdt300'"
w"h _i.list club mcmben "en: e.,i ly e.tabh.lhN. Tho; anarch""
"ere considc.-cd In the San Paolo dub a. PU"" bul .ligh,ly o.'op,an
prog"'''
' gOln\1 both ,ho clergy and II>< ,131<'''0", fauh In mod<:m
hnked
tho Modem School,,, ,,,hocl tr' of ,, ",e.cono ro lled edl>l:.tion. Sclel>ce,
Ferrer e.platned in lho journal L 'Vn" ..,.,lfJ P<.<peJarr SC"'.,..I )'C!n befOft,
" .....11 anlldo(. 'gai!lSt do&m" and reh"",,,, and tile \lodern School's
fype "f edL>C311""
,n shape .. tIOna! human beIng< ready to h,.
in. hbenanan "",.. ty,IO! The Tor".....
of'he Modem School
announ,"d i,s ,"'" III " mIla, I." gu,ge : to sp,ud rationalist cu i" ....
amon8st ,he wo,\'ing daue" to <rc.tc 'individ""I,' and to rutn',
al''-lh dttw,ng itS "ori;mg,dass Inten"SI """" oponly IlIan F = had
.".-
""",hi
""JOn
' h" partlClp' ntS ,n Milan', I., ni,c" '" Popola.o,

the ' tudcl1 ts of the Tm ,ne .. rem ! (',rrle ["oured "' .. occ Oool'Kl ",
hl$tO!)' or I""""ure. 11 '>!Of)' was en' I53gN in ",od pmltivi"
.. an OOfl""'fh of ""tu",luN oiolOj)'. and "
pend", III rlor;a uni,nral. ('Ii lan, 1910), "h,oh began human hISle)')'
,,,'h an e,planalioo of'I><: ,,"gin. of'be un,,'c ..., " typ",al oftl'" I",nd, ,co
",. 11\O){ I"'pu l., Cnun;('> ",ugh' a, ,I", C"ck (by anan: hist ted ",,,. nl
and ull,"er.;i') "lI<IonLSI
l<InlI'IOI11y and mcdl<lf\<: refutallon of religwn ..... I
w.'"
<OIIStam
''''''.Ift''.
""&
,.",book' .,
,h.
""'13",,,d.
I,.
"r
",,,,I
t""'"
,,'Od=
-H
hl d I link" jlh III< anarchi,m oflh. 1890s ."d rty

1<l(I(h. CC'IlIre SOOn'o was born on Tu,in In 1873. An "'JIh." who h.:>d
""'n co", ""wd ,,,.r oo>..n limes of ,agmncy .1'<1 robbtr}. "" became I
dedIC.led
Id.alo>l In. rchisl ",nll0 0 ponal "la:>d In 1899
.noreh!>1 pOIllltal pnllOllCT'O_ 0.. hi' return to Tu"" he
and Ii,
,nil"
.,-SS'
I>on .. I ml S<lf\ Ind hpl''''' Ii\>rn.>nan ban"", . l1om, . "dly wriling for
..,,,05 of """",hi,' """'''f''Ipo1'S. La,... he .. as. foonding
LA SCnDU
.nd SpaLn.
BOLLETIINO SEMESTRALE
[liTO
of ,II<-
F....,io I i\l(1lll!lo. " IItillo boro ,n Turin in 1887 ,,-"" .1 ....

" R lly pan of lhe l"""lIC1 g........ t>on. hI< "''''''''"
back funhC1. apparenll)' 10 1902. He panicipaled ,n rnosI oftht
unslOCC.s..ful elronl., ...arcIuSl m:nomnon' before 1910. \larganto ..-...
atn:$ICd '" many <kmon",..."on .. 1hr f,r"<t "me .t tho ,<"x,ik <tril e in 1906_
He remalllCd. colourful. odd fi,ure in "'" Ton""" labour- m(".. =renL
,\ e, i,. In 'he faklO L,beruno. he had .. tobli.hed con,acts ,,"h tht
European mo'C1llC1I, durms htS pmOOIC Ir.lml" in France. S,.-ilZC1lmd
mOI(ll.O CI1ITIJ fIImD fOlD

IO IlIIA RIO,
pohllCal behds "'ere ......... n.."'. oftht an"-orpno ...

'io ....1 eurrem .. toKio
'ht M.l .....lan allhou8h ., """Id be an
n.aa ..... "on 10 .1"", lillol be was. consistent Indeed. Garino
ht """ 11",},>'o h"k Cra7}'. li nl. muddleheaded ' "1
H.
10 ,he poLn, of.... - abo.., all on Iht eh.dhali3n iOO i,'idu,lm 100 Ofpnru"on..h .. nev." papt"'. panoc ularly for ,h. 0<1d
!'Ll3n I. ',j"enrrt" Ana.-ch"m for M'fE'\nta "-OS Ie" a po l, ,".al
conc.ptionof hf, and ofo freo lif. '" 11 ,,-..... ally
hI> ",.,1 ,u.df duoalion.oo sclf'''pITo;.,,,n.J"'t as" 10". hn 0 fonn
<)f ,.I I.b,h,." "" fur Sob"I". RoLlo ... p ... ..,nIM a ;;o<i"i type
" ,". ",tle red 0". f.ilhfu l stude" , of 'he ferre r C,rcl. - Casa,,,,,un un"",, from V.II. di Lam_o ,, 100 er>eydop<Jie
k,IO" INS. Capabk of """''"II Of I oftradt, he r< fu<a! f.c'O<)'
jobs box.usc. 'J,(, ablo"oluooly not ' ''Iltnil to .xpioota'joo _, " Anan:hi",
funnod from this l rad iti<m "on: dillieuh '0
A
s'gnoflCant "'l!ani zanONll ist Cum 'yndM:" h\t tradition was aoo
.u,.. illCd throuaJ> ,lit 19001. Ih= anan;h,st . all Dltler ",.11-1:00,,'" stn:ct
Or.ItOn lnIl l.bou,

i" ArL>oClmo AcUh. (b. I S97 in Tunn)
""ILl I pI'm'tr ,, 110 had COIl.bor.oIM on fA G .......a and lalcr helped
<II!!"n". ,he ..... io I iben.rio A, tht C,,,,lo he ",h'i..,.o d theatre group.
be,nll In old CUPOC'"'''''' (IICtor-m.n:lger ). I. l>tlrio Mobdlu. born in
IBn. had
a clrpcnr., ,n \ 'n"", Ton......., rIC!Uri ...illC. he om\"N
from 1/1( \m.lle>e In the 1890s. II. "as I t odviSl"8lhe
four.dc .. orthe Cirr i. 'I' G,UJCpp1: \!0lS0Iia (b. (876). I \ .rc.n.... agn
ou IMlllaboo, rC1. had "onM in Ton ..... foundm-< "OC. the tum oflhe
"ruI.
,lox,,,,,.
(l,,,,,,,,
.... m'.'lIru\04t : CO"" Pol, .....
1_ ...... J()

11>1... _
. 4Q,
""IL,
_,aIoS15. I flC' Ied n. nonally through ... 01 historl,al

rHt.rch ".
The: <II}_" I<lo anarchl\r ""'" "",,"I ..... """'" po""cally h<t<rogrnrou.
Ihan ommboN of lhe namcra d, \lilano group ,,-ho endorsed
Mal'ltlWlllW'Ch,.\I COtlIlll""u.m. (Tht Clltk ottr3CtM 'yt>dic>llis!s, ind,,-.
!<hal is!. 100 gallronIJri.) The )'ou"FT
of """",hisu could tr.>ce
ons'n' I(J ..arlit!" groups. Inti" 'd .... hru and anll-<llpmzalionah$lS
,""i,
gcncn"'""
"""n
"
ccntul)' wa, Ih e Imk I><t"ccn lbe firsl Wa\. <) [ all

revolut ionary "" ,"II ,,, (corea I 90S) .,><1 Ihe y,'"n8<r '"
r ,,c a n,:.:hl'''. """",,,cr. slIa""d the ne" and
",.";e;,[,, lpl)hncal ",a,tgY aft.,. 19 10. \burlZlO Ganno .nd Pietro Fem"t'O
".m: the t"" nhN QuiSI.ndJllg me!l"obol's grour. A, skilled
""r\<r\ .. 1<1 a,lulo labour OfJl,nizm boIh men g.in<:<ll hc of Iht
rlt" of ><>C1.iI,I' rad ical and ,d"TlTl;51 u wel l "' of ",""y
",'<en' 1'IIr.1 ,m"",, I. to Tu,, " 's cxpon;l.OS f.\olori..... If an.u th;,,,, SUC""'t'(k-d
'" be<.-oonrng. if dttr&dl)' "''''oril)- ""'<c""","1 in Tuna. ,I
la'X<I} due '0 !he 1'''''''11'' lhey eamod.
(j"'rk' "''' b/" In I M
n m or, (h., ! . Iand of Sardinia "he,... hi s
r.,l>" r. Piedmomcst had b-c,n "a,ioncd fo, Iwe n,,._th e
II .. lamily to Prc-.lrrl(llll;n "",Iy IQOOs. "1><,,1,,,
f.,her b.:,g.>n h" ,,)-e,igill. Unsu,,,,,:,,, rul a1 slqllc""""l! in Tu,in_
th..,' n'IO,"<J onu apl" to C..,ine ...'" AIo;.s.:ardria, and h,! r.. her I\craltl('
a rur.1 Wh ... the .oci.Ii", w .... in ,I>< <ie<liun (Or
I Q06 I", 1"-"1 "h<>lIsl>C<l, Ga,i"" "",I hi' ,i>fer leO ' lte r.m i] >' 10 fin d
wo,k in llot"lll) VI!!,,"!), Tuno. Al (oo",,,n "II 8p!>Tef.,ice<! 10
On Ih. lnil>'rnce of hi. de<OUI Sottl,e i." II1OIhOT oc had bttn
rcligiotl> SCh<.,l>. he TorI""" Itth _
"i 1 ...lklOl . 'lU.:llif}'lr.! for 'oc hi ghl>

,,,,,1 exe.;uti ns pl"n' fo r ""'''iX'''"m, on lho <>r mdu,,0'. In 19(17
G:"OI>O 'cd hi. rQl ili< 1 <31.'<, as a l"d . b>1. but r.tpid ly . b. rId""",j
dcri"",ltSI poIlt"', 10< a,,:m:hism. Ono of1hl: r,,,,ndersl)flhe F<m:f Cln:k_
bj. 191-1 he <Otbldc."rI'd an oxtre",dy "'U". d:t:tgC>U.j; so.wrsl,,, bv
<I", local 1;<: had al",,",ty
artbled ''''''0,( .,
I'"rrem. h rl
[ri c'nll " ntil"'htical cllmr.de. "'"' 00n' '"
p,m-Il"'" ..,fTu,in. in 1892, Hi . '-,tl"" had been . n
,,->ci.lt<l . nd ' <li, ,, coopcr..:or, Der"", III.: ,,'a' Fe""ru ..orted a< a 111""
dunng lhe "ar in ,he A,..,,,,,I.,,,I In 19 18 bttamc I "'e<hlnlc ro,. Ftol
Wilh Itul" formal ",1Ioo1<ng (b... ,han Ct'"oo ,n a,,}' ",,,oj h. JUliUS
It" lrec
"nJ
, ,,"-"'1"1)' "f !1Ie F",." (,;",10 in I') II. li e
"ea>u", d hi, o""'n 1";' I:. I.bm,} or ' MIChi" and <illt" da ... ie<, .r.d
;n R' fT",(3 d i .\h l. no 1ir " ... grnllly adnmod. Lr.lix. G.,ioo he
lit",..." 0$ 0Irtt< ontw... bul po>Se>5O<l "'lid OlplllZ3uon.1 .t..ill. "h,e h
",cured b,m an ,mp", nt poil ln the 1"",1 n o" branch. rl'
Th o III, te ... m"ining "nareh ,,,,
PL<I'" Carlo roo", ,, o n .
Bart" lom. i, .nd itJ I" (l"nnei - "" '" G.n no', , ,,d r em:",', ;nte ll"",,", 1
\1 00. bom In 1893 at ASIl.'OO De Banol""",i .. born In
lhe !.>me at Ch,,'.... ",-e ... of ,he _
Rene..."""... bile Gannel .... , .
o lde' Pi"," bom ,n 1886. many ""<kI le...,I,,, sociali,(,
yeo,,'"
,t.,,,,,
""'Ie
""np.no"".
b<.".,,,.
1"1",,,,,;<1.
and "" uch "" ' hey

""hnk.1 ' "Ihc' th"" Ti te,ny <"due"""," ,
li",,,,,,, had alreaJy 4U.hfkd OS an inJu,,,ial eng"",.r r.:: ,,,,"o too ,,"' I);:
and Mos.Iol .. .,.. $lI lt <O<t1'><'S.' ,Il<: un"rnmr
"']<>SS(I-S (WtICttW ,nlCn-;.t. _in<1tIlft: lnanag=menl -w., 'Inned 10 bl'l.lldcr
theomi(.1 in tll l boration ""h plnlu"'JIhy prof"""" ,\ nn.bak
P..""" For many yeaI') til<: pa ir wo,\.d l<>geTh or an.I)'utal
","I""" '"U and IOK", . 1rhil"s..-;.phy 1n '",>nne", "or.
eo,
'
The ."""h,., Ic,h""i. n> "TIC natur:llly attr.>< 'ro '" K,."mkJo,
the"s of modem III<]U.Uial anJ pohu.al,>!n,"""",,>.
bee."", a n xli,,,,. ,",pa,he,,,, '1"" ....I""an
Wlk> ,ttlc" oecd with "".. """,1 It:<:lU", . , the Forrer Cifcle 0< " ' n<"'SP" P'" ben be(.>" the ".'. Go,i".ci .nd Dc
m local po lili". rollabunolln" OIl ",ony 1I31io1l31 o1l3n'h,Sl .nd
r..,,,spopcrs. Dt ,"'pn:.><.-.I \b!OI."'" hi,
, .. il '0 Tunn in 1911 1 he }'O<tng <"i'''''''' On I b ong ."'"""1",l1li.
\l ilh hOl"<,,, n' . I r,bb,;. K,opct], lnJte
' "" iottl' r,c 'I\arc hi,,,,' ,\ lal. lt'I"" ",;opt;'i,", II
. 0. iJ.>nolorn"l\ wroto W F.t,bri.". ""ont,ti, in1OIl''''I3tion of lbe un " e,s.e .. "'opoll,n peIhaps .. hi< ca>c b}
,dy,ni on a ton ",h.,ni"ic coneO])lI"" of lhe n,"'hod.
. . D<: Hattulnmei, fd, ,h.1 " """h15m "",,,,. Id h". to . ba ndon
." I", rely hum,,," . ,, .,, n "'OUT i f i1 was h> ,omp"o d kc'i"c ly \I ilh
D, ,,,J on l h" exl"",imcntall"",hoo, ",wid marry
p<llm"al
10 and pure \\,,_ he
do t10I
anan,bt>m ,., oc ,,,,,,,,an 'm ' he s.onse o f tbe "oro .An.rel"sm, ti le "",i.lism ,,' ,I>< I haJ
Ihc In lcll"",,,,,10 10 ,"
11M II. w"' Ihinking ,n djif.rcnl lcrm, than a
Ito c't1I1C<lcd
,hi. "rr"""h. lie ' I .. id 10 mal. a"a",h"I' not
, '"
/1.1".", ".,.....
b<.,
"",,'ic'ion
W,"'
",n
,,,,,]'e,,,' "
,L b, """.-.,,' . I '"
Self-edu,:a'C<! Cirric .",,,.,, found 0. Ibnol""",,'s's <iew

<onll"ni,[ Wh.\e d", ,('Chnlci"" ,"iculOled ",,re ""I'k"uo3\cJ and "r'
'o.J.le I""ito\ 'i<l philoSOl'hy ( largely bas.e<! on "I:t l)',,:al
Int e.per "".ntal tnelhod\. "r.Jo' l) inK faith in I." hnical proll1"UI .... .
<Jt.,od by Ihr polilic 'lod "ork..s of'he >uburl:tol.
The Ge tlera l;" " or 19 111: I he Soc ia li >!s

Tho d, ;, 1IIl! (o",e I><h,nd loc """al"l cl ub,; is k;K: . ,ro on a of young
"or\:crs born be!..-n 1889 Ind 1897. . .h,alt'l aOil .""",bi; l1i., .. "'"
deat!} " ,lkr.1 In lhot! 1",1"",.1 V;neC'tlZO U ne" (b. 1898
T,"i nl anJ Ar1UN 'kmm (b in Tllt1nl. fac tory worlcr:l..,d
')
of {inc, grq>"Qnr/, (}-..ulh e"tl6), in "hich IrherUtian

ponicipahon ""a$ noQblc, al.<.o'l<pm.m! poputlr 'red' <reli" propapndo
'OIl'" in ,he rounlt)"ide'" Gio,aItn' lb. 1889 m AIc.""nd.;",), a
fKlLcd mrxhan"" elc<:<ed 10 the ""m,,1 contm"'f'C of flO\! in
190hl !he aile of .i"lf'Cn, and latr:r fin"", Y0WI8 SoCIaIr,,"nd PSI ' ...... nbcr.
remainM sirongly .ympa,houc '0 Ihrough"''' Ihc ..
period, '" Si m, larly. ,he f''''lory "ork." Ant9nio Obtn, Ib, 1893 in Turin)
and Il."i.l" Sa,uh,;\ (ahady menlioned), a Ikilkd mhar.ic "f peasant
oris.n., both m. ,nta.""d "ann rcM;',", wi'" 'he an. rth,St. of Borgo San
P"",10 and 6:lmcnt d, \hlllO. ," \bno \lontaKJ'lllna lb. 18<)- m Turin)
(s abo, e. r lSI 'US' <ry ac1i,'e in !he San Paolo club and a
panr<1llaradm!rat>On for ,laJ,tr::Sta- FinaTl)" OIlier
"",,"'n .... ,ghbour
I>ood f'gu",s ItlCh a, Paolo \I"",hellr, !he G.ambosa b<oohen and lhe
Ca,'allo fam.ly (0118",0Ily from Apulia) crnbo<i",d the new """ .ali .m....
T"" "I<lr:r md"." .. ,,110 exe""sM i,fll>Cn.:e on Ihe city', ma,n org.n,
izatlo". "Crt Otln;o Pa"ore (b, 1881). nd Pagella (b, 1879
in ,he 1'ru'In.:e of Ale"""ndria), Past<ore had prtviO\lily "'orkcJ as a "" I" 'ay
I"" hnic la" hefon: he: .rrl\'ed in Turin from 1.3 . . ,n 1912. II. wrole
freq""nlly for.he """,01,,, pre .. and in 1914 "at el..,led
of ,he
T",inese soc,.li" _lion, Pagella had "<rlN ,n Torinne fliI" oy "'P""
,hops .. "". lhe early 18'JOs.. and ioOucrICes uan>mmed
'0 him Ihro.tglt lhe SFI "I
The$c: had a"ailablo to lhem ,he "'Iher "oak local
uadillon of tn'fllII'&C"' IIOClalosrn pcrsooifiN by fnnecoco 8a:bc:nl \b
18&4 tn A'>1t), An "'trtmel;- popubr. hartly IoICnll<: cln.. fIIt'1to:d "unag..
of the: ACl"s e""I",n, he OOm,nal,\l """alill f")h'in ,n Barri.ra di Mil. tw,
"he", he was inStfumtntal in the Casu del Popolo
U.rberr,'. polru,a l i.. " I'oment wa. p.nlCul.rly rich and long 1i"N
UnJoub,eJly II< l... n,miuN ...... 11)" ,he ,,,,dilions of lhe
and ,he: P:mil.:o Opcraio, Ihrbens ",as """'<1hing of a M<><ia"
"un. he apf)<"" nel onhde .. '" il.a>e rcwned his '" orkrnsm' Tl1e .... r
chiSt> e"""dered h,m 'good soci.I;,,' and .he IUbu""'" popul .. ion
u-c.1ed h,m h a Iocll foil hero an .. hI> cltt<>On 10 !he pony', nalJOfllI
di""'l""'l. on 191", "I
Thc: ge ......""" of 1910 allO irIClu<kd .ts ",form,;.!. 'They had a ,"'cal'h
of ",dumi.1 . 'perrerICc, notable <><ian,.. "on.1 and joumalr,<lic .bihel
and the of rcm"inmg 10 c.rlr.r m,ddle,cla" '" h,le
"""nlaminJl, ,fil(>l en'irel )" wann. ",I.,ions wilh ,h. ""'ol"'iol\>.'ic.
Bruno Boon, (b, 18K I ,he Pro, ,nce of Fcmll1l) IS lhe" most ""1,"ndinJl,
,ep"'''"''''''. becoming FIOM', ch,.f un,on he had
,.,<rlcd I .. ,IIM mechanIC In AI1lKKtglt hI> political MUC";on

""""'1)'
.... s n>OSl defmrtcl) '"fthe ",form,St 10<11001 or("1audio T","es &. Filippo
Tu...;. ht, .mpM,i, on indu"",,1 orgIInlZllll"" IIICComron",d b)" a hatnod
for Illlrln ,)"ndicali'ml. and hi' "'vrtiog.-<:1ass
m:sr\N a no:w
rkp,anu", lluou,'s pohlle.1 cdu<alion may Irnle from
lh. fi,,, genern"()n of Tonne", l\OCialr,t" ;ndoe,I, hi' iline",!}" incl"""d
D.", ,n, posili"", trar:<> .nd Do AnHC ... ROlher. h'i rt.1 d"III>, lion c.me
a, an ",J"Wi.1 org.niler and on ""ule STude'" of lrad. ",II"n afT.irl, ,"
H" indu,t"al e.peri<,nce pcfmt1lcd him '9 ras ilj' ",th ""'"al
t'en anarthlSl f""1)I}" m;li",nll bu, 01 the .. me time he
"",u,,,,,<1 closely 11\.r;l to ecnln'" ''''h as \lorpn, IIld 'hrough .lllhe
t... ,"" and tum! of.he rurbuk". 19105 htS rId".1 Cn"C' a1""YI rclUrnctl
10 h" lode acu'_ ,rxru,;tnal """,niell, Gram5C nd hi'
eir<:1c could ... ,er maTch hlS and
con"anlly beSted b) him
In ,he: rough Ind of st"" "
8<>00' ""portN' fresh Sl}I. of leadash,p 'ntO nOM . H. pon""l'-'ted
a<tl\ ely '" $,n . /:$. he ed"ed uo,on new,rope'" and tna<k
elfon, 10 union policy to the Nnk .,,,1 fil e. Serious prcp.",'ion
for I'nk e! WII joined to a of lhe CQnd11ionJ of
,ndu>l!}".nd lhe evolot"'" of '",hnoiosy. I I, _ghllO adopt the lechnIC.1
",penis. ,hlliiol tnl""",J """""""""" J><.>",.,J. "hile dampent"ll """ n
their O<:<:lsional ""rnUlOOfw) eoIItu>i..snlS
Ruo1... , ' Iotos< coItoI:ooraun ;""IWcd the: .Imd) nl<'1l1"""'" Gu'lo<\"'l'"
Rom"". (;,rarn,.n, Em,lroCrnomh,,,,, In.! Gino CaStag.OO R""""
,b 1887 in lhe: pro. of 'Iualrfied a. I .,,il engineer lie
w'l City coun.:, llor and ed,lor ur /I ( ;",tll dr4 P"r%'" G ... rn.",
(b, I 886, Pro"mcc ofCremona) . tt.ndN techl"cal ",,11001. btll eamod hil
Ii\ ing "' Jnurn"I,,, ""d I.,boo, org'"lur In Crcmon,a. No>'.", (he "'lIan
i.ed the \'"",o ll e,"" rice ",-,",s strike ,n 190')
Ili.lla, He arr" od no
Turin," 1911
became uf FlO\\"... '
Colombo"" (b, 188-1 in Turin) ... as on al",ady """... In lhe
Panito So.;IltJrwr hI< adoIc!ittOCe Act"'. ,n FIO\I ,inc. 1905, he
b<:<:ame prO\ """.1 .... fCWy In 1\108. hel",nll 1(> rd>uild lhe "'P"itallon
,he: 1907 lodOll'- 110 ,,-.s 8I1Ou,', "ghlhaoo man. but far """"
"''I'lCious of the non un;omm! wt.)m he (and qu". ,"""""'lly}
idcn"r,cd wi,b w; lel>re.kors,'" Ca".H"" WI! II .... "" i,'c-OOm TorincS<
Ib , 189.1). from. family of urly roclalr,t, . Ca'tagrn st."ed
a, a ",echlIlOC', app","'i,e, but waS fOfCtd OUI "f facto,)" "'ur\ afler an
"'Ju!}" and l>ecame I prof", .. ona l tr.J. un,on organi, ... ,"
So far I ha,. d,lf,,,,,,"OIOO ""0 gl'Ollpl ",(h,n ,he: roc,a"" "",,'cmen,
of the set'l(fI""" of 19100 ",formLll> """ 'n Rom,"', '" Uuuz:a.; mould,
ong,"',
,,=
"""00.
.,od
I"
.,Id
and ",,'righ, "volu,ioronc< .ed ing 10 o"ablt,h ,"'(ltCglC wtth

,''''n'h t, t, "nd ,ynd,c. li,I>. It ,1><>,,1(1 be borne tn
howe'Cr, 'hat
11 r",,,,,be .. of lIle: lIo"oMion of 1910 c.rricd "ilh ,II<", a de.:tdcdly
hbenana .... ungnl autodtdalic lhal ompha>t7Cd Intt-miltlan,m and
.n'i ..d.ncali"". and all oftbcm ""'" lef,,,-.rdJ. and ro ... ardJ. autonomoul
.... ort.mg-cl..' poI,IIe, 1'rt.. 1910 (all,at><es "tth m>ddle-cl. ss
freem . son, .nd O>ui,i>! mldlcet u,I, ItVtng in Ih. cuy centre) "al leli
f""lnc"t l 'loo",f"",. )'oung socialt'ts joined by )'OU"" aru.n'htstl...
rat.oil ,n rho <arne ....burt>1... ""'pi,,)"" tn lilt <Om< raoctorieJ. and at rimes
shan"" lhoir po],u"al hptr:ttUOl'1' tn tho Ioame local dUM
""",1.

,\ c1io,, : 19 1(1- 14
In lilt r"",1 . . befon: ,he '.., ,ho ... cmetFd . . . StgndiclInl

In Turin The 1912 ca. ""'lers .trilo and the
"",,' (thc Red "'..,k) in Juno 1914 tholr t.o.h in indu,ln.1
,nd po lilie"
Tho 19 1'2 .trike h'rroned tn lho mtddle of fom )"'" of nationwide
cl;a" ICn ..
A btt1et strike al Plombtt"''', SI..,I and iron rompltA had
,alen pI"". tn 191L In 191.1"" yndIC.h.t-In'JIi...-d ",neral
>tnkes broke oul Mil.. I ..... s}'nd..:a"ll sumu lated a gro",h
l ilt . narchISI moW,,,,,n'. uodoo h.. clly tho
pol'ul"ily of llic TOI'ineoc gro"p'
p;tn of thiS I) nd""Ii" ""e.; il. ongnt. to ne" rouRhor
indu:oln.ll$1' In TunOlhc..,tOmo/:Iilc
O",."IUrton (,he
had prepared for ,he 1911 bI'Wm,ng ie>,",,"
>e<:ooJ,ngly \\ 'Ih It..
oflhe rn,iooah/attOO of nICChan
tzcd prwuCi ion il <!oI\'JtI(!<d 'h"" Hoor oontrol. One wa .. this
"""Id bot "IS ot!ltlo,l'ng ""'lotn:lt)' p"'cliceS , Thc
"""'"r.m spO'C,r",at!y dtmllndcd tho .\>oIitton ffhc or
'on tIlln"t, ollo".""es for la .. ne .. and carly d<'p.nure). ,110 introdue'ion
of lho A"",n<an (Rowan) pi",. rates) I,om ,nd a 00"' '''''' from
FlO'!. A If unaulltoriu.l.tnko, would be <itall with "," Aline so" ..
tttTlC. ro I",,<'eo a bIller ptll. tbe .... ".-.I[,na ro van1 con,,,,
COfKe.>O<Ii_ 10 191 I ,110 indtlSlry WU buoyant. A ,.n",.J [urop.. n
,he L.b}.n \\.r and lho ",,"'lOg <itm.anr. ntoe
di'oCtplirlCll ,,'oo..ot> in n.hlm", f,. clOK<! ,hop J'fl' ilo",. It.. un;""i",,_
ttOO "f., '''tng "!lema! convru"","" and!hc gnnltnll of'l>o .m""/<)
Sorunb}'
"oo..InK on SalunbY>1 .. Tho: I'ropo;N
set"'''''''''
fore.
""""""0)
lie.""",
agreen ..", "'a, , fOf . 11 inlen" '00 purpose" 0 repel'''oo of Ih" ., l1 er

190b hal. Tho UOtO<l SOUl!hliO reeo\'Or (",m tho disaslrous }'e. ..
aner . lodout in 1907. finally lalttl"S. m<:>o<:>p<1Iy tn ll>c automobile
'ndury', labour """l(1, bu, deep-sealed problen\l mnatru.-d: 1'10\1',
numenc:al (I 517 of al'l't'Q"mately 3.(lOO ca. work"",
by FIOM In 191 I) nd ttl dt>lrust of tho IIOn .. uniolli,od. left il
'" a we.k O>ilion. '"
,
1'10\1 ""copl.d 'ho oonlrac, tn Dcmbr. I 9 I 1. but " ..-as by
a '35' t""'Jomy of oar ",,",0Tl0 in Jantilt/)' 1912. !-lalltnl' b," ..... semlmgly
'PO'U3r1C01r' A ,ruly arose "'ith unioni,.d
1'10\1 f""'Ofte! pror""ed from ,h. taun," of strike ..
(110\1 tl\emb<; .. and Ihe IIOn ,,";on i,edJ b) lh. (orobmie,-i and tho
pol"o.
\10." aliO<l' behtnd tilt 'tnle .... rned ro d" idc-d beI""n nut" .....
of pone,plo ond ceono""e &"."lrICOS_ \llu ... of ""nctplc. """'., .r. no"hd pccuh .. ly high ,n this di,pute. In hi, ,ta ndanl of'ho
"" ' c. P.olo Spt't'tlO uJmilS thot a gonerJ I .v... ion 10
suppression of
lho and lllC ttShtemog up of diS<:tpli"" nuti" of tilt
di,pu" II. lend 1IO" .. er, 10 "",p/Ia>"e lho IMs of "-"gO$ caused by
\honor hour> as """" .ig,uficanl t't In any
a "tde: llulf had
"""ned up belw..,n 1110 .hop and ,t.. full'litne of 1'10\1
Rc",o,,1 >ludt" of llH: .. "k" , o""o,,'ml. on tho pololi ,,"! "nd
,cOSOnS f'" Ihi. bK. ltkl ... n in eo"ununICau""._
The leadership of lhe !.!ril. "IS largely dra ..." from hlg.hly skilled
lUI""'''''''' "odors. ,,110 desened tho" "n,oo .. bm..ly dt;app<nnled ... lIh
,ho" rIC" eon'"",I, Thoo;e skilkd wor\.:e .. In 1912 "I.hh,hed d,.",.nd<
for 3 "llOle raoge " I' Im,k, lied and $Cmi.. , k illod ,triloll, ," A long wilh a
high dea= of r.ktll. tht' uoJwbtedly '01)' young - p" ..... l"
In lho" euI}' . . 01'11\ ..... '" 0kI0r .!:tll.-.l .. orten h:td been ..ftded
<>uI dI.nnIf. tho
ohilent:o: .. foIlow<na the 1907 tf!hoy tiCCfIICti
,oomil,,"n,.'"
r he hoart and lOul Oflho ..-.. tlo.1group of "ktllod wo'\; '1'1 from
Ban,ono d, ,\" Iaoo . uachod 10 tho Circl . Th. Fem-r Ci,de tlClod 00
ad II beadquanen IIOd ill
unlil ull .. kno"n .)'ndteah>l
"'II"n",,,.. "';,-.-.1 "., the .,",... - dtfOCletl tho .. nle, r,,,,, ...nk
(;.,,110. r "tTCto.nd ",hor a",""htll< ..
in ,h. Ihtck of lho b..ulo
Garino e_' plain. ,t.. on"'t o"nlrol'=i.,1 deots;on by )
had I>con i" doo<:d .. shop policy, Not only .ltd t1 oflonel I"'" non .. unton ... d
,,oo..cn bur .... ny .-..d,e.! no\! "",mben 'hought II ncedlO$.ly ahCllJtcd
<yml"'thctJc mignrm "-OIl....,,. ". for Ganno.nd
jointng a lrack union "."" me.n' '0 a free decls,"" .. ",he"""" (h.
,,=
,h.
,a.c.
'j"'"
"uden..
'=
-47-
1'"4

1""O","U '4'
puc
"
Spunu!op POl1)JodJ",U [ ,>zona

IUL lo,O WOJj SU"""'l II\jl;:,o.d<OJ U !">."""OJ IZZOl\ij
'w'4
PUll!"" dnOJ3 "'"IOl,UI"' ]Jud l"UJJOpJ "'ll JO I.OlllIW '4' 411,'\

.. , 'UOJJ' "') Will'" ULuOlun "'l1 pUO Jnoq.,)o JOGW"4 J '41'.,s 'l"'X>S
O) IU'J '11 10J p.lJoo.Jd >II nul lOOlJS'\OJ4.L
,,,zonH OUIUg ,,"uuojOJ co'>U 4"" AI'$O'
3 u""''')'1"IIO' "U;I'> su SU '1' I"'q >.l 0) I" ,:>< mq KOlJ
0 ) p,wn)OJ hlUO IOU 0'1" 'IS"!"'."")O " ,uofo", J41 p.>iP"I"OIlV'
m" "4.1 " loAOJ ""qJnqn< "'41 Ul.,U I.W 1'lno, '"'II dnV"'II",,,,,lIol JO
1""OllnJUSW UU -' >."'."011 'POl"'] ,(>Ill 'uoo, ,,, 10J p02ll1omn

-\l"U 111\1= OJ 'Ill'G" U. 1'"'1 O'IR "'41 PUO puc )U,\U4"IQU'"
"' Im;o< "'l' 'SJo.'OIJW3 "'>UUO1
",my"" plIO.><! UI spo0'lmoq!jS,OI'
""0 "'4) ' POIJ>d p.>I,w'l ,oJ '"" l'l1u"fuo JO ' I' '''''"
Opl':! .I'lJJO,I pOloO'''' J1uI< ;: l61 '"lIn,,,, JILL '"
.1UOlUn P'''";U' ( I,"'u 0) P01" 'IW. ,nMo'l '" p,Ru"I"'1
001 ,(luO (161 JO pu , ,' U wOJJ '''100 1' >lUOO 0'
,(P" '" 0) p,wm", IWIl' ,s;lUIOPI'" OIl) ,II ' IS ;JUV
-,cue Suno(
JO OO' lnlO\J U' dJI' IIlC).IooUIl U" '","
", ,-SItu!) "" 1'0 ,(G P"'''I''' uO,"n
" P.' I "'<>W OIjl lnq "'"" hU"h '" 'p"."t\ JI""I-Q9
Suudo". PU" uomn """,ll " uror 01100 oolI"J" I""I' SUlIrtll, 'IU"''',(0 ldwo
-'" JOJ ,(II"OP"'P"' 01 ",'"'1 PI"o." "'0,"
'UO'I'PUO) "'li
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P"'")" P N"OU"f JO P"' 0) ,SUl4) .,,0Iln 01
1"'''.1''' SJ'i(oldw, '41 -I"'!) p>qwn"n, S>1I1" Jl>41
",',{Old.u, "041 JOJ 4'I"tu 00 "',." 'I OG OJ "'II ,("p JO P"o "41 IV
:., '.I"PlO'l"'J. 'p"llnllp" ,'lInJ '''' OU,,,!) 'SU_" 11 'pOJnfu, .( W,OIJ"'; OJ, . "
pU" p>< n " " U1 1'''" 'qnU ',S" " ,:>w (CWOI< I" pue
S,""'''' " 41 UI 1"1 "1!Jq "''''lw,," SUl'llO." PU" sums",;);)
lou,_"" "0 I.' punqlJo,,, JO
10 01 uo"," ' PU'I
e P"4O<1n"1 " 1' "",'3 UO'I"lu;s>Jd>J lIu,pu<w,I'
POlJIU' p'lqnOJI U! 0, SU "UW," 'OJo"t l 'P "S'l
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PIl" " 1' JO 1I0IlU<>,.:u ,oJ dO\), l',>o)J "11 PU" olnq'" 0<[1
01 "'USU' II !'" ',OI"""pU'$ " ll LI' lOll P'P
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U" PU" UOIl" I<>S' 1"101 01 A1IJep'l'" "peruq JOJ P"-'" "'""
d l"4 l" I""PU," "I" <IM 0, hU'Uq UlJlI' IIOllJll" '"4,\\ -\IO'IU'UL.!lJO " 'IOJ
-'pu", " 1,,.,.10 uu SU'LllJoJ JO Ne." "'.1." ' IOJ':!
0<[1 p"'PUi
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,,-- ,AU"W '"4 'I I" I"" '"o",,,,S'Wtu, 1" ';;," JO
JO A,,,,,f"UI !S0Ul 1". 1J00dn, pll'lOJ J'P.'I J1"1' SUIIO""'I1
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p"'JJ"" 01003<1 . .'I""J jO SI" 4"'""" ullq'o
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u, P'lB'oWO>U 1p,",ow>J pouod l<'I""OIlW'"JI JIll
,"S'I"''''''' U" " ",SO JO '\IO ", p"" "1'10 SU'UlOl'<l ulJn.1 01 po.,ow
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u"" lipfuo l ' "" OI""",U'$ "'II JO 'I!) pu ',SpOI
lOll 01' "1"" "'11)0 lSOW ' P'II'1< poE
'XI"'II" ')41IU',",' s"' '''POJSu, "41(J
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"P'O u, ""' II'UOLI' P')""'IO) )O "IOU1W "'!) "'"1 0"0)'
JO somUlw U'I 'OOqslJQ,,, IUI)$'L1" ' 41" ' " ' 1. II 'IS OJ"" ' "011
,0lnibJ "'O""J 'P" II""'J O" ""CO sv NoI""J l'" mu ''''"J :>JO"
pue .q JL U,. '-<I'IU1U>!" '. UE<'IJ" "'II JO p.JUI"I:>J
11'15 oq." OUIJO!) ,e q,l\, SJ<>l'0."
"11JO 0Ij1 ''l48u ",,,,,,,,,, n, JO "0,,,,,,, "'II
JO U "",,, 1\'011,(q 1"", lIIuro, I'" poo",,", "'1.1
>I ,.(I'I"'U 'W
JI"'oWO' < Aq "'1 Pin"." IU',", \O\U l noq" 1 '4' J<J ' I""P'

PSUlv_9
ofiginal1y champlon<d ","h

n>Qdcratt onos. 'The
were to be Iimitcd. bu t ,101 .hohshffl. 1111<1more O"<I"nlC a"d rcg"llr P"Y
cOI""",n!>II1M for. ,hoo.r J.y. 'The ""''''' """Id li","ahfln of
tbt nih, 10 ,n f", broade.- """'cn i"m 10 the In'enul
commISm... s. BlIOu, ",alized tlw the) ... en: ,-i ...1 in m:"n"'tning nO\l',
f'Tt'CI'\o:C In lhe faclOf)', '0'
The dCI"and, were pauenlly nplallIed to cat
durmg call y
19lJ . nd the syndica list, We'" gi"on .. alS 00 a 27_n .. mbrr <tnl.
cOlI1",1I(ee 10 smooth ",mM fe.,hen. An ",.""helml"ll m3Jonty of
"urlr.I.'fS (4.(1.41 of S_OOO) o.upponod the ....... SUlk . ' .. Tho SUllo laSlod
for mOre ,han 90 do)'1 SUlke I"Y wa> .uppliM by and the "n,On
,,,.... N . iJ from 'he ACT and Grn ... engineeri"l1
The .trike.
G.rin" c<>m:<t l) e'pt.iltl, was " ,ltw o",,,C In Itah.n induS/riol ", 1>l1OnS.'"
In pia of Ibr 10<01 ""'sglc of 1912. FlO\! moblhzed tile rntenunona]
<UrPQfl "fllle.lthy fr.rrre!'J\ll1 unron< When.he Lcga IndUltri .... th",alcntrJ
atOlalloclou, of Ton ....", IndUstry, G,O,"'" "err><d to"nd fh'''fC".J fo
dcpon II. French-born 1e.de,. Crapon .... ". In In ... bolh sid.... n l.d ,
The conlracf $lgJlM by I 10M "as qull similar to the Uni()l\e SinJac.I.,
m MIlan Slriles and direct confronfation I.&"ln<lll\<, WI .. hod
nocl>ccn any ""'''' than Buoul" cOUrse of ..,..on
1ho ha.l bttn to "'garn fhe f,"h and con",nf
of the anJ fil . llIc lud ing PIOn_unr<)ni,.d \lurke ... '" Tho
momlx"h,!' of "' Tuna lo.p! f,<)m 1759 In the early "","ths of
1913 to 1.125 by tile ""d of Illls "The union established a linn
foundo ..on for fut"'" 1fO"-,h.
Bool/I'j most accomploshrnrnl hid bttn lho 0JlC""'8 of.
ocw with the onorganilN The" o\"e' af lhe ,,,, h.. l
...fi, had bt'<" supplied the cadre ..... nlttlng Nn"nuily
of policy and gre.t ... in "",] dernrxr1lCy. Pietro rom:ro holped CaS/a&J1O
edit Lu SqItIIlQ_ flQ\i's faclC><)" (1)SbrC1. ,,-hlCh c<l!II',ncd rkulled
rnfDf'l'tU" ..... "" """
ntl'" and union polic}'.
,i"b,lllyorrl\<,union .,
the 31\,rclli, h.d been COOpled by t his
ref"""I!m they pnl"M In 191 4 !haf their srreel poli''''5 ... en: Slill capable
of Ial,nK fhe e<labllWd Wrow- m<n'1.'fnm! by ,urpr1".
"'0'"''
"'"011<.
1''''''.
La .'it!lli"'{lIIa ROSSi'
Anti',mlllarism be<1"'" the 'inille ""'it ."""",.ful campaIgn IUt 'he
hbr;narian. """,n,ed before llH: lIIar_ A. "" h.a'e oeen. It alTccfM
tl\<, "hoi. V .... "'li"" of 1910_ FHn the d,,,,ron, o>cd by fl\<, 191 2
dId I'lOl 1'"" .. 11 ",("""i<l. Mussolrn .." and "",,".n.n '01i-m,hlamt,

War 'TI\<,,,, oct;, ,flc' had. I"'rtitula, ly
onarc""t 'inge 10 them "",,,. fl\<, e:uc. of Aug""o \ t;1.S<1h and a"",her
an.rch,.t .... 11(1 had re(usal to join their lIm)" un,l< In I 'b)'a...,ud lho
i"",,.ilL01ron of'I\<, ent,,,, leli. With MaI3'.,IlI., mum to Italy in tho <pnng
of 1911.
the 'OICC <)f ... s,"n ana",hlSn, . arned hegemony
OWt I "' . " movemenl nurnt>erM '" ton, of fll(lu.ands
1911 M.lat.st .,s,tN Turin .nd <po<.e to a lali. """,d
a1 ,he Ch.unbet of Labour '"' In the foil"" mg months ,he pro- \t;l>C111
campoLII" rore'" rap>dly, 'lUf1l<TllO> lTICCung< we", I\<,1d In Bofgo San raolo.
llorgo \"ftoti . Barrim dl t-..IUlI .rod H.lTie", di Mir.'I0,'" Ouring \Ia",h
1914 1.lli... b. uk,1 notio"."", '" Ihe sfreefs, Pl. A socl.li .. ,.nd,dafe
coofl'Oll,.d rut oprnly nau"".li<l GUIlCppC !Inionc. lhe ..... r correspondcft.
r.,.- I", .'iI'""j1<l. In po,h."",n!>,} funhe, polariling the c"y
1....1 had aln:ad) ... ttn...cd su-w Nnles ,n ,I\<, autumn of 1913 duMS lho
general dc>:tion_ - It ,.. , fhe fin;( foughl u!lde, .... r onl\ ........1 nlanhood
,,,fTmll" a nd t h1..,fOl\1fe po1.. i1ed betw n weil list, .nd rij\ht "'lOg
libe"," """ doncal;: fhe cen'nSl 0010&111. _rod ",fom",,,
",pedoul.'"
Throughout 191J and rly 1914 S<lCi.list nd Irbenan.ns we",
constantly lIItt"ed "' harrocl ' di<uibUllng 'nu,"'J' I"..""",", ,''' Aft.,
t" II yurs of ",d"'tnal conf1ict the "u\Qrnobil<; wo,hll were t hoHlugh ly
""hflClm. On \lay U.y a 1.<1;' ef1)wd II"fhored ,t the ""'mbeT of1.abo....
G.lI11<1 .pok. for the anarchi'" but "al p""'omed florn fim;hl"l hi5
.......h "hen po"e. offICer ordr:-n:d hIm '0 stop I. A fe" ... "",,-, liter
Tonr\C"lo< " ..",hi,t, lnt,dlod to Bologna '0 attend a 1I.11101lal pro-\la>eUI
,m,fe"'IIC.,f which M. I"".u c.ll ed for national dOIMn,tralionl on Th.
r."" In Ju .... The daf. haJ
conscious .hoit. falllni
F<I,a rkll<> Sf.tIllO. III hlch cekbrated the 1100". of s..'''Y'. c""stltutl""

fOllcfl>c:1 dun"l1 tilt Lihy'"
1,,10,"".
"'=
btt".

\lll>Jor I""irknts "nh nl!;onal"t; c",""nued up 10 7 Ju"" . On June.

""It,militan'' demon
"r.II00. an "no!frei.1 Stille broke ""tIn the autoonobllc laclOri.s. "'p,dly
bccoo"ng grncr.l.1 th""'&J>oot tl\<, subutbl.. 11P 'The Wile, .." In 1912. had
bcn1 !-Pftad by F0"'" Circle ocli"stund Ihrouih lhe youth cirel". ,n lhe
,ubum., Gan"" led the domoru,,,,fion fro", 'f' beginning'"
Aller fhe 1911 mike G.noo had been from h" fa<tory job. bu,
.t tHm
he qu,dly found a",,,I,,,, .. the of a "nail torpcnfry
<tud,o . (Turin "-" t,.ly, Ii"" film eap",I) Foor 01 f"e of hIS ",-.,o.IN'.,
.... ,alists Of I,bc-rurian, .nd "'001"1 cortdiriorL., as ho rttallt thcm.
"oro "'" "Of}' "'"ng . "
. tter hcor ing of t",o ,k'''h' in Ancon. dun ng
,j,,,,,
On 8 j,me he read (n.tll.) ,n
"""on>_

left hi hop . nd
" ,th a handful of . ,.""h;stS scnlld the """.. throughoot !he

L.inS
,he f = Cude as tlo;ir hndqU)nm. !he anarch,,,. org>niZtd a ""hdon'y
demon"'''''''''_llaHna Ik-artl tho.
"as con.roIled by the left and
that.he Romaglla had bttn cu, orHrum the mt Garino and hi.
tornrado:-> "-'Surncd
a rn-oTu.1Of1 had broken <lUI tltt
"""Of\"-
,ho.
''''I',
"".i,I
" lhe f8<"IOf}' worket"$ !hey

In """,<d.ate I'C'J'OIISC' Tools
downed and.he f..lor .... ''''plo<d, Thf'tt tIl3rth<s from 1lo'1l"
\''''ori. H,me .. d i \liln".., and Bo'IlU San raolo CO">erg"" on .he
C'ha,,,t.cr,,f Labour, Lng.ncef'!. '<r1OlIy
Lar", i,. freju, and \1 .,ena
f orro,'i. in San P.olo "'ere nottcc,ble. bu' .he che rn t<. 1 and rubber
v.ork.rs from M.c hehn al.<O jom.d . A. on other ..,I, da",y demonstr ion,
dUII"11 .he pt<war ye." . he rcmlk , "Ic workclll partici pated c n,huSi
351;oally_ Gann')', mOlhe, ",.rthed ,,.
1I"hin a few hours .hou,"JIds of ""n.rs were ., 'he Chamber of
Laboo.>r demanding an om,',al amcral -I'be followmg day ,he CGl
.. nd ,he so.""Ii,,, .,nod an ollk.al F.fty.bou.and "",,,,hed,n,,
\ ,ulen. dcmQ'lS'''''on pte""'" confront.tion> dunng gen ... 1
'hou .... nd< of work.....
; o<oJ "r - baulN ""h
,he polico. "'<KInd,ng many. and '''0
"ere shot dead by ,he
'" C3('"
5m&IhW up and a sen., of barrio
tJ<k' we in.he cilyct:lllre, 8)' 10 b .... lhe pe'."ng
DU' (hrouI;OO\U 11..1) _Gaml(> 'p<nl .iSh( da}"io 'n jOll
The ",al .m,,,,, of the Rod Wttk would only he<;ome 'PI'"rc:m dunna
,he "'t.,,!cntionisr deb3l,' "hICh .hllt.tc<l (he h/{)("("() "''-'0 , The ,io", had
.'p">cd dcep_",".d problem! on l ihemi hnly.'" but they ...,.. ed ...
bit p"'''' of flr. fo' " new gCfier.tti oo "f c,ht<,u.d mi ddle-<e la """"ahs.s
up '" ,I, fury. "m"ng ... 1>011' A n,,,,, ,,, Grnmsci,
f"""
'",n:
"'orl.,,,
"""pi
, li .... n.;:la nose,tl dot! monntfn,o <>p<ttio (1815 18601". on

A_ A,""i a .... G_ \1 Bra' 0 l<d.). S",..", do>{ "',"
Jfi
<"iali,...., Jri/e lol", in Hari. 1979, ,01_ I. PI'
'''''''''0
2 19----68
2 r ""IIaoo. J, Tf;".ilt(> ffl<"It,/i.w. Tunn. 1972. PI' ! 2
13; M, Ncjrotli. 'Com:,," anarchiche 0 S<lI',ah'tt ! R70- I 8SS. in Agosto
a,1d Ura,,,. 5 Io'-;a. pp, 275. 282,
e""wn.,
j <a,i ""Iialt(>
3 F ell'ollnt. L '"n"n'hi,,,,,, dopo
n"J". . 1911 l. 1'\', 112 Ii.
"' 'eJroIli. 'Com:"'i.1"I'
\1 -r"" ""mp" .,.,....3'. t S<lI',alt,13 I I s,.111-19141. ,n AgOSH
.... Bra' "" 1"1' .to! S r oJ;!\ 'Luigi Golle,n,
.nd I"lian " ..",hi" To""'''''' m lh. Lnttod SI"J, t""j:ru/'H,',', "01 :10, ScrI.",b<,. 1"1' -'69- SS Tb('re are many onl
h"toocol ,",coun" ofO,II oi ,n ,he t in p, i\"nch. A narch",
In Om/II,,'IOrt' of '" Am,."cil. p""".,on .
6 I Nei r"" i,' lo p ri me
p<,hnd,. ,It I uigi I
in Lu,g l I. m,ud,. lm".,'h;.""" C Gnm"(:hlll ".-/
Tu, i" 1971, P lJ Fclelt.
'" ,,,,i d, {"ftJ IIMI Ii. ('c;.ona. 1956: I' C. Mas,ni. SI,,,,,,
'/"):/1 Jal " ,I/"/"Inld (1M I \1013n 19"4.
IJ 1'_ C. \Ia"", . .)j,,,.;o '/<"1:/1 Itallani
d..;, """"'all. 'I,W!. '981. U ""","". r ","n<h. P'''''''''''.
Pn""",,,,,_ I pp 16' 71. p, Aln"h. SaC!" . .tti. pp,

[ G Zappi. fI I/.ntn S...'", r;><) h .... _1/,,1>111::0/_ o/lI_n
U."A,." 'J( lla/,ijn R",' i\lh.ony. I 1'1', 1>1. 69. ,
J'<omieoo<./Ulilan Jlif)4- jli9.'. i'nnttl"". 1'193. Ad \,'''''"11
'"run,. 'Currtntt """",h,d-..:. p I), \larucco. 'Processi ...",h.:,
3 'I ".-i"" l.a il 1892 ed il 1 I;,,,"di. '"a,rh"mo I'
"/r""I>la,pp,2IQ_ 211 .12,
S P 220
9 "ejm LL ,- ' La ''' '''1'' "PC"'"'' p,
Itl Ihld.. p,
II ;'p,iano. 51,m., II, TOI'rna, p 2.1, I' or '" ",e, D Robo,,, a nd
il .... /I ti.-ll" .miJ",i.,t';. \Iolan. 1'191
" "rna"". StGr;a J, T",;"". p 36
1.1_ C. Pogltano, '\.ondo ..xao.\rmlCo. ,n'clkuu. I,. profcssioo. S<lI'i,1c
dall Lnita """,d,.lc. ,n il ..",. SlorUl tid
"",,-,m,'nfIJ 01"""'0. p_
'....-;no.jlI) l'ogltal>O. \londo..,.adcmt<o
I' <19
1< <;pri ...,. Swna <II r;>t"inl1.1'P 1
16 R, AU,,,_ 'Oddi"" \IOIpn. _i.Ii".. R,dln'In" SI(Jr/("(} - BiNio ",1. 6K. 1970. pp, S67-91
17 Spn""u. Sf....-'" <Ii TO'i"". pp 7; P<lslial>O. 'M<'lIdt> accadom,.o.
p I ?, r or loonbmw "'<, L. !\ulfortl1t. L"mh,.",,,. Tu",, _ 1975. D
no.,
Ii."",
<,poe".""
G",,,... ,d and 'M
'n.c facfS of .",rchy:
.JO
I ombros<> ...t ,'''' o f "nm,n,1

or, P"",Un, f,,,.,,,,,, Ilaly" H lslOY) Ili:JrJ<.>h()pJournal. rIO , 2 I.
19S6. pp 6O-l!6
G. Ikn""". Ii botgbc ... Dc Mni"s, il p<imo ""'UIO e la
pn:>pa.gan..b "",Iall,,,,', A/tJl'JlftrMtJ Opera!" r !)oc,,,/UUl, "01. J, !IO
2J,1980.rr
fl"d .. I'P 16<)...170: S. Timl',raoo. Ii 50<'lul'.,'mO'/1 ed"cu/o, Vern"" .
19S3
1'",lIano. '\10Il00 acea<iemoc<.>, p. ]42; \ 1 Grand"",,,, .. \ to,
",ndacal<-. pol"". so<ialiSia I Torioo lI<'gIi uh,ml anni II<WOI\OtCtUO',
'n Agos1" and Ilr.. o. SUm" tid "Pt""", p, 347; Robon,
and Gcm. II "''''1''''
Ura "tl mc",. imemo ,;,><loca le. p,
(",rand,"""i, '\10' ,menlO pp. ]6-1. 366
L' Turon. I ""rmbc1" 1900
AST .. ampa e ".....,.1, a"."h", p,o. lem; 1898- 1902
MallO 146 bll; MOllO 151 Ubi,,'i, Procurn (k ncrak dl Tonno
1')06.'7-1914; M Antot"oll. ' II ,no"imonto an.rch,cQ itollaoo nel
1914', Slom' t p"l<IIr". ,01, 11. 197), p. 238.
A'iT, 18<n-1902, \1= 146 bll.
r Sanlllrelli, 'Rocca, \la-I,mo', In r Andre""", Ind T Dem (ed,>.
II IIW"""e"',, "f"'ralO Unti,,"o. /)i:""'ario Rome. 1978,
"I) I 1\ pp. 365 A. R,...Ja. . Za'a"ero. 0..""''''';0'. In AndreOJott i
and Dc11" tJPt""',. ,,01. V, pp, 290 3, M. ""1011,,,11,
'('11 anarchic, lIall""i to I'I"IIno s""rn rnondi.le 1.",,= dl
'", .... on"'" (1914 I R,,,,w hmffo. '01 2, 00
1.1995. PP 77-87.
AS '!", 189l;- 1902, Mono 151. 7 l>1.r<.'h 1902: jl,ocura G <ncrak <>,
"","wall
das"" openlla II< "",..,.
<en'o' in A[lOSIl and B",,,,. 51""" rid mol""I,'m" <>i>"'alO, "01. 2,
PI> I S 16. r", 'he bt1"<en \I", Tonne", "';"",,,,,,,y ".,d
the ne" m ,ddle cia,."" sec, A. L. Car<IQza. III 8"'''ll<'O;.'
11U"" Th .\"<>I>i/II\. rI61-J9Jn. Cambridge, 1997
S Muo, Gil "{'rmi tii Ton"" fJIII/}- f920. \I,'an. 1980, p.
\ Ca>lronO'Q. Slona bllr 1/ Tunn. 1977, I'P
14

P",k,

19
20
2 1.
22,
2J
24

26
27

29.
1>",
,,,li.
174.
31, IMd .. p. 2(].1
3! AI/don ;00, 'D.,; , IIU!t". li. p. 2S
CI.!IR)nO'O. :;"""' P 209.
57,67
D.ti """ruali. p 31
.16 Spn.no. Sum" /Ii 1im!lo.pp. 102, 114; F ,\dk', /",/ian ImIU."Iriu/""
I'"",m I.thua/mll '" fascism. 1906-1934. Ca",bridse. p 35
("anJun noI... the role of ""'tocrats ,n ,he fo"nd,nll of Fial S".
""I...
AmI""""" in BOIirg<"'iJ
PI' 164-77,
n. Ca."ooo,o. 510"'" trg,nnl,!'I' 191 2
18 .' A,l lof, ' F""wry (,,,,,,,,,ils. Grn,me i a nd ,he Tdl!,<.
ooJI.1977.p.76,
39 I' P Ikllom,. 'LOlli d, ctosse,III'wiac.lismo c nl<mn"mo a Tor,no,
18qg 1910'. in AI"'(i and B,",o, SU>rlo tid "",,,,...,,10 tJPtru".,
""I, 2, p.
4(1 S1' " ,oo. Siorm tli TomlO. pp
79. 80--1
41 Ib,,1 P 155
\\ AlnlC. IA I""a In irlll", 119M>19261, \hlan, 1976, p. 69; \'. CA>!rono\,o. G",""nftj Lu F'Il'
riallllW a1194J, Tunn, '977.1'P 51 ;

GIo,anni
Spt .. oo. S'"nl1 til TonnQ. p. 2().1 ,
M "'Olomoll, 'D:llla lega d, n",,"tIC . 11.> frdcr.."one d'.ndu>tna
118'18-1914),. ,n \ 1. AnlonlOll and B Belli tro.f, I.Il FlOII
ul 1901-1926, Ban, 1978. pp 111)..11
Sp,,"oo, S'orl" tI, Torl,'o, p, 91
47 Ikllom i.'1.01t3d;das,, .pp. 11114
.8 Mu.,.,.GI'0P<'/vI.p.9 .
S. Onaggi, 'l'aJronalO 0 c11.sc openia I ]"""00 "'1!.1i IIlIIi 19061911'. Ri,'i.Ul til 510"0 '01 8.00. 3. 1979. p. W
SO, M,,,,"o, Gir 0p"rm. p,
51 I"i<!. p. 100
52 M Rc.elll, '1iIIon,;lIa M Gam '. MS. Tunn. 19'5. p. 9 I'.n,of
R.,.lIi's tronst"pllu" c appeared ,n priOl. Sec. M R<-t..lli, "13<lJU>O
(ianr><>' 510ft' d, un anarchieo" MrzzOMrolo. '01, 7. 1981. PI' S I
R. A"""m.nd I' 1''''a, J>oo ",,"""'''' tid ",,""', Rome 1980,!'I'
45
53 I' ""'rich, TM IIO<km Scltool p"""",o<>. 1980; RellI.
'Inl<T\ lSIiI. Ganoo', p. 20 .
54 Or!'ggJ, , Padn:H'l.O'O. p. 342 For ,lH: ,,,,,,,,fonnaIlO<> oflhe "ortmg
c1 .., ;ce. G. Ikn". '0.11 . rnanlf.llura al ,;",ma dl fabbn,a : ... ,ion
cOIlOuti ci, 10\""". "' Sl{ma d'lwlla, "01. I.
Tunn.1978
n.
("as"""",,,.
is

On.U'.
<(0
Re' .11i, I n'e ...",. I Garioo'. pp 34
'p.wl'Ofllll0', p.
343
-55-
Gram,"1

Ihr A"".rhiw
57 Iklk>mi, ' Lo'" d, dasS<", 1'1', 74-6

58 SI"1300, SIr>na d, 7i)TiM,pp. 9lt-1 00
59 A R;o.a, /I jindaca/mm, n"'/II:i,ma";u in 1I"li", B.n, 19't>, PI'
11.l 15. Ikllom" 'LOlLI d, dlO', P 101, Spriooo. Ssori" di Tun"".
P
/:10, ";,'OIU:;'lIIiUW, 1'1', 2.l7, 251 2; Iklk>m', 'l.o!u
dl da;;c', p. 82
61

Tunn, I May 1908
62, G Cern{o, L ""Ilml/i,,,ri,,,,,, anan-hl"" In lralia ""I primo

<kl ",.,,10, p,W>ia, 1968; A. arod [ Gcr..oIS, '\);)mela
hUI< < II mo,imcn,,, .nMel> to I S% 1910', RM;I" SIOric<l
r1ell'A,wrr-h,smo, YO I I, " " . 2, 1994, f'Il .
6.1, A nten iQIi, ' Da lla loga', p, 56
6.\ Bellomi,' LOI' a di daSS<", 1'1', 1OJ, 106, 10'1
65 <;pr,aoo, Ssori" d, Torino, p. 100
66 Spnaoo, S'orlO dl T"rinQ, p. 2$9
67 D. La \'311 . u eng,"1 drn. . . IO ope""a dtll. Fla,. Rome, 1976,
1'1'
bI! G Eknolu I, Trw;nu lro '''''..... ell/'"1'1l
qUUlid;tJ"" In
fI.Nxo San Paolo. T win. 1 h" uf prodLICOO
"..aliI> of "",do. and bool.$ ,h"",,!Iou, {he 19&0<, < f", <'Iampl.,
D. JaHa, moo papa "'" UR fmm..... "I..,.. farrugha IIp<1'lIi.I
'ori .... dei primi dtl R",,,,, di Ssun"
wll. 9. 00. 1. 1980, PI', 17 \1 .......,. Gil opcroi; O . hila and S
Musso, Terrilorio,juMrrc,,' rul,,,rD opI'row a r",i"", Cuneo. 1981 .
O. h llo. ' Le qU3I \;el co"'"o<
represen{"lion: ks
"barncres" "".-rit"" dt I W; II .u <kbul <10, XX' ..""I... L .II",,,,',",",,,
S,"'iul, o(). 118, 1982. pp. 79 97, 0. 1.," '1, CII!,ura e "SJcx';":i,,,,!
"i,,,
'0"',,,,
<>pt'raie in /'ie",,,,"e !tl9(! 1985. M,lan, 1975 , L FaJmm

m f'l>f>I'lur Mrm"": Cullutul (iflhe Turm 1101'11"11
0""" Cambodge, !987. Lnah.h {run,ll""" of h.lian. T","w",-ula
t: r""j'ma, Ihn, 19'14, \ 1. GnNudl, .tl""d" opn'alO t: ",,10 vpt'l'Ilio,
Turin, 1987, G,ib300' ",.;opticol of {lit ,orcnJ:,h 0, long,,'''}, of
>Ub.irban commufU,,,,,.. i!<n. Also >a:. D. H GM"n",.
II<..-A.-n. eilirurr and PO/III" /Ia/'lln To,.-", 1&!If} 1912. 'Ie ..
Rrun,,,icl,19&6.
Foo- an ",'cry...,.' ofthe hL>lOOosnf'h..al dtba! boo, ,he Ton",,;.:
.. orlLng cia;" ;ce. S Muuo. 'Tonoo e II mo, lmenlo IIp<1'lIio I<>fi ....;.:
1/ dibani{o SlO/iogNfoco', In \1 01."'00,01" 1krl!.rra><:hi arid L
G anar im (cd,1. .!fi/""" opI"a'a "$:gl, '01 1, Mil.n. 1m.
pp, 375----95
69 Mu,,,,. GI, 0lNro;. I' 10l

7(l Co.. rono,'o. Suma

pp. 249-$0; RCHlli. 'Intef\i .. a 0
Ganoo', p. 22.
71 R"clh. ' Inte"'iSla 0 G arillO'. I' \ Ton1lQ. /Jan.
pp 224- 5
72 U, i. T""1IQ IT" g,...".... p, S
"1 Re'dll. ' In,.""111 Gal1oo. p 13
'4 lhid" p. 14
Ihid., p. 12. In ra,he, a _imlilt .ih lion In the M,la"",., Indu,,,,,1
,uburt> ofSe.. o San 010"'''''' . Ikll OOtre<l {I\c Inlporut><e or """"hIS!,
from P,ombono.nd Cornua. 500 Boll. !kSIO s"" G;o'onni. p 12
76 Rewlli. 'Inler,.,,,,, II P
77 IhiJ.p.8
78 Inul. l'.
79 \Iuo. Gil opewi, p 10],
l "i, TV'illQ lro I, . .... p. n
HI Ekllom,. di da'5C', p 82: Spnaoo. SlM,adl Tor11lQ. p. 2().1, /I
G"Jokl PopoJo. Tunn. H \by 1914. P 2. FOrlurn. of.the-cen{ul}
\.O<iational IIf. < R Aillo, Il Gon. G. L",. R, \Iooteleone and
U Ol,,-a, /I "''''PO drl ripoJu Sq""TtI
and Rra,o. Ssona "lNr,"Q. ,o1. 2, p. 487,
M3 1f",1" p . 486. f.,. a gc""",1 diocll>SlOIl or dtil\l'"11 and h,li.n ...:iall""
boro", < R 0 "Ci ""i,1 i{ef'"' I/I'SI c
il lle,{ioo dtlle
m "" .. lit ., .koo/i,,,,,, . .I/()vimrnlQ Opc,,,,o
,'Soria!m" . \'(11 . 8. 00. I , 1985, rr, J 22.
S4 M Montagn"na, lIicvn/i di "I",roio ("0110 lu g" ,d" d,
Gm"""i), Ro",,,. 1952. p, 19,
8S C Ra'era. D;orio d, Irtm/ 'anni. Rome, 1972. pp, J.I-5,
86, A....,.,iulomsmo opt1'I.lO'. p. 500.
S7 R.. clil. 'In,,,,,,,,,. a Ga"oo. pp. 13-14
8R I.e> '. 'A"""ialiooi.mo operalO', p On the
O(]talilUl won.cti .... M. U R......ua. ' IJlbhotcclle popolan e polItiCO
del PSI !ra Omx:r",o ., I>.",rn",', Opcraio
SoNoh"'J. >Cri. ,-01. I. "'" 2 t. 1977. PI'- 259 1l8; r. And""",,,,
'Fr" ,I ",In", 0 ,. ""', Ut oamll c /"U""""mo dei "" .. Iis{; t!3h"ni
..,1 period d.1 Sooda I/O"imentn Opcrol() r
Soriali'Ia, '01 . 5, 00. I, 1982. PI', ]-28. R Cul,ura e
.o<:lem In I'isa. C, Lao." . S,i/"ppo
angml dell Mil .n. 191>4, G . Turi. ' jn.cllc" ",,/i
",'0"
. 57 .
TodnrsRAnorchum,11I7(J---1914
c no l mo_i mcnto soctahsla ' , in S, Sold.nt and G, Tm i

(cd,), Fare gli iwlwni_ S<-uolo CUII"m nell 'halia cOllleml""onea,
B<)I<)gn., 1993. \'01 . I , pp. 4 59-50 1.
89 LOI'i,' A'sociaz ion;smo opera,o', p 52 1 Such ",ading
.re ,raccd 'hroughout It.ly,
Degli 'lnnocen". Geog",fja <'
mi'":i""i del joclllli.<mo 1892-/914, Napks, 1983. pp . 3 I
0;
9(1 8. Santh;li. Con Gr"ffuci ,,1I'Ordme 1I110Wl, Rome . 1956, rp. I 2,
9 L I D<gl'lo"lOCent'. I I la g"o"a di Libiv . Rum."
1976, p. 248; Sonth i,\. p. 42 . On Rom""" Ie Iilc see, L. Bet"''',
Bibliografja ddl"ana"/'lSmo. '01 . I, Florence. 1912, pp. 201-2,
n G, Sape llo. 'Rom It., Giu",I'P"' . lit And.-.;ucc i and Den,,I1 modmrnlo
operuio ilvlimw, voL 4 , Rome, 1978. p_ 376, Nejm{{;, 'La ,tampa
opera,a', PP, 443--1
93 Sproano, $<oria di Tori"o, p. 262, S"n th,a, pp_ 26---37.
94 liJlon/d, ArKoo'.4 1914, p. 3
95 Re,'elh, ' InlO[\ ;" G."no', p, 17,
% !iJIQnlii, ArKon" I i'.o,cmbcr 19 13, pp, 3--1
97, Spria,"'_SlOria di Torinu, p, 2S8. Seo the ,i n, iIO' role of'he .narchi,,,'
and synd icali", OStena in ScSlO S.n Gio,anni, Be ll. St'SfO Stili
GiomlJlJi, r.n,
98 \ 1 G . Rosodl , i.euni,rrsitapupolarJ, Rome, 1975. pp_ 39, 75
99 La .lfvJcma. Bol/elfino Editu dal ('ir<:oln dl
rllllUra Fmnu>cu Fa,,,, ", Turin, Nowmbtor-,\pril 19 16-17, p. 7
100 Ibid p . i
10 1 C. L.,y. '""",alo,m and the ldu('a,<d M,ddl. Cia"", m Wosten,

Europe, 1870-1914'. m R. E).rma,,_ L. G_ S"cnsson.oo ,. So.'l<krq"ist
("Is), U "H'Cf" 'iues, and rhe Slare '" Ilod"",, lI"stern
S".-'e/Je. , Berkeloy, I rr- 176-9, c. y. 'CoJ>Clu,ion. '''''0''ograrhy .nd the New Class" on C I.e'), (<:<I.J. S"nal/jm and rhe
/8811-19/4, London. 1987, p . 280,
10" ' Interyi"a. Garono', rp. 27--8
10.1_ Rosada, Le p. 130, lkgli in""".n11, Gtvgmfia. p_ 99 ror
a general d iscussion ofthc educ,nonalthO<Jries .00 It.lia" .""",hism
see, F Coddlo, Ed"ca:iune e al!archismo. L 'idea Cd"cali"a "ei
mOl'imRnlO "'1vrc/lico italiono (19OI1---1926), . 1995,
104 M Pucemi, ' L'u" j" ";t:i [>O[>Olar<. I. Scuo l. Modema , hJlalJ',;,
vol . 25, 197 1 p. 202; RO'!a da. Leuni'rrsilapol"'loFi, pill
lOS, L Vnn-"r,itJ Pupulare, \ti l," , O:tobcr 1909, p 295
III(; La S<'uola Modem", p, 8
107 "ni,w.<ilci popol"". p_ 167
IDS
11)9
110
111
I I :'
111
I 14
115
PUCCIni, popol. re', p,102

I.a Scuol" Modm'a, p.
R." IIi , 'Inte,,',," a (,""no' . p. 32,
L. BalTo"', Indcpemknl Spin" Sp;riruah<m aIld Eogli>h Ple/.!'im,.<,
11(1..1910. londo,,_ 1986
Rosad " 'B ihliotcche popol. ,, pp 283 8; Rc\'cl li , ' I rotc,,'''''' "
G"ino', p. 1:'
Ih1(I, pp_ 3J-4
Ih ,d .. pp_ 33--1; La ,I/odema , p. 5. For , ,u,,'cy of wcoali"
theatre ;" Tun" and eI:whoTc S<"C. R,dol fi , La na.<cila, pp. 236-42
A lso se., G. "01 . ' La "bait. soc iali ". i" haloa Ir. Otto. )--;o"e nto'. XX Secolo, Vo l I, I\OS 2 3. 199 1. pp 387---4 I I
I_a Scuol" .llodcma, p. 3 . foo tb.1I wa, com;d,red , '''iddle-cla''
spolt b) Ihe left un,il Ihe Grra' War. " her ., cycling "'''
w ith <"I hus i"m . On the ro lo of cyc li ng ,n Italian soc,"" s," see, S
P,,-at,). 'la.wc,alionismo del Icm[>O li bcro !tella "u ltura social i, ta
,o,d ist i "",,', ,n D. \lo"o"i J .). Gli uommi raj'i d, RomaS>la
Gli an",' della dd FSI (189J), 1994, pp 181
"
116 U. Sellola Modema. p. J

117_ ' Into[\ i". a Ga rioo ,p . 3i_
118 INd,p 10
I lq P. (. Ma,ini. AnlMio ,- L 'Ordine \'uo\'O "istu da un
lana. M,'an. 1956. p 20
120 C. lIonn."" L'alwa c"lmra , M,I.n. 1970 pp 3---16: D \1ontald i,
Ifilir(Jnli polrticl dl h",,'. T " " ". 1971. pp. SS 73, 92. 99. 102-!O,
164 6.JI I -20.J24----'l
121 ACS. CI'C. 5OOrno, Cesart '
122 ACS, el'C. 3053, 'M arga"t . Ill ar;o'
123 Revell i_ ' Imcrv;" Gor i,,0,p.6S_
114 I Margarit., L 'A,wlli", ._IIJarchru.
20 O<lob<r 1910
12S I"t"rv,,,ta a G., i..o', pp, 3 I, 36
116 ACS.CI'C, 15,'Acuti',An",lmo'
Il7, ACS, CPC, '\l"",loollo . Mario'
128 ,\("S. epc, 3134 . 'Ma,,"_Giuseppe'
129 Inrervi"" ".,i",,' , p . I>
Ilt) A,S . CPe. 2290. 'Gauno, ,\ t. uri zio', Repon " n 'rcfett, 30 ,\ I.",h
Ii""'-
1',,,,.

I ) I A. And",,,i. I'iotro'. 11l Andre""c, .t><! Dc"i, /I mo,'mJoltn

italiano, "01. 2, Rome, 1'176 , p A. Dal rant and l
Zocch i, P,O"fe"; dcll'lcaila democm,ieu . Rome. 1%6, pp IOJ---1l,
A("S. epc. 3210. \I<>SSo, MS. {"PC. 16117. Dc Bartolom"". ','n'''' A("S. ( PC. Woo ..,,,. halo
I n IIS II. Fabbr, ("oll""., . .,..., belw".," r "bbri
and Dc Eia""I<.>mC"b. 191 f> I
LUISi Fabbn {""llcc'>On. Ik '" r .bbn. 24 Oc'oi:>cJ 1916
11 );"""'<1.14 \Ca",h 1'114.1'1'

l.n R. \1>"i .. llI. '11"""o. \ tn Andre",," .nd Dtrll. II "'''''i-
",..,,'" ",,",'"'''' ;,,,J,,,,,,,. ,,,I
11
1.1'1
140.
14 I
I. It",,, . 197j. rr 293 '. G 1'01

Torrin,. ArturI'. , 0\ And """"
"I""'m ,,,
"u/""",. '<.>1 5. R"mo. 4:
R. \ L"""oll i. l'aro.J ., ("u><"N"" In -\nJroucc, "nd ))ell i. /I
""'111" 1,,,1,,"'0. "" I 4. Roone. I p,
R Martrnel l. '{)be",. ,\ "","",'. II' 0<-'11.11 """'j
m,'IlI" Op<TQIO j/"/,,,"O. ,ul. Ito",. 1'1'. (j. Sa""IIi.
s"nthi . 11.,10>1.', ,n And",,,,,i.nd Dtrt . /I mQl'lm",,,, '"",nJifi
""/,,mo.I'ol 4. Ron ... 19,9. f'I'. <;j)4
R \la",ndll. . .. n. , \bn". ,n -\nd","",ci and Do11'. /I
i/"II""". ,01 .1. . ... '00. \1"''''11_
nana. R".,,,,li, 1'1' 1.
p IS
R . .II,. ra",.",. Obcr1t ...\oon" .... " 1:1<-11;. 11 nt",
'!{!<',ui" iwha"". ,01 4. It ........ pp 66 'I. T DelIL
',,,,,<nT'" ln "'00""",'1 aoo 1><-" ,limo, im,'nw op;'f"""
."d 0.,,,.
I Srri' no. SIOr/a r/, T.m"". p. 211-,

151 INd.. 1'1'. 14---1 n,,; It.O by Si"..",.,,,a Otugg; ("am
,na"""...... "1"=" Jrllamm
r /"lttJ"'I"" ".,lIa= ""I pnmQ
\0111). Turi.., I 9!!f1, 1'1' <5 to.
I Ikr1;l. 'OI.lla manurauura. 1'1'. 1099-101
Ti,..,,..,
19 S. OrtaW. 'C",,,mi prodUUIII" n<'lI',OOu.tnl dol primo '0' ....

0...,"", Ri'i"., r/I ,,01. 1. P
I <4 Rc'clii. I {i .,,,,,'. P
thld..p. 39
1.16 Ihid. P 40 . B", !It<tC "at Ilw the
,ca"", thol blcyclc,

"'CfC " ill rclat '\,c1y rafe am"nH" wod " " od "am, ' .pt P"""
schedules '0 thal (n' ploy. n.ed1 e",.. tltn. 10 "., 10 01,. "
m,,..,_
""','I.",,'" ''fNT'"''
I..".
,m,'''"
,01 .4. Rom,. P

In T o"u, . . BorWn,. I r.""<'S<'(l. It, And",,,,,,,, on<! lktll. !I """ 1",,1t!0
,,,I I. 1'1'. 16i ' 0
IJ1 A. And re",;' '81'\"'0 lJu,'ui r ,I """ ,men,o ,m,!>"I" ,'ali,"o',
dfll" /Jih/""",, G (0, '01, 14. 1 p A1'0
'"'. A. Forb 'e<. L" /,,,,,, Ir""'fll'{{" $,111108110=01, ,ind"wh"a
,-d""";",,. Milan. pp :'0 7,
144 S.pdl ,. h .. R",ml . (;u,stl'P". 'nJ",u.,' 7
I A Andrea;,. '(i""", ...... 'I ..... ', ......."""'; ond Detti. /I """',....,,1<>
''P''r",o
,01. 2. Kilt ... "". 6().l
146. II. IInd"'3". -C"lombono. I mIl",'. al>d O<tll.
""" ..."., ,01, 1. Itom.. 1'1'. '1 J
14'. A Andrra,i. "Ctilallrt(l. FU8,""IO. \nd","",ci 000 Det' .. 11
mcnlo "fXrti1O ".,/i,,,,o. ,,,I 2. It_c. p.
14S Sp,i."". St,,,i,, r/I r",itt<). p 21 I; Ortaggl. 'Padron"o '. pr . .1
14') Anton;oh D,II. P "I, Adle,. Ila{"", Indll>lt'Iali,,1. PI'
"dl,,,,..,.
'"
fI""",_

foclo, ies O".gg' eamm,I'(Ita,...,. 1/1"-':::'" I'P 112 1

G.. il'lO'.p 76
IhlJ.p 45
IS7, Re,elh.

IW, A"'",,;oll . OI.lialcK. ." "),
160. Rc, .th. In,e",,"" 00,,""'. p. 5--1

161 M S.IIadori. /I . .. <wl"l,.-o g T....-mo (/911,15). Tu" ...
1%9. 1'1'
162. R.,dh.ln,.",,,.aGau,,,,.pp.42 J
161 Spnano. SIO.w r/i T","m". p 217
1M RC'elh.ln""iSl.aGlfioo.p
I C.\1",no', ... , SIQ'W "'!:",m. p
11>6 1l<llolrni.L"uad,d.s>o.p 131
167 Anlonioh. D. ll a lego'. p. 7('
IbIJ ... 79.
1M RO\dh. ' Inte",,'a a (jo, i",,. Adler. Inr/u>ltiuli",. p-p
76--7,
170, Antonioli . Dall. log . p. 77,
I 7 \ Ihlr/. p. 78 For lho of ,he II ..""" Sindaeale
><=C. ' 1. A"I00'olo, "'Oni::",i"", oJW,Q,u S,.JU
rDI;.mo ...,"''''';OIlvno ,,,' I..
lilletsmo. \I>ndun ... 1990. 1'1'
AnlOilioli. logo' ...
'71 And....i. BruooBuoni.p '39
'o/OIIla, An<OI\&. 12
1911. p. 1.
,i"" 'OUDC""'O II
'I",
17<
1,6
177.
17M
I 79

191' ...
Spn3no. S""ia r/, Torm". p
IN(I.p 161

1/".1. .. p . 267
11.,,1. p. 259. G. 0 10\1. 'Un' i"",at". Inltt" ,ht3n.ta alia "gill . <lelia
"
IMI.
181.
IS!
183
1S4
I
186
G,aOOc Guo"" La ''('a.", PC' ,I soIdu del ",Ida,o'"'.

'01. 8. 00 1. 19119.1'P. 2H-60.
Spriaoo. Storra
p.
Ibid.. p. 273. Ikllom,. 'I...... d, d.,... ,p I H.
Re"Jh, lnl"""lltaGanoo'.p 60.
Ro,..,III, 'In",,,,,IltIGanoo',I'P,(!() 2
1I>,d.. p. 62
Bcll<>m, ,' LQu, d, cla\.>(!', p 1H, Spr..,,,,, -,,"'ria di Ton"". p 274
P 282. 11>" Red \\ocl <0" II>< 11\C,ofsl"",," <Ie'''''''>1'''<O''''
.nd on" ..,C M \lun.uKn. liaUan Lahm"
/WJ-I-IYI4, York. 1991. p !06
-3-
d, T"""".
Gramsci 's Apprenticeship and the

War Years
A, detai ls .bou' An.onio Gramsci's lir ro ro.Jil) 3' .ilable d>cw l,.ro. I
"III nol rchea= his biography, In Ihls "hopler, I ,,,11 highligh'

IIw.e eul.ural. soc;al and pohllnl ronnali". inn",oce, during hi' pollticol
.ppKn.lee,hip ( 1911-19) Ihll b-roui/ll h"n ,n'O direct contac' ""h
,),nd",.li" ond li!>crt,,,,n polille5 Ind Ide.,.' I" III .1", deroon$lJ1l.,e lho:
.ffimu., bcrv."", GntltlS<:,. WIOrthodo, \la",i>m. ",,,,,d,,,," .. nd
'yndocoh",,1110: r,,,,, and perlIaps d<c,,,,e ,nflutno:. on GratruCt', poli.i.:! must be

hI> 10.. er middl.-<'I .... Satdini ... on,I"". Gntmsci came from lho 10>0 er
""loci"", of I"" hallan ,,, born imo" roml >ou[hrm
fom,ly of
ooro,ucnOls. """h. [0 [I>< nnbm,li'" "yo ""ghl, hlH
.ppeare.ilo >haro I.... $.>me n,,!-Cry as [hoi, pcasan. ncighboors. but .he
ob,lil)" " , ",aol . :><1 ""Ie. a"d .,," 5<11d ton loliero and possibly ()Ow.nh
.0 a prof",,,oo.1 <Oltt" m.de them the 001"':1 of .n'), and rosenlmenl'
G,o"'''', '. "" iili".l <omlnw of .we ,"'c"m:d j.", " Ihe Ii"" d ",'uo"
un,lo, nc.t o",,'e, .. 1 m,"no."I .,ffmg. (1913) s,gn allod <it " eri, is of
l""IRi'OI),:';",e"/o eliti" hbotmhsm cuh" ral .I'flrtnlicc,hip at tM
L "i"miry ofT"rin (1911_1 S) i,,'rodUC<.'<l hIm to I pott;cula rly "",,"bodo.
Mon' ll"" 'W'. "hen Gram5Ci 41Th oJ in T.nn a flllan<i.lly "",bar,
rac<l .. I>llarship moden . hi' polo"ej ha<l been link .f1<cted by Marxi,m.
I'he) " .... i",tead" "rS.,din,an ....11"""1"''' and ""olu"onary
syndicalist rhctono; (or " ",. .ho ...."<>l.lI01W)' s)'ndic.ll" nd ' .... i,.,.,"
p""...,lionist and an'itt3llSf""",ioI _umencs rhot made thorn such 1U1U",1
oIl"" of
and ,n",w $OCiali,IS, G<am>c, became t>eqU3intod willi
many lead,ng Sardi"i ... radical. \hn::luslllus oIde, brotheT" h,Ie ."end,ng
"at} in Caghan.' In 19]) he s'atted a puhh" mamf.,<o tha. prolesloJ
"a"m;1
,;.lled upon Sa,dln,. by lho "",Ilion,,, and
"""""ali" ltali. n ,u.le' II> promorors ioclu<lcd lead,"g S3,dini," ,yndi,
".10"" ooch Aniho Doff""" . nd NicolU Faocell<>. lhe Maz:zin;.n-<>ricntoJ
,),ndicaliSl leade, or til< "u l",),mo", Oi...., and Seba","oo
Gramsc, 's f" ouro.e Sard in;.n pot. "ho>c r.,ooo, poem .boot 1M
""e
""",hem
'''J'''''''.'
m"...,.,' 5mi , Rug('fru in 1904. domlC'li ,iIt ronnie! dllll >CI off lho
fim nalional ",ne..1SInk h" p<I<1I}' $u"'ly ronf",,"i ''''''
afS&n:h'm and .yndicab",, . F,nally, as a dc>OfN moder ofM,W)',
.y,,,hc.loilJOUmal. II . .. G"'mk' ,,-a, fully .h,. !O the
and <ullurlll "tthon ,he ","lnlond's r.,.;p.>'OU$ mo"MK:!>1'
GrJ,"!"i bam. a Ma",i,t """ali>! .. unl\ermy "hen POS"I\',!m "a,
P'".c. I ,"aJori,y of his m' cllo,tual"olltemp<.>rane, imb,l>cd am,.
n,[,,,,,.hs,,, and phil<>SOphical ,<I<, I' IIn. wiltn. Ih<",f"",. I1'I05t
po lobcally
S,ud"",, <:>ppO$<'<l1t> Ihe I. bou, mOHm.", His
\b""sm "as Ihe unonbodo. lense, of La ,ho
joomal of"'" atnemion of 191 4 ,o l,ie "'" F","",,,,,.. JOUrnal. hll """'hers
.. I.... t:"".ro;i,y ofTunn ""'phasilC'li Croc. and Gen"I . and ""'" philo""Ph"'.1 ,nn"''''''.:1 "ere imponan' In ,lup,ng hlJ helm:xl<,.
Sol, .mmt .nd Tunn', f=4fI<lo 'nfused 'n him a $Obor ' . "
puritan".1 hbornl ",in . "h'eh la,1Ied 0\11 at ,he !lo.m liberah.\m of tilt
. . , ",&ime ,.
,nil ... "" . ,n . dignif,'" and "",,,pcned
hI> ."IICT <;"d Iyn..!icaliSI rage (mdeed IAI I;"f !, ,";sed svndic.h. ", '1
fon n of populo>! I"'dagog"al po l, Il<SI. bul ,hey . I,u In hi'" on
'ppreco.llon of Anglo.Sa'on ci, ili,. 'ioo \\ "h "$ pr"""" i,. membra,,,,
of Con",,,,,, law"
""".Ii <,
""ndM
C""", Ind G.n'ilo bmpoonod ,he self-""".fitd .,ol""om,.. of ,ho

Socuoh'l Palt) AI'hough boclt ,m'Iooriltrs had been "'lr3cIN to
\I.",i'm .. a So;'''''',fic doctrine ,n ,he 1890;, by ,he early 1"100$ 'hoy
'*""'",'.,
bmcrl} 0J>p<IKd 'I> ",,1t'lCal

'rn..e '''0 rhil"""lll1ers ,lured
Gl'IIlnIC", of "'lIld ralhor Ilia" poll,IC. I, rna) be arguN ,ha,
,.,." '''llm w.'" adap'N by GranllC' who" he be(l,lln t"
1()"'lUlaI' h,s .,In'mely ,"oluma n, tlC n""OOd"lolI)' and polit ical philo.
uphy, 110\\"\,'"" ,h, ubrl. "'p'r.>lion of ...d"mitt, ",,,,om, from I"rti'''''
pol lhe, Oe'"r wom down w.1I ""hin ,he It. h. " """alist "",".mon'. "nd
i. ,oems d im,"11 '0 ho" d'g.Sled
<ommen ...y .1Id ""'''''Iogirs of Gen"I. ItId ("roc. "h'eh be pubhshed
in Tonnesc durin!! "'" " .. t_ W. do l ........ Ib,,, tduca1N 1I'lIdd1o.
da" <ad," and leader;. w;.h,n 1ho party deI.IIM h,m for 'I, ar;"u';"l.llllm
of,.,. ,in, of',6o"II,m' and., "" "0flC 'Borg""",onl>m. in tdCK!ICO to
I". ,nl'"e$I,n Il>QIhcr am'pDSI",i".liIt FlmCh lie"" Ikrpoo,
"0', f"r. 'hOI ,,,,,lie, did (iram",,', break" ilh pol"" iq \I"" i,m ... de.,
h,m '0 I),.,d","" ... nll .narehi" inte lk",uaJ, "00 nol 'ory ,IIIYere"'
in ,,,llu'al f<lnnotion f"'m Ihe" pol ilic. 1cuml"" 'lOrs w" hin the 1'51
Ideal"m .lIo"od G'am",i 10 lr' n"'end 'he !>ollnda"e, of s.,cond
In,em>lionah>1 soc: ,ali,m, Thi, "rand ,n 'he pre" or furopoan ''''' Lell
"",,,.d <po",one"y, YO\I.h, """,me Keplki,,,, IOIO-afds ,.,. '!>Ie .nd
"""iall.. lamiWcd by .n,"nar;y ""h ,he- "ale A WIUnlanl'

,m,lowphy nndcmuncd!he bas.. upon ... hl<'h \Iani"" had bee""", a,n
ortbodo,), a ""m"r.c soc:;'lj,m. ,,;nc< the I H9(Io. Gr.am"" 1tt.11ed ,n h,'
own na""",,1 con'e" M,ns 'pan of. "",,-<mem of """"I and ,n,.lIe':I".1
"hi<h ,n haly Sicmmc<l f"'TII IknodOl'O Croc . and ,,""'" f,I"II
premi", "'''l,n,,' III'n can and ,I\oold he ,,"1\001 the h<lp of rehg,o".-l
m:;.n, of course, "'1111001 , ",<all religi"", P'i,,, ,;I ", lllIlOn. ", ,10010..:"1
",11,'011,01 "haleH' OIhe, brand I)fIC ."",1'0
"O\Ild be n""cadinll '0 ...'u'''' pndr of pl..:e fo, Gmm"'" Hegehan,
or 'Gcn'ilr;m.
)'O\Ing 1,.I .. n "",i.li""; i. <:<'I'UI,nly
did "'" A"'"""'" ,he '1upohun c;,;1 mgin..". ,,00...
'",."lu",.:&r. or .... 'haps belle, "ill ',come'nc.r ann.p.rhamonllry
\13"i,m, "115 SoD si,n,flC.nl ,n Ittnll""ll )"OUth '0 lilt FGS, "
Oflhe ,rud""" Gram!'" !tid bef"", the \\1Ir only h lmi'" Togh ".
>On of. pros.ptrou. P,c<I'n{)n1= N"""'N m,JJIc..:"" f.mily, .... nlferrC'll
'0 Sardin.. far of work. ,0001d be s.aiJ '0 .hare fully Grnm",(.
mcnl.1 "Un.
To"..eini. of PiNmon'es.e Jow i' " prof.,,,or.al
b.1dground, aod Ange lo Tasc. , ' he on ly of the foo, f,om ",a"nal
to-okVOUnd. w ..., I.., en,hu"a>!" . 11 .", . ,,' facl. 'h3m!
"",n)" of the u>.'"P""'" of the po5l11\ '" soc:i.1o" . Iii. f"heT wa. a
ra,lwa) nun. "nd .I,hough hi' ramily life ...." unlul'l')'. be l.UotCeeded. he
Itt.lled. ,n man"..1
for Ibt "",,,.r."), T,...,o ha,IN from
,he \r.1de un'on cullu", of.hr; -k,lIod
"h"h f<ll'lll<'<l,hr;
of Torines.e reform,,,,,. b,,, a, I Chap''' Two, "orkin,..,I_
reform."n " not ,;.ol.,ed from 1ho libeNnani sm of the ' "",(Ind cullu",'
Tasca's fun .... ,i,. ,...ding inclt><\ed Armro Labriola. he P""" "'I"" ..! "",,,ely
in Ihe JoiJo soMato .nllmil".ns, \\, 1,,01, led "p 10 Ihe R(J
Week in 1914, he w.s S<Jmething or. Alf,edo Polledro (,n<
,ynd,o.I", Jomnall" d,>cued in Chapto' Two). nd when Polled",
lIOcame an ""en'onli",,i" T.",a ,ned 10 preHn. h', c<pul.>011 from lhe
pany From hI< Sludonl da)1 To"," ..... ained f''''''''''>011
..-"h.be ul"","n rooo.: ... h>b, and "ilhln .be I.. h.n ronl." part",ul3Jly

r...-- "
b) ,be h."ory of,b< Fim 1I1,."",lIooII.nd.hr; Panno .........
T."". 'nlrod .... '" (ira""", '0 the lorill(se labou' "",,-omen'. and e' on
before he joined the P,'"y ,n Gram",i IICc<)mp.o.n,C'Ii T.",.,o lh.
""'ially mi"," Socialist Pan), '""y c.,It", >1Ion ! or. ,,,,,ns ,,,,dlce ....1
,he", "c'" i"""",'n1, pcrn,! more for ,he "IlP""u".'l)' to
10 yO\lng .. dio. li ,eJ wor\;.", ,h. .. IS i1l1olloo' u.1 <I"nu l.toon ]h'c sr
G mm!.<' "", present d',mug lhe 'wo lIlea, I"' .OS in 1912 I J . ",1 .he
RN W.. ,n 10)14 These e,'.nl> left. '" id ,ml""""'o" upon h,m, ra""''''
bri)' in ,/Ie l. ,c. "","'011$ /Ie "'",,Id odor"o"""t, "OIling..,lass
"""'"lr','i>e
be""
""rio:;
,,00".
"
'">lot""""
h" IItlolI<'l:,".1
OUl,i<k (h. p.any tndilt""., A. odt", of A"lnli.'
.nd hts ,lIIr.", al "",mal L 'Onpia. a specl'" of anll-CmlC" 50('10/
played host 10 ,hc 1,,""ICca n,. the "ildcr Sorcltan'. Iynd",.,,,,
OIl"ni""flo. aoo tlte ",di'ldllllis,a...,rch<$. I I. was .... "'hing f"''''''icall)
for a I., ... from v.hoch he could o'enutn ,he domina,iOft of 'he pany by
tT>de<.I
,he 1"0,""," oftt>e 1890s Bu, hIS unfocuscd ""ti,-ism would
IIlconseq_".lly, jllSt as il rnded for thl:: I}'ndlraltst prof.""r. Anum
la\lnollind the _,ah" Enneo Fem. Ifw refomust Gf'S had
no, been ,om lpan bef"", ,he ""' Gram",i plactd a gnoat dell of hi,
youlhful toopes "" \'u.soltn" Ind '" I'll j ,,-ben be mll<,d to hI< bool.5.
and osp .. lly III< ...
A _ Laobnola. he bepn to rtahu III. errors
Demogop: poi;ues. e'en of!be tn' en",e kIfI. ""' ... attrac,ed him again
.... e kim from hlJ earl)' "'IItIlJ.tI,hal Tasca he. 100. had bttn LOken In
by Tu"n', 'Imle MusS<)liniJ' '""ni, Polled", and G>Oda.. lhe
.nlI",hlS1. ",,"Ilhey J'Olnod lhe In,OI\ enbOfl'SI camp_'
Jownalisrn for thIS f.... l ""her hunchbtock. <fO.,ed hi' profile
,he t .. hSlIOOl en...,.. alii for """'"' <"IIrious nro-id<alt>l t:owge.>t<
.,:lIdo.Ito,J ibid hl=l) "too k""w and pnuSC<l hi m' """ e ptnc 'hrough
JOOrna lilm GromSCI cu, h'J .""m,...
.i,e. On ,he o,her hand.
altl>ough hI> JOltm. ".m "., public. he ... met! '0 .nJOY eduonal a non) P<.haps hts ill.f.."" fI ,n.""" " " h \'l1>sohm" poli,ics a nd hi'
,ng p)'roI",hn,cal )OIImah"n le ll hun pem\OllOndy ch ... toned,
Gr.",,,,i', fiN I""''''''''' v. 0.., '" I""mber of ,h. editori . 1board of Am",i,
Plod,,,,,,,,o;c I.. go. ",i, ina local no"', and the.tre .." I."' . "' wtltriboJ,or
to ,he loco l SO<:131 'SI ""WSJ'lI'<'. /I GdJo del POp<N{) (f'um Seplember
19 17 1918 ," h'(>fm.,h,d). and cOI,,,ibu,or 'he nrwl},
crc",od I' I00hoom cd lllOn of fll1m ,"" elld of 19 18, DI"ing 'hose
),""ri G",m"" , dc'oI<l\IOJ hi, ch'''I<::,erist ically pun gent style. crtticwng
tho Io<al clo,i,. 'l y domiMted city couoc il . his .",while inton etl ll"" '"
"Jd.1ii' .,,<ilibenan.," com""' and the notionol", 'fII Il ' genorally. 1110
f<,iblos of ,I>< ".n",,, Italt.n pe,ite bottrp:eoi"o . nd ,he COInlp1l0n and
"",fIkl.""> of ,he I,.!i.n !I"e.:;'
III 1918. ,,"h 1 good deal of ,It.r I<><al .",,,.,,., lc.dotsh,p Jailed d""
to ,It.r (n01 .n Augul,. 191 7 and ,he mihtas)' """ at Capon:lIo that
OU,UIl\l1, Grarnsci ran II GriJ() <kI Pop<JIo "inually , ingkhandetll y_ lit ,
""U\ ity ..... Intense, ",,, " nll'\\'o or an,do, a do)': ,hoaltt
"",011; and ed"ma r.e..,.-'papor uttdef eMmnely d iffICult circumstaoc ...
Tasca 1tt,lIed 1ft h I, diar)' a man of prodIgIOUS ac,,"lty, mfirm
OOdy and .n tron ",II :. .... l,h Lhe compl.. ed cnucal edltl"" of G I'8.J>t><Js
early" "'lOgs tI nov. _mi nal" \lIll Gr.ornsc, "''IS ... ther """'" "idely
to<l>ly lteltc,""''' One ofth< """" !,,",nung
k"""'''' than
ha,.
'(ri..or

_nd

Gr.mSCi'. doc'SIOI'IIO drop.ooc of In 191 S and fors.tke hi. I"""",

fdesree. maned hI'
full"",.. 1n,ol"n1...",lo soclalt" pol"ic"
"""""11<11,
aoo IIIe rewlull"" of. "ety senoul meIl") collapse. "'hich. unfortunalely
only one of >CHI'III on h,. Itf<Hme , Just as hi. """'ro"" Palmiru
1<IS, .. "'1OS 011,")'1 proud orhis
"','h ,Ite Un"."i"
of I unn, 000 el.ptt, .ll y he; ,wo "'hlCh we.., di'p l'yed S<) """,,;.
poi'"",.",d .... 1wo ltalta n " .. m"n", IIho,' II'
{""nlly In the

"0. so
""oSle" ofh ,s d eClSIO!I 10 enter poli,,,> "i. journ. 'ism."
I he..,f.x..\ Gran,ISCI', joumah'tic C'rr C.n be "",d lO have cO!nmel>C(,1
In [x';.",ber 191 I1><rc "'c'I'C SO"'Oearlie, uni"",,,y rl"'''' 011 fUI.lIism
atld of ",urs. (,mmsCl'\ ,hSllSII'QU, bllef foroy inlO thc war
'" ,h. aU I"",. of 19 14, "'hen"" co",e 'e .... close '0 a com I,
."J ",...,mCnt o f "hal he con"de rC1lIO be Mu,sol ,n;'s poo" ion, . nd
ely OSIr;sclled hIm from ,Ite am ,v..r Torinese p.n)' for 'Ile
>car \lullol,nt. of cou....,. "as more ,mpcKtant '0 Gram",i Ite mighl
. . ,o "","toJ 10 adm" L .. ot "'.,wllnl rq>re>er,tod GnulI",i', duu of
oub'm.,,e SOC,,!,sm ..... t bef"", I'll S he" .... oma;"i'-e because h.o brolo
011 ,he 1\110. oflh" lI,me populari,y ",,-ed a g..,at de.1 to the
,nIOIl<'l:'"31 aoo monol $I.Ippot1 he mobililtd ""(,,de the pally proper Ilc
n,ncd ""h ,"" lllaf<h,.to. ,he "'publtcans aM the Unl""" Sindacak . lie
10 younS'" ,mp.auont "ori<c ... lhal filS' gc ....ran"" ra.sed in lhe
""" ef and drabb<.r suburbs Of",bn Ind TUnn. lie became .he poli'i<:ian
of The _lIl.SI )'QUth /MOl Omenl became 10).'01 PO"'''' b.1;e,
pro IdllljIO.OOO """
soc",li,m ",th'n r"" ) .... IS !Ie
n,
.sooci."""
elf",;:,
""xt
""'"",.,<>
..
"""gh,
""h,,,
do,," '0
'0
'0
(I""
""""'u;"",,
,!w,
i,
(;ram ... ,. '" """",n,na ,hcoKtieian. cmplo}w ,he da,') con
cems of Tmin 's laoou, and COOJ'<rDTI\. ",owmcn" a, I.bora,o';o, 10
de,'dop and ill u",",c n.. O1IOre eomplox Ihtorctic.1 lllCSt
aoidC'S demon"""e """ many of ,he ,hc:me< of l
V..."". '" hich h'ahligtll the (adm,"<dly J)O\<Of
of ,he fac'''') cou""ils. "'ere ongJllally dndopcd dunnll a d, ... us.ion of
tha, ,..,fun .. ,,, in\.l"u" <)II. 'he COOf><',a'I\'o. in 1916 -Oil' or ",,' yo ...
beg.n rwm",. the ' SO' """,'. W."cm (urope.n i""'r'.nt
Torln"'" '."""" of cou"",1 COmmun,.m
In pre' """') unlllO\fl" wicks '" nnm bon>-een ,be IWO

,,,oIu.
I,ons, (;r1lm<;e, "all openly .nliJ""ob." and .nll-stall". H. e'OI,c"ed
00Il0<l0' Second Im.rnauon.h" .oci. li ,m nOt OIlly fo, il. ,,,,,,,,,,1 .ITO..
"."oml'p""i",ic corrup'ion (Len in's li"c) t>ul more import.n,'y its
po<L,,,,,.n, and
wh"h "'.re coosidered by GtaIllS< L!O
Ix .Iitn 10 ,he spont. 'f flo)! .1" I ) ' \be ktIC'f. of Karl \Ian unes. But" "
an ,!une II .. n ,1teore1ocally lO ,he ,rad"'011 of anal<:h,sm
onll '13'i,m. I<:1)i<>& he .. ily upon An'onio I.abriola -. in,cllru,1
I.. .. y, before I ' urn to a di.scu",n of h.. urly .n ides 0"
coopcr;l'''''' "h,ch flin'-"">dow h" 1.,Of cou",,;I:o, ""i"np.. b"t{ d,i-rtS'
soon '. ,n ....-de. '0 unJcr.;<>nd ,he hnuSO' """' ..... An'"" ,o LabnoLa .nd
Gram,
G,""",.;
'0
OJ
>1a''''''.
Mo"",
A"totlj" Gramsd an d ,\ 1\10,,10 Labriola

(;",,,,,,,,', discU5>"'" of L.bnoLllP'"'" out of h.. m"i.1 I<:"C'a!UJ'oon of
and if Iny of lhe .1<: . . n d.m culoaiC'S.
,hey art Ih. in,elleclual, of,he "''''"'' " (',he hi.'o,ie right').
who.e emph.". "n 'he pedagogical of Ih< nl()Ojcm ,1"," '\ patl,.menl),,), .)'Steln .tId h<>r.est and effic,.n' c", ,I >tn ,,;mula,,", ,he
... ,"-. P'''''c'p"'''''' of ell'Len. in II. lIT.!", i. "I,m,lalr.! ""0 """,altst
'i>eof),:O Lab",,'.
In "",llee"'" link bc\"cctI Sp"'.nla. I)c Sa"",i,
and ,he _iali" ""'Hme"' . R,,,, opinion P'CWrt, L"bn"la .. a
'" ,.und(f,I<)j)j1 g.mus. ,,/oose ,\ f.r> i,m would ha .. ","od
lhe soclalim f,om lhei' posi,i, 1>1 buffoonery ,f ""'y hii mcssase
bccl'o
l\e<:Jc.J Hut i, "as JIIII Labriola .. ubslra.um of "".pol".n Hog.han"",
. nd h" profe<>ion ofun'""",,,y prof"""", l!tat joms. ""her llt.an
h.. '""''''011 of pol"'c ... pedagogy 'o!oO "",ny "'hrr l",h!i,ilc.J intrll ec_
' "" I, " ,- hi. em.'"
\Ian ism h.d fou, "1111" "spe<tS 10 II; politi<...
ontellec,,,,,I , "'arJln. as ,he br..,,,, 'f not ,he ptJbl", I.odonhip behind
soc,ah., >1II.0i)'; I un" ..... philoooplty tha, 1m! cohcr'fflCe
,h.
"ii,
"*'
"pi""."
10 cul,urt. and poh,,,,., "'ll. ni.alton U the I<:.hYa"OIt of

Snera l h... dcm<>n,,,,,od 110", L.bnola, ido", ,,,,,,,formNl
(ir."".,,,i, u,li., GrltHk"" poh"o.' inlo h,; more 'TUlerilli>!
of the "',,' . ... and the ""','0. 1
MOniong 'oG .... .,..,i. cultural hegtmOtl} rrttcdcd tTUjo< molu
,ion "had be.n lhe , ... b,hl, and un" ilh"g".., of Itlh.n intellec,uals '0
aba"d"" ,heir d"" co,nlOpolol ..",m. ,,h,e h S<l1O
heiWlbS. L," Labnol . Gram .. i on work,ns<:I ... in'HI""ons
imrnrrwd ,n duly hf. "'" direc"Y controllo<l by ,he "", i.'i" pan).!O
"'". popul.r hel .. f, \0 a u"".1').I1 .. i.",iHe "'orId "",," Labnola',
.uppott of'he h.sci Sieiloan, on ,he 18900 be.rs SiKn,rtCa",
""h GrOln'e,'s .",Io"conoo' of ",o\,oment. in TO II "e>.
indu,'f)' during
,he waT l\orh. ant;"ip.t. Iny argumen t. ,,,rc
able 10 ,,00 "i,h ptOICl>rL1n anurh,SlS Grarmc,. Labriola d,lT.ren
,,310<1 btl" ...... Jacob,nl(:2.l ,he ,'po<lali d<'l'" 11!ouri"'"
drop",",,). lhe ,",011,,,,,, !,mk,.,,,". nd th. ",nkand-fiic anan:h",
" hom Labnol. had holpcJ during a Rom.n builde .. ill ,,,.
... Iy 1890> AI,h<.>ugh he was c'p:>bl. of d,ffcrtnll " ong be,wcon ,n.
,... sonablc of \1.1.,.", Ind ,h.
bomb,ng.nd
<''''PO'arts. he tIe'.r could ",L. ,he ,n .. ll'UJll""ml>CS of
anarch,,", '<ry ",",,"sl)', JJ
(;ramscis and I abnol o's Man,sm can b<: co""dored unonhooox
of. "",'.1 inlcrprtt:o""" ofpnL' ''' both me" ha>c<llh" , uporionl)'
of Ma"'Sm ow. Otl'lcr fonn< of"",,.Ii,m "" II> 10 fOfXC' ",,,,Id
,;"" lhat noqu,rI no i:>t.>rrolnl! from ",her ph"osophica' S) "'''''' . If,hi.
eausN Labnola Ind (ir.>mSCIIO fiaJ" OW""" tho "","iogo of poli", ..",
",,,I and ,ho'ct' tam ,",001",101 in 00' <lay "pm-."ded \IOn;,b,
'ItC) al"" ,,,,,.led
Jeny ,nl. ll .e'"al "alidiIY of ",ltcr
of
"",ialt"n.
110""", C'f. G"'",""I', ,,,\roIho;;'ion IQ the of An'''''io Lobnola
""y h... come fro", a h,,,,,rodol<. SOUrt .
(j.-.msci's los, It
u""e,,"Y 1\ <i\ 5). Umberto Bartoli. hi' lingui"ics pn:)fc'>o<. ,nl roducw
h,n, 10' pn:)fc>>or of phi losophy. AII",bak !'."ore. In I.,., hr. pa.t",."
'ook crc<li. for ,utdong (jnom>m G.ntil. 10 Labriola_ Accordi", 10
[U8""'0 Garin .nd r-.ori>e1lO BobbKI,hi, is probably "Uggcra,N. bul
il "as dunng l'a,lore', tutori.ls lhal Gr.>m>c, met ."",het
of
1'.'''''''''' 'he .... rehlSl lechno ".n. """" 10 be "an",,,, a,i"or, Pielro
CharI., Two) wOO 'upply C;"'''\$rlan,
m.,.n.) Ta)IonSm ,n 1919.nd 19M. and ,n many re",,"C1S pla)ed an
ob!oluldy .-i,.1 ",Ie in roncocltng
eurioul oocL... ,] of libe",rian
I""d..,,,,, i'm tha' chatll(lerizcd
,deoIog) (""" (1upiC'f r"t)."
,,,''''k.
."d.n.,
'0
'.!TOf",,'
_,,,,,,IOn
'0
''0""
1)",,,,,,,
"udrn,
,ha,
""'i""".10
Coope rwlion Inri SocIMU.m: Oril:, n < of Cnm>d 'j

Cmnldl
n" T<>nDC'>C sociall.. coop<:,.,,,e m",'<'menl cmcl'$:N from politically

m"dt ..... mul""llld <O<IC' ''' In lhe 1,10 n,nrlttnlh century. It was ,he
01""" ami
o ne of the city', moSt consi"ent ly ,isib le wOfking_

dau ,""i'utOon The AJlcall2a Coop<:r.ll,,'a (ACT I ran retail
_hops and phannarlC$ lho. JlfO' ,okd a ,..elfkmg Ind Iov. ... middle...:I...
clten,.I. ,,"h fairly <hear, detenl
Wllb rr'l<Oof lhe T(>f"",,,,
,el.il t""" lOS '" Ilaly . . lt y) ,ubd"' IJc,l lntO innulll<mble ' Ill.IIII\ops ,
its coocCm"'tN po" cr ha<l1lOl.blc elf...,ls upon lhe local mark.t . llhough
no< "lib lhe "'''''' elfcct -s the la'lle "hok53.l .... ,,"" slapcd the t"",,"
bel\\ttn prod"" .... and ohopkC<'J"'f',"
\\ nh the on.. t of llle .nd the mam fe .. i""ap.1Clly o f the local or
n' liollal alJlfloitlC$. the ACT', role InerrasN and btc' ''1C
lhe: llIrge1 for Ittach in lhe deric.llnd lnlor"en,i""i.1 prns TIle grnle.l
Ihr.al '" thoe ACI "a, surmounled In Scptel]'ob(T 1917 "he:n ,n",,'onllOOlSt
soc ialists wen: ",uoo ly Ix'ien dunng d<Ctlon< he ld fOf Ihe admln istlal".
b<.>:>rd. '" th.l JUSI a f .... "ttlo.t lfi., lilt nots of 191 7 Ind III' SS """'S!$ of
III lead..t"p. the J<lCiah,,, maine<! finn!}' ,n rontrol ofthi. ,ilaJ ...ming_
das.organizallon "
G.-a m",i, '"I<i",
cOOpo:ration a polem Ic in hi, col umn
'Sotlo I. Mole'. ag. in" Ihc ratbe, I,me clerical of
I""filecnnll .. nd lrading '" 'Ih Gc-r1IWII'IIam, x""lIcal oompanl'" ott lilt
AC I ., 1"'" " Rapodl} GralTlS\;l ",dtned lbe focu, from jlOl"ical i"'<cli,'.
I"ith Gram",,', so",osm ., liS ,,,,,,1po''''''''''')''' selIC",1 dl",u"i"" o f
I _ i. tist c",,!,"mll"e 3110"",m-" t<> lhe mo. "olplac . and Il\()rc broad ly
obo,"'t """ lbe Imn<ilioo from eapnahsm 10 K>CiaJism "'&5 en, l<;aged, r
of all. GntmK' rt'<pOOdtng 10 man ... of loca l O'SpC'C,.Uy lilt
."y COI.I""']'I """ bul ""lie. po"-t:TIC$' ,r>dc boord. c"ablt,lItd
IQ C!Jrb profileering ."d ,ron_out problom, of d"triOllllOO _Thi . Graln":l
argu.:d. lme lled o f dtm. gogie monipul.tloo. as lbe COIhohc ""ny cooid
In .,Tord to _hcna!e local ,hopLttpcrs .nOJ "hok.. bu' lbe .."'"
lit,",. desired 10 popular amongst 51I0n, o f rllt
yrunl lcd wOfking d,,,,
(irnm"'II"'<lp<>'iO<l lh;n lbe board', puwers bt bo-oadtne<! from oW.c" a.ion and monl 10 reptoc ing the "hoIcsakn IS lbe City', ohlCf
_gcnl, In err . v"""",,i adopted a commonly IItld rroanmme o f , InOl.l' pre"'" modtrale European mun ":lpal "",iali>!,. and.
I,\. o ' he 1MI and"""
I..,.
00
- iO
a,,",uh ' m lhe , m.lll but 'alher make KCcpl.ble ,,",,,,a lly. a nd
I>or<fully. I JtaJist-coolrolied "holep lmg as.ney. Ihercb; breaking Of
""utral izing lilt Inll"""". of ,kne.1 or nationalist po/"tC, upon them,
d"c",ng h".oticany penmen! ""lbu",,, of populI' ug... (to .-roccur. as
"e ,hall ltCC " , Ch. p' O< Four. In the n Ol' in th prmg of
19 I 9) . ".y froln !hc>-< mo.t \1,inc .. Ind
laTgCts 10 a mo,e
d'llkul ...... idcn"!Y or cOntcplu>il .... carillliS! marl<t1 n",d"url$tn.
I/OIt,,; /I(}"1:arl It he lrl\all .hopI.ttJIt:T In diall). Ora"",,;
"l'OI. In an 311ick in 191 7, caughl bel"o ....... hul.,.le, and
coopera ll\'e5. '''os a lraYle "<><II.-amitI11 SOCIal ""lor.)' but as socialist
eoop<:.-ali' C$ could DOl """"""...-Illt mar\C1 ''''''''''3"""",I)'.lbe gradu>lIy
dl"[lpelIl1na ,mart .oopt...epn, "ilb "ah'tned bell .1Id plIlCbtd podetbooI:. " ... c'on worthy of iO<t'" c<:trt1pti$IotI On tho one hand ill< ht>loncal
pauem oflhe c'pnali" rnfill .. t;un o f tho Gra ,ns"i wrOle in
October 1916. "hiCh hod been olTe<!ing prot!uc,ioo for lilt p.Sl CenlW')l.
" beBiMinglo bt felt "ith in di'lribunon ""h lho ,ub.lI1u!;on of
IIftIi3rU.l or COllage industry by lilt i",,"'lnal en"fJlri .. ,"
On tho OIh.r h,nd . as he "l'OIe ;0 tho f.mo us anld. on Ihe RUSlia n
OIU""'I. '1'ho RnolulI"" ap"''' Cap""I'. Iho of
olpnal ism ha.J beett "",ccmte-d by lr.e of lilt "otid
000,'."'0'"

In 1916. "" .... "e . 0 .... d,d no! hI"c 10 odopI Ruui . n H.
not.d, f'" i, .. ",""c . lhat tbe G.rman f1Iliomng lyltC ,n ralher than IIl lta n
,o)unlary "",cord. and '-')'311CC upon Ihe n"""''''plac. llad tllOK tqu"ably
dls.nbuiN rare
Ie> on Brin ... ellal" SlOJ'e!> I/o ore pn;sed as modem
n""",,1 cap".r.>l .It."",,, , 10 lho Italian reli.nce upon "",meicnt a nd
p.lm,ilic.l " " ( Ilnc''''''e, al1 J retallcl$_"
Gr.>ms.:;', In lho debate ot. 0001"""'"'' Iii dim"-'
11\ a """ Iy allnoolN ar11C1<:. Sor.. I,OlIO c Coop<:llLoIlOnO' \ 'Soo .. h<m ond
Coop<:rallon'} (JO Ocooller 19 16) I"'bli,bed In lh. ACT'. JOUrnal.
I. CWp'-'mln'"'' ller. Cmmi<1 'ooapl ll" . le. hi. of
"",,,. 11,1 <oop<:r.ti .., bUI a1"" la un<bes into I con,ple, lhcortllC. 1 d,,oussion. "",ph lied for lbe Coop<:f1IlOlS. by ther,c comprchon>lblc
".111>,

G""nsc; it abundantly clear .lIat WIll be prodtICti"i"

C"n,umcr
el\: not. no< ooulJ lhey be. "''''ra l
to 'hc>-< polilieS, Sooi.lts,n. lit """0, ''-1 not ."",,1 , 10 ;;01,_ tile probl.m
of d"lnbut ..... o(finlShed pro.Iuca On.be con''''!)'. the rnoraI J... llflCliion
of """trugs.le. ar>d fot' tilt 1\:\'01",00II lhlHlrugglc",1I hring Oboul. '<>rrIC$
froln lho . ... b; lho prol o", ;.. Ihrough Il, ,rili'I'>O o f lh.
., iSling of pr<)ll"""00, that COlll'<li"i,m "ill Kf"e to accelerale
Of
0(>0f>I''"' ' ' \\
"
Gra-rue, alld 'he ,!na"h,s/>

but i{ was al so cemrallo
,h. &fon i{;on of hIS fonn of soc ..h,m
Al lho
the rhythln of p roducMn ",elf. by elim;nall ng all lho", .ni fLci.1 factors
", hlch limil prOOlI<l i" IIy''' Moo,m cop ;t, lisrn had t>ccn " >eh" p, oou,'"
"i" ' '''''kmiZlnS agent. ''''ttJ'lng awk ' k"dal v"tiges'. rq>locing small.".
indu,trial by j oinHlotk compan ;.s th.l
IOne,_ Cotnpanng I"S programme '00 I'J-ej;id;;nt Wilson',. he C'p lai""d 'hat
f= (1'3& was pan oof >oeiali , rn 's min""al prollJ'lmnte
"'. oothmg <>In.r inO u>tri.1",.".,...t,,, fonned with !he "0' of ",plou
Ing e' r i,,1 roc>fC .. bl}' ...1 ",i' 8 ;t !nOro err;" ,,,, ly, r<prc><nt(Lng) 'he
'im l><" tho, ,he bwrgw;, 'y>!om c.n go 'ow><d, . I,mir."ing the cop;"""
"""".d. ",... '<I"',ating the Uclm iml <lemont In 1'<00 "";00 from thc
pro'''ioo of capi,al"
Soc ..
are (000), f""'_ tr:><ic", bee,"," 'h. " d""',,oe 'hat in ,J.:
f= ,\t:,dopmcn,,,f c, plt.li " """iet)' f"", t.-adc ". ,,'volu,ionary for<:<
the oU'mOOo<,
i",I,,,,,, 1<tn"" "'.'!nOn: , "".bl" f,-" ,I>< d, lopmon, of i" potcn, i.1 w"bout
liberty, politico) libeny " G,oli," . n ,w IOOlo.'"
Gf3mSCI tho producti vi'l, ti>e Of OS wme have arguiOd, the Proudhoni ,n moralist. was ' '''<)IJraSO<J by ,i>e emerge",e of a mechanized ltl li'<n
' futu ," eily' Mooom capila h,l ent<rpri'" wa,
Th IS i, "h; Gf3m", i was . ttra c,od '00 'he Engli'h rad lcal lit>l;ral, "ho
founded Union for Dent"","li, Control ., nci particu)arly Norman
Ange ll. ,,hose w"' Lngs, G ram",i ct .. med, showcd that protec,ioonist Sl,lo socia"sm oor cap i{.lism wa, a uni",,,,1 e,il ",,,,ng from
tho inherent de m., nd, of tho conflict itself, Thi, re" asil'e Pru"i. nlSnt .
Gramscl felt. lhrca!oned <km"" .. tlc li bertie, "'on \>o fo,o lhe war Froe
lraJo w", nool oonly guaran{oor of e n II nght . howe'eT. il , 1'0 as a
onoto rhor foor Gram", i's ,"v., ima/iS!
Th. previousl}' ment ioned ' Soc ial ism and Coore ra{ion' i< oone of the
fin, tc'atnp les ofGTam>ei 's you,h ful 'f,c<: ,rade ' a"t i-' tatism Throughout
,i>e war ye . r.; hI> fea r.; of i'ru,,,an l>'" m.d, hlll' cau""" <OClaliSIS aga inst
, ll ying the m",h-., " i,h the int.",. ,tti onist ,,",-(imo state. [(II' bot amo
e' l>iall ), pronuu""ed <lUring the deb"o 0"" ",!>e,her or not >oeiah'ls
C"",mission ()n I'o'lwar ReconStn lctioon.
should join {he
csta blished by Pri"", l>h nist<r O rl, nJu. <0
He helinc<! ,h,t . refoorm from , bo"e ' Of "{Ole social ism' had too long
ix-<:n un,:n[ieally """'-'Ptod n en wilhin pTew." sociali, m and MUrl(ist theory
n,elf Th is botoomes '" idctH in a n a rticle w," " " n On 8 April 191 7,
Gm msei argued
"",,,I "'rorimcn' of
to demonstrate
S"'''''' In' O',,,, fof "",..IL"n. bee,"", (i' ",,,cJ)
ow' _,. cle.rly tbe truth tho, 'he " pi" li""
b), DO m,,, ,,,

''''''''''f)'C ,I>< of mit .. ,,, . tbe , i,.1 moo"", for" of ,J.: erooom)'
i, 001 de.dc"<d oy f... , ,he m.on.gm , "d ,econicol
of. firm aco
m<re ".I.",d """"". wi thou, , 1"',,,,,,,1 ;"'c"", In ,Ot: rrof"', 00" 0 '0 'Il<
)",
",ff
Gra ",,,; a,,{i"p"Ic<1how coopora{ ;\e forms o f P'OO U<"011 "ou l<lix moore
p roduct"'e t ha n c" pnalo,' prcde<cssor.; but he cautioned h is re.ders [ha,
COn'u"'''r " hil" a neces",ry ingrtdi,nt in {he soci. li"
prog,a"m'". were not central . II 0wo" eT, Ihey func tioned both as a mini ma l;5[ J emand moo il il ing many [l" n->lX' .. lists agai nsl gl1)SleT fo rms
of ' p"cu la! ;on , and a, .. B\C iill mhan;,rn In $OC ial ist d; sttibu""n. esre a " ,lIot, '" ha ly w h< ", shupkccp"r.; a nd rea.anl\ "Of 0
( ia) ly
" "I'<,""n , bc' o" in [I" , nt arket_p l", . Soclalo'l cooperative, m",l. he
fro m f, act;, il)' "f proiota,ial , ooulside 'he
lomo a nd coorrup [i ng intluence s o f bourgC<)i, iogislatio n Or lhe stare,
.. IiS1 cool'<'ra'i, es "e re s<",ially usefu l '0 the lower c b sse, . OIherwi<;e
th<y Gram",i ,,'rote, prO!cc"OIllS{_OOPO"''''',"" para"",,1organiza" un, 'h 'l S"'e ri<;<o
group oof pri"llegO<J worlc". who we re ' ""co"fu l
at fr.'el ng partl3l1y from COp il.l;st <xplon., 'ion, but "bo,e
.c,ioon , h'TT1l fn) '" t he" cia and cos,ly to prod uc"oon generally"
Tho ge neral tenoo, of' he di scu" ion is linked to h is c'mnectioons
w i,h frtt_lraoc , ,,,,i.,,sts .nd syndical"" in Sardima and Tu rin . 1're' loosly.
Sah em; " , h.d
majoor infl""""<, a nd during " ar Gmmsci org" "
"ed an "'ue of /I G,ido del I'op% dt ' O{od '0 fn;e ".de and .IOCial ism
f"" t raM. Gmm"" bolie"ed . " ould hei r to I.ssen lhc north'SO" lh J ,,idc
,n
'0'
t>I;,,,
-n
wry end of 'he "'ar Gr:1m",i " r l,ine(l his free-'radi, m on ralher
)i,,,

'go'""
B'"
Mony of "", com,aJ<> ore ,,,II Imbued wtth doc"""" coneemons 'he Sta
' hot ""'" '''ry fa,lu"Mble '" ,I>< of "",;,1"" 'went}' }'0lI" Th=
doct,, "", were ",""u",,,ed ;o Ve""'n)" >nO ",,,I,.p> in Gmnony miV-' >1 ill
"". lhe" ) "" il'<"ioo It" " .. t in I ..)y. ooo ntf)' .>e" 1, I'"<{ " mm<>ry Go"",n' . duo to t''''') '''g fIOlo"", 1OI'''''p<ion ondlll<k of
p.>rh.m<n" f)' <on ,oo,,,,,,,. , no " " , " ,J.: 11"" " <" <n<my of '''!'lOn, (of
,he m'J"'i'y of c;' ;,en'j.nO "<'Y 11"'" th of It, po" ..... of its >e' i" IIy. of II,
f' ""iorl>. I",,\,> <Quo l, iI,ow,h of <omrpw o. of "","' y ,0.- oi,i "" of 0
g<"ornllowcri" g of ,he In <1of p"ok OnOO'tI, ",,,,,,I lifo"
Gmm.ci', Inll-1'anWl I. 'hrOOlil< h,. Il'fIRlI'rialioo

SO ....I". ooban of a !Ch,.1n. a ocpo.nuion oh.o<l"n,..:I... from bowjroi.
and hfe.,) Ie" "'U1loot him '"..,r fully r renchman',
en,i", ,fGlam",;,n lang""",, i. drt,..,h<'tI ,,"h Son:h.n
ley """t,. "! Su.:h "nul'n".5 'nd differe,,,e ... ith Son:I ...... "dm' in
Soc .. I"", ,"d ("""l1em"",,'
S ip, il ";,, '" th." .h 'trod be"d In, n"n,)'cob.n ,cal 'ra n, ;.ion ,0
_ iali,m "J>OI' the {J,;l y c'pe';'''''.' of ".. ""'or. in thrir o" n .rade
uni,,", on.l..oop<"""cs. ,,"h Gram",i o!lud.ng to highly inll"..,t ..1
bool.. L A, ....." '(I("IO/ISfI' .ynd,eal.l. <i",ul.,1'd by Il3lian loti .. "'I!
socialiS! .nd'j nd,,-ali..c ""';, i>t. before the ....... j n"" book ' ignili....".
'00, " Sorel'" dopanu ... ,nto m),"'"",l,nl! and .he
erlobra1'("1<1 of violence. and " Ii"",y pounded ,n htl encoun"" "lib
Eduard aom,t.,n. '\"",,,io labnol. and ,he fO<me' ana ... hi" Sa,en"
\Io.hno dUMa ,he lo<Kaliod ,," ",on,.t deb.. ... t tbe 'urn of,he oentury_
All three th " ,. e" "e......", hlng for m,","!iOn!" "h'" .i, ,I " hOch
"" g ht temper Or iUrr'e" _ iali,. ' tamm ,'" A nti '0 complct \'Cry
cirele of ,e.;'!'f<x.1influ.""e ,,"""Img to Alfonso Leonc" i.
G.-am, 1"1$
",.do, of the \\cbbs' HIJI(;)' of Trado.
and ,hell othe. """'sc 'he "<'1}" . . . mplos Solrd u>cd 10 bull"'"
his 0'llumon1, ,n i. socloiisli' dl'J ',""KOI>."
Gr.lmr.cI'S 'Sorel" .. I. from the maj""'Y of P"""... r
Ilal .. n OJ n,he.hSI!" Tho Gram,.n UlInsillon to """ .. lism ... lied upon
,h. coo",i"", ..... KKIl ,n,M'I <nn"" of SIX"I ac .,... r.I.her than m)ths;
and Gr.lm<.<i. "cedi.,., 10 "y, "PI'""".tNthe role of ed...:.uoo and ""If.
N u<atioo, .'On t"ough . .s "e 'h"1 ><...,. had 1.,,1 . ti,"e tt)f the offorts
of III< Un" ersl1" Porol .-e." Rother lhan sha ri "l1 some: .yndirali, t ,nlelk e'
IU.I, ' fa",,,,.t'OI'1 .. ,th lbe ,magel)' of nHk. "'od.... mtt ll'uaj,
ba'he .... Clram!Ci i1fu<l
impOfUOCe of lhe ilk of II>r ""nd f".
.11 mon and '","",n Gnu"..,i "rot. a fa""",,! ufiy ""'elo of 1916
Soc.. h,m and - ,n d;=t respon .. Iu Ennco Leon< ,be holia"
syndicail>t
.nd [he ,ran"a'or of Sorel', i. <In J,-"dical!,
l1Jd "",,,,,,II} uni'-ersity prof ....,." "h 0 fl..,"I111"" for
, ,tt...:, He .... s liso """ of"", oh.ef conlnhut"'" and
f'he
'nn,,,, ... and """ largely a ..",hi,,- o'1lon of ' he USl. do C/g ..
of" hKh Grum.<" appa",""y "-OS a 0105< rcaJo.
In .n,hu".,".
,h.
' ' ' '1'1'
ffl""" ..
""'< .. .
f.""
Thc
.h.ol only degrees. """
tom . h.. hUm.lMy
e""",'"'''''''' Qf ilJ 0"'" ' .. ,,,,, 0..0 WOfI r", the ngll' 10 'h""" off lbe
p....... ..r "" ..."..,_ impo>o<d "" " by mi'''.''' ..... P'.""'u, p:riod ,n
h''''''Y And III, .
"""",kJumeg .. . ,
-"
f""""" """ untie, ,''''
brutal
rooJ
of
n.coon. r""
. ! _ ....1) bul ... InW' of ,..."IIS ......

at
by JU"
f... po<os>I. o.nd !at..- by
d ..... atJiI .. hy CUI'"
ond
""". _ ... """,.., ,"" foa. of ''''_laa< '..... ''''' ... "",1. of n:belli"" .nd
_i.1
m=>I tha, ,'cry .. '""uI!"" I>u I:>c<n r<=dI hy
..' ,."... labour of
bj 'ho d;(f.,_ of c.I'u",.nd ,t,: ,P<Ud of
C"".'"
tho 'f<"OAd ofia<" omon,,, ""'.... 0(""'" Vo'ho '''' .. fi",
thm' OtIly of 101""8
own
"0.01'1'" 000 roliliool 1"001"",
f('Of 'Oom ... ""
hove ",,1 ",f ..,l iJ.""y ""h o,hm in " . "m.
,,1IoJ.
,nd
,ondll'''''', "
cotol",o." ." ..
Th"
w,,,,,,....
'0' ' '
,""or
"".",m.
,mmcd.."
F<>< Cl"'mfC' II>< henoh Enliglurnmcn' " .... just web. period
a popula...,clunon"r), uphea,ol. 'Tho bojonel' of'apoIeoo's :urn,..,'.

I>< "rote, . foul'ld .he .. road liread) .moothod by "" "'"I>C,blc Inny of
boo,," .nd pamphlct. that had ,,,.TTJ>O<l cu. of Pili. from the firs' half of
1bc c.&htttnth century Ind h.d P"'P"rN both men aM .""ilUt'oo. fOO" ,he
........ "'ry .. n<"al" Gra""CI'. cullural 'p",foguraIlOfl' denied from
"""",os Ollie' 'hon Sorci. ,lie pre,-;ou, passage .. n",N (lie . ,... dy oo!ed
. ... ofh,,,,,e-!CO Dc Sa""ti,.nd Gram>c; publ;,hc<l .n"xcerr' from
hll SlOrw in /I Cr,,/o dd Pop<>/o fou, mon.hs
late . "hlCh bears "m,I.,,'.es ,0 and Culture', "
Gr.ont,.,i cnHsallod ,he euhu",1 cri'iqu 0<' eapl1,lism .r;.ing "ithin
.11< in,I I1""O"5 Tho. . . nl"'O'. he IKII., in
Soxll".m and tOo.>JlC"'''oo .......... a Ionk bel" .... prcsoml1Jd futur<_ AI'Id
in lhi. Other ley uti) anide of 1916 Gram;.., once 19a,n ...... an
from ,he Fr<,..,h Re,,,lLnioo,
... nd
J." " " wo. the =""", 1'11>01., "'hlOlI ""Cfll00 t><forc
0<""""'' '
. 1"'''1)1 r<><,.,"lIy pi<>.I,,'i<. bu, .. lfoutoo by ,II< '."'''"' of f,,,,!.ol,,,"

.. h",h ,oud< the 11.-.1 b.-e>t;loe; i" tI,e f,",,-I 'l'''"",; .... .. lIy, ,be
"""lI:i c... too ..d nurtur,d by oh< proI ...., ... f... II, ..... " Clas>
.... 1>< ... ofboutp<>" ..,.0<1). mal bo>m<. po>OCfful k><r r", onRlbat
.nd,. "",,,"
'"''I<'Y'P'''
Ho .. e, <t. In h .. """ogy" IIh !be r ... ,..,h R..-olutlOl'l G"""",i nOt
dirtC1 ",1.,oQIUh.p be' ......,n rapillhSln and ,ho cour of the
the"""I-'.,. CapO/ali'm " ... , a. much . "ullllral as. m,,,.rial phooommoo
5tt
""'01'",., ....,"'.
oo" gooi' phtnOII .."""

kk"d<,. e,p.LO [' ,." " oot. on ,"
K.. h". " LS """'i...." ",,,....,..,..,,;<ure '0. COf,,"'''' f""" " , en by """mi.
at ""'" lim< oftcr ,he ,,",W d ... n .. '" ro"'''. ",,,,1""1 f"""
il> "",ule !O ....1>1, ... " ..-. "Of """" firmly ,n ,I>< ",.ri,l "
de,.'''f''''<'''
Grmn<Cl and the Anarch;</s
Laler. of course. Ihi' interr",lation. mo", ful ly dndo!,cd a nd ca,t 11\ tlIOI'e
pc<> imi;tlc ond locobinical ligh'. sc,m, 10 I"". I.d Grall l>C1 to quali fied
suppo" , or allc"S! S}, mpa,h"li, 'PPTCci., ion for t he Stallni'l ""'ol utlo ,,
from abO\c" In 19 J6. ho",c,cr. hi, larg'ts were thw; po'liti ,;>! soci, li >!s
a,,,i sy" dical im ..... ho persisted III ... ' "e cconom ic ba", from the
sociopohllCal octo" a"d in<';lUt ions lhot .mbodied Ihe pre",nt historical
.p..xh, And Gra:""" ,', unders'and ing of ,he 'IarxiSl conception of pr',,"s
111,erod G.mM. m"'lI fted by hi! reading of Anton;o L.brio la,
rceei"d its f,rst '[fing in hi, symbollcall; appo,i<c an iclc, ' 11 No>!ro
Marx TOur Ma" ') in 19 18," 11>e "oxt d,y GramSCI pub li,"':d c'Ccrpts
fro m Labnola that ""cal hIS knowlcdge of Labriola's """yl on his"'rical
mate ri , l"m,
I" Ihe excerpt. 'Le id eologie nd d"e"irc "or;co. Labriola d ,,,,us,.,1
,he rel.tionsh ip be"' .. n the Reformallon and the omorge nce of c.pitallSm
much ;" the same fas h ion as Gramsci d ,,,,us,od 'he rol. ti Oll'lh,p of Ihe
r",nch Rc""lu1LOn to ,he emergonce of e. pltalist hegemon) in France,
ror Labfiok anti cipatmg Webe r, Lu'her . nd particular l} Ca l" n. were
'he UnCO"SC 'OU, .gents of a capitalist rc,olutlon ,OJ
If'he c<onomic base could nOT be separ.ted from 'he c ultu ral superSltuctu,,,, neIt her for 'he yOlm8 Gramsci co"l.! a sc;cnce of we i" lis", be
detachod fro m l"Conomie p",figurat ive in'II1Ul io", ofci';1 """iC1y,
Somehow the supe rior;ly o f MalXlsm would be show" w ithout either
fullblow n rolafi"i'm or embracing a diCtatorial leadersh ,p 0,," '
thost '1X'lal nKI' emon'S that "e", \'ital for tho [ron'''lton '0 socialism.
The r,,\)I<l>n" i, n on .""y,;t 00;, 001 I,.-e oft" ,cc>, i"n...,,- <'O<pOtaI.
and ",1o;,,,, TIS <o ll"", i"e life c.n '"'''' ,n ,I>< 1<1 bc compared to ,he
collect i,'< iLfo of." .,m,. ( I s.;..;"Ii>l'"'' _ offieers of the 1'.-01.,.,;..,
""'y, tb<,. ' ... p.n of,1t< prole!>ri". thoy .r< p"rhops ." '""I<i...""",,, bu,
as '''''I<i".,,,,,,, co"nOl be "'1"T:l",d from ," ,no,, ;o",I, '" """i.l i""
,re no! placrd 10 con",,' .,h II .. prolow i.. TheY.T< ono . Iw.,., 00< , ,,,,I
'hey do ,,01 bUI Ii,'" ", ;,h ,he prole!>"".
hi""" ""',<> . r.d
co",o l""" in t.... ,, ;,., of. ""'-iy.nd i. 001 .bl< to I"e ,nd 010'" ;,h,n ro\>bcr
luI><.
corps< They li,'o ," the [><ol.,.rial. and the" ,"cng,h
i, in
p<rfw.d r.e,ioo ,'"'
J""
J"""
t'"
'TOO""
So for in 'h is cha)l!" J shown how GTant",i 's Hry lie" art;( los
"' a "",ial'" journal ist ont icipate key oonceptS limnd in L 'Omi"e NUOH!
Equa lly. GraHl",i', no'ion of prefiguralion pw:<xlcd hi, cn<Ol!"tor "i, h
L<n in. ,he !lo lsh" ik .nd Wc>! Europe." COUIl,,1 corll",un i,,,,,
l'h;; idoa that "",i, I" m', futurc ",st iIU!;Olb we", fOUlhl in tooay', lobou r
"as al",ad,. 8elllO" ledged by Gramsc, befo", the fev i".1
ofth" faclory i",.",.1 commi,,;o", "",I, ;",I<:cd, ",a, I"""'ed In t lo"", ,ery
tT,Jil io"o l and rCfOfw ;'t m"nib,.ti"n, of SC"Co,," In tcmatlOM I"t soc .. l
i<m. Ihe coopcrat i,'c',
t-.ow I wun, 1o the broad.. s"" .. Ii>! .nd I. bour movemcnt d Urin g
tl,,' wa r. The raui (r;OT'\ ,orre red by Turi n ,,, the end of '\ " gust 1917 an;
ofc,uci.1 ,mrona"c" ond "ill be .m ined In ,k'ail , The rok of tile
anarch"" a"J <;-n dl"a ll>h L1I !taly, on general. and Tu ri n i" ponic"I ...
", II bc cnarted so as to in eo,no" Gram",i', "I' i",on, .bo" t w.rtime
allempl>", soc i.It" li bertarian .Ilia"c"' , Grams<: i', op inion, On ,hlS
subje<:1 "'ere mado just os cn,ounterod hI< oo tura l conSfi,""nc;, in The
,uburb" It "as 'ho anor<hlS!> an J soc;.h,ts in the,., industr i.1 suburb,
" ho were prominent in the Wit h,n this conlo" Gra m", i <laTli;e<1
1",l iti c.1 ideology anJ lactics , The peculiarities oIG"""", ,', "ere Jus
"""isten' attemptS to c",ate a ,nord cu llural ;n" il","on of the "", i.list
mowmonl 10 a"glll" '" lhe 1"0 "'ber pi Ila" o f pan,. and e<:O<1ol1l ie instilutLOnS, Iil s re"ultanl l"" il;on r l,lcoJ him ",,!>ide the go neral <O"to" of
, Ioc ", funn,,1, Ill "i n lisr or lib<rtor ian politi col ,uheul,urc, ()f Itahan

I

War a1l(J Ihe L.bo u r ""d SOC i3 liSl

L915-18
The F,r.., \\u<IJ \\,. h,J profound "'p"rc,,,,ion, upolT the itail. n oconomy,
tI.., "C," ' fOfce. lhe lrade umoos .00 poiLt i,,1a<g.n il'tion, ,hal rep,-.,,,,n'ed
"ooers and r<a$.1nts" tho '''xkplatc "nd m pan l.1Tncnl. \\'.1rtnne " ,11""0"'
re'ohll lo ni7'<:'! ;OClal ", I.tl on, h, p< m parI> of the count!)"J<. ","'''a, ;ng
,he ntlln bcr ()f 'mall prupnetof> and ,hare""r"pp"" ,,10M further depres,ing
the li,mg >!.ndanls ofl,,,dloss labourors and Ih. ir fam ilies , The "'ar
was f"ughl by p""ant infan,!)' w ho were promISed la"d "nd soci,, 1
justice o n Iho ir ""Uf" home , The combined effectS of ch,ngc> In TUm l
Italy duri ng 'ho blemllQ NiS'<O produce,! m""i" I"nd OC<up"tlOn; I.d
b, "'SOCial ions on parts of lhe forme rly qu ie",.n' sou,h and
sri"," I01o<l 'he lunhcr IIn iom7"tion of land Ie" la bou",rs In 'he Po \ '" Iley
"nd Apu lt "
110" 0' Of. t he most immediate and d ra ma(oc re,u lts of the" or WeTC
secn in mih,",)' induccJ ,h a'. In it; lum " imul"tcd the "'p ,d
gro" 'h "00 ,h. ,ert ic.1 'Old hotllOIHai ,on""I",t ion of the grcat Slco l.
iron . u1<Mnoll"c and nlb!><r (I h a. '\n",III". Hmb. Fi", and 1'1",11i)
Wh ile Piedmont. Lombardy arid Liguria be<ame hea",ly indu >!roallzod.
tho sotlt h conti ntled 10 I' g sign ifoca"tl}' behi" d"
fi",
Til< war boom was accomp"niod by ,he

mass i"e ,,[>Crimen! in
slate mte,,'cntion io the economy_ The ,,,.bli,hmeno of a r,gnne of
1"<lustri "1 Mobillmlio" meant Iha, induSl')' al>d labour sal
00 joint producti"" OOard, ."" II . Iso me,nt ,h., ," 'aux ili.ry'
Iho,c d"med associOied " ilh war wor', worker> \upc"'iscd by
soldie" and 10 Ihe rlgours of a modified form ofmaniall .w. If
".-,,"me CO'l"'JallS," pr<xluc"d .mbiguou, political effects, o"e ,,'Ust slill
agree wilh Clark", hen he writos ,h.,. 'The war noI only "imu l"ed
- alld d'Slo rtcd Itail ." Indu",)', bOI did so in pan.eu lar wafs Ihal
unMrm llled m,"y of Ihe ",ump"ons of Ihc pre.war Libem l Regime',"
IIlJuSi ,i al "'Ob,Ii7.3Iioo p.rticularly affe"ed Turi o All be end of 191 8
Italy h.d 1976 .ux!li,ry firm, bUI762 oflhom we", eogaged ,n mctal.
m"k ing or eogi"""rmg. Tunn waS lhe",fore eXI.-cmc, C,'cn ano""lou,
examp lo of ".-.rt irne mob;iizahon ."d SI'1e intorve",IOI' ISm. but 100 .stounding grov,lh of Fi3l wos CO"trallo Iho ",art'me etOnOmv. It,
omployee, m"e.sed from 4,OQ() i" 1915 1040.0Q() in 19 18.
"",.-cased fro m 25.5 mil lion 1I .-c in 191" 10125 m, llI on lire in 19 18, In
19 14" pro<luced 3,300 ",hlCle' but by 1918 Ihi' had grown 10 70,862,
"early 95 poer Ce nt of which we.-c by the Italian armed fore.s "n J
i"
.11i",.'"
Turi n expcl"lo,>ee of conscri pled h",b. "d , Or falhe"_ The c ily
p,,>klam n metropol" due to Ihe W.lf. In 19 11. 19 pcr cent oflhe 10la l
pofIulalion weTC workers. b) 1\/ 1 Ih ,s h,d risen 10.n extrHor<lin , ry 30
pcr "I. m<anmg thai til< city COIllai,,,..! .lIghll} ,"'-"" dun 150.oc.:l fac,,,,,,
workers in a 101a1 5 I 3,OQ()'"
During ,ho Wof I'allan 'y,"cm of industri,1 ",I"'ion, ",poerien<ed
\'aSi change' yet Wme of its unu,ual ch.racteristic,. pre' ,ou;ly dl<"",.w
In Ch.1plers 0".. and Two , rema ioed presen!. COIl"nu ities were certamly
"idenl in the high poercenl.ge of Slrih' caused by p'c<o-r.1Ie dISpule<
and Ihe adm", i"rali,," of fines, Eq ually. One ca n also dctcel the gro"'lh
of egalitarian "'.ge dernand< ,ulv.nccd by ,I1,",><e> <>1'" illed .. t<l unsxi ll1
"orke",; and . lthough Ih".., WCIT more conunon in Ihe \li la"."e "TId
Ligllri.n hlnle rl 'nd. by 1916---17, Ihe} aIT remioisce", of similar mO\'O mon!> during 'synd:cal i'<! I1PS" '&'" of 1912 13_10 These, I ""ouk!
"ere not merely fom, ilou, rco,:e-u",,,ce,, IIOr did a <ertai" ciass mixlure
rro<l, ..;e 5I><h )no,-cm,nlS. Allhouglt previou, .rgumeIH' aboUllhe 'deskill.
mg' effecl< of technolog,oal inno\'Olion le,dmg 10' ",dioall,ed ,killed
workforce shou ld not be di,m issed. Ittonl em pir ically base,l
f.cto ry Ie,'el studie> ,kmonSl... e Ihal ",artime mdUSl"alWition did nOI
Ira n<lotc .\llomnt ic.ll y inlo rapid scien,ific ralionali"li"" or Tayl<>ri <ali"n
(s", Chap"r r " '0 for a brooder di >tuss;on). L,'<" ,n Tum'. ",dust"all'"
re li ed upon a ''''w ph},ical di,i, ion of I.boor wilhin Ihe ir faclOr;e, 10
. d, ;eve higher proouclion Thi, resulled In the . Ircody me ntioned 'ignifi c. nt incre.sc in Ihe of " omeo and <mployed in he,,,y
induilry. ben III 'ruml, ,, here man; skiliN crofls",en "ere ...,empled
from consc,"plion, 'eletlln workers were promoled 10 i"stl"llClO" or forc men fornewcome", ' I
Women (.nd minors) pl ,yed pO lili<ally sign,(,,,nl role< ,,' f"",o,) "nd
neighbourhood protests from 1916 to 1918. As Ihey "e.-c "e"he r , ubi",,1
10 <on><rip"on 110' u, ually imprison<d due 10 "IIOmc;al industrial ncnon"
ill 'au, iIi, 'Y eng i"eori"g .",1 meta lwork ing f.c torle, prOle", we", oflen
In,tI"",1 by Iho",. and bolh USI and orgaml.cr> r""ognl1N Ihe",
lattl <al ulillly in IhlS .-cSpetL S<condly. Mlh Iho rnp,d and relenlloss
,,'" ,n Ihe cosl of I" 'ng . nd Ihe ellOnno<JS ioc rease in "ork,,'g hours,
st imulated Womo" 10 demonslmle in Ihe ir nelgltboorboo<! ""rkel-plnces,
I" T,,, in lhe "'orage ''' "''01 <ons""'pl ion of meal pcr inhab ilanl fell from
68.18 kg in 19 12 I to 7, n kg in 191 S; ,ugar COnSllmplion fell from
16.45 kg It> kg . Ily mid, 1917 badly org.nized ')-,Slcm of rationing
for bread a lld paS!. h.d b<"en ,nltoduced . Oil lOp of pressure.
poor housing ' lid high .-cnts mob ilized "omen IhroughoUllhe illdustr ial
Iri."glo ."
Kenl "mph . ,IS on Ihe relatlOns l"p hel"'e"n 'au"lIa,)' fa",o'Y' aTld
,,,,ighboorllOod I",inllo lhe "nportall<;<; of kinship a"d lies
ill de<pening prole". Howe,'''. Ihi' r< laliomh'p can be romami,ized. n<>r can il <,plain whether or not prole,. a,qli ired a particular
pO lI l""1 Ulll m.'o ly local po"tlcal Ir.l<lilion, an,l 'he abili ly 10
main,am prewar why I.'gunan .nd Tonocse
war prole,ts had , igni flcantly diffe,.. nt mi., of d.-, .. Iopmont and diffe.-cnl
Iype' <>1' l'articipa"IS ,'J For our purpo,." Ihe most rele'-'n' e'a n'ple of
Ihc of fac lory cullures and I'<'rSOnnel wore Ihose )-,()ung ,elf
ed"cated Torinese "orke", Ihe members oflhe seneml ion of 1910 "e
en('ounle.-cd in Ihc la!l chapler
In Tu rin lhe bac kbone of Ihe rc"i,'ed sY>lem of I1liern, 1(011\11\1",0",.
wh ich look a promi nen, role i" local di'pute, fro m la'e 19 15 to the en,l
of Iho ""r. "cre roprc,cntati,'o, of lhe generatl"" of 191 n, or <omNimo,
o,'on Iheir elders, If lhi' i. indicative ofa continuity wilh Ihe p..,war world.
Iho ",k uf HOM within Industrial Mobili7.ali<>n was m<>,. dclinild; a
rup'" '" " ilh .\en lhe mOSi aJ """ed aSl'<'cl' of prewar <on
( il i,Ii,,". All h<>ugh Indust ri . 1 Mohil ization was "'ce<<tingly "'press;'-e.
"e",,,he les, ,I <oul d nol dl>peTl'" eTllirely wilh frtt Irado unions; indeed
,rnp<lIt.!"".
il ,,,,,...;cd ,'''',,
lrod",' nal could 001
I>c 11. ....
solely through d,acon,.n " ...... " ..... " al"" rr<juo . . \()<I\C
(orm "(.on",",,.. bel"'=" irodu"nO"'15.rod ...od..... Although Bruno
IiIlO.<LI and lire flO'!'. other Ioadc.-r<. could "'" c, CCSS<:'!. lrodu<lnal
' lob,hzallOfl d id gtl3<3rl1('(' Coll lI\. bIrp,nll'i 10 ... ",,"".I.JlI of dcgret' '.
E'm iflhe sys,= of 1.0,10<1> undor Induslnal
... a sign ificant d
from II" practlCCS of "", .... , lu ly. a good <It. 1
of nOM's stral. g lC chotcos.nd ""roI1' l'"'ny, nll "'lla ni""li"",,1 ""'Ihods
"as (OfCsh.Jo".d m lhe prt'" sm kos d lKusJ.<il in Chap'''r T"0- While
I"" .... i"".1 sccrclJnal of FIO \t ,.mpaiglted 00 n. , i"",,1 " , ''OS ''''' h
an wage , I.u", (Ihe " ,,I,, . min imum " .ge. ' he .'11.1" .
ho ur <by .. unemplo y",.nl in sur.,,,,, . IlUUIZI lefl l<' ,,,,,.1 Inlt iot ;" . Ihe
u f d ispul 0' or eO>H,f" , Ing 000"$0', I',e-""., a n,l fi ne"
Thus. duri flg the "-ar. boIh lhe I""al bronches a nd inlen,al CUmnllS\lon \
lJan)( i""lUSi ngl)' impo""nl
al ,!lese di'puleo <It, elopl frum
shop,loor problems on'O Oa.hpolnll di"""ly ",I.I<:(]10 ."her ... ighbour.
hood prot....ts or ,he broadc-r .nll .... r mu\On)(nL A tadicallocah"".
i"'[>Im! by you"8 and 001 '" YDUrIi >ocw">ls. """,,,hIS" and $yndlClbse ..
bo<:am. an inc=singly.moo. problom for lhe n OM nallOOl.l S<'<marial
A, 1ll>U.ll' ond ",hers bccIn)( ITl<'rt' <I_ly aSSOC"'tl " ith lhe ,)"em of
Indu<lnal MobdlZallOfl. roo 100 d id local tad.,.ls aottu .. them of coIlabora.
tiOn " itb tho d ... entm). 0w0""00 10 tho Cornm O:; SIOlll"i ma (,he
(" Unlln""on OIl Recorult\l<t ion) may h. \C been <ltnouocl hy
("mllns", a, lht<>r.,Il", II) I""""""t (or man) "un.o.. " nptJ l,..
"en: more obntnlal; Ono m od 10 kttp dc'''nll' w ith , he " .." 10 a ml m
tI,u tl,. "" "''' l<3oclS and .wei. I;',
li.mon.. , i"", who <ngag.d lit
.""h ,,,, Ai< wore ,'iowed ,,; Ih 1I,.al , u;p"",n
Ol1 heleSI. JUSI I ike the
rad,e"l , " f 19 12 13 (woo. in Turi n. ".re ItIOfC o lk" Ihon Ih. $an)( I.
,n 1917 1918 a ,""" "joe' i"n by mil '''ntS of Bruno Il"oa; " "" hi.,.
'1\(n" could ",arcely be cOlllcmplJIO<!.
"'"'0'""
..
.-pa""",
a,
""'on.
P"'
Thr Sod a l i., Parry In Turi n
Ih o
t-..,
Grn t \hr
In 1915 T""nt.sc: """ iali.. s " .. rt' anll ,nl<TIrnlioniSi and

p;te:'/"t 11'I<k...t. Tunn ",as. cllY of _""se .. dmcal. and Goo!!",,,,,,
arod thefore. Paolu Spn."o <..... Iudo """,.i,"'y hoseile to the "a,"
\\ hlle .nll-ml"".n"""'>m " .. IlOl flO ckar eu' in the e. rly 'ulumn o(
191 4. when ",pu bl ican F "'n<" . pp"'m! '0 I>< in ohnga o ( be ing o,.,run
II)- II", Germ.ns. by rl ) 191 o. I I,. lemat. de, d oped On ,be W.... lom
hUnl . nd balll .. " ,,]. ,n'o" onllO,,..1 .,uJ on" beea m. nlO,.. f' NJuonl,
Ih. , .... maJo,ity "f tho left m ill ed 10 oppos< Ihe war On 12 M.y.
"
,ori.,.
span"',...,... 'Ulko hmke ou, ,n mil" )" To"' .... f..

followed four
!al.... by an ufficlII g"n ... 1"'nLe "h..:h IUI<:(] unl il the 18 \lay, Just
a. in lhe pte''''''' ..... dLlnnl the Red \\(,(,k. largc <",,,'ds assembled
do)"
011""'" ,he OIamber ofLabow and """ hurolml tboo.<....-.d dtmonr.t"""'"
"",,,,bed In an illopl procOSI"'" 10 lhe CeI"" ufTunn " I-.. .. 11-..\ "Oft
dlSjl<1'Sl by co,a"y Sorne of lhe 01&11 d "",hod on IS fa. II:'! Piazza San
-\lJ Mlno. In ,he \0,), ceNrt' 01' Tunn. "hr:,n! llyn ,hop "a-, 1ootl. I
banicade erccIOd nd on ..dun", of gunfiT< lxt"""" ,he crowd
.nd ' '''''P'' oo:; , un-od. ,,1>,,1> ... ,,, Itod ,n ,I" <ltat h of On e )'oung onaJoh!>t
h' lhe aflcnn >th uf ,h" """d enl the AGO "., "'n"",ked by ", Id ;crs and
of dcmonst"ltot"S """"od ,'
O n B May 19 15 luly <ntem ' he "ar. and the 1<>c. 1Soc" !,,,
l'al1)' "" er c",ttded 500
dutlng ,he "or. i" increas ingly rad;ca l
Ie""""hip did exen I notable ",n... noe "JIOrl 1c.. <:<>m milled hut i"" ",os,ng
".r"eary ...-oo..e ... a nd hou.c\\;'..... ,he <onr.1C1

1'1>= on,ran,,
genii. or a, II>c} "ort' l nown In 1916. lhe ngt<h. "'0" control ofthc
COrYU'"" " ofll .. 1oea1 bron.ch ,n June 191 In , ,,,-ember 1916,
a """'" pragma,ic. ,f tadic.!. group ohodali sts "u.,cd cootrol from lhe
pro, ..... , ("",ioo_ 001 ,,'i,hou, olr,,"1 1'00l1",n. mhlblllnl! lbe or ..,,"'" In
191 th<y ".,.. :obl.,o ongage In)eI more .,lftn)( ,hclor1c and cui", ""
olil...,....
lire <ui>urban ........ h"'" Rlgld tdtolog) "-all chara<1erim
b) "".r lenon!>1 "ne 00 OfJI)OSI1U)11 ,o .he ".r.nd Luwmbu'1li<lhk.
nalional ism 'DotrIe$Iicolly. tt.: ri&!do <ltm:mdod cornplelo
ooyco<t by $O<la""$ of l",tultn.1 M<>b,lmtllOll a nd I mel<>ncaJ ,upport.
II' "cry reI' "Uempt< . ! "f lhe
elron . A llhough boIh lhe
' a nd d,e I"" " ,,1"' '' 1,"J 'cals "ere ikplcloJ by cOlt"''' ption. ul<ltr
$O<i. li m. ",nle uf " 'hom hild cilhrr be-on q'''c, or . ppare nt ly more mo(ler,,'o
b"""re 191 S. c. m< to the fure ,
One uf the mO;[ Import.nl ' no" 'I)" a".k,'"cd "-><: I.h, ,,, was P, N",
IUbbcll.1lla, a comm"".l <Icrl. "00 II ,he age of fony ..."" eltl "",mal)
of the b",<><:h ;n ,he aulumn u f 191 An ana",hi .. In h .. )'outh, he main""nod de,;.; .""tactS ... llh "",i<al tqlYb"clns and had fuught under .he
anarchl>! ("W'" Ganbald ,an co"""'l of lhe Pan. Amik4' c
("'ptian,. at DomoI;"" dunnl lhe C .... n ",,-oIl of 1897_ A prominenl
"", ...1", dunng the " lr. be hllnself II " .ral Junctu"" In
anarcl!oJjnd"a"S! I.rms . Ckher nt" fa<:es in<ludood Gio,-anni Botro.1
n"," 'wm 01><1 1>"", ,he ""r Morpn ..... n. At lhe ag" of 35 he """
lhe Bu nh ga and boc."", k . d,nll radteal flK"'" " ith in FlO, t.
r""" ing \'CI). clO5e
"'I,h ,he 3M n:hl't$ Ftrt'rTO and Ganno,'" Another
$O<,ali .. lrode "uion lig" lO. Clrlo n ontti. p",,,dtd. di lIT' li nkage with
lbe Tonne.. a n. ",h;S! mov ..... n, o(the 1890s He had been ;( ". 31 II>c
Jo,O"'
",.",t.c"
",ilt
I"''''"'''' 00
w.,
,>0.
Grom,.(t; __ !PfH'f"I'"u.hip and 1M It"r
'urn "f,he cen,ur} in Tunn. ,hen Incd in an.! b,.". london, ..-heR
he .. role for ''''.. ne".pope"'. lIId had n!lUmcd '" Tunn ,i.
","rlaM ,n 1914. """ lng as the secr.tar}' of Ihe local
of lhe
SH.>"l
They ""ere joi""" by local .. omen \<X i. 1i,h "ho barne promment
as plOIesl bal11e f""l""nllmongsl female
In<! house",,,, , Of
1"'''><ul3f
l:.iyim Zocra. I delli.. aod ,h. Apullan ",bool
'ea.:h<r and """bet of .'gl1l ch'ldren. \1.,.;" GUIdIce ... he> 1$ edi,,,.. of 1/
GnJo<kl Popol<> bcf<>IT Augusl 1917, (;ro",.." 's in,.II<:CtUa1 ,,)'10
ofjoumah,rn" A, Ill< .... ,ghhourhood I" .1Il10 IIC"""fIlicn o f 191 0- \tano
M(IOI,!:""na. S"""a S""h,i\ un<! otlters - relnamed In ,n"mal. CO<1I":1
","h ,h ..:ti,c .n. ", I"" grou P! in FlO\ ' and l'lamtra d LMilano_
Ily 1917, when 'he relOm" '1> retallled control of no\!. 'he c<X>ile'"
and ,hi: p:>rh.rr>rnl.l!)' (VCIJp. ,n. local .,h"011 of A,,,mi' Ind fI Gn,,",
,}"oJ P"p% !lttame ''''''''3m,,)' 110'<10' eI. one of the dri' in!!
po"""",1 ,,,., bechind ,h,. Iobd'! " ... AntOlIK> GI'1I!l'I>C', ooJ he for from
beln; 011 cond te"... ",th the l1gld, and an" .... ' ... fonn",, _tie openl)'
do, ... te.! an old work.rist ""'I<a!. II>" carle, Fro""",,,o Barben . nor d.d
lI is ",I.'io". " " h Mana Gludke 'n-.pro ... o"on ,file wrote. comf'l";",,,te
(1)11,,"1)' for 1>", hu,bond. ki lie<! ,he fronl m 191 S.
re,'.al. a '''IT'r i,ing 5C1I.I11I""y "'.... rd' ido.lislle ' I.v.lLm.n suppoflfn
of the " .. th>! irlCluded hll da; ...... p.lrn,,,, TOiII,,!!;'"
C;,."...,,.pll llll$O]>h ,cal deab"" aod hIS Socm,e melhodofpohll"al
cdtlCaIicn "ere """he! romprebend<d nor
by many ref"""'iI>
oroldo, r:odical. Rathe,. tl ",.. ,he gef><f1'1icn of 1910. ubtlrban ooci.I" ..
""h hlVo
o f .,.mpll"n fro'" coori",io" an.! kmjl._Ia;lIng 1IC$ "ith
. ,weh .. l<. "''''' h Im 10 1'01',,1., Tonncse ooci.li" poli l""
Krou P ",thi n Ih" , ,,beull,,re. the ..
!Itt.me more
IS ,he "'a, progrt"sed, I " .11 no" 'urn to I diloCU',lIln of !heir poil1ioo,
S..
""""'h
""n.."
,mpoftII"'........
1flIII'O<'' ''''''
"".<
"",1\"".
Th f T nr lncl"

0".,
1915--18
The "'or did nor c"",,, as , great >tJlJIfi", rot
Ganno.
Hc =.11ed
Ihe Ferno' CI",'e during thc \\.rs. ".minw of.n
Impend "8 catastrophe H""e\'cr. wi"," "'0' dId hre.k 0<11 ",veral To"",.,,,,
o". rehi,l. JOlll"d Ih< rc,'olcl l,,,,.ry int."'.nti",, i... T"o of 'lu.soli"i,
e3thes.! '<>Clale< "IT< \ " no G inda and M",\'nlI) RQC<'. In. .}'nd;c.h'15
P"lIodro Ind "'aM' "'ere ,,,,,ife",,,,, inl."enllOlli ... , OIhers, ""'h I I
Ganno, fdl"" rnodclmakns. I'a,ooi and lUlgi 1.llh. I Ars<tII1
... ""'er a.c"w In.be: r.""", Ubcnano. left for r nrlCe 10 ,,"h .he
g,mnmdm1on'be Marne"
I,,,,.
10110" .nl!: hal},', entry InW the "or, !be atII",hi" "",,'emem "'" ra,
le,< .."i,e than Pf'" The ferre, C"de " .... ,."'P""'ril} d.",.,d dllC
I" lad of fund, .nd '!w: doplttloo of ruppon .... e"u>Cd by
Th" I.",io Llbert"io I"" i" head<j u.rt. rs in 1916. ",any
onareh"., "ere alIT,'ed .nd do .. ined Aft.". the nOl. In May 191 S. C.ntl(}
ICHral month. In J.. L Allhough e\Ont .... lly ,elccd occaulC
of ill>ufficienl i""rimi ... ,ina c,KIe"". _Ga"no h.od been b",nded
radkal due 10 hi, l<1i, iu., in 1914 and 191 S_
GanrlO hekl fiftct,n d'lT..... n. jobs durin;1be ,,-at lie "'os ..empltd
rrom eOlllCnp""" !Itt.use oh becon. SQ he cnJO)",d Ihe f!dom .. ,
and Ahhough he was
wn I""".,
,he """,.nd fo r hi, ,b lls ... as luch In" he was "e..' ""e"'ployed, Dun"iI
wide wlge differen.ials
lhe "ar hi: ,,". p.'Ild W.""rous ly. recal ling
pem>le.! ""h,n ,ndu"ry; II Off",n. dl So, 'ah.no. "here he ,,""'ed In
1916. he
poid one"re hour ho. cOOKn",td ,,'orkm corned ,hrt-e
h... a day"
lIy urly 1916 the a""",hi", began 10 ... ""we.! ,igns of hfo
Ann" ""reh,m .tId """.hst! eoorum .. ed p.h'.,. prole," againSt ,lie
". il I'rime Mu""., Sal.nd .... 10 T unn In Jan".!), 1916 , In the lumme,
of 1916 lite Ferrcr C,rel. re<>pcllCd it> doors, The =st.b lish",.nl
,hea"" group. I. bIOOr_rnm. "ca Eden. broughl "."
'filII> ond the ) ""ng
onarrh,>I. (;,UOCf'!'C Motnbclti. prt$IJtd
0' or , re ..... "'d proanmme '" AnlI",h,;I> IISQ reappeared
In ,Ire.' demon$l"'''OII,.Dd II publk forums, On [by in 1916
. he anan.-h',1 \tl'lllI>'" .nd """,.1 )'OI'ng wortm ........
,re;I.d d"n"g an 'liegal In lu,,,, ,oIHmrl! n."..,.te.Ilha,'!w: la,r,"
gIQ""",/e of Borgo San Pao lo h.d called for a ulilled forn \ of ,,,,,,,,11,1>
.nd "ben.ri.ns, Although Ihi, was dcno,mced by (ir.",,,,,. i. "as &en",,!
,mportan. 10 he dueuS$<d a' lhe Piedmomese FGS tong ...... held
00 I luI). "here call. by oomc T<>riTlC$< OOCiali,., '0 follovo' Borgo San
P.>o;>Io's I.ad
rq""h.-.lI,.P n.e ",.<1I0Il by .he pro,-;ncial c""W""
of )'''''"11 "", i.hStS may h.... been I"'n .. lI)
J tJ,.he pubh.'
dose",,,,, of }ounll 10 ,hi:: .""",h"IO. 5C,,,,,,1 of whom
wmlld . , .n con,iderablo on
In 1917 and during the
hio"",,, ",.,, ,," II,. the <11m me, the pr.f..:t als.o noti'ed Iho ItI<",a"" !
":"'''Y o f II .... nard".'1 .nd wrotc to Rome on 26 ""gu" thaI II 'IS

rominllJlI), dcHlopinllln )'ouna "",,,,I,,,, cl",l.. Ihrough the publk
",nd. tamed out by the more capabl. lnarehll aod .hrough " .. kl)
pm",c ...... ,n@ ho.are becoming
By!ht 'umrner the
I .",io I.ibcnario "'as ":"'t _8aln , On 25 June 10 members ga'hered 10
d,s.cu !he" rosi""" .fter ,II< rec.nt of "" _"li,ntcr"",",iO"'"
0'.
.h.,
""S
""n.e,,
pol"'" ,,..
".f.
n'IO." ...
,,,"tI"
LSI in FIOftro<. In lhe ."Iu"",, Ihc r""",,, L,bcnano (no" n"mbtn",

f,,,)' 1 "OS .norM .' 'ht socllll",>' !Itt""'I1, ...
"f,hI; \ "iNc an" \ut .i\ ")' ,n Tunn ,n 1916 an.1 19 1 1TQ5C
fro", m""d ifOUl" of atld sociali'lS. On. of lhe"
,,,,,n PO'"!> the ,u",mer and autumn of 1916
cern,d lhc imm"",nl <'teU",'" ", ,he \\oN:>l} (m.,.-mbcr
"r 'ho ,'\m""'l3n Indu>lIl.1 of 'he \\.",1.1 I .- Carl" T"'<.c3 h,
'hc
of de""",,, ... ,,,,", "ha, "'" w,<kl)
I '" U "0",,,,1 ,.,,'''''') "ore fhe
g"'cmtm"' "atu",II), tl>o "''''''h''l> rla)'oJ prom",cn, .01" in Rom,
\I,b"
Tu rin I t W", a" ,x"" i,," f," the I"f. '" rail )
Ihe "M. and "n"r a f", T",," (In 2 Se r ,c," hocr. of
"x iol""
"h i,,, 11\" "okn' i"" i.1"n' i" ,hoc ci"
,'cntrc, Ten do" Ialcr, afl<1 ..."IIe, p, "" ,e """W", ",,,c'ing
.. Jd",,,,,d by 'he "-'< 'JI,\, J'put) I .......''''"'0 Cit.:oni, m.,r. J"furban,,,
"",. pi""" On 20 Scl"l.:mt>:r ."."IIe, ",o,"g b) ,hoc aT\O",h"1
I :'3 .nJ the "",i.]i", .....Ma. Go,J,,'. and Rabbou,,,,, ... "
.n.",h,,, .n"war dl>onbulod "'l"""""" (;rupp" .II It.Iog",."
"""'" L'f It, mnn""'-' ,d.""" \H'" 'I",dl) "" 1.-.1 ...
On. of ,he I!1ffi1 p,,,,,,,nCTU mom""" "., C"""'<ll Qu:.gl,no. a )"""1
"ude", '" the 1,lItuto T",,"ioo Soonn""I., Ib IIJ'OU ,n Tunn! The pOllo<
l""tId .1.000 oOp,c> Oflhe group', le.n ... dunnll a ,.id earnc"<l oul on 2
(,)o"\t,,r, On 15 (kwbe, a g'''''p "(t"ch ""'-' arres'cd Th",
"'er. e"he, \ ery y{>U"g 01 qu"" lO,ddl, atld
/i>r . 11
",IT manual "o,h","
, 11<'or 'unou' n,,,,,,, 10')' <lori'od fro'" , ""' ngo ''''path) r",.
g""' p of Y<Kl "g miIi..", OI";,,.r ('.I I", I, ,, ".ro currently holdong
.1i"""io", "'oth G''Inse, "' ,1>0 cdlt,,,,.1 "mil'> "U I Gnd" dd P"!,,,I,,,"
I he gmup', I nc' .wule<.! '0 s.o lJ,ers 10 Je.crt . 'Hj !<, ""n. n.,i,,,,.1
"" "II tt> Inal on 1'117. " 'Y,rn . Cherub,n, and Elia n,,,en ,-..I
,h",c; car priS<'ll seOl,,,,,.,. Qu.gh"". .tId Allolio r""e"ed I'",
)t ..",. All ,he ,mp,,-<Qned wore rekN by <301) 1919 dier 3 ... 1
'","".f)
dtcl"ored .,
B) ,he <Um"",r of I 'I161M al'\lO!<h,,,, ""'. (>romi"en1 in
d,,,u.,,,,,,, and ,ltttt d,.,um."" . and ,heir
.oem'"
of a1'''''''"11 Its, pohlllali. ",)m,mt",d Of ,he l().l
,nd" ,Ju.l. an=ed dUllng ,Il< 1',\11"">. 'bony "eTC untkT 1'1
)""" Qf age and furthtt <() "ndor I"cn,y""" .' you.h. too. "uuld pia)
a do;;"", rok in 'ho I"", 4'W"I of I Q I 7.
".1<
.,,<1
,,,,d ""..
"'''''pi
"">
"""""e>
"'
T bt FOil; of 22126 A" \:Ui ! 1911: O rigin'
ha,.
r...,r maIn cau,n

bt"" ..ho"".<1 10 upllin ,1>0 riOl,ng of 12
26 AugUloI 1917." The fl,.." .md musl impor"'"' ,,'" !he b;gh
ofb:l,oe nee.,..;"", ,n '!"unn. an.1lht collapse of dfte"'.prm,;,Kln
In. of no,,, ond bread ,n 1911, In lhe SUIIlIl1<1 G",m",i had OOlN
,,,,,,,,= olonmng .. nde""ioo and had
fll<
of \be
Wh,1e hos 131'" us..noO!U 'M' G;ol;ltlan d""",m. sabotaged
'he p",,',,;on,ng SYllem ro u to d;rc<l" ,h'It opponc"" in Rom.
ny ht ..."I.tId"h,
oi,'Itc""" of absurd"i", and in<:qu,h"", "ere
ICC""'C c,""'gh" h><kcd. the f'flt signs of P!O!Cs' were " match of a
SIll,1I group of womc n to fhe oflh. e;,y. ,",p,,,","d by ,he lonll
. ., On. oflhc ru,,,,,,,rs lh .. >eemed deepen ,he
of the ,"" i. 1 " renee""" of )'Nrs of SlOKJ-Up re<entm.",.
The mQ>! common ",'ole<.! men"",OS of Iht Fre""h Rnol,,!ion Wh,k
P"S'>,ng a II"""!' of

her tu ..,. mol'" oar, Dwe.lthy w"",,,n
".s "'"posed '0 halO h ised ,ht hunlU}' fM' lhe) oould
...1 If bread .. ", no IofI&e1I'a,lablc' Thore os ",de;.pre3<l cireum
Slan"al '" tdence '0 "'1\&'" IN" nour "as bti., dil ened from populu
.uburban '0 """" pa"!}'
,n t1>o c;ry lIlre.
Indeed. pa.!!) si'lors ""'" a
of Iooomg dUllng ,he fi ...
<by', nolong."n.: authon, .., !'CCOlIn;d \be
of ,,,,,,,,mud< ;n cht"
>I<:n! ofpro";.iOllmg Ind noodod 'Il< Ira ,,!th /lour and bread. bu, Ih"
'00 late w pre, "m ".r;ous blood'hcd,
Ifthc d()Sure sp,rked offrioung. lite second ,"usc. ,nd uo
tr;, ' unr"" ooupled "ar w,"nne. workcrs' 'CllIP<:'" Mot io
\ I"nl.gnan. rec,lled hl> foi l"" "O!"km:"", " ' ho O,ano plan' qu iokly
I",n,formed , bre.d prol"" ,n lOan ,nnwnr <k(t\()ll"",.ion ,"
Ily the 'pring of I'l l 7 an all ,anco of _ .. hil> .nd anarchist. ,,,
oun c"",idcn.ble . .u", upon Buo", .tId Colomb;no, &0"", of II",
P"''"'u" arose from !he incre' ''"11 ''''p"n'''''' of!ht US I and it> Sindac.,o
\ 1... in Lilluna ... ,><Ioub1tdly lhe ocriou. nOl,ng ,n s..tri P{lflC1l!<
in July h3d nurt.ed .ffee15 upoo !he O'!T1O>p/'lcn" ,n Turin', -",burtn dunng
,he " .... , kading up 10 ,he tls,ng,- 110...,...-. Ill< probl""'" of
k>nJ
1i"",:meI 1he """ d,,,,,plin.ary rod< ,,"hm ,he fxtori", began
!o dim"" ,he PN"" 1lIal faotonc> had I\nm 191) to 1916
ho", C'atly \Iatch 1916 "''''''' brol. 0,," In Oetobet Gar;no ,001<
pan ,n an ,tId\lSln.1 d"l'Ule at Sa"lIhano .,;"n8 from ",'omen's demand.
fo,. higher wageo, A slIO!t 8f\Onie,al "'as .. compamed by m<e1,ng
af lhe ms" dcl popt>lll ,n 1l0'1lo V,nona Garino
<M . ed ' ''.r 'hc
dema",!, of ,h. m;kers w('" "."ilily "'c" More 01"" <.000 w",\ers
"arnc-d
'''''>1"<'''''''',
u,"""""
d,,,,
h,'
q"""....
'0
'""'S'"
"""n.
w"'
",01""".
001 ,n "lth him, and ano<htr """ beld al,"""gIo

.h" had no effec. "" Glnno 's postl"'" ""
Other al\lln;h.ru '"'''' ,nc"'-"Lnlll)
"nhm factories: San,,",
or Du""",,, lb. 1888,n AleWndnl) ",,nm r iot F......,,,,
W", ,ncr.u.ngly pl\l""nenl "ithin nO\1 "hhough lie "orkcd in til<
Arsen.l. ""'" ,mp'"'' 'n', p"map<, ....,to Mano (b. 1882 a' Valle
S." Nicol" the' orce llcse). L, so many olh", Tori"." anarchi,a ho
m igrol<d from tn" ,'oredlt",. ,\"1". bulh 'n 1110 Piedmont... and 'Ncr,
n i"".1 "",,,,hi., """.,nc"" .inc. ,he 18'X)\,'n (he 19()()s he h.J I,,c'{)
," Lond<.n onJ. "or\..ed ." "h all"""gIo Ihl< dMl noc
h.m 110m .... p.u1 m """"'!>S! poll"'" earl.O'I', dUI1n8 Ih. in
"""hem 1....1) r...,.., 1915 he " -,,, ... ..,UH lnatth,., on Turin and panil;u.
larIy prom"'('f\1 ""h.n FlaM as On nrpnLlO'l' both ,n L,guria and Tunn
II. " .. an od,OClI'C of uni'al) syndIC,I", and ",o."ali" (r.o<lc Un","" .nd
oecmcd to h.... mo, ""h lOme 'IKee ,n Scs ... Pooe" and Bol.. ",:I'o
He "''' cd aj a condu" of tnfoomatoon bot"""n .he 'pJ<!;e.l i" S,ndatalO
Mct.I"nl! ico 1.><1 subu rba n "narch"i> ."J """ .. hslO 'n Turi n, Se,'cr.1
.rloc le> ,n 110\1'. , rade Joumal, .d,oca'lna a u""cd front of 1Il0,al
,,<>rIo.CI'> ""'y h",c bo"" wntlen by h,,,,_ Ik wo. 11.,,1 coolly by
leadc",hip
"p"lled from ,he "Wlonal tx>ord ILig"na) of ,he
100".1".1 MobohL"'",n in ,he au'umn of 1915 Ill .. 'ng. si, mon.h
"""mc.-c III",,) fo. am,-"",
in lhe ",nln and SjlnTt&of 1918_ '
G .... 'cr Ind """" cwnul i'-e
on 13"""';1 Ind h" lsooci ... >
cam. lrom .he (j'''oo-F.t'I'rn)-Boero alha",. "i"'on Tunn', 'IIIronan,
FlaM bro",h lIuou, 'ried 10 "'al some oflh'ir .honlkT by II"rI<h,ng
.n .Ighl- """r da), dunns .1Ie sp"ns of 1917 b<J, he anJ oillor
members of'h, Ir.d'l1>h,p "cr. ,u "JccI"d '0 "' ..... <1)' me."",&> .hat 'P""II
."d , LlnUner, An ngonl of hodu\ttial MohLh>.."o" d.nned ,loa' .he anan;h i",
"on' ,"'''''''s, ng 11>:" """,i,dand""ine P'1lI,,!!.nda " ,Ih,n Ii.ll)' f"",IOriO!<
and one C"<.n'pk "f'lIe 5) nlpWhy ,hey .,oIced.:an be <Io1llOOlSUa.ed
b) ",,.IIL"'" ) 10\1 mteI'''g held on.ll M.y 1917 w hen 0'" 1,000 meIlIl
"-01 ern".led ,n'o .he CharnhcT oflaboor to ,lie "","$I on ,he
f.c.on." Gi.. "" <pOLe for .he lefh"na Of'pUO,,,on and <Iomanded a
g<'ne,al .rnle agllLn>l '''''uSlnll MoMlu, ..", and aj?m .. d..
1""''''.0 of .end,ng rroubk",me ,,<>rIo.en '0 pan"ulariy 1<1h.a1 oeclol'> of
,he " ar fmn. Th. FIO\l e_, ""u.i, e cotn"'''''e .llmed the .. med crowd
bu, on 23 J"ne I bin" confront. " "" eroJ'led OIIC. "8"''' oc, ......," " Ferre""
G."no .nd l.ocro, o n lhe "ne , ide. and lhe ("'(UI;'. comm a,e.." on Ihe
o' her. '"
'I bo .. f..... u" ...
,,,,"uned ju'>! IS ,lion u""m, ,al
>Ink .. (" h"'h neHtlhek" had the op<n 'uppott of!he I.n" 'ng of FtO\1l
prom"'"....
a""
m""'
broke 001
,n lhe aulomobile pl...... _On 5 JUIlC SOO"odeB """'k a. San
G'O<'];IO-F .. , 0'"<'1 dIK;pltne_ "00 lbelt poinl
=Iott, fun:man "u from
.f,.,. particularly
July 1,000 ".or\..s

\800 mctI and 200 "ornen) ..... lhd out al Rap,d, The" dem;onch lneluded
10) P'"
,ise for .he ",,,,,,,,n and f.... r disrrilm.i"" of picee ,,<>rio., "'
Allhough ,he", ........" ,lion Ii, ed, .hoOf FilSt,
in Augu" "orkel'S from Rap id . ",1 San O,org.o "'",,Idoc panicul..ly
,n Ih.
Soodly, lhe {)Ider anan:h 1 OWOS"'OII of 1911 12
appeamt one. 19atn '0 ,,,,,,a .,, B..ou.'HOOrrol of "";""i,ed car ... or\..."
n.: R"!oS'''' Ito,olu""" ,n F.bru:tl) " ... lhe Ih.nle.a", of ,he ,.,
Uere, 100, lhe .,,-,reh,'" pl.yed prom",..." n*, pilnictollriy ;n int<:rpI'CI,ts ,he ,ubttrtw> In rhe fi .... pi"". Tonn ..,Ied
U I "",n:. for Inan;h,,, 1""""1,,'" ago"''' .he ".r and ,n ... ppon of
,he R".,iln R.,olu"""_ Local anarch"" jlC',n,ed .wo of Luigi rlbbfi'l
Il"mphl .... (r.bbr,
M.I"escl's I.a.dlnll ,hc<I",lici.nj. The fil'>' WOS
."Iolled La g"c,ra gil Q"Q,.-hld (Tloe E;urop.'''" liar Qml
A"anhi>/.<) Ind ",n pubh,iIcJ Ln Jun. 1916 I, WI. "'nnon by F.bb,i 01
\ 1. latesca" bd",,, '" onkr '0 denootIC. lhe ,{) m.It"",,1 pro,,, . r "oa,chisc
m,n ifo"o ,.."ed.n ron, i" March 1916, n.: loCCood ".,,, a ""n if10
ppwr $' ,",m'.. (G. ld ... ', f.moos <Ior",nl d",(um 'And )'<1" "",,c,'),
published 1<"5 thon I lear Ia..... "" 15 Apr;1 1917. and one of the firsl
ltali ... al\llrehlll acrounts of the febnoal) Re"\1)lulion, ,..
Th< 1916 1>0...Ue'l. anticipales the April ma",f..to Fabbri ...." conllCCto""> ocl"""" ''''Il''nal"m .nd ,ap"alosm, "eleOO>ed ",'h """"-I'OOns
,he Zitnme", .IJ Mo".tnen. and .Ltd .he need for uni.ed
"ar fro,,' of an.rehi". and .o,,,.lisc,. P""ifill well .. call.
for a nego"'''.'' """ ',menl bet" .en wcr. "'J.,d_
'he "or
"'.\ scc n ". oceuion for "",i.1 1'C,olul;on, . nd Fabbri (u nder 'he
Od"orJ,o Agnelli (')1, look hean "(
recent Sinn FCIn
up(ist"8 ,n Dublin. In April 1917 il seemed u,f Fabbri's w"he. had
1>" fulfilled ,n RUSJLI .. '"
n.: monl drown from Fabbri'$ J'Il'Ple prOS( ..... ,h.a, only m,h",,"
,mi.".. , JIfO'JI'> !lad profned frolll ,he R"!oS"" Re"\oIu'K>r>, ,n "h,<h.
rna., ot "",l eI pta,.."' "'ldi.... "oold !IOOd ",mum a " ..l 8m'omme"'
of hbr",l! and liOC,ali,,,. Thi. broad,hee' ... med .0 hI'''
a ",(Ie .",ulotion in nonhem and cen.ral Italy, g..... "ll .he
,moonlit! some eousc for "1.rm'" C.".,nly by ,he su",mer of 1917,
when cI< kill''''''' of M"".he, ,ks .. >r> ",.,
J"",,, ,he mpa,sn in 1916 ,JI"",ro fo. publ,c demonsua"""s
0..
co'"
'''I'..
n"",
on,
"a,
.,,11
R"'IIo"
,h.
s.x
aga''''tthe "'a. "', too. did the", mIlCh IlIgOT OUl<1oor ... offe.".",
oppoMun,ucs. DIonna , .... l<C'Cond ".,..,,,na in Tunn of'he II,,><-oan Agro fOf Pe3U' on IJ '"'"aus'.IAe. Semo,i had ,nattu"ucly t.... "'la'ed
tlot of the Gokknbe'l 10 orpea, au eMir"m
of the "'or. local 'rig ,d' _ial"1:5 _rod the anarch,,, ,o,=Im<> Acu,i. (..-c
Cbaple. T",'o) rcitcn:ed ohc ",.
The au th",mcs may adnolOledged the role of bre.d
1homoS'" in ""ung off 'he ,\ugu., nou, hu" c.. , ,to.)' "ere
co,,,,,.rocd aOOon ,he pan pl.yed by an.",h"t '''>!lg'' otS, The f"""h C'u'"
of tilt .iO!>. 'he role of Ihe aM",hi,ls, i5 clo .. the most <(})"en"",,,
"" "h ,he fum ",,<ulTing leu th.n a fonn lght .t\e , Acu,;, 's in'ononllon.
h. wa, clea,ly marked out _ 5Capesoat, Iiu"'..... r, at h i, tr;a l in 1918
to llo" mg his arre51 in Stplembe. 19 1?, Acull. walacquitted of.1I cha,",
rel.t ing to tto. jaill. Funl><nn<)ft, ,he I ... rchim doc,_lwo ",,'.r claImed
'Ilty organized ,he mi 'ial demonstl1lll0'"" In hi s old G.ri"" on "',.nd
oceanoos agreed '0 thl< prop<ition, ".. ClO$<"r ' 0 the owot!. on ,he fir>!
.nni' ....... I). L ",4"'..ni", A1UI,...h=, and in ,to. Tonn(Se ooditi<ln of C""'''''llt" Kiln" C ...", Sobnto
,-"'" Cha", .. T",,,) c!O!!nood ,he nOli Wm: complo,.1y 'p<>ntarocou5.
1110".'''- ,hi. sIIottld DOl be: ronli.krtd ,II< t1>O>l di.in,o..,,<iI SOUrc. of
c"dence "nee- both jon"",I, "C'" t(fltood by . .. etUmOurcd of
Ipono"",,")"1 Humncal !"CCOIt>Ul>CI""", how''''''' rc",f"",. the COItiCn\.U$.'"
It" inil ,."d 'hI>. " "'"lClh"'l! to ,he .u'honu ... Concerns. rm,'.
.nJ"h IS" d id ha,. a clearly deflocd no:1"or\; of ""m. In
foctot->C. and ncighboul"hood<, I . Irudy noted ,toeir i""oa"nll ,mpoll'
oncc ,, ;t!ltn FIO\l. bu, in the AI,,,,.,.i' rI.'f'011e<1 progre>si, 'cly larg.r
""",Is at meeting. of the: Fo""o L,b<n.no he ld ."1,,, lQC ialjm' b<erh"1I
,nd ,n ,h.ir ,ub..rban 'lrongheld5, ". s.x:ondly. Ithough thcy "'". "",
."",,,,ely dTeC1t"., members of ,he I\on," based Com""".. of Inter.
"'''on.,1 Anarchis, Action dId '''PI'ly tl:<- local an.",hi51' with antH"U
Ie.ll.". For imtanc<. G.ri"" anJ anotll<. ana",I"" W<re ca"ght ",nding
,,,lImllo,,,",, 10.11..,,, (pr.,..,ou.l\ by ,he polore in ""pl"l '0 a
f]"(KItI,,,. >OId1C'l" (GOo'lInnl \ mon. b, 1891 ,n T uri ... "arp<"IIlCTl in \Ioy
1917. '
\lost of the .ub-I ....,. literatim and eorrcspondc""o btl"""" Torinc>c
"""",hlS!S. ooId,..... deocnrn and lhe Commin"" "<rc tramm.UN through Giu",ppe Ranmcrro'i lb. 1867 ,n CUlIC'(>j ".,.. lioslr. ,n
Vi, 'lUll. B.r;>ttoro lnolnt:linc. LUIgi Ikrtoni. ,hi: Ion&-Jlarod,ng
of /I RUl'eg/o" In
Gene", It ..em. de. r .h., !la",,, o .rId her a n.",hi" ",uu,lcd
delcn"" '0 S"'L<.rlaoo or h tJ 'hem ,n l un" by >ccu''''i' fal"" P'p'rS 10
cd"""
.... or!< In ra<:roOcs. G .",oo d.",'S ,h" the 10.... Circle arod lhe Grupp<>
Barrien dl \Iil...., Ioclped , RI,I".. )"""" for I!OOd """""'"
palilCub!ly
"",i,'c, A loadIng leli-" in, ",",,"IoSl. ,.... '.,.polltan I rato<cs<o
w .. ""uglood to S"lllcrlind and I. 1<2>1 <!w,ng the "-"'. lu be
'oOITIC1h1"l! of. linl btl".." Ton...,. _ .. I"... the 1/ R;.,,"'8/'" irouP
and desert"r.; in I,aly.h)
.
How"'=, a Tori ..... pol;"c IJI)' "'m, "'ntot<.rod clllmttl In an uns,gned
nol< ..-n1t<n in Julv 1917, that the Sf!. Ren"nl. tilt Intemanon.1 C"m,
miU
the T"";".,,,, ana"h'Sl5
en .. ,II< Gruppo Barriera dl
M,I.",,) werc plOlttng an In,unc<"on , Gramsc, may ha,'. alS(> nOlffl the
eel>o of ,he", cl."". III s..plomh<r 19 17, "lten ,I><y wcro Jl'OS"bly le"l.ed
'u .he cnn,en'ati, 0 p re .. , La'e . in January 'S," ' IO gave. 'pooc h
,n lund, deferodmg the/um. "hlCn conflrrnl ln til.. mind, o f.1>< oudoon'
,i<l the correet ..... of ,he &P}'"I p""hCllonS, 1101' C\ c. other rcpOflS by
til< >arne I!'Y show lh.u !be R"""," Inan:h,S!. Tomn",,,, \lon.; .. III, wnung
on behalf of the [r....-nation.1 Commo:reo.1t1pp(at'nI rrnJaJ1<ably In,nfon-ned
of To... ".,. t'en1. dunn, tbe: .UI'JII'I'IC' l It ""flIC<tffl inf""""'ion from
,to. Tori...,.., romf3dcs obouI """'"' in Tun .. \hl ... Ind Liguria. and wood
,II<on for ,ugg..,<iI anlH'''. proJIOgand:a "boc" ,he Cumm"''''' mi&ht
prcparc. buI he only p .. vag ... Indeed.. TOfi !>e5C
a .. rc",0;1 '0 \ 1""'ocelll ,n Qc,obt-. 191 7 lanttnll"l! tbe looLouon
"fTunn before. dunns.nd .n ,he . nd .... ood the In'cmal''''''''
Cornrn in ' 0 coli ... , 300 Ii", for the of pnsoncr.;. 'Ilt "oundtd
"nd the dead , '" P",.in.unc.:tiona.y pl.""mll ",.m<d mmllnal ,Ite
o."ho,;uo, had confu ..d th is "'I,h a ",,1"'00<. ,ha, dlllnbute<ll l1o ... nd
h,J or ,,,,,,,ported, (pcrh.p.) "Mu ilicant "umber of de .. nor.;. l low..-cr.
<'nco ,h. riN;ng <omn\eoced dunnM the ofle""",n o f 22 Augu>! 1917.
.naIThl s!S sought '0 impose la<'ic.1 and ""I;lll)" lI"i,l.:Jncc On ,Ioe unfoldmg
de\'doptnen1S
,,=
."d
\Ii"."".
I.'
Wben bai.eries ",ma.lned cl<c<J on the ..-..'nB of22 Au,,,, group of

fifty ".-omen II<adeJ fOf ,Ite unt"" nlan:bcd IU tlte Palaao <.Itl
Popok> "I><tt the Chunbtl oflabour and the AGO toad the" headquaric,.;
In' ...... ptil\i ,bc con&"," of lh. SF!. CUITCn,ly be,ng beld ,n TUTln.
,he "'0""'". by""" JOined t>,.. la'e. c"",d of Iltl.! .n
mprumpln prolC<l mcC1'"g, R)' mHlll)' tto. Arsenal wor\m In Borgo Dora
had " alhd 0.' .rod "or!<er; fro," Borso Paolo, and otlters from
OIf>einc di D' 3"0 of B.rrie,. J, C>!l>u.."" millood in ,II< ,treet; QUl,ide
thl: Pal.uo, "The mco"nH wu
by 'Ilt ",crct.ry of lilt Ch.ambe.
.""""sed
so
of Llbour. and lbe .. 'Y o( lbe 1",,1e WlI<ln.

Borghi Ik,.. II lbe blod"" III from
buildin, "lid IIThl"" Borgh,. l)'Albeno ,nd doleg .... from the SF!
eon"",>! ( .. 110 Immediatdy rclea><ill "'IS <)nO oftbe
"hy III<: proIe'l 'pread '" quicUy, I'hrougho"r tilt d"l"rWlI<e.
Ie.dc" o( .<ocilhsr rany and Ir><\c umOM "'ore eilher am:<lcd or
prt\< nl<d from ,o",,,,unic,' ing ""Iril II", ,, fo ll",,'ers. B"o" i. for IlISrorICC.
" a, pre'ellled froln
ma"ife",,, a.suring ... ol x.n Ihal bread h:>d
am,ed ' Furtll<:nn<n. rhe sec,."",')' of rhe COL. Rin:lldo Rlgo/a. ' .... alloo.
In!! In O,dl .
,"'c"<I1(; ,lid "hen Serra" am,'wln
TUl'ln he WIS immt<!I.,.ly .=>Ied_
n", p<H"'Y sccnu '" be In ,haIp conU'lSl WIth pm.-arOiolinian !"XI"'''
dunn, JlCncrll .. ri .... "h<1I the ... ,ionJl Icadcr<hlp ofrt.. Soci .. li" Pany
and 11-00 Ir.dc unoons "-ere encooragnl '0 ,""imaln Ii .... of commWlicllion
"'Ih Rome.1Id liS prefecl', In Tunn. !>o'.>'CHr. Prt(ec\ Verdiool' ,,'a!
prepared 10 <""Tinlte O,oll"i', older p""'''.c. bUI the harder
line "00 IIIC ,u'Y, FInally. Ih. """"Ity of Tunn. "'.Y"" ca .. on ly be d<;",ribcd
'" IrlCQRlpelcn, and ,=spoIISlble
Oy ,be aflernoon of 22 Augu" .. noo, dasbel bc1wn police and
dcm"n,If,,"''''l-prud around !he
..J)""en"o ,he Palalro d<l PopoIo

do"IOO>!"''''''' attempted 10 man:h on "'"m)' barrack> buc were
bea .. n off b) Ry or 5 p_1l>. .1I "-oo-l t..d c.,. .. d in the
lac..,...,., Shor<- ..... re 1"",\j!.1oootd IOrdothlng. fuod and gun<_ Tram
ceased and mU"l<lpIIl polioe ",mons m ,he of Vlochll,(h. w=
a"oeked by mob>, The cil} h.1I "as surrounded by demonstMurs.
"hlle .nned
a .... ion of lbe <<>UOCII. and ' he nllyO<
fea .. Ii". hi. life, By ,he cycni n8 0(22 Aug"" Tt.. fl JS! bam,ade.
"en: h" il! .nd hea,'y gunfire ",'erbe",,,d ,hmughou, 'he Cl II' " nlil

.
Wilh lhe ''';OP'''''' of 5On"" "OI1'lCJI .nd yoo,hs. ""'" <it"""'Slra'OI'S
'''''Ie d",'e" fl'Oln ,he oen're of,he cITy .n.t 22 AUSU>I and ac,ion ""nod
'" lhe ."bum..... n uoo/f", ...! g<T><"'! .1rIle " decl .. rd on n
.nd e'e" thou", bre..J ....... 'allabl . the: "",0IId of riOlinS .. 1lR<'$Srd
.,'en . ."" ,iolene . 50 lhal mart .. III" "I> decla.w tha' aflcmooo,
The o( d,.,um".. w., localrd in Uorgo San 1'0010. Bame", dl
)\;aa andllamen di M,I .oo, All"'"P" on !1Ie 2J and 24 Augu.lto reach
Ihe Cen1fe of Turi n "ere repol,; 1by .nd alpi" ,- f ierce ba nlos
"ere fough' .t Pona Mo,,,,. Port. Pal.'11lQ and H-orgo Vil1ori,,_ f o r til<
""11" 0 dly< Ihe ",burb, rema ined Th. In, .. (orn-.....,
To lhe """,h ..... 6orgo San P""Io" at 'u' orrby w""'en' baIT",ade
..,I '0 ,he om, ,,'" term,-jene on (-I.'IW ""lIClpe 0d.I0nt ... hik. on ,he
"'""'&.
'0
.'n:m
''''If'''
'I'00I>'
Olber end of,..., boule"anla (onnldable bamcadt of ",mumcd dec-tnfled

Inm c:an. lhe ma," "",Ie north ' 0 Barri .... d, Lanzo, [qually.'o
lbe oortlt. IJ.Imm d, M,I.no """ iwl.,ed (rom ,he cenlre b) bam
cades, 0.-.:. on CI.'IW \'m:elh. was composrd Qf dow".d trees. I\w: other.
d"",r to IIIe 'ITy <entre on Corso Ponte M=a. b1JlII by work,,,, from
fj >l San G;"'IIIO and I .., Dre.. ,,;. wos <"ml'O"''!lnll..:le-rnoal i"",<itm. OOmIl'L:llcd ,he ri01i"l!., 1lK:
of San (kmanllno In
San Paolo .... as burn, down .nd 11$
had 10 floe (Of lhelr h, ... aft",. a <ro ..-d or '.000 Im,rd '0
..... ng from "" Incidon, In 1916 ,,-brn lhe monh Il.oi!JICd "" ml )0Ilf\'
bo)" c.ught Slca"nl pean; from the .. golden, \leon .. hile. police oprned
fire .nd 'hree demon""""", In \lador".. di C.mpagna. ,be ch""'h
o(L. """n Slgnon Iklll Poc. wa. oacked.nd. mI flag planlN In ill
bdllo" or r n",ged ci"ilia " , opened lire (""" " rb,' house. I. il li ng "n,1
,evonl l "ole/$_
" " om plS IQ r.""h Ih. ce",re of ,he <ity on Tile H .nd 24 " ug"" "ere
"n,,,,,,,f"1. bu, """" flgh'i"g did rexh os (.... P'OZ2.l JI ,he
army and and marched on It.. ... burbs In
one ,,,,,,<itnt. howe""". "omrn >lopped !heIr (Of\< ..d march te""""",nl)'
b)' ""iing. ,i,.down In tIw:
IJ) 24 ""gUll rhe .uth"""e... m:
bewmmK al3rrncd. a, 1M "'"re pre,'oollng III<
p""'"iutlltlg "I' Ill" "<nil' of lhe cot }', It ca"", a gr ., relief whe"
armoorM smashed through 11K: I3>T bame," un Ih" Allgust, 0,&""
ized ",.istl""e col l"psc<! On ""g"S!,
M"", ac.ount> of 'he up"''''g emphasiu il$ 'pontancily. }'''' C<juJlly
and ra,h.... c<>n,,,,t,,,,,,ily .13,m ,ha, lbe noters bad bull' elabora,e bam
cades. ') .. tmlI!ally Iooord gun st.op. and "'lI.'''.:I marches 00 !he ,i'l
""nl"" ('nlllnly. lhe .uthonr .... """" caughl off!:uud by tile ferocl1Y of
the "ollng Ind tlen the """ilhSlI in the ,enlre orthe oi'y ..,..,.,... 10 be I,
a I.,.. IS ' 0 whal coo ... 'Q (olio", OS
>pnd ,hn>usOOu' lhe suburbs
M",o \lonla"nan. rec.lIrd thaI
,h.
.=1.
not"'''
M 00<. . . " h.. 10' "fom"," 00( ,Iu: .. \'o l,,"o,,",,<, {i ndoolnll my>tlf.
""",,II,') !LallO 00. hot
,,,,,,mun,,,,,, to the rn ..." . "he
WO/1,I '" ond lhe ... . ,.lId .... lhe "'QI.""". bUI ,.. d,Jn't !La,'< 1M
>I,I ...... Ide> ....... , mc-thod> '0 oclop! 0
.Iopn' '"
"
Ilo",.,tt. a docadc alier ,he t,..,nts ,h. ,hc-ort:'icll Journal of the lLalian
C""""un .. , Pan},. W S/alO o,x-rail>. M:a lled ,1>01 'here
;n Ra""",
d. \hl.orlO. '. rell "'Pn",," C.rUre of'he re,alL d",x,.d I a JTOUP of
."'''ed.
..... "'hl... . "
n..... ,,>ntfllSj;ng p.es of ."dene. an: rn:on."led once "t m:all

lhe Pltletn'! of proo.,ulready f/SLabh>hcd in 1914.nd 1915. Larg. groupo
of 1''8<ly apohncal or 1= polln.ally comnnnod demons,,,,,.,,.. 'HIT
gu,ded 1' compac' grt>ur< of subumn \ialim and ..... rchlSl'. Ga n""
"'Ii"'>les. rot" ins........ th. "hcrc "'.re po,ha", 10.000
ri",.rs .nd
1111>.11 wcll.organl"d groups of .".",him. and <i3Ii<1< " ,Ih
100 rnolnfS .nd flfloen rille!; at the ir di!PMaI . ," Althoog h ho may h.v
,aBRomlCd Iho .mOunl ofwca pons '''" lob lc, ,I .. police do ...,"'" '"'per
fire on lhe 23 and H A ugu s. anu ' Llca>! one omeer W'; 51>01 de.d and"
'""her '''0 ""Idio" "'OI.Oded by I i"'flltd. Lbrt>wn by I nOler. I.,
According 10 GII'llIO_ lhe Ilarri ... dl .l.1ila"" group US<:<!lhe Forrer
(tide as a pi .... li e t""nltroed SIx 10 eight acll"!t' as Lhe
<Kp1t,zers. Affinll> gr\lUr<ofTuscan. Vro:elle..-and Bielle..mililanI.<
essen".I. I\mons the """" prGmtntnz ana",hi,,, 1111..,1",'"
In the riob. besides h,,,,,,,lhnd his brotJt,o,. ,"',", \ ,"CC"nZO Bonaghl "ho
led hundreds of)outh. buildIng Ntn<:adts on CQrXI \trttlh. Giolan",
Lutgt Ikrr.o (a shop as,'5l:1nl bom tn Tunn in 188i) who org'l1Iled ,he
.k<:,rified IrIm NlTica&:. I'lelro Il.'ITCnl who mobIhzed ,he fi"t groop
or prot." ... ,rom ,h. A""",,,,! .nd II>c Ve",.n ... nl<.. han;, ,\nI011l0
(b. 1900. fUnn) who mobtllzed ,he w<>rk.fS off"t Il"" .. n; Ind
Fial S. " GIorgio Sobn.", "OS oN""tly :octile. bu. his .010 i. hord
10 I",en.in. Fina lly. Gann" .1.10 me'"",,n Mil . no", i",ol.,<-..I In Ih.
,,,,,,II in"" r " i" ie. ,\crordlltg '0 pol ire report, hlS may haw beon Umbcrto
Min1grucci o f tit. 'n' i-in""tn'i"".,, US!, 11O The a narohi,,, "0' on ly
Otpt"'-N rudimtm"zy armed , o."ta"". Ih-I-y also PPO di Rehgl<>li
made 11$ appeara""e and
le.O." ""re found In wburllan '''-eelS. ""iLb,n
harrx ... factories and mllilazy """""3Is .. "
n...., II.,... f.... ,ncid...,II, of b)' ''''''P>. oUhough "" 23 Augu ..
all'i"i refus<:d '0 shoot I t demortslralot'l tn Ram ... di \1,1100. Ho".\,,,-.
Ittording IOdomonsI.. lOrlo. ffIO$I '1'OOpIo and poIic. II
In fae, d,;.guiS<:<!
om""", or ca&:t<_ lillie inOucnced 1' IlIltrch.)I or SOCIalist propagan.lo.
Ind<l,n On. tncident in RoriQ San P:aoIo four ''''ilions 11...-0 shot d.3d
., pointblank .. ng. ali.. d",y implored ,,/pml nol 10 use their " poIIS,
R"'lSIanc. ""as crushed dC(11.Hly Ille 'ubutto.. In ilorgo San Paolo
m""h .,., fun " as pl3<<"<l . "he com ... of ,''''I<gt< Pio:ua !'<-schwa. and
ooJoinlnS 51r... " liOn: ,pro}' ....! "lin bull.:!,. whIle inlh. fIl ,i n "IU3n: of
,i,..
"'=
i.,
- 92
1.------- J .t. T unn: J Fa,,; til AI:O-I'o (21 26 1917) "
CramJt'i and the Anatt:Msts
Gramsci s App",",;ceship and the War Year,<
Bamera (\i Mi lano re"''"",e e"ded after eight ri oters ",'e", , hoI <Ie.d , III
Gartno', brot her was ,nd Coriuo <>tlly 10 be arrested
in the pro"L U"e< In Septeml,,''', .nd according to IllS te'limony nearly
\lImmarily ex",u".,1 by carabinieri. only 10 be spaml when hi' caplors
lea,,'ed thot his fa{her had been pan Oflh. fo"e for. quarter of a centu",
Ja il ed brteny, byea rly 1918 Garino was act i", wi th m HOM onCe
Fony_one ("'ilian" w ldiers and po li ce Wefe h lJ ed during the "otS_ On ly
{hrcc "ere members of II>e =uri{y forces, but mOre than forty other
,old"" or roliccmen hO'pitahzed. SOllie wi.h gun,hot "ounds_
Eigln hu n(lrcd'and-t"'-en!y" ",o ci,-ilian, were a"<stod alld " 'oil 0"" 300
,u, ili ary workers "ere >em d,reCt ly to Ihe fro nt 'nd placed in ,solaled
punishmem battallon,_ t" Be<au>e oIll>e riots Coporetto .nd a good deal
of ll,. Ic.:al and n.tional "",;a list "nd an.{(h;st leadership ".-ere det. ined
Llmillate 19 18 or earl y 1919
A lthough G'rino claims 10 recall iron discipline
factorie, dur ing
191 S, " 1S .Iso clear thaI employ"" de>lml peace and \0 Colomb i""
and Buoui won gel'lOrous wag" i""r..
from Agne lli dunng 'he 'pring
\>",&''''''"g round, r-ievenh.le, the Booro---G.riTl()-hrrcro left" ing "Pr><>mOLln,ed a ,u"amcd campaIgn within FlOM to d efend imp"SOlltd
demons!r.ltors ,,""
be"'a\'ed families. ' 0 push (as ,lie SH (II:man<\ed)
f01." eighl.hour day <lIrcct aclio" to oppuse collaooration
with the C(JrnrnIJSi<>niJSinw , Boow had been ,"<cessful, In fact, at ea'mg
m Lill"T)' dlsc'plin< In f"Nones, get1Lng mOrt "'Iisfactory pro"i,ion ing of
food a"d ",'en h"" ing some sa<ked ,,"orkers ",in,tated, L" Yet ""tn if Ihe
FlO\1 leadership h,w bee" ,urpri'ingly successful "t achie' illS reforms,
'he left oppu,it;on. and .n allied gcnOfle di'lrus{ among" Ie", pul;{;c icd
",or' trs, were not "nll"l)-, disSll"'tc,j, Meanwh il e, the 'trtnglheni:lg of
th. factory mtemal commls, ions from 19 16 ga\'e lIIe I,ft a fi,rm;dable
power base withm the facton", lhtmseh e" In 100e 1918 the"" "'''ed as a
'prmghoo rd for tht "narchi'" .nd fL{urt aldi,wl'i,,, , The memo", of ' he
biller >trcct ",arfare of Augu" 1917, [00, would be recalled du;ing tho
popular prot"'l of Ihe mlSO, Til< unh.ppy rci.t ionshlp btlw n
offiCIal laoou, in,{i{ution nd suburban md ,coli'm, had been
pre>em befure II>e war ond in 1917, wou ld rcappo.r on .g.in "'htn
peace " turned
,n
s."
''',on
'"won
Gram_.cI . "lIlhe \\ o rki ng CI. ss

So for I have exammed in th i' ,hapterthe evolution of Gramscl 's polit ical
through Ihc war, J hay. also discu<scJ the n. ,u" o f tile Torincw
working .. la" mO,cmor.t and the roles of t hc .n"rchis!s In it during the
sam. p<rioo Now I will tum '0 'he inte .. ct;on oftl>e suburban rodical,
with Gram",i and flnl>!1 by em inlng Gmm",i', con tnbution to {he debMe
between an "{(lum and "",i.l ists o"er the quo," on of fOfming all ;anccs
GrlI",sci ', prt"'OO: within the T()",,,,,,, labour mo'-emcnt during ",anu"e
is fOl,nd at Ihfl-"C Ieycl;: f,rstl;. I", iournali'lic impact alro,dy c,"milltd:
s<'"," dly. h" le"ure, to "",i,II'1 cl ub>; in 'he .uburus. flna ll y, hi' curious
'Club of Moral Life", Oral to"imony <l<n",,,,,,.t., that many " t' hi\ do<est
working-cl.ss foll o",er' ofth. biennia ",s<o t, rS! made III' acquJlntan("e
at II>e editon"1 office, of II Grioo dd Popolo, It "'" Gnu"",i', intell igcoo:,
mode<'), alld sang-froid that attrac{ed the ,mall follow ing ot' worktrs.
teehn ici,,"., SluOen" and "'{tliertu"l, I>e de\'eloped in these year<, Antomo
Oh<u i re<.lIs Geom"" durmg the 19 17 ri' ing (which was "hen
MaU"210 Ganno fi r<t nlet him), when ' he Sc.:lall,{ Party ""ct ion w,s
o",,,,,helmed by ma" am." of ,ts leaJership, edit ing a manifesto. moSl
prob,bly 'Le C inque Giomi del Proletari. to'("The Fi\'O Day, of the
I'rolctariafl. and ha"ng 11 typed .. the eng inoer', studto of GIUseppe
Rom""'"
\',",enzo Bi.nco, then a leeMgo worker. mel Gram",i at the edi{Orlal
omc", of /I G"dv del Popolo ,,"'hen he tlcll'ered ,,,,"'spaper rub"'n pflOl"
from the ,u burbs
The ",lItori.1 office. "ere important for h" mtel lectu.1 and pulili<al
de, e lopmont,' The)' be,ame " foc. 1po,nt for his circ le of lower Inlddle
and working.e l".' aco lyte" but also Ihe rocial sp.e" where th05e of
diITe"n{ Ideological .nd sp intual p<fiua>l<>n$. ,udt as young Catholic<.
'" Gem ile intellectlt,ls, fu,u"m and .n.{(him could engagt 111
an,," '{c.i but the ed,lOn.1 office. "Ofe alw impunant f..,,-
pcrson,1 "nd em"lIonallif<. lI is own cromped ",eommod"lIo,,, wc re not
f", cn!cnaining friend" I !e would oflen mee{ [llem .! the editori.1
ot1i,_at mil . bar ""ar his dilt' (Ioca,.d 10
San Martino oPllO'ite
headqu"nefS of til< carahmi ..n). or "ou ld d ine: w ilh a'''I'tainlan"", '" 110
includcd the Huoni family, which ,how, that ideologl"" 1 dIfferences in
tl>e.., eorly ),e.rs did not pre",'" [><""n.1 lies, (JndetJ pc""", 1'nn"", ities
debye<1Gmm"i from pol itical ' lI iaoo:s with ,uch r.ldi'al "''''lers
.. G io,.nn i Although m hIS in" .. 1years in T ", in hisci"k of
fri ond, \\'a< ",,{riu"" to "",,'ersi!), prof",,,,,, and "",k,,{,. """. I.. became
, recOnized """ialist joum:>list dunng {he \lar. 11 of Tll r; " was at h IS
feet. For e'en If Gram",i li ked to dewribe Tu ri n . . . hug. machine
;n het in many w'Y" it rcta ined a "", Ii -IO\\ n qu,r,t}'. A,
of his
"""-i,,., bet" .. " 191 S ,nd 1920 (Andrea V;glungo)
"",ailed, 'T1O ri" the n w", mLl<h ,ma llcr, almost a lorge .own and ;n CO"",,quenc. con lac", ",'en [><r>onai cont.cts, we re .as ie r' ,N
1', =
cI""""
l k "ortcrs "" '!U'8<.cd '0 hi' dis<us>1On ., "'" nAi...,. nf Gndo dd

Popolo nr a particular They ""'''' generaUy highly .k,11N '"
ttl"" ttl. and <=n.ttl .he I,n .he "h,lC"""lIar _lid mlollttru>J <:!as>es of
Tunn Ill on. GIC>Ii1O Carre110 tb 1891 ,n Tunn) 0 young r ..., "mcr,
.."". m ,he faciO<)' cOIUIClli In 1919 20 and an Impon ....
,n L "OrJin.: .\'"",,,. =all, .he sulln! In"udo of hIS \HlIkm""" I""ards
T""""", poht< OO<I"'y ber"", 1915 I 10 recall, a f:>clOry protffi :
tkf"", the Fir>! W..-kI WM. . ....ookm " .... h.""" .. l ....
'1""""
<,ploi,l
". ooun'l fOf T>CHh,.,. "'. Oad e,ery_

,he 00;s. Ihkri. .....
sbopt<<<p<f. the '"Y
e'"C1}"O<l<. " ..
Wo often len
<',._.
'i""" .,.
lhe f.e'or l<$ " " "",,' .ny "'Pn,,,,,,,,,. that ". ,pOl" ,noou,ly . . "rally ' ..
"",nl "" "';,<fOf .mo,,, "'..Oil< ('i><", "'m plm!)" of '''''''''). Bu t " ..,
d,d "t 00" Firs'. ".
"on,,. .. ,I>< "l'tlo;l1" 'nd sOOp ... indo"s, and
ti><n '.. o,."ornod the r,,,, 'ram ,,< <1><0',"1<1'1 in the
and ,lien ...
"<n' "" 10 .'rk .... marl .1,,11, ,net "'",">',hIOI ,ha, "'< foond "'. [fled '"
"""fOlI Bo' "'II)" 8-0... ,''''
Ii"",. tq>tnen'ed !he """""""" ..... _ .
OUr <nmI'" and ,n),h .. , ,.., C<lUId dc>tfOll .....
!he hesr.'"
'.ro"
,,=.
,,=
'Of
Th .. ""''"' ofhumilia,ion ,.-as poniculatly kll by ,,"Oft ....... h as Corm'o

... ;,h,n ,he '''''tOry i,..lf
.ft..-
Tho <kf\; .",.tal 'he "<>rkJhop!ell ",,""'OS t>ef"",.nd .. ,.. "'",01

"' .. not 10 n><eIll>< ..-otft: .... ood ,,""" 'hey tn<1 ",'hey <ro<.<cd '" the otht-t
,-.Ie of II>< 511<'<' There "<TO ,,<rl. ..... mj,.,lf, ""1>0 hod dooe j""" .00
j't... of 'f't"""n'.,e<h,p b<f"",
..... mol ",IIl ",otft:"". 'Il>o) "'<fI1 '0 n,gII,

,.,I>00I. ,nor ten hOOf< ofr'ClOf)'
for j'U" "W ye." '0 lurn Lio>Il>" '00
become coraMe [0 "Or. In. mnd.rn "wu"ry...'h ile mony der" (f om "'"
.. lkinS
,I>< m.na!!,,,) o.ptf'Ilthe , ",; ", d:ly

,he ..",. "'ord. on [oo...",od, , I,! of f>Of><' . ,hI' ..... 'he ir <lil ly joIl. 80' '0
, ,hey
<I<gn ,nd ..id 'Try '" <UT)';' ou,' WOO,. dltTereocel And
tbe;...
hlg/ll) ,.IUN! >nd ........ despiocd""
"'or.
.boo,
"''''''t'LlI.
8"'"
G"""",,'$ obihoy 10 '" down ""h such ,ncn 100 talk "'Iwall}'. w"hot:l
pre'en'IOn and ",i,hou, fIond ""'","", endeared h,m '0 ,hem. G"'msci
...... one of ,hem. one "h". h>r><h. >'" he..-2O ,"o,h u,.
G",m,<>'s lbili')" '0
,"1m lhe less cduca,ttl is dcrnonsnaied
by .Ioose recalling hIS ron;! I""",.., 10 lubutbon clubs ,n 1916
17. On 1..\ Augu," 1916 G,.,,,,,sci spoko ., the FIISCio Gio'''nile Alnttlc<>
Canl.l,"" in Bo<go San Pook> on ROITI)ft Rolland. Other inlpOrt3TJllecruros
",eluded ,hose.,., ,he r ... ""h Remlu.;"n. on lhe Pari. Cornmunc .1Id
\'",nan 'lid Socialism ("hich usc.! lbstns I Doll. IfQUU a, a
..
porn'j. l k ",il""""'! ,h;rl he " .. I "'" spelibinder.lId "'as , .......

fo", ronsodered by con,..,,,,_1 SlanJ.>rd,.. poor "",oker: bu, he In far,
,he", "",,'en'iom of _,alb' onlO<)' ,n orde, 10 thcil d,scussion
'rom hIS oooi..-.:<:. Ih. tC$p<'C' foo- hI! audience, intelligence 'M>QlttllO
<,mall irQIJpi of and.oo- It"lf-cducated "',,",<n. 1l>ey orpm:l1l1ttl
h,. ""'PtC' for !heir ,echnical and pDCI".I,ndu$lnol """" Itdge; 3nd obey
"'OR paniculorly al1rac:lttl 10 hI! prod""''''I!! """one.nd p""". 10 hi'
iden'i fICa';"" of U Iho prod"" .... , 'll
Of Ibc m3J1y ", nl1<n ','amples .. he", Gr;lm\Ci', .nr;>C1 ion to ,II< subutbo
.. 1'''''''''1. ". M .. hIS of'he 5"",,_leg. 1 \I.y D.y demOln
"m,; """ of 19 16. \\ hieh un<lcrlon," ,I.. "'pt't",..,y ofthe ,'"bums in "hlCh
I><: kCIU",J. ", ,I><: eny cern", ;n whICh he h,.J, The Firs, o f May had
'n1I",J 10 the ,ub<Jms. ," na'u",1 hom<::. 11\0 home of the factOry chimneys.
." Ih. day hefon: ,he mach,nc, Ih.nden:d', \\ he", ,he wOlrtlngda"
sub<"b;; Iil. a ,ing Olf ,ndUII!), and lI<:1;",y' .n"",IN 'he unS(Crious
'cami ,.1 of ,he old ari$lox""" hollieS. lhe greal car... ,he ,he.,reo and
lhe '11
Ihs ,ision "''' therefore j><::f$(lftlII) u"lfyina '0 1f\MI\I3-1 "ort.... ,,'ho
fel, >flUbbed by polite !IOCiCly. bu, "",mSCI ....... "'" JLl>' 10 !he
H.1ad othe, on'cn"on;.. Ihl IIny Club of \ tonl Life 'I'P"....
'0 1'Ia,..., be= ,he modt;l,h.&, he " .... ttllO
'0 mould ,he '.ri"", friend
.nd polo,,,.1 end", ,h.! he culli' .,ttl in ,he ".,.,. yea ...
u'"'
rh e Club (If MOlral Ufe 'j.O

1. . Club loral 1.11" ",", G",msci', Im. 11d".e""ion 8rooP ,h., ";,,ttl
for!lut tOO", Ih." 100 from ,he .nd of 19 17 ' 0 'he b<ginning of
191 gI l. had ' hr other Club m.mb<l1. all of whom "ere quite J,lT,renl
from h " suburban audience.: ""'ho Ca",,,. (b I ,n Tur; n) . phil.,.
ophy .Itxknl. enamoured of Genlliun J)C,,..lism aoxl of middled ... origin; Carlo Bocc.rdo (b 19()O ,n Tunn). a monlclpal rnoplojec uf
worting_d ... ""g,n,.nd ""d.... \'Slongo (b. 19()O in Tunn). a dnk
..:I corrtSp<lIIdem f.... the FGS. I 1I,,,'W"'nJ,,,. II" broily "'en' mIg""">
from 11\0 Vercel10sc and lad been lYwtwntJ but In Tunn hI> f.,her bec-amt
,he can:takn ofa big<' pnmary ;..;Il001 II "hich 5OII1t of lhe meelings of
!he Club of ,I.I"",ll,f. "'OR ht-Id Gnrms the Ilfi"";rk< 00<1 """"I .... , ;""
wh"h s/IOO ld ",-,<:."",,,I} l>e<<lItIO .."IlI"lICd "'"h ,he <Om ing of. "",;"11"
-97-
r<e.-.qu"i'<, for Gram",i', M." .. m {ha! ... ""ra(rd;{ from ma;n,{ream

"",iali"" and >rIlITChL$m,
Gr:o on ",i. W o rki 0lt-Class ldllcalio n a lld Ihf Anart hislS

[I)" KCond 113"''''. Gromie;
lhoogh. o( "'ClaliSI polit><:$" an n'''''.'on of

nude hIS mark and ' ...... ,rd
dccpanimo<"ic'" "hin {oc n.{""",1 and Ionl <><i.nW.lIons O(,be Soc,.h!.!
p.ny Ihrough hi. rd ,{orsh", of II GrMo del P<>pol<>. but
before hi' a>sumpl 'OII of maJOt .... f!<>IIlll!)ll ity. hi, .,""-off broad,het!. l.a
Curci FUfura. "",ci'ed cool from lite young Journalim of
f 'Al'llllguu,dia, and \,CI<r"nS suth u Ma,i. Giudice and France,eo
Ilarb<n', Gram1 ,"m,, ,,led unperturl:>l, Lo CiuJ f-uIl,ra h,d beef, aimed
"' pecific ludietICe of highly skilled and moli,'a{rd work"rs ","" "tre
ambniou, enough '0 aneoo night .1>00110 f"nhe. th"mselv",_ ," Whon
lie dl'u$Sol hIS a.iOCI3l10n 01 popula, tul,"", he ah.ay, "'fem:d '0
,II< of (I>< luhan rdlO<:Jll()r\II1 sy"cm. panicularly I"'I"'la,
rd"","{ion, Tunn. he lraued. organ,nllon COrl.rolird 11)'
and acting on behalf of ".,.le... Thc t:nl'crsl1i. Popolare (Peoplc',
Unn ..... ,Iy). ttho.ng ohc enll, ';rT>S of{ho lno",hi5!' of (he Fom:, Ci",lo.
"al. purel) bourgeois buman"arwI ,.,,"'''', On .... MIlra,). "'"
.!lon of Culture ",,,,,Id h:I\ e had {he e>l ....1\ of supp/);ng {.., .....
InlelllXl""l, ,.."h a ;,u"able I.... ""11m {he soci.l;5! """... m'ml , Although
I>< did not q""'c Roo.,,{ "lIchtls dirttrly, he "-as moSl tcn 'lnly Ihmkm8
of hi' prewa r ,{udy of 1I,Ii.n """'Ah"", p. nlculatly hIS descr,pl ioo of
how """k" inldlre' .... I' lhe obJec! of.n unl><ai{hy hero w"rshlp
",lh, ,, {I>< 1.0 AUI IIOfiI, ,; ,nls nl ","h, n ,he mo,'""",n' " a, Ihcn:
fOfC ''Gua{ed by G,am i w ith {he &e"" .. llo" le'tl of Iuc"{wn ""j"yeJ
by {he rank .nd tile, An rdll<'l{N pany "ould be mon: Jen"",ra{;c aoo
hbenariln lI.usc i, ...""Id funclion (hrooSh <pootanoou, ,"'iorulily
Ing.r:>lnN In socII micro-I"'{;'"';"'" as !be 'C1ubs of \lora I Lifc'_ I"-'dlre'Ulb "'<>uk! important but clearly dtfinod tbk >t1'<',n8 as "",,,obe,.
O(,ho: ..,.,iali.,,' 'hink ... nl
. . l."lighle"men{ DurinjJ!he """. Jt..
Gramoc(s Club member; 10'N 10 on Otnblca n

II, nlOde
of """"'''on. a:'ld moddiN of "Isyll'bus. "as ", t>c
10 olh rrot"'YP" fo,"se in Ihc iuoorbs, ,,. Gram",; of oou .... WII. 'ho
rloor group', SacraIC;. hut il> "as mo..., the prOIOly,," fOT Sf'C"'"
<;or dccen{r.lo d socia l", p.l1y school: " "'1 also a deeply personal
.!ld,,",ou,. w,,1t {he SlIrd,nlan. a """ade older 'han the ' hm: OIJt..r pa'''"i.
pants. """ng.s Ihc bf<>!Jt..,. ,onlly guid,ng hi' di"',pl .. to 8ftalor
sci f-"!\demandlng_
In tho .had} ci{cd le{{ .. to Lombardo Radleo Grlm..,i des<nt.es ""..
II< nn {he Club
I, .. """, "'" <hi,- L .. flo """" had ...<pI .... 10k or .. <Ubi,,,,, bra"""
J,bel":" .....",.,,".,_ ""P a pam .. """" )_11_: a <""pier of
(ro<. > -C.I""". II .. ",...... .. $oh..",o,', 'Probitmi nl""'",i < "", .. t, '.
'" h" Frrnch [(..-oJ",Oon or 'C.II,.... Iat, .. ..... C""""""i .. Mm.(""" or
II>< (ommen",), ore"",<
or
"ie....-h,ch.
in
_,n.
.. Ilcao .... ''''',nK ;&01,01 """<mOIl!: ,ben I or ..."..,.,. .{oo repll .... m
In lhe ,uburbs, howen,. whttt hi, ","I tnc .. u.""lIy numbcTed npp""'m.
",ely ("en .)" the me{i>OO "'os d ,llh"n{ , ViKIoIJg<> ",.,., 11 , {ital Gram",i .. kc.1
(he )'0\'"8 h,{tnors of thc "Ie,ah" tircle of Ran"'ra di M il .M I" I
>u,nmary ofh" IIX'\I,e "hlth he "ould co ll""t altd COrrIX{, 'In fact',
\ Iglongo eon" """s. "he WOl an ,mJ'lOr1.n{ (",. , l"'r1ieub,ly
lI"u,," L{ ",.. done ""h added pe.-.onal ,mprco,ions ar.d r,,.,,,,,,ing' "
\ 'Slungo and hIS follow members "'''''' '00 ad'''ncrd
'0 he obIlJ!<'d to 1'I"l<'ll'"te. ho added.
One: can """,Iude. thtttf"",. !lull Gr&rru.ci <II' i>qed. '-ariery of'C"","
ofMorallifc. some for "h.Jlo<Oll ... "cd.....: ",hen for ;killod "cd"rs,
Ibc 'Clubs ofMonlllfc' "'-nt. In fact. al'lOl"'" of that ClJI,ural
'hlnl r,ll", or !he iOCialj,. lhat "'Ould "'pplemrnl ,he trade
and !he pa")"_ II and<> Jrl Popu/<> aoo L 'Ord'M
\"010 """,,<!ere<! the olJl3nl of {I"llh,rd '"""U'ioo of'he "",iali;'
mO"emen'_ It " m lhe "",,"mg "",ods of hi. l{jng dcbalC o... r an ' <5O<i.
IlIon of workor ', cul!ure thai "c d,>(oHr '"me of IOC inte llect uAl
98
" ...... 'I<'III..ty .."Ul"",," '" ....

land. ...... Fabian Soc;.,y....biol!
., """"bn- of .... Soc,.II" tlUn'l.lIHlnal_ n .. ,,"" of .... Soc><ty IS ""', of
_""' . ." ..,,<I) .r>.! ," dq>oll. .11 ..""""'''' and monI pmblrn>l .. "'<II
the pro!<Wtat bas cnooo.>nl..-od '" ... ,11 CfICO"rtkr In ,ho: of ilt lif< .r>.!
" hu ,,,,,,,o.d ," ..""""ng "1)' ..""r"',n' "'limen' of .... hgh<h
1 ,00
,n ,hi. " ... of Ol\ ,I, .. """. of 111>0"""1
,"",1,...
,,',nd, '
.".0..".

GIld 1M Anarchi,'"
Grnmsci'< cQRCcpt ion of soci" liS! Muca,ion and culture" as democm' ic,
I'<,rt icipmory 'lid ILbert"i"n il h.d liule In common wilh rotioMh>!
(re" d.,>OJght During d<Nn, Owr the ,\"""ialloo of Cu ilure. Gnm",i',
chlcf,argct< of iliei,m "ha , he belie,,,,1 '0 be ."a",hm Or ,,,cialist
ple-In. t! .... 'ky utopian ISm Nov. he" i, ti, i, IllOK e\'ident thon in I", vllriolic
hatred of prewar . IIard"'m, and "",i.li,m, favQurltc sh ibbc>lolh
h pcran'o
Es!"'ru ""o "a, P"I'ula' course al 'he Uni"crsila Popolare and 'he
Ferrer Circle. Gram",i 'houghl it stuffalld nolbellK EziQ B.tt" linl, Ihe
editor of the pacifist La of La Sp<;,ia, "lid" man" i,h d"", lics w'lh
lhe .narc hist,. w", .Iso friendly 10 Gruln",i in 1916" hen h' was billeled
,n Turm . He "".Iled Grum",i" long d'i;<uSS ion, aoout IingulS!i<s .nd hi,
f"", inm ion "i,h hen as" f" II-lime Journalist Gram",i remam ...1
i" cont<l<l '" ilh hl> Ilnguls'ies profeswr, Umber", Co<mo. woo had ,augh ,
him Ihm l,nBuages lhe u"iquc represe"'ation ofa ""tional or ,cgion.1
OUh fO. Altempts, II><ref"re, 10 creme .nilici.1 wor ld languages were Ie"
Ihan ""lhelle , they w. ' e pernicioos becaule 'hey e' ineed an "b","ct
cosmopolilani,m ch'metc' ist ic of many "",i.I " , .nd anarchist mili ,anl>
1I"Ii.n socialism could only be grou"dcd in I,allan condition,: a"if,e,al
cosmopolitanISm ,elarded Ihe omorgence of. lrue and reails,ic "",i.iI"
i",<ma'lOnail'm . ,,'
,\, marginal Sardinian studem GranlSCi had do,-e1oped an appreci.1I01l
i(" the powe, and dignilY lhal natlon-bo,lding I.tlguagos could '''1'1'11' to
oppre\>c<l group" and he was. lhereTOre keen crille .n,1 histo,i,n of
'h< Imgulitic hi,\Or)' and con'm'-ersi.. the
lallguasc . He was >cn.itiv. to lhe 10n>lOn ne"'cd between m"'topol ilan
language. and their coun"y bu"'pkm dialeel COU>lllS. I.ang"'ges !ltld Ihe
' ''Y '0 ewe,. and Ihese COOts W<:T'C translated into poWCT. As. sociali sl
an d re""lu1lonary he was ,ory .boul 110" ortiin"ry prople
of Italy ""gin come '0 ,ha", in. Q{ 10lally displ,ce. the 01igarthl<'al e1i'e"
munopo ly. Indeed .. r ru"feS<O Lo r i""fO show. in In; in'crest ing book
Ihe 'ery rcl3 11un,hlp b<;tween high'p"'>t ige and lower-p'e'" ge sp<;ec h
cummun itles m.y h,,,, "'rwd as n' e,"phor for the coneept .on of
hegemony. " Gram", i Ih"efore F'peranlo. but Esp<;ranto was
J0st pan and pareel of the broader 'yndrom. of ' free loougl\l , IllS re.l
,arget
,\, folio" or ofooth Croce .nd Sorel. who "ere ",. 11 known for 'he ir
altack, on ""'''lie fltt ,hought. il i, not ,urpn<ing that Gram",i "ould
be hoslile '0 one of the h. li an left" .no," long.cheri,hed
b<;licf,. I.. Th. free thmke' 11."", fOI Cru",,,, i 'he mirror image oflhe losu il.
In Mareh 1918 Gram",i-, Ideal .typi,,1 Ihink happ<ned 10 be Ihe
' 00-
anarchi>! etlit!), or Milan'S I. Pop<>I",.". Luigi Moli nari. who

had pub l"hod '" pamph lor form. a lOCI"" he gave in 1917 on the Pari,
{II dra"1"1a della Com",,". MIlan. 1918). Cran,<,el dismISsed
Molinari', pa mphlet as lacking any hiSlorical "n.I),,,,. of l>e ing an
hi"ori,al "'m"O(:o," p),rotec hllical en!er1alnmom, Moli nari Icft his
audlcl"'c ,,"hOOI any <"Iie. l .. nse of e.usc a,ld cffccI; without an edu,,
1Ional ,al ue "hatso<,er, Molin.ri 's lecture was a 1"'nicularly dcpre" ing
e,omple of Ihe cducaliooal wcaknc" of !Tee thought"
The 'narchi, .. were ",andalizcd .nd JU$' before his own deolh In 1918.
rtsponded pc,>onaily 10 Grnm",i, ," BUI neare, to home. young
"",i. IISt .rrived from "Plliia. AIfon'" Leo"""i, felt lh a' Gra m""
may h"c been unduly h.f<h toward, Molmari Accordmg 10 Leonelli
lol inari had helped enormously", lh< "o lgarization anJ di,sem,nalion
of and hlSlory. Molinari "as exnemely popula, in Apu li a, and
""ked Mo li n. ri had he lped Leo"e " i in hi, StopS ,ow.rd,. <orcer ,,'
sociali" jouma li ,m . '" What 'he >uburban >""i.IL". or .n.r"hh" mod.
of Gro",,,, i"s im 0"' 1\'0 IS nQ] kilO" I\; bul he did no! relenl I n June 19 18
he summarilN his cril icism of thoughl in an .noeie ent itkd 'Lib<;ro
e rensiero L,bero' where Crocea n and Genl1lcan ove"oncs
predom,".te_ Af, hi; drubb mg m lhe anarthlSl press. Gram",i di rected
his article at tho aSWnl p' lOn; h< belle'od h.d bc<n b<;hind
pamphkt Molm.ri " '"wld 't''''' ,,'a, 'Iibero peo"",o' (free thought).
"h,ch W", a " phi lis""". bollrg""is and "as <au>ed bj' Jocob",
i"d iy,du.ilSm : ,hal is why we grouped aro",1d i, I "",,,,,,sons, Radical,
and
lI""flanans' Froe 'hooghl "a, therefo r. the mindsel of 01<1f.,hwncd prew.r bloc{'(frnismo, bUI hi; Marxi$l 'peo'iero libero' instead
"as. fonn of libenarian hislmic i,m Ih'l little in commOn wilh ,hI;
nadillon .nd looked 10 Croce arid An'omo Labriol" fur it> In'plfalion_
Indeed. Gr.. ms<i ad, anted Ihe op, n,on thatth. anarc hi,,,_or , t least
lhe" le"ders an,j ,hCOr< ,i,ians. wore less llbenarian 'han Marxist soc iali m
of hisloriclSt stamp A$ lhese ""'ial ist, ""ere able 10 think 'freely' and
'h'sto ' ist ically. ' hey ",cr. ablc to ta' e on contradi"ol)' argum<nL< and
<nrich lhoir o,,'n thought by o"ercommg ,bent, On 'he other h."d ' in.s
much as lIie libertarian, arc inlolera nt dogmati,,... sl.yos 10 'heir own
panicular opinion,'. they ' steriilzo' deb"!e wilh lhm PC "" argumenl,. '"
Gra,n",,'> o"oounto" "'llh Ihe free ,bmkers more de.,ly 10
hI> unusual position wilhin 1t.loa" sociali" polotical culturc_ In """t
re'p:tS he waS ou"idc it. OOundario, . Graml-(;i w", nevcr
10 accopt Ihe forte-feMing of ,ulture. idoo logy or langu.ge to
,he worki ng d.,,_ No<, fo' Ih " matter. did he occept a nai,c P"I'uli Sl
<:ciobrullon of lhe panlc ol.",," of lhe proYm"e Or Ihe vanIshing ;m"lI
""aieoommun,')' He dl<l no! pra;'" the ,implic,tyofthe commoad for 100
long P""">$<d 011 '..,Ir
n .nd liS hu""'",,, code, "'k"'k
con,rollcd oondaty and lenia,), cduc .."",_ He "al of Mohnori 'I
effort , '-Ulgln/AUGn bc<:.ll>e tky d ,d no! '''PIli)' ,he 1o",,, cI>ssc\ "'" k
,I>< menl.1 eq u'pmen' "'''h Il>ty cOl/ld con,bu,,1Ic dominan<c <:>f
'he hu ,n.n;'! m,dd le ci ..se . nO' only in soc,e,y genera ll y bill "'''hi'' 'he
1""'1".""
rSI
I,,' ..
"""f.
In o(,.. n,me ."icles "" lilt sIIonrom,ngs of,he It.lian educa

"00.1 Grams.;, poin,ed to its f.il"", .0 ."""e In . doquale f""" of
,e<Ohme.1 ed"". """. Its d,lu1IOIl of the menlOCralic inlm' oflhe
1859 CIl$ll1l Law, !(I ,he (nSuong <kJm,nol'l(:C by the """'I><m human .. ,
gradwtl. of "hich ,n rum led 10 an incompc1Cn' and In"<lefmcral'" COfpS of.",1 "e,""rus ,..
tonn ofuni' .....1
would ",inst he mentocrntic prom,se 1hrouah con"'lIM<.ll d''',plu....
,I-.. "'''''''''Ill' ocpted d,""'p lll'" ofa highly t1l';1>N and au'onomou, mHld,
Of COlt,.,. Ihere is more Ih.n I "'h,ff of Gent il e , II 811 o f th". I)ut to t he
e"cnt to "hich he ",anled .he com"IOI' poopl. '0 be .bl'lo<on'rolll><i,
<ontroll.rs . h.re ".' )/)m.,hng
ooly libell",",n .bout ,to
but "'lU:lUl' rropho.ic In .,1OI1'ttt ","nome In;de Gramscl looked forvo.nl,
10. soc",lo>l ;.oclC1y Ind feamllha. ,t m'atlt be di, ,ded belw.. n I ma..
of pa ..
In<l"'d,,,,'s .nd nevo "'hng cl3$$_ If the
offully rncall'l of prod"".
c,p<n, Ind
lion an<l renuin 'a rtarro\Oo m,nOflly', due '0 .he
Iogi. oftltingi. 'they r>ece!; . . rily" 'll become and ",11 impo!>C
Iheir ow n dl<.alor!h,p. "'"
Garruc,',
Moo"""",
110'
i,.
,..,Im",....
Conclu,iotl:

on

W"hm 1t>ly.nd Ihrouv<>u' Europe "'''' "'< ... '''''Icd by lhe

Slnnn. of ,he " .. , This mtcrntltlonal ""kliidt """" from I comb'""tI""
ofinhermlly multllily hostik gro"p,"gs: _
"<to
socIII
democrl" some: IDl:Ch'SI or s,-n<licaIiSl_
i. an ""0<11",,, cump!.
ofhov. oboef\..... .-ad",.[. COI/k! t>p ,nto. ncI ...t. lhal " ...
magmfied
and then rap;dly d lmmi,1lcd by lhe ""1w:>do<y of II-.. UohllC,;ik R.,.-oI.l1I""_
AllhoI'gh 'nllr<:h'lil. 'IOC .. lists and pac,fists in an une",y
'g.m" ".,0 ""press,on durmg the war. onee JIClhticinn, or imc!tectu,l,
allcmpted 10 ltOoY ld nH". movemenl, frum ,,,,, iOl1 ial radi<>li,.rion of the
)e.", 1'11 6 17. d iffcrenc", qU Ockly ,0.pp<.",d , II Fot Gram""i. local.
nalioo .. 1 .,1<1 .'''0 in,emahOnal <aml"'ign' by un;ted fron" of ""tali,l'
and .,..",h;ses ;n
to lbe "If or ,.". the filocodom of , he imprisoned
Gnu""",
oppo:i""'"
- 102
pile'''''' _
"",:e
It>\o-Amcnc: ... \\otobly, Carlo T",SC:&. ,,"'" hopeful "",,,lorII""., .... Gl"lrnI<'i
poltltclily I"""ml united fro,n. of
an.archms and SOC',"'''' ,n Turin or In Ital), Sttwo 1<)16 and early 1918.
G raltOsc:i tool; pon on " deb3le in the Italilln
pre.. "" thIS ,ubi":',
,park ed ,)ffby I""j, ale .nd public ... hanl!<" I><:t"'ecn Lltigi Fabbri for ,I><:
. ",rch"" ..", Semltl for Ihe I'SI. '" Indeed tl>< rtorentme max,""lt S,
""'tahsi. 5po1l,a<0 L.,"sn ini. propo.ltd a Third Inlt'
n"ion,l L",lll;n,m ",os "" "cry goOO tcnns ,,>In the a narchi,. !c. de, of
II>< ",.,nnne USI. Annando Borghi . ..u'" ito ne" ;.paper, Guerra Ii,
" publoshcd In FIOttnce in 1917-18 La"agn,n, In<l M.rio T/OZl,. I
Iocall"",)'",.nd 1cp1 counsel for II>< SF!, both "mle for II>< syndt.ali ..
joumal In<l " ..... Trozzi', I.pl \tudy tha, ..... "..cd for a """"in, oftllc
soc,a".t "Sldti on No\ember 1917 at "h,ch Gnmsr:I "'.. denounced
by.he Flo""n",,", for hI> neo-id list phil050plnllng ,s. La,agnini'l
inte,,".nlio" il .Iso. good exampl. o f the p"'\,iou.ly mentioned ,ntc'
n.1IQnal not"on, ohn,,-w", rebel" H"lnici. h,d bee n inS\>l",d by"
lott", f",,,, L!TIN ,\ lalal< >I' sen, fro", his e, ,1 0 on Lond on 10 Bo'l!h' "ud
I""iuted 101 CW'r", Iii ", M.I .. oSI. propo:>SCd. ne", 11,,,,,...,,,,,.1
(La \1011<1;.1,,) "k,ch ,",,,,,lJ hll" i",,'OOo.Iall .nl'... . ' soci. lisH.
In<l .... "'h ;lt. lind " ""Id Io:o'c ttnll,. ly not been b3sct1 on lhe
""".. n/ed d';c'l'ione of l<:nm, We' Th,nlln ""'tlOn.1
Grams..i";. 'nten tnllOn ,n the deba .. ".,; I"tchcd "' ''' Q 10, 01 . Firs.,
Gram"L " .. nlcd '0 conte" ,he .000000001y I-..Id OI',nMln
",hi"s or
wnd",ahse> "'ere """" re"oMio",,,y tlilln soc;"li"s - an opinion thaI,"
I h.,. <k,non>l<1"ed ,n Chap''' T"'0. WI., qu'le ",i<\c'pread in the suburbs
of luti n Re'olui"""ry pohne; . "'Wle. shunl,1 no, be equ.ted w ,th
pollu,ong ()f ",th "'iolen! language', a. 'he ht<lory o f ita li""
,yndi<oI ;lrtI h.d de rtlOl15tral.d the pilf.lIl of this "I'Proach. ' .... G,a m"i
alw w"nltd 10 d,sta"". hi' "",i.li"" from L.,'lIllnin,, NOI
onl)' d,d the "nllporl"ment>n.",om Qf . n<llhe " """,hi", pose
In f.;ormal lh<-or men .. I,.), (h<:re Gram$i "'l"'aI$ ,deQ
3<l,'artced ,n hil d,,,,,,,,,,,,,, offrcc tboughtl "'III alu5lOfJCal .n<l
1,,',,",,"Qnlll11,.I'I(:'" .uch t i l.1 Mondiak uridcrntit>cd
Gnt",i, e,"",<pIton o f "",;"Ii,. polU;':I, u1c"",1 d,sc,ptulC throogh
w.brelia ,,-a; /lOt sun"'ien'l(l keep pany members tQgt:tllC'
o. l} In i.,cm, 1 di ipli oo Ihat ".s tl><: re;.ull of 1><''''0"0
"",l acH"'" nnd by the <ohe .."". be,W..,. 'ge neral p';t",ipios
. ,1<1 II1C ;IO"'1'WI.,'" of panOc ul", """ " "11<"";0" ",,,,lid ' ,;UIT "IC<ClS ,j'
)0;0' "lI",tments w;lh . ... ",h;", I n<l ".-<,. based o n d,,,
oflhe ,,,,,,,,,<nt. d1C)" we"'. In ,hon he Iype of wor!< ,ng-ct..11
ac'''''' "',m-OO dun"i the Red \\ .. k. Ihat IOUC!ut<>nc of GTm1I>C;',
mM1!lo_ "
SOC,.">!
,ha, ....
doctn"''''''
",
Gmmsci and

rMlCali,,,, bef""" lhe ri , ing in A" 8"S1 1917 alld the IlQIc"ik
'''ppl. nted it, ,"
No tes
I ,he lileral"," on !he early Gram",i, see . C. Lt"},, 'A New
Look al the YQu ng Gramscl', flmmda')' 2, vol 15 . no. ), 1986, pp
J 1-18. The ".n<lard .CCQU"' of Ills life i, G iuseppe fio" . fIla dl
I"'o"io G,ornJci. oj a Rc"ol"'ionG,)'. London, 1970, See al'"
S_F. Rom. no. A,,/o"io Gram., ,,,, Tu,in. 1965: J.M . Cam me". Antonio
Gram.w and Ihe vi Iralian Co"""',nlsm, S!.nfo.-<l. 1967: L
r aUl, AIIID"'O Gramm' e it J/OdUM PrinClfX'. RQme. 1970: S. Supp',
II pFimo Gli sumi polilicl (/914- 1918). N.p!e,.
1976: J 1.011, ,lluonia Gra-"sci . London, 1977; G Bergamt, /I gimane
Gramsci e it rnarxi'ma: 191/-1918. M, I"n, 1977; ,\ Da",d>On. AIlIOIIIO
Gramj ci. an Biograph\'. LQndoo, 1977: W L
,\do nl"'", and RrwlmiO<l A Study oj AllIon;o
Poillimi and Cull"ral T7!e()rt'. Berkeley, 1980: AA Sa"l uO<I, Anlonio
Gmmsci (1891 1937), RQm 1987, D. GerminQ, Antonio Gram",
ArchilcC/ uf a POlilic.., 8'''Qn RQuge. 1990: D_ S<he<ler, Grw'/jd
and the T7!rort' oflnduslrwl Soden'. AldershO! . 199 1. R. Be llamy .nd
O. Schecte" Gmm,,j Ih t' Ila/,an Slalt', M."" he'ter. 1993: D,
Los"rJ o, AlilOlli" ""I liN'ral'.' mo al <'FIIICO ,
Ro nle.I997,
The best o"e"iews or Gmm"" i in(Ofpw.t lo" a" G_c. l",, ( . .
G',,",sci g1ljd" werprelu:iolli_ ,\1I1an, 1975; C
\looffe (cd.). Gram",i and"'aniSi Throry', London, 1979: A. Show"",,,"
Sa,soon (ed,). Approaches 10 London, 1982, J. ilut!igieg
d .). 'G",m,,;' (A Spen . 1 The l ega.c; .of A n!On io Gram"i),.
2 , "01 . 14, no, 3. 1986. Stt al", t he vo lumos ofG"'nJ", i
CQn fe",,,,.s he ld ITt l,a ly: Sf"di gramsciani. AI(! d,1 cM""gno len"'o
!lorna nel gior" , II-IJ W"llaio 19$8. Rome, p, R<si (cd.).
Gtum>"" e 10 c"Ir""a cO!lle"'poran"", tWQ 'olu",os. Romc, 19(,9: F,
Fom (ed,), e ." ""ia in two " " lumes. Rome. 1'171: F
Sbarbcri (ed.l, Teoria poillica" -"xle,,) "fX'/!,jore
Turin. 1'188; G . Roan i and A_ COlon. (.ds). Gram.' ci e la
del/"amcriw" ismo. 1989; R . G i.wm ini. D, Lo, urdo and \I
(cdS), Gramsci l 'II"lia. Alii del com-egnQ imern"ziollale
""
d l U,.bjno 24-25 ge"naio 1992, Naples. 1994 For!he m<1 comp'c

he",i,c oH"'iew .of works throughout the world >C<, J. M. C.mmetl.
A 8,h/jogmphl-' oj Ihe 111",1.. '1 AnlOni" Published i" 27
IAlngl<age., 19JfJ-1997, Rom .
1'0' tbe ',.r;ous Gr.m",i, see (he "Qrk, mo nlioned above os
well a, A D" id'Qn, ' Thc V,rylng $e>S<)n, of Gromsc.an
Pali/i('Q1 SI"d,c.' , "01 . 20.110_4, 1972: K_t<. .. ld and J. Seed. '\\'ailing
to r Grom",. Soc,alllislO" .. '0" 6, no . 6, 1981. pp. 209- 27; S
'The Legacy o f 'he Pn soo NO!ebooks: Gram",i, t he PCl . nd
Italian Cu llurc d"nng Ihc Cold \\'", Peri Od ', In C . Duggan and C.
\\'agst.ff (cds). liar), In Ihe Cold Ita,_ Polilics. O,llUre ,,,,d Sociny
/948---58. 0'fQ.-<I.199S
Among the many good ,,,,dies of Gra m",i 's polilic.l Iheory 5,
C. ilQSS" Gramm':' Mamsm, Lo ndon , 1976; P. A ndcfS{)n, 'The
Ami nQmie, .of AnIQn, G,ams.ci . New Lep Rem"", 00_ 100, 1'1767. pp_ 5---78, L. Ko l. ko" 'ki . 'Anton;o Gram",i: Comm un i.. rcv;sioo,
i,m" ,\fain Curre,," oIMu,..;,m. '01. 3. Odo.-<l, 1978 . pp 220- 52:
A Sho"'Ia.::k Sas"",", Gramscl j- Politics, londoo, 1980; P. Boneni,
Gramid e 10 $DelCI<; lilx!raldcmocralica, Bari, 1980 , J_ Feml.
G,-a",sci:' Polaiml Thoughl. Oxford. 1'18 1. J. HolTman, The G,am,
>cia" Cor<t'io" "nd Consenl in Ma,.x", Polillcal Theory,
O,fQrd. F. Sb.roeri, Gramsd' "n s",iab,",o a"mOllico, Milan,
1986 ; M A. Fin{t( t hi"fI<> (iram.' ci alld Ihe I/,-""rt oj
Th""ghl. Cambndge . 1988 , Sdt",,!er. Gcamsci, Be llamy .nd Sd"",!or.
G",r>ljCl
2 , See N' ;rtl', acerbic conune ,,", 'AntoniQ Su GOOO\l' , in Show" ""k
Sa ,soon, ApP";)(1che" p_ 16 1 See also P_ AnMrson,
on .liarxism , Lundon, 1976. p . 54 and G cmtlllO. AntQnio
Gram,ei. pp_ 2- 26
3 A ra",a. I pHmi ,fleel anni del PCI, Bari, 197 1. pp, 86 9()
4 Paggi . Antollio Gramscl_pp_ D",'idwn. A"'On,V G,-am,c, pp
94- 157, ln ge".ral Borg.mi. II g;ucane.
5 D."i<!,un, AnlonlO Gramm . pr. 37-'17_
6 l'iQr;. AnlOnio Gram,''''. p, 84 ,
7 David'Qn, AntOniO Gramsci, p_ 54
8 h on. AnlOnio Gram,ei. p. 56: Srl>tt!er. Gram.' ei. p_ 56_
9 For Ihe general co"'ext see A. A"" Rosa, 'La culnml " S/QI";a d 'ilalia,
"01. 4, pt. Ii . Tl.rin. 1975; It_ Wohl. The Genera",,,, '11914, Lond(m ,
1980. pp . 160--79,
10 ,\ RQm""" (cd .), La r",e 190<1- 1914, T unn , 1960; L Ch iti ,
C poillico ndle Fi,-i"le/io","une dd pdmo mm!Cellll!, 1903-1915.
'"
II
12
11
I

16.
17.
Tunn, 1972; L Gcmile.lA I ...... e \tiLan. 19"4; R

L"""rini. e Ilki>iogl<' lIel rrl_ "'...
L . C.'Vi. lA ''OCr Imcro/ura p"maw degl; nan.
I97S: W. Allam,,,n. jl'GntCanie Alodl'nI"" 10
F(;"(:lSnl. CombnJ I!" Mil.. 1'l93.
lIOn. Amonio 1'1' 82-100, [h, Anl",,;o
JIll. 94-107; Be<pml. /I &jO>Dnr R Bellamy, UIH-ralis/tl
and l/uJrrn s...,'CII-'. C.mbndgc. 1992. JIll.
11.. """'" ROI.. 'LaCullImI', $Jon" d101/.... ,'01 4. pll. p, 1260; Bonttt,.
Cru",.,." Genetl . lA
A' 66----&, A"",,,,-.A'''"IGank FIorrrta.
C'nlbnJgc. \IA. p 2(,.1; Gm"",,'-. pp. 12 I J;
J. Mortin. 'fkgcmony " "I 'he Cn.i. o f L'II,mlloCY in Crami'.
I/m",,' of i/".W" SrJrllCn, .-01. 10. no. I. 1997. 1'1>, 37- S6,
E. L }""obi(!i. Rc",xullonury H"mall;"" and I/moriciJ", m Mod .,."
II"", " .... Hu-"n. 1981. R. Bellamy. Modrnl lIa/lall SocIal TIrft>n
Id...x<>gy and Po/Il,es f""., '0 Cambridge. 1987,
1'1' 72 11 4
Ali quoted In Fiori, ,01111111" Cro,.."" i. p 74. For ,II< .on ... """
. nd GcntM >co, R. Ikllamy. 'Gr.l m5<i. Croce ."" 'he Italia" Poli "cal
rrlldilion. 11;,,,,1)' af Polil,eal Tho"ghl. '01 I I. no. 2. 1990.1'1'.
;1 I] 57 On III< e",,,ICC""" boll'oeen ond Sorclean
;.ce. \1 A",Ul"- Im"rlllmg iktN""" P"JlliN and 1M
4,all/,lianJr. Pr""'tlOlI. 1993
The "'" Wlndanl booanphl(>. of Amode<> Bordlp.-e A. Do Cfem<-r,,,.
."",ad... Tunn, 1911. I Li,-or.i. Ama<1ro Bordiga.
1976
G. S. Chorchi. 1908---1911. Ro"",. I G . U<: .
I'ulmi." Toglimti, rp.l---8; A. Ag05' i. P<I/mi." Thglio",. T unn. 1996,
1'1',6 14
1.... krn.c,nl. Ihn, 1978.1'1'. >-7.
A. Ago.,,,, Lrnbcrlo" in A. AIldl-"IIC,i and T OI:1'i, /I
""'''I'm<W Ilali""". lJJ:;""ano biogroflro,
5,
1978. p. 37.
1\ Ri ..... , AIIgdo Tas(aJoc,,,h,,o. 1979.1'1' 14-36; 1\, J LX
C;",n<i. M Sialin :' Shado" ' Angelo To,.-" Cri. is ["Ii
In and F","u. 191{) 1945.0. K. I!). 1986. JlIl. 4- 20.
Tuc 1 pri",; d,I, pe. 8.8-9.
A Gnlm ..;. lMillrJ; (he",.fit.
(ed>l<d by
Carn",ho), Turin, 19&1. JIll. S9 90,
J ..,,; for O .. "",,c,. "",nlll
For Toah1u,. 80.:.1. TogU,,"i.
'i>N".
,..,1.
IS
19,

I
en
.,s..
,ItO,.
n,
A. (;run,.c,. Senlll 191 I (<:tined by S<rJ1O ClpriOgho),

1976. "" 26s-t. (htrtafl..r &,1111 191 J-191/1.
23 ror aramsci'. n:lo"OII!ihi p 10 inle,,'.nnonism. To",. f priml dire!.
pp 87- 94 On "ram5<I'jOl'm. li 'm !lCe I POllili.La fed.none
,uhumlc"' <.1<:1 (inda dd popolo. Cnllea Manis/a. Q"o<\cmo 3. 1%7,
pp 1S4---74. V Gem,ana, 'O"'m5S, G. ik'lam . 'l.na d'5<U!$lllM 3<11
00 gil" ani soc,.h .. ,. Graml<' 'La Cilia FlItur.l'. AI"",,,,,,,",,,,

26
n.
28
"01 , 3. 1979. 1'1'. 65---9. Fill
,I"
Eng li'h Iran.la!i""l ofGram5<;'s ow"nll OIII""m.Jj,m in III< I'ison

SQ(,books. !ott "" Joumali.m'. TdOJ. no. 32. 1977, pp. I J9
51 alld A. OrJnU<:l. &111011' for O'''"ral "'''''''IV (cdS. I) Forpc.
and G. No" .1l,S"lIlh and 111UISi.aled 1\ Illhovo .... }. London. 1985.
e'pe<:ially 1'1' 186-426
I summ.>n"" III< malenal In Le,,}", "A .... Lool.
CT, I'P . On Mu,whm ', """ .. hll ""fill,S s.tt R Dc f.lice,
1/,,<>olini iI ",,,I,,:w,,'m'o. "[ unn. 1%5. rr 181}-200.
On 'he 'li lile CT. rr 97,109.122. 272. 9,
449 SO. 756
CT,I'P."'>-x.<
cr.pp ""i--"ii
BeSIdeS CT, S \be I....., DlII<r rolled by Scfiio Capno&!lO,
lAIC"''' ju,u", . 191" 19/8. Tunn, 1982, /I"""ro Ata",.' 1918 1919
I "Itn, 1984 (II<nccfonli U' and NAI ""pecu,tly)
P Pi.co"e. T IIlm Sp .... nlO 10 O"m 5<l". Todo,. no. 31. 1977. pp. JS
'"
"",,,,,i,,
29 On I..briol. "'" I n.1 Pane.

GrQ",.r' ....110 polillNl C IIrlla
(U/tllril 2nd Nn, Tim", 1975. hc<:>b>II'.
H_iJ"" KoI>k"...""i. \{a,n C""""'IJ. pp 175-92, BeILamy .IIodrno
"allan, I'P. >I 71; Bellamy alld Seho<;,u. G,.,u/uri
10 A_ Koso. 1040
1I M Tron". '1 .. "" , ... lilmo d lalenl<o t filosofll de ll. Pr.lSS;- . A
Mil,". 1959; F. G . nn,
CameolO io anJ G , Sea "" (eJ;;l. La Cllta
'La fOlll1ozione d i aramsc, Croce'. CrllIra Quademo J.
1%7. I'P. 119 ll. P Piceone . . Labfiola aod .t.. ROOI. of [urocommun"m', Ikrtdn' .kumal of .10<:'101010. ,..,1 12. 1971 S, pp.
l48
And",o Co,o"" 01'&"" ,hal ,\oloni<> Labnola "'a< relll".ly
..... '" uIII,1 C;l1Omsci bol,hc,.. "c<1 hi! M. ",i.m in III< middle
f",,,,,,,.
107-
32
j..\.
35,
36
17,
38.
1920.. A. Coeonc. 'Gramsci, 10 uaJL100ne _i.li .... e il problema

della manea,a dol rna",i,"",. In II. G,ICOnoru. D. Losurdo
and \1. \I:utoll' (rds). Gnllmci 1"1101'0. Lrbono. PI' 243---76
!'. . Uad,loo,. /I dl Gro"''''I. Tunn, 1911.
G. I'mc""d. '''nl""io l.1b<iolao I. "" i"one: dol """"Sm/) .lIrawf>O
l'cp i, 'olarlO con con Koo\!l ,. 1895 1904', A,,",,1i
"oml":JOlj,' '01 1, I%(). I'P, 121 8: (]
ne",. Fr"nUJJ So'eno Merlin!) {).all 'a"af"f'h"".", al
'<lClal",,,,, IIf>rra'., MIlan. 1993.1'!'. 343---S4
l)a,,.t.o.. . . GruMSn. pp. 69, SO. 104. 105; Rom .." .fnl""'o
Gr",,,,,,,. p. SO; G ",,,noonni. Iko, la nvo/""i""e Gro...",.i r d
dl"",a,. P.... 1919. PI' 7 25: 93---115,
Lery,' A
PI'. 33-45
for Il>han cooper.llon G. SaPl'III
In Tu"n. 1981. f Of ellt uSC of coopcru",'C> during lhe Firsl
""Ofld Wa r V Zamagn i. TM EMnl)ltl'( limon' of IBM
1990 Ru(" ...r-;'.!ro", Dcdinc. Q,ford. 1993. pp ,
p, Sp".no. Slorw til TOTI"o O""ralo r SodalblU. Turl", /972. PI'
,,,,,,'look.
,.
r"" G .... msc, 'unides on lhe 1916 debale
91.

39 CT. pp
and Ihe
5t('
CT. pp. 569-87. 589----

F"" lhe p<efigu",IIle Mute af",fC>mlI$l ""'tah""

Coopc ....ll'. ",me"",nc. s.ce \1 [)cgl'lnnocrnll.
(irogra(ia r is/in;z;/Hii dd j(K,al""", ilal,u"" 1892-19/l.
1983. 1'1', 138 FOf ,he "rusgk 1><1"'n ."",11 $hopk<q><", .nd
!<>Ci.lisl CoopcM,\O"n
\ 111.n >. J. Mom>. TIll' Pt>/Iliral
Econ"",y i" Mllall 1886-/922. Ca mu li dge. 1993.
1'1'. Marr;s Ihac ,hopl erPl'"' "<re nOl 'u. nsio n! "",iol
occo",' Also 5t(' J. . R eca ik .... Flsci.m 000 'ho: Origin, of lhe
Social Pro1CCl1Oll afShopk<q><n in haly.
If,sIGn'. '01 5. no, 3. 1996. pp. 285-318 MOl'''' h'Shhgbl< lilt
,em"",s b......."" "'holesolm; and 5bop/<<q><rs. p. 2%
40. CT. pp. 597 8
41 CF.pp 17.
42 CT. pp 5R9 91: I.e,y. '" I'c\\' Look'. p. ",cal""" of Ihe
I.. h.n fC<>d oupply .y.lem in ,IH: prr;.;.J 191 S- 1917. see
F.m""",/r I/mMl'. 1'1'. 216-17: M C. Dc"IOnl, '''Que'hone all"""""","
e "qu(".lli,)"" _ i. le" doran!e la Pnma GO" flll Moodi. l. ,,' il" " o.
Soc;"I,) SloriQ, no.
1987. pp, 601 16, \1Q<TU gi"cHump"" from
Ibo I""w., ",foln"'$1 "",.. I",
,hal "'" rilher ."mlarla Grimo,,,'S
..."..1"\;$ In 1916. sc<: 1 M<KTi . TM ""'Ilical E(a"",,,,,. p 274
pro".'
,.pIes.
p,,",.r
"r
n.
'"
43 CT, pp 600 3
44 CT. p. 600. fOf Ibo Ir3nSl;ollOft. R. Ikllatny
C;""ltUci Prr.'PrUOII 'r2Jl>I.IIrd by VIIi,n .. Cox.
AII""""
1994. p 15,
P 6()() Rellam}". A",,,",,, p 16
Cr.p,60L
47 CF.I',6?7.
\'\1. P 410 ror ct.e I,alian "",ioliS!s and WC<>dra" \\ il<Ol1,"'" Il
TobIa. '11 p.o.n'IO SO<:lali$l 10 polllle. dl \\ W,I<OI1 (1916-1919)"
SlOT'" ,01. 6. 1974, PI' liS-103.
III. pp. 2.16--7.
<;(I \ 1/ 1'1' 169
(7,
51 0',,1'.118
52. f. 11""",0. '11"",,, ... (;""""" S<nl'. In V CorrtJIU'Ito (rd.

S",.II _;urdr., Flo... 1974.
I'!', 177- 195: 900310'",11

man" .. ,,: G 10. Gi",,,. Gram.cl SQn:I', ,n V \kkhion-e. C Vigno
.nd G, [)c Rosa (1$1. Anlo"io G,um",i IIl'cmi"ra '''orica e pal"iro,
la qlJ('>f",n'/".'"",a. Rome, 1979. pp, 7fI 90; Roth. elill ,,{
"menu. $orrl allJ Ikrlcky. 1980; .\ 1 Mal"<I,a,
'G""ltsci II ,indac.li""" ri""'olionari a R,O.osioo, sui cappona
In anal,;, guldlro dl ,&1",",," '01.
10. "" I. pt>. 127-7
Duro" Schcc'n nnpha,iles ,he imponon of Sorci for G",mJei
,n 1916 18 1:><01
1m impacl on h" lhoogbl .ntI "",ion, In 1919
20. 1 ".,,.,Id <mO. Gr3mS<i', prodll<H' I" <<)OneIl commUni''''
is doe r ly s.o",II," ( = bd"" O "'p!cr hIe) ror D. Scheeler ;c,..
'Two Views of Ihe R"'ololion: Graml<:l and So rcI. 1916-1920'.
HllIor)' of EuroprCl" "'eo. "01 12, no. ,. 1m. PI' 633---53
Iklbn,) Ind ""heet.,. ""'-" ,he ')TI<hcah<t on ,IH: G",mlllOi
of . .... Gt"'",<"i. p. 20. bul Pl'rhapllhey rlOr to d,IT"",n","
b(,wecn G",rmci', pas"I\" ."i1l1de l""ortIs Sorci and
hI> "'''''' ."Heal ...lu.,ion of ... nuro L.abnalland Enrico Leone
j (; B hno .... ,. S<=/ Lliulla. f 1omIc: 1976. pp. 64. 7fI 110.
9S 6. S Onufno.
Ie iI ""'rW...o. Ltb,no. 1979. pp. 89----91, Ill21.127.139.147. 1S4. 194; Roth. 10
S' E. La "" -;Slonr d'" mu",i,,,,o m Iwlla. ,\" 1'0. 1%4; F
Z.g.rn. .... i, ..a m-;,Ion"rno. Bl'rl1Sldn So",1 Gr-a:ladei L",me,
!'.'rlo . 1975, On< Corn""'"I" or hIS dm"." po1'll1101, be(\\'ee" GmmJei
anti h ahan JuuJical G. Morab"o, An.onioGmm",i.
I'i<lcali'mo gu<>dieo ".lia"" r:>u .i a canfronla. S,OTW Polilica,
'01. 18. no, 4. 19"9. pp. " +\ 5'.
""

191 }-19IS. SoOo/II"",,,. ""I. 14. no. 1. 1989. PI'- J 1
$mll,/PH IP2I.p IJR
<6 M O. R<><aoh. V . . popnJorl. Rome. for Oram",i',

"",,"ioo OIl educauon. "'" II BrocroI,.A.hNlW Orom"" I'rducu:i"""
1972. JI [",,,,",,1 ,,. AIII"/Ji" Go-am,,'i'
Sl'hOO/i"gjw iladkall'oli",. London. j 979
29 lonu.!")" 1916. /I a"d" PoJK>lo. Turm, "l'he Engli,h tr.n,lallO"
1\ m 1\ Orom", . .. from Polit;ClJI "rumg. 1910-191fl
(",I'ed and edi.ed by Qu'nlin Iloatt. lnnsl>,w by Jolm 'bllhe" .
loo&n. 19'771. lhe<eafter SPI+"f) I'I'!I 12. In IIlhan $CO: CT. 1'1'
99 103. O""n"" refers 10 Ennco Leone', Oomoc ... Z03 In F"'nlumi'
(,Ik""",,,,,,y In !'",cos). Gu.. ,.,.a d, CialJt. Flo",,,,,,,, 15 January
1916. A" ide. of II,. "mcle c.n be gauged ftom the following "",..ag.:
Tile n\Odem ",,,,,ler !eaml much more hi' c1as! in"i""
lh.n froon lhe 000k of offoc,.1 kno",lcd,e, ,. TherefOft. lhe"" , no
Ioal.'all"" 00, In ",Qrl;er;'m. In IIx: cla5K1 '" IIh ".lIoused h3nd nd
braIn, unconl.mmaled by ... hu", _. 11M:y [the Ignonrn. CLI '" III be
lhe hell'S of democrloCy.
/I"d
59, Sc,im 1915---1911. 1'1'. 279-82. 'U! prepanlllollC dell.
borghe .. . G"d" drlPop<Jll!. 6 .\Iay 1916 The tlt lc is Ora"''''I'$ II
"' lhe n ih p. ... grwph of Ch.plor 19 o f De Sa""l;"s S,oriu ,Idla

ital,ana
60 (T. p. 602. Bon.my. AMNlI(} Grawuci. p 17.

fll !'he lheme of the pa .." . "" oJUI"'" dornllllllN lhe 1977 Gram""l
II\5IJlll1e confe",ne.., pm:i", SUlem<nl 5 C. Bt>C, GI""""",,tln.
'SIOIC. 'I ran\,llon .oo Ph.". RC\-olulion. In Mo"lre. Gmm.d. 1'1'
1M 204 1.1", dl>cu$1 Tn is
ofGrnmso:t" thoughl in C I..vy.
'M .' Wd:><r and Atlwnio Gram"' ,'. tn IV, Momm>cn and J. o,.tcr""""""I (od,) . Ii,-/w, and Hi. Comcn'f'O,arin. London, 1987.
1'1'.3%-400_
4 \to} 1918. fI GtiJ<, drlPopoIo, T unn. \'\1. PI' J.- 7.
6.\ M.y 1918. /I Grid(} tkI PopoIo. T"nn. 11M: lille .. Gf'3nll.<i,. n.e
nc.rp< i$ rrom IIntoolo Labriol., 00:1 ,_'M,
{hI", "",11",I"arr. 3rd poarnsrwpn, Rome. 1902. rp. 12-17.
Sec SO'mi 1915 1911, JI]>- 344 8, For Ihe rcl.'ionsn,p belween
W.be'$ lhesis abou l ,h. clf" of ProttS'alll"'" on capilah,m, $OC
levy. We!xr'. pop. 386 S. J96, 398--9
.'!'tt'
64 (F,p_J22.
'( CI.,-l. AntOllio GroltUr, "lid th" tltol FailN,
!la'.. n. 19n. p.
M S G",".nna rroc",,,,. 'Popular Prnto" and l abour Conlll<I,n I'al)'.
'e-w
'"

1'_ Comtr
.nd GIo .... """ rroc""". 'The h.han bp<ncnc<: Mot.,I, .. ti"". 191 S---I92O". In J, H""", (00 ). S<x-,nl'
m/,'ulY!(I<e during tht fir>! tl;,,/J II;". Cambrldg. 1997. Pr. 223 40
(, 7 . .-Im"",o Gran""'-, p. 14
S \(0''''. Gli d, To,j"" 1900--1'I.'{I. \(ilan. 1980. p 125,
Ciarlo:.. G"''''Jrt. lJ 14
\ Ius.><>. Gb OfX'roi, p 12'1_

Ih,d, PI'
169 71; 8 Bcua, Soc 1 CIIa""'I."''''''. AllllOOt!.

"n" I'ohtle, of the Sink. Bch:t,';our of lbe in 11al)
dunng the r lf" WorlJ \1"'. In L. Il ll.i mlOO and C. Tilly (edt).
Jl m,- amlll"''Q!ulion, ill an IIII"",,,,,,on,,IPrr'pecli,V!.
jn 1M Lair fa'/,' Cemu,it'!.
Cambndll". 1989.". 408
71 ,\ Carnarada and S. L altTO La r/""t opt:rtJ",,/uranlr
10 priMa gwmJ IItOftdlalt. ' Iilan. 1980; Bcua. 'Soc",1 Cbar.IcIerutocs.
PI'. 4Q.1.---.6; O. Bena. 'The InlerKgJ>um Tunn. hal and Indu,,,,al
Conn,e' bo1w""n War.nd r .",,,m'. ,n C \\'ri&ley (ed .).
o(La/x>ur 1"'Jkm Cump<" 191' /9HJ. 199./.
rp. 110,
7l (hit . .-Inton,o G,..,!tU(I. p. 22_ F"" ,imi ll, alilIUtl.. of wolTl(n in
B. ",elon:l dunn, t!>t I W",I<I W" $Ot. T ..... pI.n. Rro Cm. 8/"...
I'mod Socia/ M"'...,,,rnlJ III Pi'auos 8arN'I,,,,,,, Berloley. 1992.
".. II' 2< ror "'0fTICn ,n Ililan 5ee. J I I t o<l4. 'Sociali"--Cllool,,,
Aillances.nd Gcndc-r 11m. WaT.nd the 'illanand lom
bardy, 1914 1921'. So<-ial/Ii.<tOrv, ,01 , 21, no, I. 19?6, 1'1'_ 37
7.1 Mu'<O. Gli 01X"",1. PI' , 162--82; D,II Ilell. S<-,ro Sml Gw\,w,,,,
II;'riter.- Colto,re ,,"d p"lwe.' '" an I",/,w, l",,'", 1881J.---1922. New
Bill""" .. k_ pp, 8S---106; I). R,J!I'<l", /lPone/I,,_ Operai, 'e.-n,d
e imprmdilOrl "II ,11/it-ROMro HI06-J\l_'6,
1988. PI'- 1H )2(1

B_ Ikzn. Salarid e '''"IKlII'. Tra la f{JMnro r" fi'rN<le
",Ian.

10
1%6; L. T(lmlI ... n,. ..... \I>lnal MobillIaIlOll

Ind Slate Inlc.-."nIlOO in h .ly In lhe F,rsl Woo-Id \\'.r: EIf""ll Qfl
l abour Demond'. ,n l lIa;m",".nd G S.pd l, (od,). S"'/..e., s,x-;',I
C""/I,,, anJ I! ",/d ,'nnali llfilll B,bhorecu O. O.
"01 27. 1990 199 1, 1'1' 179--21 1; F Adl ... ItlJl"," Ind"._
tr",/U15 from to FasCISm. 1906 19J4. C.mbridg . I99S.
PI' 106- 7
H Spri.lkl, Slana d, Tim".,. p_ 258
76 .. Li",..i. 'II ..,.,.10."", ,n I'iemoo" <lalla Krande gut"" .Wooou
dell. fal>!>nohe. ,n A . Ago'I" ond G U",,,o (cds).

Romf,
'"
G'amsd and ,"e ,(narrhms
77.
78,
79
80
8 1,
82
83
84

86
87
mo,,me",o operaio dd soc:ialism" delle .,oc:ioli in l'iemome.

Yol 2, Ihri, 1979,1' 160,
Ibid_. PI' 370. 383_
Ibod, p, 360
T DetT i, 'Boe ro, Giovann,' .
AnJ .-.ucc, and Dtui, II mo.-'menlo
opt'rooo, Yol I, Rome, 1975, W ' 332 3
' lkn.;I L. Carlo'"n Andre""" i .nd [)o;tt i, /I mOI'imenta ol"'mio, vol
I. PI'. 2S8-9 , 'Ilcruti , C.rl o', ACS, cre
A, Campari"i, . Lotte soc,ali organ","z,o,,, 18 80-926',
in /\gost i and Bravo, SIOFia del mo,-imemo opl!Fwa, "0 1. 2, p . 455
Gram"'i ';; obituary of G iudice " h" ,band, see CF, W, 177, 4245. F", Togh.,,; ', mlefvenl,onlSm >co . Boco . Palmi,." TogiiaW, pp
19---22 , Ago"i, Palmiro Toglia/I<. PI' 16---1 8
.\1. Royelli , In'O"'is' M Garino', M, .. Turin , 1975, p. 72_
Ibid. p . 73
Spri.no, Slo-W di Tor;no. p, 364, On Mombe llo La Scuola
.llrnierno. Bo/leumo Scmestriale Ed,w dol Cirrolo di C"lIum 'F'an
"nco Fe""r '. TIln n. ,'01 I , no_ I, NoY<mb<r 1916---Apnl 191 7, p, 5,
Srr iano, Swria di TOrino . pp, 358-9
See D.I soc i.l iStno. rlnarchica', /I Libe'lUrW, Lo Spe"a. 13 Jul}'
19 16, p . 2, signcd Turm. 5 Jul}' 1916. Thi' m,nife'IO "OS signed by
,n
Cesare Corraoo Q",lgl< "o

Giuscppe Rubmo Giuseppe Fiore
Giuseppe lIalksio M.rco Borgh.,io
rrance>co Allolto G,oyann, Filappa
G iuseppe Cariob Fedele Ch iocchia
1,,"_
11 2-
').I
95
Mtcl>clle G ,I ,,,di
G iuseppe Mombello
Domono ia Della :'1",,,,
88 ACS. PS. Sorio GI. 1159, A"oc. Sov". To rir.o. Fascio Gio,""ile
Comuni.ta di Torino, 1. r'-1"''' from ll>c Prefcct, 26 August 1916:
lbid_, I I October 1916,
89 Spnano. S",,-ia di Torino, ,\C5, PS, 1159. Guerra Mo" d,ale. 25
1916. On Trese., se. D, Gallagher. RIg"' Enomie . The
alld Munlor ,,(Carlo Trrsca, New Brun,,';ek NJ, Pl'. 542
90 AST. Procura Gcoc",k di Tori llQ, moti ri\'oluz ionari, occupazi"m
fabbrichr anni 1918---1920. n_ 8446 , ACS. AS" (Pnm. Guo ",
diale) , 11123 . Ikro" of ,he Questura, I S Octobe r 19 16
Ql , V Ma;;;urka blu. 1-" s<rage del /)'alla, \I ib n, 1979. p

I I I G, Ca",aoo,Cronacadi w,a riw;lla . I mOli lari"eJi
dell!. TU tl ". 1977_ p. 174. foo' n<>to 3 Fo r . Ii st 'Reltg,,,,i'
see AST. l'rocu", Generale di Torino.
f''' 'I>Q!"
n
93
97
98_
99
100
101
102_
They wcro
I Cesar. Albe" , COmlOO Q uaghno, born 17 M.",h 1900, Turi l>,
studenl, Ist iwto T""nieo
2 Giuseppe Rubmo, born 26 No'-ember 1898, Naples,
3 r "'''''eseo A11011", born 2 O"toher 1887, \1onferTato. fournJryman
4 1:I. no \j:orgari(., born Febn'ary 1887, Ch i,-"sso,
5 Luig i Momno, born f cb",.ry 1891. Turin, sto'e repairer,
6, l omasso Ioli . born I Mareh 1878. Tu ri n, wppersmith.
7, P,etro Bondi, born 27 Deeember 18SG, Mas".. mechani"
8 Enrico Am,ic.re Cherubino, born 22 January 1886, Runu"
pamler y.rnlShcr.
9 Alfonso A igna, born 16 June 1887, Frigolc, forger
10 G,o"'ppe Peletto. born 18 1899, Turin, occupalion
uokoo"'n
II G,useppe Emanu.eI, born 18 Cklober 1889, Mondo" (Co lleo)_
found!)'",.",
12, DO>'ide Elia, born 6 Feb",ary 1876, Tunn, ramtcrivarn i,i>er
Core.no, Cronaca. pr, 174-5, Spriano, S,orio Ji Torma, p_ 364
AST. I'''''' "'''' OT< del Re d i Torino. 12 Sepleml>er 19 16
For " nere'lIn!; commer.l;; on .IOm< of the literature on the rising
see Clreano, Cm"o,""
Spr iano, Sio-ia iii To-ino. PI' , J97--S : CF.pp . 281 ,_ On Gram'l<' ,'t
I.ter alSen ion lhat t he pro" i,ion ing 'yslorn was sabolaged by
Giolntian<. "c Careano, Cronaca, pp, 1ll8--10
CI".no, C"'''MO, pro 52-3
Spr i.no, SW,.ia di Tori"O, p, 4 III
/lnd, p. 412
){o, elil . Inlo"iot. " G.rillQ , p, 73, In general. see Mus,,". Gli
01"'''';, pp, 162--S,
For GL.ll';<o, 5: ,\C5. cre 2563, For Mombello. "" ACS, cre 3342
For 'loe mctt:ng on l ,\ Iay 1917, "'" AeS, PS B52. Pri ma G".rra
Mond ialc, RCf>Ort of Prefect (0 MU"'IO' of I"lo'i or, I June 1917_
For the rntlng of n June 1917, ,ee ACS, PS BS2. P,ima Guorr.
Mondiale, Ref>Ort of Prde<' 10 or In 'cnor, 5 July I Q 17,
For lho "rikc of 5 JUf>e 1917, see ACS . PS 1152. Prim " G ue"a
Mond,alc. Report o f P.-.f"'l'o Mmi'ler of Imerior, 6 JUlie 1917_
For lhe m ike of 2 Ju ly. see ACS. PS 1:152 . :'Io nd iale,
of Prd",,' to lini,," r of Interior, 5 July 19 17 Aho,;co 5
Ortaggi Ca'lllll"ro"."O, 111"" 000 del la.-oro Ti)rino c I ';"d"",.", del
p,.,mo Will, TlIri n, p. 263
103 for.he hlhan anarch .... and ,he Ru ..,an

rc.
M ... n.. '010 _narchiei i.lhan, 0 la Ri,'olu>ione R",,,,', Ri ...""

S,,,rj,u dd So,ia/'-'IM. r.o" ISo'l6. 1962, PI' 1)5-69: S Fe""I".
{:"" h,..,'t (;/, i,,,Ii,,n; r /" R,m'"
191' 19J9. \1iton. 1996, 1'1' B - 39
1(}.1 Masin,. 'Oh _",hiei. 1'1' 136-7; L. Renin,. fllNiografUl 441" ..... ,...
ChISM<>, '01. I. Florenc<. 1971. p. LI>t<: Fabbri, Luig<
,'"MrI
""",0 I,bert>. 1996, p. 113,

The hmod ,heot i, found '" ACS. PS 19 17, liS. Prima Guerra
,\lond .. I.,
Ih,d. rq>Or1 from the Pn:f.." of Ancona. 18 June 1917.
For ,he I.. hon "","l,m and .he Russian R."olu,Oon. ..,. S Clretll.
U, R""", .. iI 11,,1,-,_ "allalf() 191i-1911.1',;.o.
1974
Amnii', Tu,;n. IS AuuSt 1917.1',1.
SIOrla
105
106
107.
108

109 Carcat"',

116.
I 1'.
118.
II9
120
I! 1
GOTioo . ..,. Ro'dh. '1n1<rvi!la a
G ;no'. p, 79
110. For I. .j",..ni,.. AlMIrA...." _ tbt
.m<1e by Cesare SobnIO
rqxnt<:d in Pnma GU<tTI Mondi.le. AN. lOS 1918 R11. repor1 from
.ho ""'fcc, ofT urio. 19 SqH. 1918. AI", _ . L ..,Uman. t'OS;a d,

Tooino n 27 Ag<>s'o 1917, '-e, ne<!<d, ,it un ehe rho '''1 '' '0',
("""',I< a $ulwr.lim. l 'unn, 14 Augu,1 1920. 1'1' l -.I; Sp.-ial"'.
d, Tormo, p 421
III AI",ICC: Carcano. CfVIIU<'o. 1'1'. 15- 26.
112, Pnma Oucna \Iondi.k. ACS. I'S 191 S. 831. n:porI from tbt ""'f""
St,,,.,,,
o.:t.
"fTuri .
1918,
A<ronl;ng to hi' daugh.e . Luce. Luigi I abbn was Ihe .utlto, of
.he LlICe r abbri. Fabbri SIO-;U <Ii un "0"'" /,be,.".
P, .... 1996, p. 113.
I 13. ACS. CPC 313. ll.ar:anero. G1U\efIPO; R.".llt, 'In,"" ,... a Gan",,.
p. "9: C.rcano, (""""'ca. 1'1' I 1; ACS. PS 1918. 863, S, i=ra.
Repon ofln ,nformer tn lunn. l uly 1917.
114 ACS. rs 19 18. B63 . $vi>.><", "nsigncd no1e. July 19 17. (P, 1'1',
335--0: Co",.no. CronaCil. I'!', 102 3, PS 063. IttpM of the P,dett
of Rome, 9 (X,obor 1917. On \li,ian", ac.i, inu in S" ,(Le. lInd,
... F. Ihnol".", FroMrJn) Ill.Iitv>o, Rome, 1912, 1'1'. 78--115. "J.p<:'
c\llll) pp 82 1
II S. I ha,,, !'thed on lho go""",1 accounts !<om Spnano, Slimo dl Tonlf(),
1'1',41634; Carcano. PI', 4&--140: R.vell i. Ir .. nista.
Ga rino' lla llw. ymcn "'ere ""t" 0 III the CMt"ng ,iot . HQ"'CY", 35
dn'ttt ""ul! of.h. 'f.tt,, the il",ajn",n ".'" milirarozed S,,
114-
n.
hunJ",d,"nd .. 'emy . .."on rail"'oymen "ere wor\.ing '"

"or wno, het" .en 191 S and ",e G Sacchetti. 11 , ;r><b.:.,o
fc" ",i.n Ha lmn; Jurante il O ,.nn;o R,,,,,,', ,n M. Am",,,,,lt, R
Bernard, and G. Ch"'eW;o (edsl.115md",,,,,, ""liulII
a/fuJcilmo I'llI' 192.1, ' '' Ian. 1994. I'!' 201 2
Carcll1O. C"""",a, pp 6s-6
s.:.:. 'Cronaca do, --fo"i di p. 660
Revell;, ' In nist.aO.nOl{l, p 84
ACS I'S 1917. B124. 1'",n3 UUCtTI Mood ,.I.
from the prefec,
"f Turon. N Augu,1 1917. p.m. Smpers.", .eponed.,
ling<>no'; Carcll1O. (""""" Q. p. 71.
R.".II,. 'In'trI"'''' Garino" 1'1'. 82 5: for PS
B59. Poma G"""", Mondtlle, leller July 1917. For Bo"" ..,. AST,
'I'rocur. di T"nllO',
A. Dod. , 'Oh """,,hiei fr" guo"" 0 ,n I' A I' I,i
(cd.I, ddl" ilaliaM. La dUllrrga:ia"" ddla
1I,Mtlan.19R2.p 381
\I'fI wl.m from K Del ClmL ProI<,tar; Kll:a ,.... "01. I U.
Rome. 19'6. p.
cr.
121. Spro.no, S'''''<l d, 426

124 I/;.'oll i. 'Im. "is!a. G."no" p. 84. . .1'10"" di Tori,..,. p.
411. C.",.DO.
1'1'. <).!
125. Sprulno. $lori.. di TorinO, 1'1' On .he mod<-rale """"t"", of
intlu>lriah>l> 10 lhe riottfli.."" Adl ... '''''IUIn"lu".
(""'''<l'''.
PI' lOS 9
126. T."inlU!ty of Antonio Oben, In P,,,Iel;u Quer.:ioh (cd.). G"''''.,(i
"1\'0 ,e"imo",an:" Jum M il.". 1977. P
87; (j..;no ," Paul"''' Quo.,rcioli. Gr""'J", 1'. 1,4. F". ' Le cinque
giom, ""I prolelari. l,,. ot(.' C,.-. 1'1'.
1P. B,a",-,,<, in Paule,u Quc:-r<ioh, Gro .....ci. p. 27
128 \',glon&o in Poulesu Quer<toh.
I. 1'1' 126
129 Ibid. P 125.
130 C."'tt" in P.""," Quorc ioh. Gm""ci. p, 43
III Ibi,/..I'I' 4; 4
I 12. Fiori. Ank"'/O Gramm. 1'1'. 104-5: ...
i. 'U !oOCLllismo'. 1'1'. 162
J; 1 n'i, . opnain'. pp. 526
11) 'Du ....,dt', 7 \lay 1916. /I Gnd<> de' PvpoIa. Tunn. May 1916.
G"''''5.
('T. p.
IH
294
The be,t """mIn! of'h' Club "fMoral Lifo ii '" Ikrg.m t, /llIio,",,,,,'.
PI' 121-34 . nd for b;ograp l"col dot.;), of the ',"",".1 life"" ot(.'
IktpmL /I 1'1' 117 52. On the ("'"lil.on ,,( the
, liS
135
136,
1)7,
138
139,
140
14 I
Club on loral Life, se<: G. Turi, C'Mann i Genlile. I <N5,

PI' . 267--1j
QuO!<'d in D3\ld",n, Anloml! CramsC/, p. 79
raulesu Queriook Gramui. p. 124.
D,widson, Antonio p, i9
P,ul<"$u QueriCiQli, Cramsci, p. 126
CF. pp 1I}S----6,
CF, r 498 . For lhe cducalionaltrad il ion of lIalian soclall,m. Stt P.
Aud'"mo. 'Non pi" ilOli : "alori c model li della pcdagogla
soci, lim' ,n L RosSi (<11 .). Cul,ura <slruz,onc e ,(){",al,smo nell '0"
[:,Ioli,,,,",,, ,\1 ilan, 1991, pp. 37-54. 0" Cra ms<;i., educa"onali,IO,
soe Ad. mw " , Hegemony and pp 39---41
For soclahSI worsh,p, C. Le"y, 'Charisma and Social
M""mtlU>: Erri." Malale>ta and Ilali,n AnardHsm', Modcrn Ila"',
'01, 3, '"' 2, 1998, pp. 205---8
CF, pp. 499-500. English Iranol'lion in AnlOni(} Gramsei.
p.
38.
142, For B.nalrn i, tosIHnony. Se,i", 191 , pr, 14 1 143 For

his hfe, >ee 'Bartalrnl, Ezio'. tn AndITuocl .nd IXIII.I!
\'01. I. Rome, 1975, pp 188---9: R. Ci3<om'lII , AIII/mili_
lammocl"'cijjsmonc/p"mo M,'cunlO, EzioDandini 'La Pau'.
1903-1918, Milan. 19'J I On C(>Jmo, Fiori, AnIO"'O
pp, 74-5, 93, 104, 113. For Crar-l""', oplOlon' of EspcranlO,
CF, pp. 668--74, n ergami, II PI', 70. 92
143 F Lo P'pMt), I.lIlgua jllleliemonii wmonia in Gramsci. Bari. 1979
rP 3-1 1. 73---<>, 3. 'X}- I, 95, 114 IS, 12-'-5, 150, 174200. A rather sinnlar approacb Ii laken by Nadia Umin"i, sec 'T he
Sou,hs of An:onio Cram"" ano tbo Co"c ep! of Hegemony', In J
(e<! .I, ItaIJ; Soli/hem Queslion
0'11 ()"e
C"""'n . Oxford . 19'JS . pp . 13$- 56
144, s.orcl IOW.rdS I'orr<r on 1h<:;;C gr""nds and thereby
alienated many h, Jj,," " n,>rch i", before til<- "ar - "'" G.B. FUrI""",
'Sorci e gli " ," rch,c, italiani . R,un:hc Sl<mche, "01. 5, no. I, 1975,
PI' . 179- 88
145, 'L. Corn uII.. /I Grido del Popolo, Turin, 16 March 1918, CI', pp
75 1 2,
146, SM. !'!'. 113-17.
147, Lwnctt i,.VolesuIC,am,ci,[;mino. 1970.pp. I
148 ,\'.11. pp . 113-14
149 CF, pp, 105--6
150. .-\.If, r 75
- 116
1,1 I GtJ<id of the origins of unonho<lox COmmu"IS'" can bt

found in A I< 'iegcl, ,1"-, mjgjlle., dl< c,,,,,,,,,,mSme im",ais. 1914
1920, "01, I, Pari', 1%4. PI'. 282-307: A, Linde ma"n , The 'lIed
I,,,,'! '. E"rrJl)C(J" SocwllSm ""51/.S Dolsho';'''' 1919-1920,
1974, A. Kroese!. 'La cri,i riYoIUlion.,i " 1919-20: lpotesi P<' I.
di un modollo', in A. Agosil (ed, I, di
(/919-1939j, TlIT in, 1974, A
Ag""", ' Le corr<n! [ cos11!Uti'e del comlln ismo [n
E. HOO,bowm (cd.), Slo,ia del marxisma. \'01. 3. pI. I. /I ",a,xism"
,,'"'Iv r/<i della Ta:a Turi n. 1980, pp 32960; C
S" iann i, i!i".ws ' Conlrol and Socwlh/ D,'",ocrary. The S<-mCl
.<pedence. London . 1982, pp 107- 16 For .. " of
European during the Firsl World War.
C. Iknra od (<'d,),
R"mluliona,)' Sill,allOns ill Europe 1917-1922' Italy
Montrea L 1977 ano espeei all y D. Kim],. War
peoa and fmcrnallOnal SocIalism aI 1M Cro"rwds
1914-1918, Londo", 1986
152, On these (lemonstra110n,. CT, pp 51926,563---<> . 606----7,
6 10 I I
153. Serrati, 'Una parola ag li on.rchici'. Awnli', Milo", I Feb
19 16, pi, Sec the anarch'" r"pon,e, 'Irros', Pe r ""' pMol gIL
""arch i,i', /I Ul>ertado. La Spol ia, 13 April 1916, pp . I 2, U""gneJ,
'Per tr.lnq" ,lliuarc',II Libma"o. 13 Aprol 1916. 1'1', 1-2. Also
"'" the d.bale i" wtth IlL. contribution, of Giovann i ZI\lordi.
2 April 1916; Am./ko Borolga. 10 Ap ril 1916; halo T"""IIt . 20
Ar ril 1916 and_ga", G Zioord i, 21 Apr il 1916. Tho numbers of
lb. 23 and 24 May 1916 of LA,alll/liardi" (tho FCS l1<'ws p, pcr)
art ,I so tah" up \\' i,h Mbalo. Seo .1;0 ,h. dcbOie in 1917, 191 S
CiuSCJlP< Solgiu, 'Ptr la N"",'a Imema,ion.le', L 'AwwgumJia. 2330 1917: C.)l.1 Serrati, ' Per la tor,a In!orn."io"a l,',
. AIl<ora 1'1 "temazionale', A"a"" .'. \ l1l an. 6 and 17 J,""a1)' 191 8.
f or the pri,'''. di \.(:""",," , bot" con Fabbri and SerTali see, IISH
F.bbro pape" . louer from Serrati to Fabbri dato,1 27 Fobru"1)' 1916
for on anarchi" accounl. 'Emma' (Ferrero). II L,be'larlo, La
SPCTI", 15 JUl1<' p. 2
154 For the Fioro"ti". socialists and anarchi,,, <Iurmg war. <eo L
Tom." ini, 'Ch",,; orcmia e , ind"".I. duranle I.
Prim" l;uerra Mondial.: L. Came", del LaYOfo Ji Fironlo . 19171918', SlOrichc, \01 2, 1979. pp . 259-374 0"
R"'ghi', ""b, dunng II", "ar.
M An1onioli, Armando 801):;"'
d 'im"me S ,miacu/e Ilalia'la, M.ndllr;a, 199(1, PI' . .11-44. Tho SI-!
-117-
"'a> IIOlJ')rtlUlt here 100. "01 ... il,,'aYJll3Jl and along'" IIh
Ani'''' Sbrana d"",ll USOCIOIN wiTh 1lorJ.h1. Troui ""0< ,he
rqmscnlall" for ,he SFI. ste $a.;h<1li. "II Slntl3C110 ferro' '<Ti". I'P
- 4-
I"S.211
'"
-\<12>0' l$partaco "1I1lOO\' ImrmazionllJ<". iA

I December 1917. p. I r or La'-.gn,ni. fCC L Tomassi";. 'La,VI'""
$f"''''''''''"' ,n And",,,,,ci ..'" Doill. 1/ ""-,,i_1I'o Of'"Uio. '0'. 1,

ROfT'W';, 1977. 1'1'. 68-71. -1.: ....
d,
The Anarchists in Turin during the
Bie""io Rosso
Errico \talo,c:sto' (200ct0t>cr
191 h di I..... ""., 16 )\0\'0011>0, 191 - , p. I
CT, rP. 360--1

CF. PI' -l<> 7 -H.
CT. pp . 76-7, .\\1. p. 3$4
Th ,\113 rchisb nd ka illls duri"!: he bin",;o '''5.''",
"i'l ationaIO,'enic,, '
",0<
Tho /"rnm""".,-o
charxl<";led by mu<h hIgher (If >bon.llved) k,.I.
of Union dtTl>,ly. the dranulM; llrow,h of lhe Soc,.h<, P.r1y. nd lhe
IDlfOOoctoon of u"".""l mal. suffraa<' and pr1)POI1ional represenlaliOl1

r.... VO" lh 0(' .... ....,.,h,S! led UnlOnC <;,,,,,10 ltaloana "'"
W>meIht", in tho: ord<'r of300,OOO ,0 .. ortm; joilXdloc...1orpn.
"allons, here one muSI rtrall,ha, ",f""nlSland rrw.m1lIi.,
_,all"" also gre .. rapidly, >oS lyridiclllSl lfO"'th on lhe
.'''' more lma:zirtg of ,110 Confc<kru>Ol"oC Gone..l. del 1.0'-('10
(CGL) I'wo million ,,,,,,nben. arid I"""'p; 800.000 In the Ind
100.000 ,n FIOM), the Soc,all" Pan), gre" 10 In
.,wundi"8 membe"h ip of .. k,Te "'1!.nllO"d aoarehi". (in the
Unio,"", Anarchic. It.li an. (UAI)l and affintt)' ifOI'P' 'l1roC1l"g
.20.000 members or '"I>pOrters by til( of 1
Popu larly oo ...oJ
(",,, uli{' and ,;",,,al m p.nttS \1.",. iillni n"nl ilCtO" In ParTian",,,'.
,..,pl oem8 prewar nolObies. bUIlh'l major ","01"",,,, ,n III< politica l .ystem
"',IS oceomraniO"d by an c.u1Oorutnal)' number of tndumial ,ni.",. l.nd
""'Up.!1Ion; ,n ,lie south arid .'trllp"rli.me""I}' din:cl o<,i"" by th"
"""onallSi righl.nd ,he _,altl' arid It""",,n.n Idt Tho:: ""1<'
concluded wi,h a month-long """",,"uon of engn'tn,,,, and ""'omoM.
f,""rone< ,n Seplemllor and ","SO"'" fltIle. of qricul'WlI "ort.... ,n lhe
1'0 \'alle) be"","" AUKuSi and Dc:cnnbcT 1920_
Anarrtll" .u-ength d"nn& ,he bi,nn;" ",ISO tan I-a'llely be undersIood
h)' ..,.allin& ,he: proW.l C)'do' lhe} .... r. mt,..,ly enlarged Ind
dcq>ttttd an."he ""'. bul not .... nged. n."", ')1"'$ ufi",,,,,
congeoi.l '0 """",hi,,, mobi" .. d rna .. "c >o<:ial """N' and poli.ic.1
.lnl ... dunng lhe ""10, Fill'. ;n.13l""'. ,lie ri.mg prioc
of b .. ic """""itic. ,kOCh >oS brood. popular "'plos,om of anger
no,
'"
- 119-
,h.
M,ny hi"on.n. of
bicltn/o "H,m do"n fha' ,he most re'<JIIl,ional)'
1lI0.nem during ,hi. e)',;1e of .\OCial prulelol ""e"rrr<I,n and June 1919
"'I>cn floc S<H:IIIC1I ='-<IfII'i"g riob <pread ropldly (""" cen,,,,llo
""nhem Ital}'. F"ghtcned shOpko:q><ft hIIndcd in the keys 10 the .. ,t.op.,
10 the local d oatnh<rs of I. boor: .rod fn' se'eral It'yi llI.ny [(a li.", Ii, cd
"nd. . . tOOO,lIon of dual PO"Cf. Se<ond, a"" mll""ristn Ind In'"
impenal"", mobihud an equally ,,,,,ilflous pruI<St In July 1920. recalh,,&
"mIl., e, ""15 ,,, }oa rs carhl'< during lbe Red W.. k, A mllt'"y of " """,
ref",ing to 10"0 pan of A""""" for It,han.,..eup,ttI AI"'"i. ,"'ol,.. d
a""",h,,,s. "he> moumed I f,erce .rmed ""i"'"""e to ito for
'\0(' do) . FnilOIO 'og the supprtsS>o<> of'he ""';soog and m"M). lnarch,\!,
aoo LSI.led e.ml"lgns Ihf"QUghout Ilali," mdu>1l)'. aH" nst ,," maten.1
m'nur."lUred and ihiJIIICJ to A lbani. '" the Whilt. and A ll ied
''''''I''' figh'ing in 1M Rus ....n Ci, il wch "o<Ic$prtad \.UpJW>I1
a< 10 mako tbe eGl and """ah" l.....rsI"!' qUIl. In ....... lh111 thei, ",ai,
II\IShl I>e ,IO.hni ,heir tnund<r and 11Ie" l'''PPO''c" Third. the .m,al of
Mal,l.,,," 01 Ofistm.. 1919 from h" ... Ie in l<>f'l<loo1 rrpcated Ih. p.utem
dioct"l'1'II;d dunl'l& 11'10 Red .. k of 1914 rrom J"",,,,,I)' 10 the SttJl1JT>CT of
191(1 \13I .. t..... d ...... la'll< CfO\\<1> wllere''''' lie ,poko, Hi, ",ce"ngs al'"
I"",,)ked fu,,"'" proleta n.n ma"a<ru. w hICh 11\ !nett tum ,,..,,,.sed
><'><Ial Ic"",onl ,hroughoul ,,,...,h<m I"'ly. The glI\Cmmenl h:od o:Icla)ed
11>0 ....... nl" of . .,," (..... a 100. as bause t1 feared lhe
"",,,,,,ned i"'pact oflibettanan sinS' sroups and oMn'n'lalic k<>oJ<:" ,uch
"' Mal.,c.ta upOn tl>l: highly cha'llcd and 'h ..... 'i,fied populace I
It ",3\ Iltt, pOhoy that. in (ael. J!C1'Cr;t,,'d Ihe \'C" 1)1'" of non_llnan
unl1ed fronl from bek:r.\ llut, ,he aulhori"t>.., feolt'd. \.ulmah>1 "",.. I,
lSI" .uch as Scm'" and .lombocci. anarehi" .. and lhe of tile
",iI""Y ,m ion (S H ) a nd lhe Union" S",docal. ofle" .h.",d
pl"fon.". In Ja"",,'Y 1920. negorianoru .. 'lh left .. ing ;n"",..,""onl;1$
Ind l)Annu"' ... s fiurman I
r)<.rl} led 10. rn=h <l<1 Rom<'
be, ...... " tile uI>O<Ihodo> len and '"", .. 1" in,.""nnO";I1>. Inlh .. n1
intemot ion" li ,m of 11>1: "", ial,,'" and 11", mual ""tion.)j"n of m""h of
ll1e nn<ldle limile<! lbe ehan""",,,, flf"", of cUm a " .. laleota 0<
D' AnnurWo. I, seelTU imp<t>.ible 10 toncei .. of anny off",e" and the
foil"" ... of maximah;t '<I<'I.h,m eoopcnting el ell if lhe ",o",,,,hy',
,,,,dtbll ity had been "'3",ed by 11", wa, MOT< ',,;1hina elsc. thi'
meidem demonslr.ll ... the lim," ohnan:ht" Ind .yndlClI!!l ,nftll("ll<c
ldoologically. -m.ism moine<! Im)(s " Ith >Mden.ali"" and """,bhe.
a"'lm bul. intolffunsly many of nordisa's fdlow .bstontioni"
'",icnlifie """ali.lS we", InNe w illinillo ""ork ",iln tl>< "nlI",hi'I<
thon ,he" highl)' s.cc"'run leader Although !be oNllIO'I'ls/i (foll""c,. of
'"
A"t"ntO Gram,ci'$ L 'Onljne .VU().'o) did nuc spre.d the oontines

ofTurin ....,.,his! m,liw>15 WIth," the facIO!)' .ouncll ",o,omrnI did ha, e
inll""""e among>1 MnlI",h"" .nd _\llim In ,he .ndu.. ",1 <II)'
"f Sa,on. , HowelOf. 'he rol. of an.rchlS!s in m'Jor Cln e5 (f l"re""c.
Genoa. and Rome) was ',,"'.Sl,d I<>e.l m . im.IiSl _bl i"S.
In \Iilan. "beno ".lal..... S<111ed IlIld SW1M ,he r.,.", popular l!I3f(h"t
<!ail.. L (mllnlla \'''''11. aft .... an IMla] penod of g<><>oNIU. the maxlmal"t
and the an:U'I:htm , lashed ;n the we'!S' By lhe summer of 1910
the R",nan a"orch;lIs and lhe maxim.l;'t _i.li"" ",ore borel)' on
ing ,eons As ".., shall .... the occupa-UOI> of the In Septemm
1910 saw lhe lnMOhlm .tdellr.ed.
In 1920 Mal.losta wa, cOI><cmed to ereat. an """",h i.. 'pan)" bUl
beca".. boaed do>< n in qtw'rels "'ilh """.o!pn,u,,,,,,,liSl' (gull.... " ..",).
Indi. iduah;;t, and J) nd",al"u.. 110 m<1 "nh ,oc ..... ,na sus!,"""'" b) all
of""''' .... hit 1K><!3I"m out.ide the hbcrtanan po],lt",1 ,uocuhure
Thus the an.rchim wcr. s! ill dependent
tllei, heanl.nd. fo,
the .. s,renilth. Tho: maio< .reas ohooi.1 from the of 1919
u. the >UmrncT of 1920 folio" cd the eonloun; of .".",h"m', pohueal
groSr.ph>. Smko and prol l ""eo; ",e sparked olf from La !)PCll'
11ite cosl-of.]j,itlll n01') and Ancona (111e \<110 ond thon ",ro.d
10 the nonhem indumial trul1il . Th< d,.lurbru>< .. dunng!he Mennl"
/tWQ ".re h ke ,l'Iotr prr><ar e""n .. ,-pan. '" king of
duro"on. Just
a, bcfare 19 \ S ....::tari.n bo"ien ,'.nished f<mpo", ril y 8i ,ebli, ely .mall
sroUPI of . nlIreh,!". and 1,1' >0<1' ],,1.\ pruv.dod uJ h
k..tcn;hlp. "" I fo" do """ait,ll"',it.unenlanans and by 1'>(1'" the
,mme."unobly 5lr""g<1,rodeunion lead<ro
the 1IfIP'" hondo
Thul, lh. an>rchlm "eWt po>ed " ored tble all<m.l1\ 0 to the roc .. I""
bfcuioO of un""On na60na l "'I're",nlation. lael of tohd ",,,ilU1l0n.. and
Intomll >quabbliog. n,.y lito raMd 10 supplant ,he lu", of "tended
"'hich lhei, ""PI""'e,." in II>< '!lCCond culture' h"l'P>I)' en<i<>t">ed.
For flIn k. ndfile lon,;! . d"'"<:t ... 1I0" ..1d el"",,,,,, l"'" "cr. oot
d"",ele choi ... Ana"hism rould ... "cr g"""'''t .. ,tat. palron
age and I""'ibk indo .. ";'J and land ",fonn .. which .,,11 remaIned h'ghly
P"I"'la, 11"'-1.
the "'Mht of """al ",*",",al,
of 'oe o, her oh ief obslnd .. 10 an .norch"t in!u"""tional Slralegy
WI .. '" rae the rrofoundly p;acif.., Spin! "(lIeb OOtnlNncd tb< ."'" ,al ....
of lhe lulian Sociait"t Pany, "hil. the
leA of and
foll""c" ofBordl1l" or Gr.omtoCi. were not I""I'"rro to I."""h an It''U''"'''
ti"" ""Mut a new pany and. in oa .. , ""ere <a,ptelou' ofth< tdoo logy
and libclUnans y., lhe flilu", of"""rehi'H)'pe dlreel
"",!ton to <Ieepn" the bclnyll ofl>mld 0< pnadcnt \eaCI<n. luoly wa"
u"
"",,,oed
,,,,n '"
f""''''''
'"
--
"fplll'Cllled Labour.nd popul., ..... I!uml ""Hlol ....... " 'Ih fa"';>1 counler
po.n . w . . . brcal "ill> ,he c.,I, .. form!. of
engineered by ,he
librntl ..,,'" 191 S. The left "'liS Milt! prqn:d (Of 10"""",,1100
"'" akn to ,he no, oilY off_,sm
'.1".";0..,
'u merinl Sl rcH!:l h Mod Influen ce ofTh e Ana .. hi, a"d

1 nd ic.list. in Turin. 19 19-20
On 19 o.."Ccmw 1919 the I''fOCl ofrurm rrponN to Rome th .. thcrc
were "'" mOre Ihan)OO .n.rth'5'5 ,n ent ire reo"''''" ofTunn, . nd
111.1 '. of the"" on ly 100 were dl"'",cly In ,It< Comun,>!.
Anarchi'" ricmomc"" Sc"en mon, l.. 1.ler Ihe prtfccI reported 10 Rom.
th . t ,"" Union" Si",h ".I. had f.w "",.nbc,., in comparison to othcr 'oc.'
kft wing organll.1t1""" l \J"'cnhele'I, tit< eoo",nsU$ among>! h"wnan,
'\ th.atanarchist>_ and ,.,n members of the UnlOtl< S,t>dacale, " .... "",,"i.1
('" the b'flh aoo ",'01" .."" ofTunn'$ fa<tOf)' cooo<il mo,'.,...,n,.'
\hoch of thi, Chapl.r w,ll Ih .... folft be ""wled to """,,>c,hng ,""
untk>ub!l ,mpon.n<c of 1M libtnarian! 10 'bei' lad of Iaq.c fornutl
"'ll1n'lItlOflS The litt..nonans " .... b) no ..... '" un,fil "" tbei, ", l
no:sses "'" 1150 '" ellod'hn:ttJ.<!h "tlcm.d !1lIfian disputes. r ",-ill cumIn<
,he libcrutnan C<)nlnb..non to lhe loo",lri.1 on'ln. of'he (acto.) O<)On<,1
moHnlmt. I""\lng a;,..!e ,be
fo< ChaJ>l('r F'H, I
cond...J.o thi. ch' J>lcr with an .nol)-.II oft"" a"emJ>l> by local """iali,u
.t .' liallCcoo ildins '" i,1o my part",,,I., f""u. of ."entwn naturally 00 ,""
Qrduw,'i,,;
T II<O an.rchlSl< we,. 'IC.tty all> aYI ",p"''''n'cd at mc<;ting>
""1'4. 1 I....--.
....,._'-.J .......
Ito',.. 191-1-1920
"""her T"",.. Ru..", nor- .'..,,, Spain II ...... a hbent. stale

SOInc:"ung !he IlIIlInohiSb kamM 10 "",all ,,"h
.-!alp ;n 1M 19'0,;
:and 19JOo. The I,brnol J'"'''' InlWlkd 10 onnJh,I.,.1he "sub>-eni\
post""'
I",,<ad i, " . ' .hI:

CriSIS """If ,,,,", u="'Ilhe hbenJ ''''e .00
",-.",hdmcd It.. ""'iallsI< ond ..... reh'>ls. "hleb 'hen all"",<,<! an <>,d
".ub,."" ... '0 .each 'he 5'.'e nt" .nds !knl!" \1""">';0;', "'''' 0.... '"
emplOYing '''''amed p,h-al. ';010"". ID coil",,,,,"
syn' l"'henc ,,,,," ,
l'", f15 and poltc. a nd .rm}' oiliee ... follo"'cd by {he rap id
wj,,,
122

by Iho .cei.lim. 'he C h.mbe, o f Laboour. I, rOM", fac,ol)' <<>rnrni,,",,.

bullhey could dr.", r"'pi'CI.ble nurnbcr$ to lhe" uwn dctn""Sl'"t,oo, In
,I>< sp<ing of 1919. norchi,,, ",gularly I ttr.ll:led 1.000 . . or more
'o.he AGO k)
So.tMtOR for- the freedom o f .... "'hi."
.00 """..1,,1> ,mpri>OtlCd dwill& the "''Ir. as "''tli as protestS for- \lal ..
f.....oo.n to ,..e", ''try popular ... ,th 011< subwban"", throughout
1919. and "hm ""ted T unn ,mmed .. tely.tIer his triumpltant
",Ium 10 Italy at tl>< end of 1919. he: mob,ltd lhe crowd ,n Ill<
.iry for ,he: en"", nnm. In 1920 .." ...1 thoul.and "on.rfi
atl..-rukd III ana",h", dcmons'I1I.tOrI,n l)&n ..... d, \tol.no', main >qua",
to pr<>1"" 19a'"" ,"" "'!W",ion of the Hun'"" .... n 1,,1'1. and the IC<cn' Kapp
Puuch in Gm,,,,),' ])urinlt: 'lI< April str,l. 2.000 "",ke ... "",rd,ed from
llJ.mcr> d, \lilano to lit< Carttrc 1\110".'0 dt: .... nd ,I>c ",\case of
',arino ntie. b, brief de"''''ion Tho "" , ,,,h,,t 1"""''''''' was .. ,n,fIC'nl
.nd oo",ro,'o",;ol ""'iali " and 1t1tdc union pubhc mett ing' in r.bn>'ry
(>0>'"''
'"
Anarrhim in
and Ma ... h 1920. and oparleJ offa bloody ,,,,,iok", during ,I>" \by DIy
"" ... de ""'0 month;o late, In oarly J .. nc tile .na",h,Sl' bold 0 1"'l!C d<mo!t.
"ralloo at tl>" AGO and b.Cf In early JUII<'. aAc. tl>" An<.-n ,i.ma.
.""",h,$!> and ')1toIIx:al,,,, oop.IIlU<l hlgllly
fuI 5OI.idanlV ,",,,clmgs,
TlIoy IN limiteJ ......... I on ,I Jull ond La .. , In tl>" m.:.:..h ".'" In
Ibr ,-ang ..,,,,1 of a ..,lId3,,'> 1"""",1 in "'spon5C to att"",k, ""
"""..11m in Rome 0) the IUI1\mC1 of 1920 tbr lISl had bttomc a s;grufl
forre In Tori""", Indus"ial rel.II"" . corll"c'''ng "ith the ' "" rchi " ..
do"" '" lhe onJ.- no,isli
.on'
A narcbl st
n it! O n
FedemllOIP
I'br ... 'eral hund..-d TonllCK Ibr """I numerou, concen.

t"' .."" .. nce Ihc 1880. 0< early I S90i. Folk", ing the national cong"'" 10
Florc""e. ,br TonllCK and I'ledmQollC'SC a ... ",h,Sl' organized !hoi, o"'n
Ln,,,,,,, Cornun,,,,,, A""",hie. l',eJITIOIIIUC (fout>dcd 26 June 1919). One
) ... , lalCf tile liCAP I>"ld ii' -5ond 1M",! rortl"''' "" 13 14 June 1920,
II "h ,I>" second COOirfi!. "frhe lAI 10 M held ,n 901"1"" In a fo n nIMh,.
the agcno.b "-a< dom, ... ,ed by a healeJ d,loCUS'''''' mer tl>" unltcd fron,
and In ",-;01 ..."00 of.he h'I'Of)' of the f;>O:lory councillt1(l"erncnt d"""11
,,.. PI"" 1005 'en """,,11$, In poniei"",,!> and sup!"'n.,.,
of I ,\"".... "en: notable IlId"ed Gar;"". and Dc ll.-.n"lomo" <lomi", r"d ,II< di",u, .. "". 111"""gh indi, id""",,, such Sobr"o
a nd Md'l!-arito ,ddl-.l a ,jis"'pri, 0 note '
Til< Unl"nc Com u", ,,,, An3tc l" ," TQri llc," a",j UC AI' we", " lC",ly
urnb",lb 0'8'"""[100' lira' reprc.emeJ 'il. il ly of ""'ghbol, .hO/xl
a' ..... h 'SI .ffoMy Du.ing lhe
or a
<!<>zcn local "irctc.. (Gruppo An.rchi<o l<>nM""o. Grupp<> B.",,, ... di
I\'IJ", Grupp<> Bame ... dl .\!tllno. Gru[ll'O San Campo<logJi". Gruf'p<>
""'110 San Donaro. Grupp<:> 1lOfJO San j'anl". Gruf'l'O C ...frO, Gruppo
U01,.", ... G
rupp<:> \j,""n dr (irupp;:> \'anghiglia. Gnrppo \'indor:c.
Grupp<> \ tII"",,)_n.e f <'1'rc' (
as in rl>" f""'fron! of :octi, "1<:5
IT! Rarriera 01, M,Laoo. M,ny of tho LC AT .. "'" hekht 11<
In pnn'inc,al I'lc-tlmorll DOUble 00""'1"'''"". of ana",h,,,,, were a,cr,,c
on BoeILa. \ crcelh, "0, a"'. Ak"",ndnl Ind
A""",h", heyond ,he local . !Tinl!)' group "'" easi ly ut>dtrmincd
b}- the d .."",le, of anli -DIpIl"JI ,o"'list anarcho-commltn'>15
."d III< M.lale".n an"",ho-eommunisl "f ,h. UCAT. Th,.
G.",,,n"1 onarch,st group (key ml!o' am" Giu.oppc Rubi"". n.
"'''0
,,,,Ie ..
'"
11.,," dunni/ 'he B,onn,o 11..,...,
I and . . Sohn 'o). IS "ell n \10'1-'nto', Ref",ttori '''''' highly

on"cal of II>" and SltsplCious of a""",h, .. ,mo], cmcnl In
110M ot !ho "",iali<l-dom,"'led rlOCtory co..ncil """ .-mc-nt t
I" ...
lhe""l'J'l'f'<n oflhe flOClOr)' """"",I """ .me.....pounded
,II<II' ,iew. in F.bbn, 101"",,, (AIICO!'II) arid ""squale
(La Spcz .. ) [)unnll 1920 ,he
hL<l
,o'ercd in dopth by .I'v.g, Ganno. Mos>o and Dc
na""lomc" did lt1(IlI "f.he wn ' ms "hile Corrado Qu>gliTlO ,he
o"."h'>1 da,ly '. >I.ff '0 F mllllt Fem:ro (b, 1895. Tunn) ... a> one
"f lhe fe" "omen prom,"" ,,' ,n anarch i,on, and unde , Ihe
, Arma", II,,' "Tot" . " . n" ,tiy Ib, tlK: ."orc hi" press,' I F,n.lly .
n,,,hcr anareh,,! pubhsl\(d undcr ,II< " h'''11<'eri"i. pSeudony'"
'S.nc ulotto. and w",'e a "" i of onlot"Sill'g 0",01.. for L'malPlw NOl a
dunng III< April dock.hand, 'trike AII"""gh h" .-.al """'" "., n,,,'or
",'"aled. he has .... nufled Ii '" nit In rnl .... enlOOOilll"Sl 'l
l;ort)' '" 1919 ,he Tonne>e anl"hllts discussed ".niRg IlK:i, o"'n ""wspaper. L 'Alba Anardica_ '1 Th,; ne'er $II" tile hllb, of day_
one <>tlhe ofPiedmon,ue .... n:hlsm ft1wnclishing "" 10 Janu>ry 1920
'r""",,!oC a......
rno",,,...,,, .. u
"''ll.
Lmgi Gal/ron; (.lnd CronQ('Q s,::uwr....lI

Mlo, h,. HIEh, from Ita ly in tht La'e 1890s. I.u lgi Galle'HI Ined In I\onh
A,tlCfica for ...a.ly ",-enty }co,." G. llean, '''15 an n"fJ'OI'Iant flgu", ,n anfl_
OIg"n i" 'i""o l "n"c!>o-comlnun,;m ,Jul 01 Inm....;' alled the innuenc.
o f ).-Ialar.\t. ', "um;n' among" I'ali.n " ' ""iar.n,", Gall.. ni 's Crona""
,\.:0,.,-"";,,,
a I"ely. inrcn1Ouonaliy or,e nled Joumal publi shed nearty
handed ly. for,r from Barre. Vermon' (home of. subSt.ntial group
of .n.rchi .. q"anymcn from Com.. ). a n<l13'" from 0 ,ubum ofu.o.,OI1
Golle.nl'$ oommentod 011 "'entS in "ilhin lhe ArnerlCa
len
Iabou, mo,..,..nllnd in,erc5l'"8Iy on ,he \ie.;".n R",'nluti",,_
Gall ... ni, lif. ,n Nonh ..... "'" " ,IOO<&! IlI<ioknt. !la,ioG
In,nh'ed in a ,"olen' tu .. le in rlre""". 'k..' Jersey in
1901. II< "'as forced 10 flu 10 Clnada H. la,er ""umed cllnoks" nel)'
and ""lied in R",--,:. $eml1I. thon l)O<Im:Ihll for 1\... \ 'od ',11 Prole.....'''.
4'I'I""'lIy Klen"fied hll" ... hlch Clu$Cd .he lnuchi ... 10 accuse $emI ..
of boina poI;"e opy, In 1903. dun"ll I "",..10.. mr:<1lng al Ilarro. In
anarch'" "ia, <hoi dead by. G.lleoni and Setr.1li "'ere
I......m and i, ".IS sa id by the llUrchL\l\ lhot $emI'i hod inc"ed the """,.1",
gunma n_ Alkr 'h '-' mc,M", ScI""" ,eputa!!on w .. alway. dogJIed by
II... affall' Indeed. upon hIS ."i,,,1 in h lly in 1'119, Mu,,,,lInl "'te mp,ed
w.,
."d
'"
AnarrnijlS In n.ri. ,hell ,ennio Ro''''
10 Gallo.", .n a campa.so Scm.i moun.ed b) 1/ Pup%

d Ifolia. 001 rdu!oed 10"'" 10 .tIc ba ,l "
"":I,
Gal103111
<i<poncd from lhe L.nlled on 21 J""C 1919 d"" 10
h,. press campaign "pitU. conlCnphon and hIS " .... _""neel ,"'" '0
lnarthim ,,100 had bttn re.....,.,slble (or a ICrits of bombings. Lnliic h"
,;, 0lhc:T unlllCky comtadts, GIIlleln, JJ<! not diSoCmbarlc "hC"ll the .h,p
from I>.rn Y<><k armed aI "apl.,..hortby l>"OIdJnj one monlh'. 1"t"'"CfII"C
drtcmOon. Howe\'rr. '1 Gm::ta he "'"&I1n'tsIcd bul a lia I thtt"lC1!cd gmrra l
of 111111< ron' "'. men and dochrs. he "' as 0.. hi. m um
""mc Ga lle.n , wo. hemg ""Ii> ely consiJerrd a SoC";"". candid'IC for
the ",j,IO" hip of ,\'0>"<1 he "'0$ an I ntH)rga nilal,,,,,.Ii".
"" ny . nar<him he "., I '!!Or< flue on and e,cllrng ''''Ie r ' han
Malate"., G. lkani, howe,'or. J <>.::loned lhe offer, fk gaw S<lme "ell.
atTended speeches. bUI for lhe rel"'lndt, of 1919 he "a}'cd "ilh hi. aged
'.Itlcr ,n a hamlet ,n Ihe VcrccliCiC, Gall,"", was ,n poor heal'h. Ind
t.c.ides the main foru, ofh" c"""em I.... ,he ""going persullOn oflhe
I"lc-Amencan Inar<h .. " by Ano""') ..on.,ral ralme.-_ '.
from 17 January 10 2 O::lobc-r 1910. and " ....... 11 group of
""noh,>I$ publi>hod n inelttn i....., of1 Turi... ba$ed C"""""",, Stmw-si '"
Concur=oly an Amrncan ed'lI"", mUlied $Ion.ro -' (1he tille "'''' cbanged
10 Arneno:"aIl ollk .. I.). "'a. ""'" 10 the Lnaed 51...... "
G.o!ltan, "'0$ .."""ed feJJu" Ikpon. 'he bookkeep" Raffaele
Schi., ,na(b, 1894 ' n Cnrlo "00 had been 'mpn",ncd In
I"" lin; led So"e; for one yell QIl of chll e,'asOon, Ar"IOIher """'her
ofGalkani", group "as Pi<1ro Ra'ne, i,. Totl""" mason (b,
1893) ,,1>0 had d< ... ned irom Ihe arm;' '0 S"",erl.hd and 'hen become
" "'ol'eJ ,n smugsling .mi".r leMlet. ' "'0 1131y, In 19 1S he 'M' cd 10
(ie'''n.ny when" "" pan,e lp.,.,1 "'tlh a "",I! group of hali.n .n''''h,m.
s,,,J<calis" and socialr!" in the 1kr1," '\pana,i" urri .inS,"
rhe Torine" ed,,"on i)( C""'''r UScI'l"'.1I>a diJ not enjoy a p'a.cdul
irk Of ,I> 19 i....... and ,n O::lobcr.he new'SJI'Ipcr
cloxd .n.... it> edi' onal .clff "ere ch''lIed ""th fn" crimes ansing
from Inu-miirlMl., an ..1.,;. alUeanl ,n, i,ed . ..
>""h as ' Io:garila. Rubi"" and ",her local fillurrs 10 publish ,n C""'aCQ
5On.,.".il'a, 0 b,,, h" o"-n pOslllOll ""' ptfh.o", lubtlrr lhan Iho5e of
his ,ml"'luous Too ..... eomraoks. In some "sp11 he.ha..,d man}' of
\ Ial.,e;la', ilk.s. aalkln , Ind .gain I I I banquCl on
,he 1.lIers l"CIum 10 Iialy Tiley hel,j each OIher m de-ep re,pec'. and
although Galle.n, "'-" IIppOlSCd 10 I"" foundal'QIl onlle UAI. he endor1.cd
\I.la,."., oppos,IoQllIO an . >du." e '''''reh", ,n ,I>c USI
G.lkani a,ld "northi", would ha,c to he 1O"ol,ed in I'"
126
entire I.boor "",,'ement, II(>\I.O\Cf. Galleanl "'a. entical o f the re'oln

lIunary and "",,,,,,",oetn. pooenll.1of the f""O'l e("n",iI. and therefore
In """,,"Ilion 10 Gori",,'. Ferrero. or \lollt",La$ 1'0>"100'_ CnHI"'"
""' .1"" 5Ccplic:11 mlhe .yndocalo.1 OCCupallon offacl""'" In

,n Feb<uary- 1920; "hM other anarcb,sts and sociali".
he he!""'ed 1he governmrrrt.imposed 5<'q\>C$I..,ion oflhe \Ianonio
planl OIl,",de of Tun" 10 he polilrcolly JonlilJ:1"()U._1 . .. sllCh
.'Ihe", ,lIat cllaro"lm,ed lhe b't""iD rolfD fell rhOl II>c UAI "'ould
d.tnpcn down Ih= n>OHn\enri Ihroolilh 'op-down uniroo f",nlS ",,,h ,I>c
""'!alost left lie therefore aI'P13t1tlod 'iol$ ,n ).-I.n ,ua in Ik<.mbe r 1919
and Ihe A""on ' mutin} in Jun. 1920,l '
Alti>ough Galka", ,nay """e been shazply crille,1 o f!he M.I.Ie.t. UAI,
'" I >en'" tic ,Iuored Malat.",s fim rreml>CS concemong lile
11>0 ,ndll'id .... l.nd tile coll<>.::1i" ;I)', BoIh men belie,-ed
relalion,h,p
lhal orgaRizalio" ,hould not iline ,he Ina.ltll. of indi, id .... ls_Gf,lk'n,',
.nli-orpnizauon.l ,lance Icd hln> 10 be ennoal of 'Ial .. estl ", and
fabbn's prGpO$Cd <kttn''''Io.ttd 1IC1IQIl """,nlll.,.", Glne.n,'. opt,mal
un,l of pol,l",al "'I;.n,,"",,,,,, doo>s not _m ro hole "."",ended i"'imale
amn'ly croups, wch ., lhose he or Schll'"aJI& had bern In, """d "ah ,n
lhe wbufh> of80sr"". "Ie,enhele." M.lalo>!.and "ett jO,Ded
,n a des,,,, '0 "'" and >lclldfi>l Ioben.:",.>n re\Olutoomone< ,,00
could "I:>,n""n 11>0-11 .",,;1 o""e the m.""",losl " -J'-e ofrhe hieMIO roJIJO
,,,Ilsided, Bolh . nd G.lle.n; we .. COnttn>cd 'hot large $O<'31oSI
pOMIe. "nd In.de union. could eosi ly become del',oes for monopoir,mjl:
pri" ileg ... hu rting. and Uno'l!anlleJ J ,,,athanlaged group, ',nlo
tho rol)l.a,n, G. ll e3" , this HI Ser teHlbc r ,1 922. afte r f'>C I'I"
h,J Jc5lroyed Ihe 1M"" of h. li. n s1I<lah.m wnh ,u'l',,,, ng
ntp,dlly,
1'""","<=
bel".....,
f"'" rt') ';'" pOi''' _ .......
,r.""" t.a.
"'" <Uf""'111100 tlLlt
1""f"1 Aft.,. >0 y ," C........ u

In TInII Of "-li ..... ..t i. Fm': .... R<JI>O.

P i _ p......
,f ..""' ..... 0< a .. bm<r lO .. y JOn>< eat<1Of"ICS of ..-om... been ""I><cd
by. c...u.n ty"" 0; ft . . r.op<>Iy ofl.,""",
1II1II< of unloanI of "'. . .
I"""'" ""'" , ... !hod .. frono ofthc
ofl" "'t), ....... thc1t f.uh
In!hc"lr.,.." "",,'CT. DOl Ihru <01'>0<' ........... r"IOI "'" """"". in ""'" 0\\"
np:lru; .... C\'Cf rnPJC<l. and tho oopI\UIIlOIIS Of<' ,n a q of
"...""Iorly
.. "",.1I.. had "1'1'<..-..:1 , rId.he rOO root",.."., ben"",.r Iho
."" of
Crn". mooop>I,Oj Ind ,,<lIIl'"1 >rid '''''"",e. ""'y
flo,. 1',,>1 from "",..Ii"" '0 fa><;;,m ",,k on ..'" wwld ....." """ l,uKh
,f a d,d not ""''-y '0 ,ho 11",1<.",... of ""
100,

.,\h "'"
r...,..,...,..,..
nI''''
,hit,
""'"r l"""'"
1\1"" d,d Galk.ni exe",i.. 'n Turin Of ILaly in 1919-20"Of

,he 4.000 cop ... orc""""",, 5o ...........
and 11

publi.hed nch
,<>u,\ ..... , to the USA. Indeed. 'II'''' dc:ol ofa... """'"SJIIPfI'
.... dnllcatro to the dr"",s of tbe Pal""" Ra,ds and ,he of
'he of the I'o'nrlJ (IWW) " lIowe,.,. Gallean, . nd his
group d,d ,n'e,e,1 III hall. n .' Ont5 were not " ill>ou, inl1".''''e
,n 'ho dom05,io 0' I""al lof\. f ,... ,Iy. Gallo.", "'o.s " ne of the ea,heS! and
most aculo .",0e5 of unin and lhe 111$ ."""i bullon to ,f\c
Itnlian .".... hi" de"" ...!>Qu, ' he docI.,,,,,h,p of the prole .. n., "a.
'mponaru." Mcoodl}. hi' eoll ...SU" Roffaele xhi., ,na a 'islble
and "'>CII "'PtcSont.",. for lbe 'rwch"" a' 'IOCiallst and ,ra6c
umon sponloOr'fd mImgs in I'no. F,nally. CrtJllflN 50 ........../""'. Onll.
ruona,ro ,n Tunn and throughout Italy. T"o Onll.
m,I,Lan"
nll".. ri" .",de' In C,.,""'-D fonllro lbe "",is f<>< lhe arres'!
ofG.llean" Schi ,,,,, and Raniori. 'r ",t.l lo soldalo' (' Bro1"", So IJ ,.,',
1M") .nd 'La brecCI"T TIte Ure. ch) (Ju ly J) II n_ed to ' he
Anc"". n
r"'lcllo ""1<tOlo' wo.s tume<l ,nto" I.an", and
In Tun" .nd .11I<",here. n.e.. app.. re<l in Tor",e$< barrack, and ",en on
,he Ane""'n bamor:h,lJ<'fMl! ,he mu"ny of the h."wgii"';. Orr 30 JUI'l(',
for
Cu,,,,,,... "na,chi>! \\u arrested dl>tnbu.ing lbern ou",d!:
hi' local barnr:h 'La B""",ia' ..It'bra,ed tile re,ol. ' n Aneona." Bu.
'La 8rn:.,. .... s 01.., di""""inated b) , Irnall (!rOUp of anarchi"" and
_'al"'I OIpn'7.d by Maurizio GarillO. 1!>rn7.a Pa,ri,' 11>.0 prodt.>oro
,be" m';n crude Ie.n"" and spoead .bem ,hroughou. Turin 10 ,he sprinB
and
of 1920 ,.
i,,,
.'"'fIlI'"
""'''ny,.
,nst,,,,,,,.
"'mme,
A, 'n Md,n. anll'Drgan'lationahst and ,nd",dUlllist lna",hiSlS

otT I ... ' i,"1 of l...."h,SI terrorism ,hal h.>d bent Ia'!!e]y ab5rn, from TUlln
.i .... !he 1890s Dunn, the April, 1920 'doclhaRds' wih, AnIOnic
Marion<- (b 1900 in \'=tlh). a mechart" """'!lite'll "',," the &rm'rII d,
JrOUP.,hr .... 1\\'0 bomb< a. RO).. I Guards. He .... arrested and
]"......., '0 pmon for fourt= years. Unkno,,n '''''''''''1
bombs
al 'he 1920 May o..y rna ... h. Orr 5 M.yG, u",1'I'<' 0. Lu", as at
hi' MOl" fOf posse,,,,,,, of illegal flre.urns. IX Lui,i lof 'he Ge""lnlJ/
hl"e " ,,'ul"Od in 'ho May Il.y bombi ngs Later he
enm,,,al gang ... ,," " small KI'OOP ,,( In.rehi.... inc luJing 0".
woman. Catedna Piol .. " (b. 1900 In A""ta ). "hieh was ,nvol,'ro in I
of II'rIltd robbe,i lIunnll ,he gon ....1 strile of 2 1 Jul) 1920,
Guglielmo lb. 1899 in ASlil "IS hornbly d.. rrgure<l Ine, I bomb
\t"'''''
"'pio<kd
128
,n.rnded for RO)'.I Guards prnnalUrely nplodod. WIS nttptisonro

aft .. I ""'I <Ofl,aleKm<e in """'ital, bu. d,e'II,ne,rcetll,ed in 19!J."
OthoT anarch, ... .llegro to be m=ben ohhe Re'II Gua"'" .nd 1.1..
'heAnI" , del f'opolo (.n an,i f .el;' mIlo".). GIU!o<'pJlC Rub,,,,, and OIhel"\
.m,,1 f", JIO>$C>'OOIlOfanns during ,be f.-Ie'.",.. oc,upa"""s. 1'.'1,, 1.
some " " :",: lI i!'. won: ",,"oll'ed in .."cr.1 .hal occurred d uring
Ihcdi'pu,.

I Sl ln Tu rin, 1919-20
n.. ,nnucmc oflllc Lnior>e S",""""ale .n Turin

,n ,he
..,mme, of 1910. Allhough the Unionc Sindooalc: dMi n(lII esl3bllslt In
offlC,.11fOOf' un,,1 M.rch 1920. be " .. n,rne fue:,o Sindacale di Azionc

Di",,,,, "IS largely c",,!rolled by an" n OM .n.... hiscs 11 00 had been
""'\\ ,n ,he pre""!,, SHld""a'o Umt" Orr!be .,e of'he April 1920
Ihe USI's f.M I), Donalo. m,Je an IJlP<.rance. 11 By June lhe
Un ione Si nd""al. wa; gathering some: .igninc on. suJlPOrt. and In July.
of 'l,oJ,.ahst work,hop cOmm',sars "u beld .nd .y"dic'''m
dirn: .. d tram dri.-(rs stnk . Srn,,,ea"lt ,oices he.nI ., \"chelln,
Sc ... Ideal and LMne ...:t In August tbe \..'n,,,,,< SuMiacale Tonne", " ...
formally eon.,iMe'II. and ' ...... n of ,he S",dacato Uno.:o. ,he mn:han"
"''''000 8m&i. bel"" ro ,hat the brief p........, SI>I'<'.--s "ould soon be
repeated. Toadd to l'lrallel, .. ith 1911 12. a fl'rl)' ,mponant peripa''''c
,ynd ica",'
'iooia \toougOO 1895 ,n Andria, arrived f,um
',}'nJit. II,, 10 help()lgao"e ,bf US I " Wh,le .}'ndIC"";1
"cre few ,n number, .ynd". IISI ,,,uei .nd I1y l.. ",em 10 ha \0 cII""ulaoed
qu i,e w idely wah ", Ih, poill icized cl l .. dunng d,e , umme, of
1920, Eno\or:<otncnl of .)ndioaIiSl de"",nd. "..., ,lO(lOe'II . ,nongst the tram
.I<CI. "utornol><k. and b.u tl>r: ,yndlO'''>I
chalknge ean be """" ""<"tllIely mcaw",d by tbe \\ ](I<:<p",.d ,upport
regi".red ,n f"",or, for US I flO\{ un"y dunnB negoc,ati"" ...."h
oppositIOn ", Gi<;>l,lIi'J ,"!outline. I... and the LS I
iru.pire<l .",i..... work .ampa.gn. If flO\11I3d IlOI embraced ,he ,yr".Il.
. all" 'dea ohn oc,uflll'''''' offactorie! to coun,,,, "" nploye'' Ioclootc.
,he USI may" .UI\;I"e woo "gniiicanl
from ,be: poI i tically octi,.
"otk,ng eloS! of T orin, 1;
"'P"'''''.
m,,,,,,n'l
'"won
'"
The Cuntr lbullo ll 10 I
CUllll d l \ l unm t nl : 1918 10 uri) 1919
or
F
1M Tonn<>e facto<y cooneil JIIO\'tm<1lI arose from booh imernal >llUCOJral

.,..."..."... .. odcnl in !he wanime mcul.,,"Orl.,"I and ...... ,occring indu"ries.
""" the nogrnous Infl""noes of L ,\'110'''.'' In 1918 lhe
Inle .... '
.omrn'<'>'on In Tunn ".re al'lnlro mlltr wide llboni"" 10 de. )
""h Ihe of p,ocemle. and di$clplif'IC. Tilt $I"'ggl. over Wlul
lhe IUlUre and WI"" oflhe Intcm.11 oom.t'lluions mighle""'il beg. " al""",
"''',"cd l' lel;- In ApI'll 191 S G.ri,;o AI><i ,,,Iomb,,,o ens.ged in 1 public
debale 31. "'gloll.1 congre<$ ofnO,\1 "
Ilo\\'<wf, il should bo home in ,h.. Ih""" ""'w r""ns o f wooohop
""'",zal lOn were 001 reJoclCd 001 ofh.nd by FIO"t', ref"""'51 leadership
Colomb,,;o 0.- BuoZZl "ore IlOl 0flp<M 10 de loW>ting '''llIo.-ily 10 Intomal
COlnm'$5lons . .., long a, IhlS did IlOl Imalen lhe ,'ery "''':g.my of the
unIon l odttd. ,he refOfTl'ltilS and !'Idlcals both ""'ogn,,,,d 1loal one
of 1IH: pnrrw)' ca""", for lilt ifO\'lh and radicalizallOn of lhe Inlemal
00It\fJ'I, """" ("kh hy ,.... 5IIIIlnlC.T of J91 8 """ompa;sed rnosI oITorincse
of ')5Iem of g ....."""'. ,nduSlnl]
IndU$lryl '''''' I.... .......t for """"
detnocnc). Beh,nd ,he demand Jhe",...,.i"",."...,"S """,bcnof"O<!<...
JO'n,,'l!' FlO\I 14
By ..... end of 1919. FIO\ I had ""arly 100.000 membef< n.tionally
"d af'p"",m.,dy 20,000 In lhe pol' '""" ofTunn. Thi' growlh of un""
dcn>lly ""' "'lenK In Tunn pl'oHnc. "hefe FlOM " ..
lI'Ce" ,n8 I. ,000 10 I ,SOO "''luc," for nlOmbelSh;p PC f momh 'hrough"'''
1919." ThIS unprec<d"nll ",,:"'.,. 'n UI1lOfl rrn:onbe" "elernn
"Jlh '<:r,ous p roblem" Rod ic.l, and Ih" reIOnni".
,d cntorl<d "' Ihe "",,,,.d " nemal N",minio". Shop flOOf "enucs wh.",
One could '"",OrpornIO, poh .. a'id dl",irhnc lhe r><'" m..s of ""'enlly
onIOlll"'(l "orkef<. Tloe d, ITe"""., bel"'''"'" ",fonni,,, ar><l rndi.::ll. I.v
'" lhe "Ietll u, w'ucb lhey "'oo!d all"" im""",1 <""""'u'''''' to be u...d
lhe oq;.n""""",,,1 fronllOT I>etw,n dlC """">led mloonl)' and ,he noounoo""ed maJonlY Equally ilnpol'1anl lOU the <l<g= 10 "'hooh !'Idlell.
or refornll'" "oold cOIIm""""", COII.oor.ll!lon "i.h ernpl",'e" and ,he
'>Ia,c ,n posl",.. ItaJy.
Tloe ",formislS an .. ell"',ed. pan",,"b,p ",,1\ produolinSl and "nligh,.
rnI emplo) mo, The Contnll lonIUU"" " ... s Se<n .. ,he ,ehi;;r. 1lorough
"h,ch 80'-01""""'1. employers a nd ,he .\Ial.
an lIah"" .ysteln
"""id ..."",
or Ind""lnal de100<1'ICy. Tloe refon",s!> wn. I"..", oflhe ",dic.llcrnpcl

of faCIO<)' W,,",CIS
on
jOOMh! 10 ....,;onil .. e many of' .... ,}'mool.
nd CooocpllOn. of P"'\\ ar .ynd,call.m mlo the .. ,"o.k"'l< "<1>,on of
'nd. f"",.
'"
,ndu,,,i. 1 dtmocracy So, for . . ml'l., "' Rome Con

ill<'.<- held in early f'o"embo, 1918. Colomb,,.., prop<>OC<Ilhal ll>= ,.., .......1
"omm,."ons 'boeo"", pcrm1nC'f1. orpM of ""'aden' control". <lealina
,,"h all probbm ofw.g.... C'tI'. under \he leader
sIt,p of.he Gnions' ..
Ho" .UT, the ",form,SI plan "as I"'" short shnlt by \he muimal"l
""".. Ii\.l$. a para/)71ng be.ween ",formists and !adal'
\\ IIh," .0.".1i" and ,rade " n,on resul,cd from lhe congrcs"",
.,><i conference. o f lale 1918 By Septrmbe' 1918 'he COL '00
had becn "CtoN from pan,e'pallnl! In Ihe by lhe PSI
[) ifcc tomIC. The 1'3<;1 of bet",...,n II", COL and , .... I"SI (.ig""d
19 Sep'embef 1918) .ttn aJ. I<lp to IIle traJc "nloniS! leadersh ip
.It", (his defe'l allhe h''><l' of,he m .. im.ilSI . U. 'ermS mean' lhat ,he
COL wQUld call all oconomic wh,I<llhe PSI D,.....,' ..... 1< "ould
be re>/'Oll.iblc for ded'noa pollt..::al s.ftkes, Uow one coold diff............
bolw,,",n lilt ,,,0 wa, 11O,el made cl.ar RHpOnSihility in di recting ,he
g",al 'lnkes oft .... "'0 ul(imol.l), I<'$led on lhe shoulderS of the
('eL. How",,,f. pol"..:all),. lhe .)mbol. Ind language of max"",,],,m
,..malned jlCr'\Ctil". w'"' nlade "","ifH,ly clear by ,he party di.....,,onle "hen ,n [)ocembeo" 1918 " ealled for the ,mmed,.le e>ubll->hmcn!
oflhe "",i.li" "'1'ublic Ihrough dlClal"",hlp of,he proi<1a""L"
This jO<kcymg for p<l<"1I)n atTecled lhe P""'" wuggJe bel"..., rodieal
.nd ",fOfTl'l"u, ""tlln HOM UUOJ;iI cenainly f.l. on lhe deren'i' ....
<an be >Cen "hen lllhe Run... Congnu he re<pOnJcd I<> the radical. who
accu>ed him of .. form ism by d.im,nK lhal FlO\1'I polioles we", a, ..."lIe.1
OS a ny in h.ly Iii . 'jlCe"h .mph....,ed (h" ,lie: ,onfM.fal u",Om ." " ....
," ,,0<1 more "',lIeal Ih.n ,he 'yndica li jt> """a u"" (lIe:y ". re belle, orgln
.nd Ih erefore It""e '.plblc of lheir PlOgra!lUllC," Tho
loni,,,, of con,i"ed precisely in 11. abill1Y 10 <xc,c;", grea(e,
polilical powe," ilhln The ...,onomy trurn ,he ",""Imali" """all", or ,he
'yndieali .". Boo",i bun1OSOOil hIS a'"t11Cnt. with . amples from abrood .
For ,''''''',,''',. M<nbe,,". lhe f rench ,)nihcali>l ",,,;,,,., tnlde union leader
of lhe _'01/<>.>. ",.., of emul'llOn c.en if his anlipalhy 10 I....
poIi,ical party "'a' mi.tahn." In hil"'port 10 Fl O\1 at Rome
Buonl argued ,ha, the O<pnllro "ort.,"1 cta.s "IS noI d"..Jed bet"..."
refOfTl'l"iJ and syndica"", bul OH, The ilS!JO of ho,., rnd,c.l. polic ....
were I<> be
H""., CT. IS \he ",3 f dre" 10. dOlO JI "'IS T'"",,,dy the unrea<onabl<;
f>c. of s>'ndicalism lha, BllOu; had I<> coof""'l. "' ... rehiSl' such IS O",;no
and S.nlini we", ''Cf)'
c, ",hile al lhe F..;na f"" ",) Ihfec mcmhe ...
of (he i"lemal 00'"'"""00 ",Ill. !O a nnouncing thai Ihcy
"''1l
"",i,
1.11
Gmm,m'

,he AllarchislS
repre"' ''ted the imerests of ' he FIOM a"d non,uninni,ed of

pI3n{" d,e S"mm<r 'he mdica l wei.Ii,t.< "nder Bo<ro and
I'aroo; g re" olo><: r 10 (he . narehiS1S. In August an altcmpt<xl hscio
Smdacale d'Azlo"e D'ren. r.oundered due 1<) inhe rem Idrological .nd
Jl'tsOna l diffe eeoces . Howe .." in 'he . mum" 'he F,seio Sind ic.le d l
", ione I{ i, olulionaroa had ",me IIIMed ,uce.ss a{ alii ,,,,,. building,"
,\ utLlmn .nd carly
mo"lh iue, of FlO),,)', )ocal ... w'par''', Lo
S4 w l/I!, de'med ,ubstantlal 'moum, of 'p'ICC {o the act",' Hies o f lhe
'rigid,', " "rino and "'her forr,.r members of the pre"'a r Smd""ato Un;<o
Indoed One reform iSi (Anc5a"i) {houghl i1 odd that 0 "",i,b" , uch os
Bocro, who '" pponed unily, shou ld worl: so closely "'i1h
formor ,e<oesSlom"," AOOIhor refomus t ,den{i fi ed {be Libenarian Group
, danger to {he NheSion of 1he loca l bran<h of FIOM . In t he mo nth ,
pr<xllllg the Rome Congress . the "o{e for {he Turi n delegallon took On
Ihe ch.ratl.r of" referend um on the loealfefonn,,{ leadership,'" The
rcfomllS1' won, but . onlnori {y sial. of r igid, .nd anorchiSl> d id ge{ to
.lte",l {he proceed ing, at Rome. Gue"G d; Cla,u ""'ed with some $at i. fac{IOn tha t {hi. n<w rad,eali,m mig.ht {h .. ate" their refonn; " eomp<1I10rs
11\ T unn " Ton, ... ", .""",hISl' {""on", I,., w."" eX'remely happy "itil tlle>e
fasl-lno"ng <!e"e lopmenll" hon {he Indi, iduali" anorch", Ce....
Sobri{o no{{'d ;" . n "rticle in L 'Anem rc Ih at the Inlem.1
commission, wouhl be thc foc "1 poi"' for postwar ",belllouSl"",."
On 22 Oc{"""r 1918 the .prefect repolled the fom,.lIOn o f a Study
Conllntttccfor Prolewflan Ln lly It c"""sled of flflttn lead ing ona, im,1i5{
'''''',1Iom (1n<ludlng Boero and Porod, ). It dcmanded a" eight-hour ,by,
o f '{rl kes, equal P"Y for equ.1 "'orl: and non -oo llabor"lion
with h,du. " i. 1 \l obililation (",h ich wa, . boli,h,-,1 In Mard, 191 9). The",
dem"" d, "ere to be ""cumphshed Ihruugh a Slra [tgy of dir",{ achon by
lhe PSI. CGL. USI and Sri Th= doy, e"h" ,, " "'lOTt"mou, . modellis/a'
(probably Gar ino) had wri tttn an ,'n icle in La Squ;/Ia endors ing Ih;,
Slra1<&.." ..whICh had , Iso bee n ' e<:entl} "d va/IeN by ,he SFI and the ph ilo_
,y nd lca lJSt Flore""ne """aliS!, La Dife.m , but denounced b" GT3msci',
c<Jrnrade, Otw'i" Pastore,"
.
Tbe rad,," 1npp"'ihoTl w i,h i" beca"", more ,-;,ible al the Rome
eongre5S, Its ""lnife, to had nol'-ed from Ihe ' "Ue>1ions of {he Siud y
Committee for Proletarian Unity and 'he .eli,;t;es of all.rd im su< h a,
(;ari no A{. oneeling ofFIO.\ 1 "mon iSts, held o n 8 August 19 18, Gorino
had condemned BUOlli for "ot consul{lng the rank and fiI. before
publicly e",1orsed collabora{ion ",{h ,be CQnunl"ion iima. Iluoni ]a,hed
Out cla;mlltg Ihat t he Union, and 1he" secretal ies. C\Cn whn the}' set'"
{o be no' "cry mMant o r cI''''cnnseious , are alway, f.r more so th. n The
",m"
-132
m.,,,,," By No' cmber radica ls h,d won thc .rgulllent

IhlS polK}' Ihe confO{\eral un ion, "nuld "0' JOin t he po.{ ""r com"""ioll lIo"c".; ' , the FIO\1 r.ldieal, .1'0 objected {o the top -dow n
Int{l><)(h of pohC}' ,m,k lng that Ut>Ozz; had so cand idl}' <l;;f.;mkd dUri ng
lhe "'''. The" llIan lfeSio dt-e1,red

We '0 """ ope nl)' 'hOI the 1<00<" , 1"' uIJ f,'""" 'Oo t""".oJ I"',hs
I"J OOW" ,.,d 0,,,,,,1 by tOo o<h<rwi", '"") ' h,-", IJ Ie,,, < <1><; , f'I'"
,n '''ou , of Incn ,,"10 '" 'Oo ",,<d,.oJ "'"he', of,h,' '"'''os ,,,
To.; maJo ,i'" of the Tonn". de legato, aI Rume OPllO'ed Ihe r.d",a l,. but
Iheir oppu>Ltion .Iso oct"'l'.;<l th'IT 0" n untenallt "e.
f"wI'< rfO'1"''<''' If ,'''' ,adtcals were
,'el)' ",,,,,r. nt'"Qt'Hy ""tional l} an,l 1<:>L" lly .
tle".;nhe k>s. 'at tI .. ROllte Congress Ihe rom signs of th iS oppo"t ion
appeared ' 'lid it I> i" {cre," ng {h,, , il Cl) otl lio zed roulld {he i,,"es o f {he
funolioll' .. ,,1 r,,1e of ,he me'al Il'le'M I Co", ", i" i"lts' "
,00'"
,,,11
Til<' Council tip tu 1919
Ild" "tn "", .mber 1918 "n J ,\ Iarc h 1919 Ihe In{o/n.1 ,0mm "SlOnS
0 ""ion,,1 ;" LJe w ithin til< tr.d" un ion mOl emen! In I'onmber
olli, ial rewgnltlon of ,'''' i,,{crn, 1comlnl" ions wa, wOn "' ,\ 1dan . alung
" I{h " SS-hou ' wee k, ,n unemployment t'LJnJ " nJ [he IIgh< uf ' h" in'e ' na l
com l" i"",n, 10 <le,,1 ",1h d"PUk' OHr {he 'W IICall"" of agrttlllent.<.
hyy iene "lid 01h,'1 "," " "rs. In TUfi" negot i"ion, were more r'ulullfed
and ffi:t .. iic'<J "'Stol"ioo, WCro drawn ,up doe fundion ing o f the
inle'n , 1 cO llllll i"i"n, b<ii,," Ih< full agreemenl "'a, 5ig"cd The TLJrin
agrce lllCII L. "fl",d ull JO hbru,ry \ 919, gran{ed "" cight ho" r day
IIO"r" eek) ",th , ,,b;taollo l poy rises. The internal
o.it h m' '' ' gemem o n y" o,"nte., a. ",dl as int ide nt5 .ri>l ng
from ,he 'pplicat i"" 0 ' " ltorpret3[ ion o f (he agree",ent, Membe" of the
,'OIT"t"'"O''' "Ofe to hol J o llice for " year ,nd th oy weTO gi'"n 'l"'cl.1
fo ' the i, OW II usc in toc f.eto,)' In wh!<h to f" 1fillhei ' dt,lI OI,,,;do
f" t LUI) hou,..,. lh" otheT,ignifica nt as p<ct of the Fob",.", agre'c"'''m was
the IIo'oo-Sl,'ge art"'m tio" procedure unl"m had [0 e,er, ,''' unti l locy WCfe
all""cIn k., v.ere C\cm rted from Ih" ban . Tho ogrecnt tnt ombodi<xl {be {}'''''
of ;"du,,,i. 1dC'IIl<IC CoK } th"t IJOOil.1 had pu>hcd during toc RO<nt c""gre'"
alld
t h. elg ht-hoor day regn""J much of ,'''' pre"'gc "" hod 1,,>[
aftcr the furore ""cr the COllll ni, ,"o ni,sollla . "
'a,"ona lly. Lhe flOM agr.. ",e n1 arou",d eO Il,iJc",hk pmte," amo ng
lx','""",
"""""<'
133-
.,,(1
Il>e mctal wmhrs in

Ih. In 1.lg. ,i. and
"umerous .Inko. II 1I"",ldo . rod el:lcwl'\tr. ot"urKJ,n e.rly 1919 The
S,ndKaro Metall"'llioo deducd ,ha"I'II: FIOM meanl anend
uflhe claM '1fuggk. A. Manln elarl IIQIC>. 'Ihe ...,... of grie>ancc lhen:
wa, c"h.necd by 'he f3<1 ,h.1 'he ')'ucllcalim Ie.ders had .. gncd I local
co,,, rac,'hrt",, P"" ,ou,ly. gi"mg t"em ,I'll: 'Fnllhsh Saturd.y' and
44.hoo, .... "hich they "eTC now fo.red 10 ",,,,,,,,nee' -'J M"I"'II .1
Bologna in J.... 1919. the Sino.bcaro '''etallu1l\ioo dcooonced lhe ",,"onal
ag=mcnt a, link
thAna penal code alld decided 10 '[I$I;'ul<;' gcne.al
"s ilalion Ihroughou ' Italy fo. us . brogotion!4
Loc.II" 11'11: ag=mcnt ouscd considerable 1mona m.,.1
.. .... entle,.m '" Turin "as ,,,,,,rd by I eenai" Ilooch .nd comnll\es
"hose teller to AmnII -' ITun") "a, publt,hed on 15 \Iay The><:
and other cum pie, reported from the shor0oor fro m February on""rd.
. . "m ilaril;e. 10 QIIl""hiSi .n.! ,}'M"ah!, enlic"nl! of 11'11:
IW""' ronll",," .t Ital. ,n 1906 and Fi., in 191 L The Conq .... , of 11'11:
ngh1'hour <1&) bad
an l<JIIat1Ce of obIlgalory o'W""e
The (" . or 10) ""nules lotenUI lole .. lrd (Ihe ><Kall ..:! I I lhe
Ila" of wor\; llad be.n aboliShed . nd lhe ,mmediat" freedom lo.,rile
",nouneed Fu"l>crtnoR, ne'" "'ec. ..,'" ..... '" seen by Ih" OJlPOO"toon ..
Inheren'ly ''''''''' "odana",I",! ""bdanty, lad,ng 10 10...'., "-"11<' . '"
Alth""gb " d;llic"1t to ooerm".. the '0 which lhe """nana,,,
i"Hue""cd Ihis Of'PO'ilion oolcd by \I .'(lltc .nd \1.11;" CI,1'k,
II eka. IJ\alII'II:y lho sa"", '" 11'11: I'",war .... reh',..
Tho of'I'II: . . (Febru:u) ApIll 19191lnd tht 'ech.
"""ans (Apnl 1<l!9) dearly Iud ""me In.",hl$! pon;"""n". The fi""
lUI Importanl. !trike of was Icd by an'rchl" m....."" stICh
as Gall1'" and many .,,,,,,,ts of It-..: more .ilV'lf.. lol I"dtnici.n,
[,,\pril <mpIOj<t'S out.U tht" emplo) ..... forcing ordinary
",den '0 coopcnt.. ,,"h lhe" imrnc-d..,e IUperion. Rcfonni$ll sa" Ihl>
f\(" aliiallCe ofhand.tId bra,n.sa 'top 1"" ..d"I'II:i"'is;o., of f"'O'IUC11\';,1
,ndumlal
The "";I.e SfCmtd 10 untlc",," a tnO<lcr.'IIe Iype of ",d.,.,ri.ol de""",rae},.
lhe oulcome o('he .,ril.e ... ., $Igr"f,,"nlly mot< tad ... 1
Ilt.:In tt,. ",fo","'u. Iud baJialtlCd. Ind,,idoIl ;nlernal

oul 'ne.-c.",' ;n pay fQr cock f""'ory's ":<hnie;a,,. due to lho tremendou,
,.ri.l;on In pay lcoles frotll One eSlltblishmcnt !(Ilhe neAl. The stnke "as
.'cniually ... tled 'hrouah !CnOS of nlt1ng< Ix!wttft cmployO'fS' and
the 'echnici''''' Intcmlll romm,,,ions. ",Ih 11'11: "or1.en' in,ernal cotnm; ...
'H"''' ""tong "' ag.ne'e, o f coordl nallOft fo. lhe technici'n!, The
.-.;"11 "'" a si8Jl ,flc ..... , i",1\'as< ,n lhe I""l1iS< of<he Inlcm;ll
oomm",ion,
-134
lIy Maj D.y 1'1 1'1 the inlemal c"",,,,,,,;oos were bccOtning Ih. do",,
r""", ,,"h,n the 0><131" or\;ing indusl')' and tho unIOn' ..."" m dangcr
"'becoming nwwnoI admllU,"''';'. lIIUls.lkhrnd these lLum,,'lI do'elopi" t"" e)", oft"" refonn"a. IIY lhe libtrt .. Carlo Art" ... nl.
"ho II,,! helped ""go,i.,e Inc Feb",.,), agrecmcnl. was eo"""",,,d ,It'l
hi, ad,"ersa.its In the ra"",o S,ndac.le (G.nl>O. r .mro. the rn."m.lm,)
"ould soon ... ..." astde 11'11: ",formlll maJon,y ."dent at Ro"," lhe
l'fC"ious '",ember. Am:",ni ',;amc:d tha"he Fu o tnl.gII, "ndennlf\(
Ih. eohe"o" of FlO'\ 1()C.ll y and undcrm",11 the ""h,nemen" won
, ince Ii... A""" "ce."
nan!
""'"'S.
YII"''''
Th r Origins o f L Orlli,...
11<",..." .nd No'.mber 1919 lhe ",Iemal cO<Ml,,.io<Is oftunn were

1I3IISformod nllo factOl)' counell" Tho ;",.lIcelual$ IWOCta,rd WIth Onmscl
"e'" largely re>pOnSibk for a<h-..nei"i I COSOnt ..... (or these ""'" ,"""u'
II"n . A. "e ha,c .l1\'ady =n oth= "'ere 5tl\lClurai rca""" ,,") 11'11:
inlem.1 com",;"ion beg.n 10 ,ncroach On the p",,,,,"I;"es of union .nd
"",ploy... I,l<."" lJe1\' I would lilelo pock up the JI>Cwsiooo 1<11 In C'I\at.IIer
Th""" Concernl", Gnmsc-i', nori",,. of "",figural"",.
G ..,rn.ci, InlCrJttlah"" of ,he role of"'" iet> in lhe RII"i'n Oc,ober
Re,olullort was den,cd
tit. l.i/><'''II''' . M
ly John Reed',
and ",,"nan', 1\'pen.go from So, iel R"'''a, 01 1... In>piml1OtU CO""
from Aaron \\llne" R...Slo_Polislt lceMieian nn"llI)ed al flal. ,,'110
In ..",.tlnaly cnougb "-..,, foll""e. of R0<3 LlI>.cmbu1l\. II .. IS \\ ",,,,r.
Gramsci "",ailed in 192().... Ito had poInlod to the in,emal councIl n lhe
1,.1i,n of 50' ict"lyle self,su' emm.nt." Gram",;
ref,,, to & mffilna held in ea,l) 1919. \\-In>e", ;"0...,,,.., clIn be tnt<:rd
10 1917" The Puk.
i" Inl.'1're1a'ion of ,I'll: Italian Inlemal
rommi, .. oo r.'nforcrd C.",m.d. "",,I ... Oppr<)pnl""" of e'pe".nc...
f",m Ihe finli , h ,hop ",cw,rd nlO' emenl. TIt"< tlto
Ion\:. helwoen
his e.,lie. 5urth fOf prt(,gu .. ,i,. mst',!;,io", in 11'11: TorI""" coopc ..
""" """"" on 1916 and 19(7 and his 'dl>OO\ cry' of 11'11: ,n'emll(
..ons at the end of tho: """, " localrd in ......" of rq>O<tS 0" tho .state of
Bnl lSh socoahiln pub",t .. d the auluonn of 19! 8,
Gram",i followed tl .. e,olullon of lho ",an;mo llrili,h ,hop .reword,
">o'."""llhrough OICf'lC'l of .nick. in n". n.....J etlll,leJ 'l'ho Re,'ulu,
liona", Lobotlr '\"'etnenl' and 'n.. rmncn' .,r R.,.,lul1on. publlihed
on 25 and 28 Soplembol 19'7. On 27 April 11118 /I Grjdo
lid ('opolo publl'hed a detaIled ace""n. of the ,hop Slewa rds 'lIO,"m.'"
'l' ol",;""" <kll\' Tradt Un,oru '('The Evoluti"" o f lho
fro",
""",c,,. ..
"",j..
"""''"g
,n

II,.
Engli,h Trade Unions'), In which Ihcir hi'IO')' fro m 1916 is ",h<:.rse<!,

The reader "'ou!d h3\'C kaml how ,hop-Ooor d degale' ",Iocted a f,clOIY
committce, and 00" 11", ,,' tum h<:1ed elect a l<>eal committee or. giwn
" tdu,"')'_" L.." er In August 1918 Gram",i "'turned to the Uri lt,h enmp le,'"
1"'0 'Brilt,h' .nicks ""ere p laced In the context of th. PSI., m" im ,list
nOM', Rome confere""'e, Afte rt!:e consre" of the PSI
",.mrmcd its imran"gen! polilics, Gramsci sought hat. rl\aX"n _
all" plalfonn might be , add ressed ,h<: problem of d O( future out li nes
oflll< soci.h" ,I:1te, which had been a major theme ofhis wa rt,me wri llng',
.n"
tho .bolilion
'he ..,.," ,," S"'e, 'h>t is the organLsot,,,,, ofttoe <oll<ctivlt; """"e rrop<n)" 1< ,." , '''''''""''',on of 'nc boorgeoi' S'",e, i. no< ,he
."ol u,ioo ofth< e'p,ta l,,, S",e ."," .. itu,oo b;- th,..,. pow",,-<:,ocu 'iw , l<g"la_
,i,'o .0J Jud,,, ....... - bUl con'm uo> ,rt(I ". 'ySlem"i< """,Iopmen[ of ,be
prof=i<tn.ol <><pni""",,. ,rt(I loc, ' bodie, th.. ,ho prol".".,. ,,,,ody "ew
how to bnni ,"'0 SI'OOto ncou.ly i" 'no ,ruj;v"' u.li" resm .. , Thu,,- ,he
Imn><<I,,1O >ehon th" the pro l,,,,,,,[ mu,t .arry out mu<1 .bs<>lulO ly"", "m
.. ,he O<l"n, ioo of ' "'
of " " , mtO<\''''',o"'''n, 00' must atm '0
<k<-<nll".l"e the OO"rgOOIS StOle '0 wiOen "",al .nO ,ynO ie. l.utooomy 0" '>1<10
1'<''''.''

I,k ,el)'one e'''', ,he)" >ce .bk to dw., nun)' "'pre"'""'i ,''''o the House
of Common< .. 'hq " ...h. ' ""y'r< .ble to bc<""", the rulmg <I... of ,he
5 .. ,,, : '0 <on<10 to !h.on ou '''''''''''''us repre"'nt" ioo "tbe r<a ('""fore""e
' i2",fy toe ",cogmtion
tho, the libe ..1 S"tt, t"'t Pol'''.mer."
",.ni,m, wi th it. .dm," " t,.,,,,, "'lI"n, .nd offiei.l .. i, insufficien t '0 .. t"fy
th< n<cd, of teg",mat. ;n' ..
"'t!,"
It i, at thi,junctur< tha t Gram",i for the f,rst nme in prom " " ro<luce, the
eOllCe pt i"" of a New Order, even ,f pre"io",ly he publi ,hed a censored
"." ion of EaStman', Interview" ;!h Lcn tn, e"tltled 0 'Slates man o f the
New Order '
po"'"''
In B"tLsh
' ife" i. unbe"d of. witbou, p<e<0<.!,"" The prolmri>t
le.,e, ' he orbi, of ,nd"' id",,lI<t 1,,,,,,.l i,m, O"e""m' e'''I)' Il".d,,,oo,
, I'nncipk 'Mt Jc,..,lop<d di,'t".lI y 'ncl pr>ctie'lly kod, to the <h" .. ,,,,,h,p
oftl>< ",01"'''0'' TO o"crable Lenin",,,,. '0 the rO<.! ' y,"""y of the
.nd
5o" i<1<
hecu,"" l'O\\er, . ,,,,nori,.., of p.,h.m<nt, I< ,,.,. "'"'''i'lilOO by ,he
"""el>,;., Iso ,Ite dero"'OI)' of", ""er.." ond "p,.-.'ioo" The ",,,,u t<l'e
of the proleton",;< ,.
OI&>n,,,"",,,,, : artd these
tl>< ,"",< i,}"
"prent I" ,...... , '> .nO .",i""ion< .. !h< P<,""c C""f.,..""", ,n ,hi; resi<ics
'h' """, i,,,io ...1 di.lect io of tlo< Now Or""r hi<h tbe Engli'" pm l",,,.,
",ime:. to <",bl,,,, ,n <><det 10 "" Polrt of ,be world 10"mat,,..,.,, fo"nJcJ ""
'h' soc i, ';,,,;,.., of ,he "",on, of prodOK""" . nd
rc,,.n,'
'0
\\'nt i"lone month I",cr, Gram..,; explaH"-"tl tbe inge nuous Pad of ,\Ilionee
w,,, due to lack of popubr parlicipatlon within oithe, lhe parly 0' the
mule uni"", Gramsc i fd! that the major inst;tutl"", of!be b bo"r mo\e'lX"Tlt
In faC! rt:prc>cnted .,mali proportion of w<><kers, Thi' had kJ to irresponsib le and undcm<>eratic le.ders hip , ""!he one ho nd , .nd 'p"!hy hum the
rank and On the other," Gram",i re"lized 'hat the apa,hy of the
soc iali " and tra<l{' uni"" rank-.nd-file had "","!,, hi p oflhe PSI. Hi, sea",h fo< prefi gurat,,'e ,",,,I"tion, wa. the,\:fure
fnr a ",Iunoll '0 th" long taOOing malaise withon It. lian socialism,
reinforce..l by lhe more pressing 11....1 10 ch ' nne l the mas! of r,cently
""""ited ,,, .. a l work." towards politi cal particirati on,'"
In Ikcemb<r 19 18 hi' 111. .",$' in Ilalian problem. wa, joir.ed '0 !he
Rriti'h ca,. " , . rncahn g 'Mid., If the It.li an
at pain, to
""'ph."ze the mode""e parha menlarian .'I't$ o f 'he current Brili,h
electora l ca mpaisn, Gram",i <I">\e 10 the d emand by Uro ",h
t rade u" io,,,,,, th" Iheir rep resen'"Ii,e. he allO"'ed to participa'. at ,he
forthtoming jl<.<e collf.rtn"" Gr .. mc i du ly ",,'ed the reaction to Ih i'
detnattd
p...,,, "..
bol,he, "In-pro"" .1 1 the ;r,d ig"'"t f. i'hfut 1"10'" of ' he

rorliamcn .. ry S..... OO ofunLl'oKa I ,"rrrog<; ''''' work." are Engl'sh O"'ZO" '
136-
>CeO"'.
,IS"'"
"""0
.""""!;C,"
,\nd th i, 'cOn>lit"I'Onal d ,alct"" o f the New O rder' lay proc " ",y on
[he "" .. I ""moe"'ti< .. ctie '" h'f'I! ily 'f'I!licJ in Ru"i. by tho bol""'"k.
tbe pro le"r,,", ttoeon" os onu>! be <00'-'''''00 of the tru,h ,h .. onty "'."
"'g,n"",,",, "1'''''''"' thei r in1<""" ,nd "p"",,,n,, they mu" work so thot
,I>< e"",, uti,'< I'Owor ofll1 ...... ,,"" f">Sc, from ",rl i.mcn.. ri,n go,eo"",,,," [0
,10<", org,n""". ,,, '0 tl>< "'orkor> ,,,",,,,iI."
The,. Bri tish art icles demon""'t" !h " by I.'e 1918 Grnrnsc l had a fai rly
clear idea wit.", to tlnd e<ample. of prefigu",,"'e mstitulion" even if the
Inlem. 1 comm"siOll' a", h"rdly eyer me nlioned in G"lIT,,,,i', wan ime
joum "" ,m," bUI if Gro",,,,i "as much more "It\III.d to the l<>eal lot.uur
nlO'cmcn! than h, i, cdited , 10 what eXtent did Grnmsci liaise with or
ini)"enc. the campa'gn of the F.",io Rj,'olu liOllano .galt'" the """lern'.s
in FlOM " MOKh of G"ms<i's dirct! m/luene< upon the f.<toO)' radicals
in 1918 rema in' ,uJl!'O'ili",,_ How." .., lhe following hypo/heses. I belie\'e,
Jre not unduly speculJfi\e
-13 7
Firsl, il has !hal Inan:hbU lhem",l,""s

. .ion to ' ... nsf""" , .... ,",.."..1 mID faciO<}'
Ii> .. 0<100cT 1918." aul in Ikttmber 1919. m. """",,h,.. u.:
Uattolort1<'i . duo, I .... Idea o(w focIOf)' cooneil ""lIS from
Rn",h and Russian examplco IS r.ilemllhrou&!o L
A
local
Mario O....nncri. "Tm"1I one mor"h rla"ned ,ha,
dunng , .... b<1w........ fOOl"5I> and radocal' leading up '0 1M Rome
eongrc .. of ..... pre> iou u'umo. 5<',..,..1 iOC.ah" m,elke'wtl. (Gam",;
.od (ncndl) helped , .... oWo",,,,n 10 ",form, .. , ," ,h. local
"f
nO\t ","fort ' he cong!"'''. <>I, ..... bU'1 of lV" "'cr org.niza.i onal dr."",
cracy, opposillon 10 collaOOralloo \I " h ,iI<: . laIC ."d prolet.ri." """ y"
The hi"ori.n Em ilio 500". "'1! ucd tha, wa, mi,rtpro"'"ti ng
'he rac" \0.$ to SUpp<.>rI hi, deh.,. \l i,h Ih. orJ,"ovis,i " , 1919"
110" ev.r. ,h. alrtady 'Bnl's)" anocl .. wou lJ 5<'Cm to do,'e1ail nicely
'" "h a .... mi.ri' claim' a, ,.... se an,de, "ert .""'em""",,,,,,,,,, ,.-i,h , ....
con"""i"". 1 deba.e. Moreo>(,. , .... Ind'''8 ... docal gmg", grO<lP. , ....
SlUdy Comm"'e<c r.,.. Prnkun.on linHY. _nth qIli .. SImilar to
I>fOUJ'S
"i,h , .... otd,nol1Jli 0.. boIl.nee. """e'",. I "'ould . .
lha, its '"I'I"oach ..... "'" close '0 , .... lop-OO"'n CGL 1.:S11I1i1""'" ,hal

on 19 16and 1917. In ........ "1u .. , .... Gramse, ,,-as
do>.ng in 1918 and .arly 1919. _
clea,," art)' oa;o, ...... Iu, roncqIIoon
of an induSI""!Iy based "",ial"m de .. klped ""..,r a long.... p<1"IO<l duon "
u .... lIy be l;e.-ro."
/. 'O,d,ne Aow", was I,uoched JUS! as iooo> ,dual m."m.hst "",i.lim
or' rurin >ought '0 fonn I fronl \li,h ,he 1o""l1an.n,. I ""II now
reI' i.", Inc <ourSO "'1(01'"" 0"1 "P '0 ,he Novembcr .Ittlion.
...
OnJ,,,., "."""".',
,d""",,,,.
,,,,Ii,,,,
\a,,,,
United Fron"
I h. Fa.. ,o S,nd3eait dA'.;onc R,,olut,on.,il ",os 'h" moll ..:no,,'
[.onl in 1919. 11 cen.,.,I)' [n",,<ned flOM',
ond
" e
sn. I",l<.-d" W Il,e",pl>'" conquer lbe ,"I.mal
and 1lIR:a= 1IIc \'<r)" '1II(1Ui'Y ofm. ",,,on ,,,,,Ir."" I. \tan:h
, .... FISC;" issued a lelne1 ,n .. h,eh" "pla,ned ". aim w 10 e""al.
11lOrC de""",,,,,oc org,mi""iOM lltal an from In)' ror>cepl o[
aurhorilanarusm. "umber; ,,'''', "'" enou&!o. ,he ."...."On rttjIIi=:ioc'i,.
panKlpallon b}" 1M "",mbern,,!, flffly 10 cboose oc.;on. llw "'Crt not
"""ely abou, b gi><T "-..ge'.oo sbon .. hou" bu, I fuoxlarncn ... l chong.
on , .... "";11 .y>!cm.
!l.cs,de, ","i"8 ,n'ol\ce local'rilde un,ons. tho F...,io
",as also tho birthpl"". Ton" ... Red Gu.. d. which as on OIher
O"CIl"91"' I
,h.),. "' h,,,..,

"",II""""""
- Jl6
It.lian 1oc.Ii,ies ,be b,rnn".. rono. , .... "ony or

(),oungl hbertari.". and A, ,ho M.reh ",,;,,';ng of' .... Faseio
,h. lnarrh,1lS "'''''' b)" Lelli and CQm'U>O. Rocm f""J"l""d
c.. ani. a' ,.... "'y nay .... reh bcc<Irnc ,II< "ucleus of unn'S
Red G .... ro.. Boero. , .... pref1 "rot "plli""" Wt,hey be
the Go"",n Sp;tnacu,
T .... m' "n I"'rp<:ISC 0((.... Red Gu.ards WI. to prot"'.
from .ttacks by s'uden" and o,.,JiII. The reponed num"" .. of Rod
G""rds coonnoo. ly from 1.500 5Q<:;.hsu and JOO a,,..,,,h,SI'. bu.,ly
.ng.ged on pl. " , '0 blo" up bt ,J ge' and cu' 'desraph "i rt'. '0 ,he I".,...
r.:curn'c 300 that Syl"ia r.nkhuri! """"ed 10 he, read .... in the 1I",",w"J'
D,,,,,,Jnollgh{, "hon she " i, i,,,d Turo n and
'Red Repu blic of S.n Paolo'
in lot. 1919. by AUiu" 19 19 . "",n,h, of hy'terocal '"""rls.
,h. p",foc' admitt.d that ,he Red Guard. '''Crt for from an
,hrt31. PanLhu ... , IiSI"ly am>Cd OI"g'n ,,,,,,,OtI of you,h., NC\'.,.
lhel ..... , .... auanb d,d 'J'PC:lI" OtIlhc SltU durinSlbe g<roenl ..... k..
of) J Dcccmb<1 1919 and 2 I Jul) 1920 and , ....y were IIlIlrt , i.ibk duronll
, .... occupa'ion of I .... (;oclories ,t..t $cpIcmbcr."
Unlo Lc ,be hseio Sindocale.
'''cmp'S.' fronts " ...
failu,.. Aft.r !he bum'"1 of >I,on'" off",.. in \101<UI ,n Apnl 1919 b)"
ardm. loc.( anarebi'" and I.... PSI opc ... d up ""I"'il'i"",. II"" .. ",.
""lo,n 0 momh the di", ..Ss.tOOi "'e,e \brpm. " .... the moSI
,mp.o"enl. and a, a ".n. ncndtd _inll of m. .""",hi<1' held ., .he
Chamber of Lobou. on 12 \1a) 1919. he an,IO"'\CC<l ,he formanun ofa
Fueio [J"Azio ... Ri 'olu ..""ana, '" AI',""ugh h. ,I... r.m,lo ..
,hao . cookr hoad, were .qu. lI} r",.Ir1",d, !l<lem h.d been .ymp.!hetlc
but , ;""c .\ Ia",h un.ble 10 \I in 'he PSI in fa ,'our of , fonnal
. Ili ."".': "\tcrn",s at fUllna lhe a"ao>:h", and syndic. li" )'outh
\I i,h lhe FGS met ",th 110" 50"'" fo i IS ,n 1916.>2
Ry , .... ,ummer or 1919 ",.ny I".",h im h.d become aliena,ed froon
,II< PSI \I)' its d;'hering laC,ic., The
luke" .."" .up""n for , ....
"Ml-of.li,mg riots in Ju ..... nd
'nab' lIty '0 coordinat. , .... int
n.tional 'lrike in Jul). 1.f1thom fun .... r A, packed
\! 500 pre...,,') ho ld in ,he C"h.mber ofl.abour in Ju .... aanoo
'0 upta,n ' 0 10<01 mu.,m.aliStS "h) t"'"r t.hould aUy "",,h the anarebi."
Iii, ug. """.. , .... " .. all .... """" mode"". <o< iali" leaders.
"",.110 and l:ben i.... horn lie cta,.....-d had a c.mp;tign aga,"" tho
an.rehi"., ThIS met ... lIh objmion. hom til< <O<1.1t ... in./Ie audie"".
Onkr was b<idly "",ore<! \lhen ,he rtg.onal or,:.mllCf of HO\!.
Mario Mombd lo. "'lied , ..... udic" to re .... in c.lm and 'ol<lIInt . 11<>",
e'CI. Marg,,;'a Ihe" ,mon.e,.,d and soon .no, ,he ""lice stopped ,he
'h." .... ..
demo""""on
,I,..
01"'"
_,.11,10'
,he"
'"
pr<><croing' " The Ju,", rntell"i\ po;",,,,,,1Ih llIlo,pho"" TIto ","".I im>
""",ti"" in Ju"" and j uly ,1;d noI help k<>rn mi""'''_ ron.lly, the . ""n:I"",
"on: .boroughl) by "",iaJi" elc<lIo"..,nng on "'" IU'Urn"
JI(>y',",cr, on.1to "",ghbourflood or perwnal k,,,1 Ilhano j)Crs'51ed
The mosl ""ponan l hnk "as bel"
. .1 wei.list. a nd a" ..
dnsts, Thml'gboul 1919 I"" two 17001" mel, e\'en ift"" _'a liS{ .xecu"'"
di.bonded ,he Sputac",-, Ind OIh .. an3rchi ....oci.Ii.1 )'OUIh grQUp'.'
Oocro. lhe """" impoct.1nl pen.onal link. "Ij for<:cd '0
Jllle
""',," ... htn 1>0 h><l cI.imed I hnlcogc be, ... ee" anarch"rn and abot<nlloo1'51
wei. Ii,,,," Ne' <nhole", ju>! I>tfor< I"" No,'ember eleclion I"" p.of1
n:poncd indi,;.!".! and ..,.,iali,,, ... In on .""",hl"
OIp1!Zeda .. HIcoonI . . IIh"."". lnan:h,.u
"ele lIso cased dot to lito Inl1i.1 open,rn,r<led ."ilude of ley lRd,ndu>ls
in 'ht Fal<"O Libcn""o '0" lhe comer"on of ,he dlot. ' oflh,p Of l he
prolclariat ,\ c1ando"i .... an:urhl$l pamphle' .."i!ltd ,,.in<"
by I .. ilor ",ho I\ad bc>cn ,n .... ronslltd' in 1917, .1;(1 ... Iall,ely
pOol"'" ,o...-.nh ,Ito U-'''ntSl' " 11""0''''', "",,,,,,n. "m: rnl"rus,fitl, and
by 'o"nober I\CUI,S5O" r,,10 iswc I luno' ,n order '0 d .. w bound,,,",
bel"" I"" ,,,.rchi,,, and SOCI" Ii S" ;n "hiob ""
.""",h,,1< 'h31
poli,j.,;.a,,-, ",,'" 1101 prtTJannl ,Ito 'n} for. dic' "or>.lt,p of lito
",""Io,ana, but I dlCl.olonth,p lI>oir ..... n pany" No' onhc:k:s.i, lhe lO<l"S"arw.rch."" wo'" les, seclanan in 1919 Indeed,'he pKfttl, on rO{lem,n!;
pam lIel' 1><1"'n .,,",chist ac,,,'ny ;n 19 17 and 19 19, nol;,od Ihll shi ft
It, g....
(,om An>(lmo Acuus 1(0 \lomizio GlIn"","
0.:"
rt'pUd,,,.,
",,,mt<!
""""Ii"
""ion.
' uo" o:

I. ,\'"",'0 beg". J>l'blicauon ,n May 1919 II ombodlN "I"ojt

.. h!Ch G .. m><, 000 hi. f""nt.!. bcton planning .. nee propos.1l.
r"... ucha n..wspaptrwcre opmlyad'anoed byGrwns.;, ,n 191 - and 1918.
.nd "e", "'Jecled by TOfine;.c lW<iali.. "nd I.bour 10Id",. The ContCnlS,
, Iy lc and r,eo.:cupa' iQns of /I Grid" dol 1'01"'1" ( !917 18) forc,had"weJ
VC.t deal of .. hal L 'On/IIK \"""''0 ,,"mo'o .epn">CI\L The proJec,
ruched fn"u"" ,n 1919 d"" 10 funds noiS! by AnKol<> Tasca .. nh'n the
" .. ,,,>lream "",,'nnen'. II IS ,hc:",fon: iron,c .hat Iht "ory ."':\'" of
Ih" I""a l loft ",,,,,Id "ndet Ihe fleree" by tho Qni"r/,..
"""Id Ihrough Tasca'J tonlll'<,ions g"'. lheir JOilmal ,IS
.1OMCnInC._ J
'W ifGrarnsci "'il!I ,iN ed '" "'" "",ial ..1 cstablisl>me.' as I ",,,,,,,,,I..,,,, intellecl ... I, Ihi' i, noIlO .. y ,hat he "
Ilni'."ally dc,pi",d, B"oai', repon to Iho HOM Romo eong""S of
N<l\O",ber 19J5 ""nli,,ns Gmmsc\ "oonymOillJy as" youn@ bfilli.nt
,.,,1/
""1,,,,,1
w..", ......
""
1W<;31i , t ",mer, "Ib<:il one whose <SIIm.,ion, ofth. Uolshe",k. w.",

o"crty onlhu'''.II'' f'" h" ,asto.,oo
The tNrIllIO'I"l.fli inner mel. of GrIm$I:I, Ta'oC'I, Tcnac."i and Togh.t,
bad beffi fOf11l<:d in 191 a, ""'\'<n"y, OIher uni,o .... n)
( in,,,,,,,; 's circle Qf lo"'er m,dd le " b s,o; . Moml hf.,,' ",ro,e . nd
1.. ll"'d tl",;cm,n,l1< ,I", JOIlm. 1 Finally, Gramsci ' $ wjoom at /I G"Jo dd
I'apo/(}. and hIS enpl!<mcn in ,he ,"""1M during lhe .... r.
hI> bue beyond
rn,J.lle.class ocquaon""""" '
Gra",,,,; "sed Ihe ".n"". speak'ng '''''" ork 10 ;""....'" d,. "s,b,l i'y
" f his ne" jt>um.1>old '0 promo", ,he idea of,he facto!)" coo""il '" Ou,-,,,k
ununn"'" 'niluence of''''' JOUm3I ,,-as poUch)', .. 'Ih JOIT1e
wppon
b)-the s.m.1I t,,,,k-$ ohlilled "od..... ,n ,en,..1 !t>ly'" '",urally,,""""
tnldkc,u.ls ,,110 I\ad onJo)'ed Gn",,,,", ,,,"ung ,n /I Grido ,Id 1'"",,/0.
".r. abo .I"acted 10 l.'O,di"" No,,,",,, G . b, icic O'A nnunl'U wa, a
$ub""ibcr. OIher ",ado;:" ,ndude<! Sorel'. friend ..1lI edilOl' of /I Rn/o
ok{ C<>rlIlWJ, \1..", \1o ... ,roI,,1Ogelher "ksn,1. II.....,

Lu'g' E!nI\ud, and T""nesc rrore"o!'S. Although ,Ito no".-.pal"'"' "",or
cecd<oJ a coreul""", of6.000, " .... '<n l"'I." .1I.i",,,<1 """""""s i11(IO><:1"'.
I""ally,'"
':lnOlI'
d"""",
Le.d,ng 1,. li.n ana r<h"" "dopICJ a e"UIIOu, bUI la'lloly fa,uuI.bk
po<llion 1O.. .nJ'Gramsci "" ,c,,"_ In 1010 1920 Fobbn go, 0 L 'OnJilW
\'110'" mu.:h of''''' eredi' for ,ht """.wInK tht idea of'he fOC10!)" e""""il
'hmughout hll}'. I. 'Orrll",' \""0'''' " "" iew of socia l"l cult""", "as.
..-roto, tra11,lat,'d ,nlo It. l ian 'R,,;,,'n idus', buI it> cd""... h,d
'loe defoe, "I' doj:""";';; pseudo.\!>"",1 'phorisrn, e'en ,f ,10"
'nl" ;. ,,""""'....ted by
,nleU>"",1 honesty'.'" F'-en ,"" .u;.p,e,,,,,,,
Armando II<lfght dcso;:tibed LOnJ",,, ,'"",'0 as 'a booIuuful prod\lCCd
!ry" "'I)' i",ellis.", youngsters'," C. ""llo Bemen, . y""ng un"'e";ly
I!radu.,,, .nd srudem of Salycmini "ho had I>t:oon formed inlellecm. lly
by and S<Jn,1 on 101m ""1""'''' Gnrnl<'i". al\ll"Chl>l 'Piri"",! cou<!n
_ objcclod '0 Grarnscl', prod""ti' i,rn, bul hi. own '100"'011"'" ,n 1917,
""' ah""'t ,do".ical '0 ,h., "fGrnm\<i',. Qb\'",u,ly differo"",o. c"ICrged
"' .he full d;" .. n.io", M')'" becam" apparen . "",'enhe
"hen (;ramsci turned on [Ic"",n or r.bbn. lhey ...,ml genui .... ly
a, ifbctntycd by.
L 'On/,,,,, \'"",.,,', """I enth ..... II" ana",hi" <Uf"IIlOI'Cf<\
"., ,, rally, Ihe anan:his" ,hom" t,'" . Tnc "01)' language and
.ub,t3""" uf" l\al lhe ,o.;ncse an,,,,h,,, ... id IboI.t ,he [aclor)' eOll"",I,
ur"",
_r,n''
-141
q"'"
derived from Gramsci. 0. B.rtolo""eis wrok. for eX'mple , io foloma in

" ,,, ,,m"", 19 19 that COrdme "'.0''0, ' represenl' accordmg 10 us, 'he
",osl hon",' a nd conorcte ",Iempt in haly of lhe r.".wal of iM as and
praclice by lhe
"""i, liS! mo,'cmenl' As Emma Ferrero recal ls, 1""
"a,1 m'jori ly ana rrhislS , upported the p<>Sn ,nns of t he or>linn,'i.w in 'he f. otory counci l move ment unt il Ihe clock. hand" s'n ' ''''
Ne,erthel.\s m 1919 . " d 1920 the m,lmol'iSii in spiriled d .bal"
"ilh the anard "'ls and syndlCah\ts w ith in 'he journal ils.l f .nd Ihe
Pied mo ntc,", edilion of Manti'_ Many o f lhe a'tacks by th" ortimo''lSIi
UpOn .na rch i,m .nd 'Y"d ic.li , m were 001 partIC ularly u,uquc_ I'crc nn i.l
<",,,,o"",ic\ b/:tw<;<:n sociali ", .lXI li"""a';."" w ..... aired: Ih<o a,h' nlago;,;
a,1d disad, ,nlages o f de<lor"ol p.rticipa'ion, ' ""ienli tl e' versus '"IOp"n '
><>< aoort i\'O re"ohn ion, in lhe We't, Although G,,, no a n,l Ferre'o kepi
mosl oflheir COn!"bullOn\ to Umamra ,\'''0'"', Corrado Qualg]; 1\0 entered
on a deboto " ith Gr.msc i. Tasca and Togbal1 i, " h,lst Pietro Mosw (,Carlo
Pett i' ) pub li,hed el",'en .rticle. a nd book ",,iow. ,n the journal from
Juno 19 19 to Apri l 1920. Thc p,oblem, of an.reh"m and ,y"di<.Ii,m .
w.mo "''''''!h:g o f an obsess ion to , Ihe ed ilors o f L
'\"UOI'O. They in' p ire<:! one aM,cle by Viglongo, twO by Leonet ll, rou , by
Tasca, si, by Togli atti . tld no Ie,s t h.n 13 by Gran' ''', . Two p"nods of
lIl1on.c polomics a re 'hsc emed . From May '0 Seplembe r 1919 lhe deba te
ce nt red o n lhe ,deologlCal slln]I,,,,,,,, . nd d :ffercl>Ce, be!ween ' arx i, m
and llbe rt.".n soci.l i,m: "hilc from i'<bruary until April 1920 the de bate
, hi ntd to mOT< pTliCt ic,,1 matteTS (.Ibe il Gramsc, kopl idool"gy foremo't
,n hi, IIlllld): the role "fthe a nafchists in tl:e Ru"i an (w ith
rat her IIlform.ti, e aCCounts of Neslor M.kh,1O .nd Ihe
p< . sant .noreh;s" o f ,)oe UkTlllTlc). ,he .'ahd lty of the US1's 'act ies in
Ligu,ia and tho g' ound "lies on "hich an' rd,i;" . nd _ ial i", <ould
coli,wnlto By ,\Ia,<h aod c, dy A pr il the Ihemes of " na, th ,sm h, d
o\'el'\\ hel med the <'<lito" of L 'Ordme .\'''0>'0, w he n in facl ' hey oonu na'e
copy In the 'urn""" .nd aU'umn of 1920. wl><n L "'.0>'0 los, mueh
of ils o"g, nal ny . nd warne " , ch icle for Boishe- ,k prolloonccmcolS,
' h i' d.bote largely petored ""t
'-
F"""""" '{A'g<", 'r,,,, '. 'u del ".-in ""M"u' -'J M" '9'9, Jt M" 1019
Jw,t
19 , 9
C.,\o Em""
L, ""' .. t, .... """,, l'ot" 2, JOM 19 ,9
r", [",' ,C"",""
. . ', G..m""" -1.0 """
 S'",o', Il Jo1y 1"'9
-C"I<>
'Co",,,,,,,",,,
l6 J.I> 1'1'
n tPa'm,", . .t.. ....
'0 ,00<", """ _2 A, &, "
" 1'
C>tk> P<1,; '. O<J ,"" pokm"" ""I<> ".1<> ...11"""'0" , 30 t919
..... 1910
A,,,,",, 0"",,, ,, Octob<, ,9 ,9
("'0 P<,,,', '1 1
T'1 1",. ,rom."I. de, proOut'' C,",,,J ; de, ,i,I, ,,, i
",-.""o,eo . . 'I pn>1:>km , doUorpolZzu""._11
1 -Carlo f'n ' {P'<"Q M",><. , prod""""" " '<P"'" "",,,n"'''''iJ

j
l
6
,
"
10
""",,,,<1<,
',dol....
p,,,,'
on,,,,'''''''
"' p.,
"',,'m.
0.:_,
'9 '.
<"""l"
"",n ' , ' [l mt.,", T'1 1",. i

<1< , ".-odu<"",,_ II """'" T.),,,,.
1''''lI'"''''''''''' ",,,", ,r.', del ... ,,,",'. t N""mb<.-
Ll Ani""",,,,,,,,,,,,, """"",10"",,. "",'ill"" 'c... k> P",,.-. ,t , '"'''''' T'\'lc, ,""';iI'
do, prod ,ltori. E""", . 1""0i ""'"",,, i <1<1 ";-Ion""o ' , 8 NQ"mb<.- 1919
-I '
oi"" ""," , ,." (OO"i1l " f",,*,,""
..:: >rio f'dn -. ,t, '"'''''' T,ykor
i 0\0, """'"""' . l'"" ...
do,
,'.p. ,'t .. ",
R""" , t..bry, l.';0<1",,, " "' ... , lit ",,01 .. ..,.,' 1J Nov.","",
19,9
" -C.<1"
'II ,,,""'-' 1" y""" de ; p<oo."", i. t.. ><u<H', 12 N",,-mb
,2 -Carlo
,. " ..... """"1"""'- to"",,,
,'ern-"
'0,.
,,<AX_
00II>,,,,
p",.-.
,,,,,,,,w',
T IA0il<l" T,,,,,, '"",,.1,,,,,,, ,

lO N","""" 19t9
hit ; dv<"",,,,,i' '!.lor>< I, , """" Lo f ...." ",, 1. <1< 1".-001"'" "' ....,,-.
H'!)ewn b<, 19'9
' i " T If,lm;,o Tog!;" ,i , r-t .. " t,...... Too",,', A"""nJo Bo.yo,. "

""'i",oot i '-'1'" iO<lulln, li ,
.....
,' I.. to c.,i,,,_ '''",'"" do, C d.f.'. 1{) t_mOO- ' 919
'" A""",,, Gc"",, ;. 'Un'" "",1...",-. 18 F, ....... oy--+ M.l< h t9l0
"
,1

0".
,U Pa'm,," 1",1"" i, T, ,,,,. """.. '; Air""", l ....... .,. ''-''''eft ""' M.I"",, Palmiru
T""".. , ,od A""'" " 'IIonI<', ".
to., d, _
0.11;'10";_,-(0 AClion w it h in t he Factory
Co u"c il \l oHrne nl from t h e . ummcr of 191 9 10 1920
n ' , 3 Mmh 19](1
: I P.t", i ru T",h... ,. .POI " """",ow <It; """ii" o"" i. [)i """" "K"; A""",", (;,.",,, i, '{'"""" ... d< '"
N,o.-o'" '.... ,.., ."'i C"""", i,"", .,.,m "Ko < ,om",,,,,",, D. ,[h0;'1
R, i<l<1).
"" ' ",", " '""'" ._1"""
;, R"" .. ',"
' " ."10 .. ,,, prokt.",-. J.--- 'Q Apnl tnO
A na...,hi, m and
,)
.. ,", fjr> ,,' .... ;
,920
" "">too,,, G" .. ""
'L. ",t",,,,,,,
To", od "
II,."",,,,. 'L, ""..
'''I''''''''
"""",It di T"w",'
S",d."". "'O"i l," Ao.,10 b.",. ' '"''ltmoe, " ,
JUT><

d<1I "'Om"" N'''''Q"', 12 J..... 191G
A "0" 'p<'per .rtid. by Al funs<> Loone'li i" ' he Soc ialist Youth -. L ''/mn_
llua"h a (9 Morc h 19 19) Ih. 191 9 <ampaiSn 10 u >:lsfontl 'hc
142-
II T, ", 'P"I<m",'" "" <l<1l'"o.o; ", ""'''0" ', '9 ""0 1910
l" A""" ;Q G"",,,:.. '0.., mo'u"o,,'; T,,,,,. 'Pol<mKO "" "'-''1'''''"''
14} -
"",'.""ed
r.w. 1,1 . "..,1
inlom.l comm iss ions inlO f""lOry """"" il., I rn>posal'

by ;""orpor3I0 all in pcn""",,n' and repre.
",mat". in"i!""oo. and ,I!( to Ihe pnckly problem of
,he "",,unionized "ilhin II!( "ork,ng dan l li' PI'OJ'O'.l' " 'as (0 bUIld
1,.10"" 5On! from
",dUIDiaI oopnil:3l00m In I,.)i"" fOClOtie< ..
""'.."..,.. ,n n, firs!
mon,hs I. 'OnI'M
111 by Tosca
,,"II!(. lhan Togliani .nd Gnomsc,. A $hif, from Tasca'. t1>O('t r<">{JI'C,ful
."ltude
1oc.1 IrW UltO(ll't . nd "",,,,1'51 esubli.hmenl aDd ...
.. prOpOlI''''OO of coonc,h51 MIen. only ""cuJK<l in la'" Juoc
"hen Gram"" aDd Togh.", (4ntcd 001 lhe" so-called editorial coup
dC1.' .
The .. min.1 anOeI., '\\arle,,' lXot'IOXnlCy ...... prttO'ded by ..' .... 1
hart>ingt'" GJ1Im5Ci', anicle ' M.IWOf"IIlZ". miTlOOi"'" ocll"azioo<: oocial
i.,a' (,MaJOri'y .mI m,oo.ily in oo<i.hl1l<"",,")'" "'in!o ...,d Leoneni',
earher po>lllOn. Although 'Il< f.elory c"""",I, not giyen absohlle
1","<iom in"'ICe in Ihi n,de. il'Illph"d ,11",1", leg, " "ll>CY of"1C llo l,heyik
,",'oT",ion was g,,",rn n!ce;l by base<l poli li," 10'l;,"w.lIon,
On 24 May. publi,hed a Il0l. On ,he comm un'"
,no'omonl. "h,ch "'''c''''od oOl,,,i\isl Ih.",.s'"' In Jun.
Democracy' argued (hal "o,;,en; ."""IJ el<:<1 f.."Of)' Ikkg .... "" tho
I.i, of ,he slogan' All """.." 10 the WOI\Ihop COfII1nLII""' .... tlh
,nore ;enc .... , aim b<:ing ... n """..,. in the: S,., o Worlie .. and I'...... nl<
Coo""il., While Ciarlo. brli., ,ha, llu. anlele .1111 CIIIjlhl$ill,d the rol.
of ,he &eoInp/oOe.' ",,,rd e<;ommitltfS "'lher ,han the .toopnoo< ClIpn
"a"ons.
1h.a..... "f'C'CCh doli"ued '" ,ariou ..,btlrban duM
(,n pm:i, of 'h" an.d.) doe; .",ph.MLe ,Ddu!-lnat <.><glIl1iu'joo, ,OJ
'Til< eff""" of GJ1IntKi'J ani, I. and htl tp<"hco " ',, n"',ced ...
"'''''III'B of Ihe Cham"'" of I..buu,. Il<ld from 1S '0 17 Jun . One of ,,,,,
p'",cipal que,,,on, ....as "" ... hal "i,."o ' he fu ,un: ge""",1
cOI,,,,,,1 of ,he C hornbe' Il< con,lilUl.d hl<a \fa" '. a dose ..""',.,. of
(;"'rni...
thor propo;al tlUI1 dclrgale. from ,he m'<TII11 com.
m,"""'" ihouJd nom,nale """""".. 10 ,he gCner;I' coo""ii. >&r><:e Ih<y ""'"
lhe d,rtt' of the ....arl ... O< Al'hough M.no, propo>al
"' .... igOOfed , " ",n..,ted ,he fe"""", or ,do:as ",,,h,n ,he facroric:,
In I.," June and eally July Gnmsc, hop" 10 ""th"" his idea. more
fully ., .. "f mcoIingo of ,he Tunn bra""h of the PSI. lloc firs!
s'gn,fICanl !-I"J> In ,he ""'"" tlk: ooul1<:il, occuned ... bnilbr m!cm:l1
ooovni,,,o,, a( .,.,-Cen,TO "'''llned or<! " ... , ",placed by. Ir"'po"")1
mrnmi",oo
a nl>n.lal o OTll.I1'I:Clh. eI""" . This,"", iotent,1
<",n,noM'o n wa, not 'cry d, n....
f.om ,1 pre<lcc'SSO" It waS al Ill<
illC\CII ' r ,at WOrk . ft Gr.n,,,,i h.d in'c".ned ... mass on
31 Augu" . 'hat el..,,,ons fo, oomm'5'"t! we", held in eac h work un ll ,
TIk: o,,,,,,"hel ming mojorily of.he 2,000 ...<>rke" "'lied. btli ""ly ""'mbrl'$
of FlO\ Twere eligible 1o br s.,p'cmho. and Oclobt,
,he '),>'cm wa, adopIcd Ihroughoul'he cily. SO ,,,,,, by (he beginn'ng of
'lo, ... ,he, " earl)' oil ,he
factories in Turm had
"rod I coovni"iOn<.
On W OcIObc:r a f""'" """"'08 of the ,nlemal COO\mLSSion, established.
L 'Ort/,,", .\'"",,,', 0 pro, i$1OI1.IL1 'Coovn,lt ofS,udy'. It,
m.mhersh,p mclu.!ed Rooro.nd \l.ll.> (as "ell as Cerri. Bonl'g:m .
\ Ionlaoo. Tooi and Bnrnrrol, and GntmK", ,nn ... ",," "''''' undoubledl)
The pro'i.iOllaI Comml1l"" of Silldy d .... fled prognomnn:
"nllen by Gr3m5C' enlitled. ,he 'Prognm,ne of ,h. Work.shop Com
",,,..,,' [ts cen'I1I1 po,n,
mrmhe" of,he umon
,n ,he
(;>elory co"n,,,I. IIL"<pI 'Il< ordc:rs oflh. ""ion. in "'''''0IIIi< dispule<.
of 'Oll"e ccl>o<:d ' he
Qf AIII"IC., HOWCYCT. there
a ""'8
III ,IS 'ail: t h, ' ' ' pla"ce of Llnion d isc,p hne "as on ly legllimale
", pol icy wos foom ulat.d by Ihe f;>etory co,nm;s.." lloe m"''' e, . III ,hon,
,Ik: commis .... ,,"wid dcc"Il< .. ,,',,",,'. <om"'nICe of the union', j"".1
branch. The .utonomy of II.. "n,Oll \'oa> funhcT ciTcum5Cribed
!lnt.'e the eomrn,SSftrs had to'vee 10 any \'o'lse .."Iemen.. her"", 'Il<y
b<camc ""l id, ... A, 0 ntttU"lI on 31 0c10bc:r ,he rrosrammc ",.. Il'P""'ed
unan,,,,,,,,,,ly by ,he l 'he meC1'1Ij .1"" PU' ro",."nI a .I.'e of
.I.,en nam .. '0 .",lIe,' ror the el<cllon of'lk: ne" FlO;>.' nccu",.
Ciark claim. lhe og".""" 'n TlU1n "as la!i<'ly one of opposi.ion to
Ioxal ,node uni"" ond .0 ,h., "".n' lhe Commi1tec of Sludy
d"aged ffOll) Grom",i', t1>O('t ... blie .... of the: "'''"""h,p bC1wttll
f"",Of)' cou""il nd un""'l .... While II Ii qUIlc '''''' lhol L '&.1;"" .\uo,,,
pnn,.d oq>calW .... rning<
'''0 inSlllmion$ ,houlJ he kcpl .Cp'''.'.
"""enhel.s, ,. IS h. nI,o S<c Gr.",sc, dof.mlmi ,he poll 'ical po'ilions of
,he FlO\ ! refonniSIS . On 'he O!iH:r il.:tnd, ,Ik: . ulooomOu5 dec i<oon of
144 _
14S-
a..r-On!'"
l' _"'" TOIl;"";.

l.
29
1(1
.J
'"'Y 1920
's.-.,_'.
10,..,. 1920
'l ........ ""'''0'.11101) 19](1
,,-..v.-,.. II ..O&>_. . . . ,....,-. "",,, J ....... ..-.La

_,to """'''" "'0< _ _ '. 14 , , _ '920
. . - IOS' .... ',
_ _ _ _ ,"', , , _ Co>_. ''''';10.

:, '91O
"
,be
f."
. ... o-.1I"_'91O
,,,10
.v"".., ",.. 00.,,,...
,,,,,,,rds.be
.be
,,=m.
"n.
""'In
"'111 ''''''
P,",
."'",he
,,00 "'"
w.,
in
,nc Pro""onal Conlml11N whith rontradlCl> Onm""i, pOsliion. I"',nt<

10 ,he poMihle ,nfluen<:n of the S,II<laI:.lc , ..dio< the CommlilN
of I'nllctllnan It IS also. perlIaps. Ind,m:t c> idcnce of .".."h1$1
I nO...".""
The".." stage in the SJKl'ad of,hI: cooneil no;cmtt\l OI'rwTCd rapldly.
>lonny mceling of FIO\!, Tunn bnneh ,he radJCII motion of Boer<>

.nd Glrin<) ""ti ramC"d by. larse ....JOIiIy Ind "I"'wi.ional cxecu,;\'(,
eOm""IIN "as "'tcd. w"h Pic'fI) H,m:fI) ",,1e<:1C"d IS ,hi: n"W >rrtary
of Ihe branch, :01
The Tori!ICSC deb>" WII .. pc>lC"d on a selle when on 9 Ind
10 No>'omber. mostly ,.Jie.1 deleg.t ion of Torino," m<talworker<
(Ga ri n<>. 130<<0. SanmaMlflo .nd Ccm for lhe ""lIeals; C.nn.W'ol.
the ... fonn i"sl .!tended. h. ld in FIo .. ne., Th.
,0011011 p..",d at tbs '" oS ,n.: fi"t official . x p"5Sion of FIO\ 1
d,ppro'.' ofthl: Ton""sc mo'"",cnl. ' ''' M ..n",hile. in Turin thl: mo'o
",.nt 'p"'. d boyond the nI.tal ,,'or\crs to coxhbuilders .nd .u,omooll.
booy" o<lers as "'elias ,hi: Turin tnnch of thl: Chenuc.11II<l Ty'" \\ 01\....'
Ln>on E>en ie<:h"lC,"nS In the f-KIOnCS.....oo.sed thl: ""'"
mo'ement . ..
The culmm'''on of the ,nll'" >uccc",ful phase in thl: hi5lOf)' of IhI:
fac'o,}, council mmemen' otturrtd 1,1 drba,e on foctOf)' eoonells II ,he
con8"'" of the Torinese Cltambtr of Labour on 14 and 15 lkeembe,.
I ......,;"i defended lite mo,'.men. 19a.nst thl: O'<M """ihty o f Bia nchi of
tlte CGL 110",.",;r. "",nl"'ns of '''c !nIl'<menl laid """,ial emph.. io on
dijf.rent 1"'''''', Tcrracini Sl!UN Ihal the councils would h"'. '0 bc<omc
mol', 11 ,he uni"", m onIcr to ,lIem d)'in 8 of i"",,'i"ity Grnm""i
cmph., ized the rolillcal dim<nllon of tlK: counc il <' ""rk , TlK:y ',ho" ld
be ,,,,d,,rstOOd pri manly as II>< """". <lfpoililcal 1"'''''
thus ... ",o>'ing
ony r,," ll ty from 11K: l'1l:s.enl formal ilructu.. of pari
<lI;mocr.c} 110".''''. lie ",'as forcC"d ro admit th>l. befon tlK: ",,ol .. non.
rho factory council' werc in "'PC<lS .ppcndaJ1t:< of tlK: tt.de
/" I
" p".
un""".'I.
tao""
I he ,icI",iou, moIOon \ """'" 10 Gntm .. ;'.

.i""e i, clio! not
holtlte COf1\m,....n; "uh the: un""" H"",c'.,. by thl< lin" the foctory
council mo> rn>cII' '" IS trrandred IS InU-UOllon b)' the .. fonniSl leod<n;hip
ofl IO.\1 and ,he CGL. IS "'-cll OS "'" m.. "nali" di='()fI." ofthl: PSI. "I
On II ["",,,,,,bcr thl: In.."h of,he PSI endorsed ,lie "oo""il
mo> ",,,,",,' and r-slabl,,1IOd ncv. Comm,,,,,,, of S'udy on ,lie r rlOl)'
Cooncil' rq>lace the I"U' 1$""'01 comrmll"", Th" ,,-as """"Iy ""'mnoled
by ",limen...,i (bu, no! by G"'I1\SCI) if .. fumi" influence "'IS n,,,
rompl.,,,I) .bscnt (Thc mcnthel'$ ..... ToI,,'U. Tas.ea. Boom. Mana.
'0
'"
runn during tnt Okn"io R",so
\lool:Ignana. V.ianle. Roc,1I, Apri..lan&heri. Sonl1\lnlno, thignol!. G'n<)

Q""moori. (;0"""""". Ilrnohnl and LUI" Ik"lIIl.}ltS1icl.' wen: '" der.""
Ind the "".bonsh,p' that !ohouJ.l bel".." "'" Tradr Uni .....
nd Foctory Coonell,. in order '0 "'Old cOtIllicn of compet"""" and
the ""i1nls,"i(>1" from tl<lng lOukrned. and '0 en,ure
thai the)' OCqUl" gm'"" pr<"$Ill" In the C)"" of the mas!oO:. II, By thl: """
of 1919 Gramsci', po<IIlon "llh,n lhl: f"'tory counc,[ """.""""" ",:as
bcc<>mlng M.rnabl", On tile one IIIInd IllS comrade. ,,'anted to
dc:fend the unions. while O<l tl>< Otller. yndicali ... c:lscwhl:re in h all'
,hought tile factory c","""iI In ..celie". ,."",Ic to unJcnmnc FIOM">
I.g",,,,".y. To thi' ",,.,,1 Gram\Ci ,.maUled ftli. ", upon those foctory
cou ,,,,,1 a.,.",him ,,1>0. if 1>01 '''r1'''Mlnll l", pohl'c .' phiio",!,hy. did
endorse his indus" i.l "",t.gy
An.",hi". intcr.'.ned ., thl: mo$l W"'Olllcully imroM,nt Ju"" tu"", o f
thl: r.", phasc o:>fthr t"a<tory "ooneil nlO> <11'1Ofl1. TIl< of r.".,...,.,"
.,.- Gari",,, roles 10 the "fly Oisemblles of ,h. "Othhop rommi,sal'$. in
the SlOOy oomrnm...... aI,hr FlO\!
in "o,..entber.nd tlte '"P"<"ial
coogre" of Turin 0 Cllamber ofLal:>oor in December "'-en: "'" ",I.ot<d to
any 1,'l1". "apt". anan:h'" "". The (Jet II t!tcy rcpr .....r"C"d a ,,""aln
conlCntpontJ)'. if tra"sient . ..,n"nt"'" localC"d on ,Ite .hop floor, A, "me.
,h,s ..,Miment came .... "'<t to G ... p<itOon in reprd.o g<Sn""g
to ,lie nonunionlttd fot lhr d"ons of ,,(>d,bop comm,,,,,,<"< or
... abh.hllig a ne .. relallonoh<St amMi.s I.y,
ThI: ana,chi't workers .nd te<: hnlCi .'l> hod workC"d ",i lh tile ominm'iJl;
,hmugh'''' t the ,ummcr and au ' Umn I><.>(;.u," brllh "de< .greed lh . t o l<k '
",'em.1 oommis<ions W"'C 1>0 IU"lIer n:pre,cm" 01 c of lh. "orke", The
g.... ."""",b li.s in ",hich tlleir reprcKrtla",'b had been . Iec!rd
",.nipul>!w :n the ellion ofh.ndpichd c.ndidat., Tlte older int.mal
c,,,,,m;i<>ns l"",nd"'l1 >cry mth like Gram",i) "Cf< 'Opdown orp.n
di.tanl frum ,I>< .. 1I'c psyd.>logy of the
he
...,111<:<1. through tile ac.i"i,;u of Gram SCI and Garino.,lIe worl.;cI'$ of
IIrc, .. uhlt. and In Ie" tlllln I mo<tth Ifl"""rds. thos<: of fiJkc,n othrr
ntetll",,,,k'ng focto<ie . had elected "o,Lihnp deleg a", . Hi, an,de
e'1"" ... d tile opumi"" Ind WrJIn'" 1l1li1 lhe raditll, folt IS tlte fOClory
coonell mo,'<"I1lCI'It
A. I propagandi<l oflhe fl<"1Or}- coonell mo,,,mcn1 ,,\thin lite ""lio,..1
.n>rch"t I'T"". De BaMolomei, WIS Imponant. 11o"""",. if F.rrero
and G.nno "ore loss oonf1<knl 1$ jottmali!I'. tile .. ." hctOf)'
Ol'\:O,,;zrr< in TUlin " ........,ml. 1 fo< Gram"'" Th. que"ion of ..-1K:1h<:r
w.,.
'''''''''''. ,00
"orl.;.,,; '"
,.,
Amm,hiSl,f in Tu,-,n 'I" ring Biennio Rosso

,>t nOI Lhe n01' umomzed , ho uld be gmn'cd a "oice in the ciections of

comm i",.. became a mojor oone o f oo"I< "1<on in l'o,"ember

.nd fuember. on" il wa, the .narc hists wl>o supported Gra msc,; pos,tio n
the 1MS' enllluastically
Ilow,\,ef, the wntroversy was in fac t sp.1ded_olTby a d 'Sputc among't
the ""iali'" lhcm,eI\'os_ On 16 Augu>! Ona\',o Pastore f" '{ I,roposod
thot all worker< should be eli gible to CicCI "'ork<h<:>p commi,sars, O n 30
Aug"," Viglongo endorled th iS pOlition, "r,,,,ing that it would reinforc e
n>o' es {o",3td, ,ndu ,,,ial "n io" " "" Iluwo,'or. Gm m,,'i al thi, poi nl was
st iII sens i{i, e (0 the concerns o f union "cti, iSl<, l ie ,,'anted Viglungu in a
postscripl 10 " "ew,pape r all id o t hat the prob lem of t he non_u1((o""cd
remai ned ,en,,, i\'e , ' " A Ill>oug/1 p.store and Viglon&o may have I>ttn Iho
f,rs, 1,,0 soc,aitm '0 ""s.< t h,S issue in p" nt. G. ri no clai med (ha{ he "as
the firs t {o ptop<>S< "OleS for 'he non-u ntOmttd at m<;rtmg' , E"en Tem><: ini
,Jmilled at lhe 'pe<:i.1 congress of {he Tonne>. Ch"nbe r of L.bour th.l1
tt had beon work ers mlhcr lh , n socIJhSl j oumalim ,,1>0 h.d Of,gmally
ad\'OnCCL!'he ,dea, '" Ganno, too, was a, c. ", ful as Gramsc, in spdltg
oul {he ,mplic, ,,on' of Wldo nmg tho ,ufTn gc , At t he Floren<e FLO.'!
cungress of No\cml><r. for Go" no .nd Boer(> both u nderlined
lhe fact th.'l the f,.cw",,' council, '(are) li mited 10 OOrtl"" ,hat ,ii'pose of
Ihe bes' o'll'n is. 1 aod specif;- lheir role, In a " , y lha{ . "Old-;
erootLHg '",' pie lll u"uns in tho {hat would end up ,,',tlo c"",i ng
h,nfi' to wOll i',g-ciass org3T1i<alions, ,,5 Garon(>'s . nLl Boero', caution
",Heetcd " nl ib r worries found io radical worl <'TS, Db, ,,,,,s ly G uornieri ()T
Culomb,no might dc no unce thOl r programme for undenninmg {he u",on
or O,OTt handing ,t O,er to tho US I. but thoi r owo tl en;e>! opponents wi{h,n
were not as emho,ia,{ic as {he oubidcr Viglongo.t g.r.t oting the
'01< 10 'he llOo -union ized. \ lar;o /.1ontagnana ",rote 10 L Nuo''O
,n NUI'e mber l'J I'f hi, fears , Ife "'.n{ed the "niinl)!'i,<li '0
,oJ ",,, the problem ,n p"-'Ci,,, lerm, . <>tho","'" ' unT\lly indiv idu ,ls' '->ould
",i?c the hcm",,' counc il s for {heir o"'n dtSrupt]\ 0 pU'T"c' , He ,upported
' he pre, o" , mo.'cment bec.use he was aga"", {h" Ourrent
refO'llli" e,ocullve con"", lItt of rlO \ 1 " ho had bee n on obstacle io {he
"a, oftbe prng,-.,., o f the focmry coooc iI 111O>'O ,""lIt . unru ly ;nd "' idu.I,
"anted (0 Men um ""y exec uli,'c comm inee
Tbcre .re ir.<ij,',du.I, ... "'.on 'he rar.ks of 'he ,ub, or';"o, .. ho fox yem .nd
;-em r'Sh, o""',n,,,.. ,. ten" ;",,, 'I>"i , " 'the hdm' of oor
Wh" ,he rr ;>e . i m "of thetT mltmm . .. oJ tbe"
'Of)' e",ly to "'.<I<", .. nd ".-e, for ",,,nr lc h ""' "nu<",OO(i it' They
'.-e th, <l<ma l maiN"','"". toc,' .I",.y, go .1 ;l1le
to the ext m nc
.,,,,,1.,;, "'"
len. >e<mdmg to
""CO,,,... 'hey c... c, ll ,ynd.li<t,. ,nm h""
or .,en d' ;""nl 'yo"".Ii",

.n.ITh,m They.re
In re. ltty

"""he< " ,od ;o.h,,,. "'"
,f on good f;..,th) d'ng"""" muddkhe,J, ' "
A do"" <,am', nalion of <"en Gar; ,IO', po,i{ion dcm,,"llmlos si mil ar

.mb,gu,"e>, Ilc. too. ba<1 li tlLe time f,,,. ,10<; and at {Il<- Flore,\Ce
congress he agrttd !hal c.nd idato. for wQrbhop com", is,", sl>ould I><
IimilC'd to lhe unioni,ed '" 1>0 'UppoltN the cia>, . trugg le and a communi,{
program mo, Ho"c,cr. at {he UAI congress he ld ,n Bolog" a the followi ng
Jul;-. he pfesenled a d,amCl ncal ly opposite pos i' ion Banning the ,IOn_
union ized oftke ",wid, he .rgued !Il<-n, rncn;ly mean lhat lbe C('",-.c,)s
would bc'Come e",a1<.res o f the " "ions, In hne "" th Gr"omSCi', theOfie,.
the unions ond counc,1; wcn; two d,rk",,,, "" ima ls: the coone,l, SO" ed
prootIC.rs , union , wage ,"mcrs ,' " This retlled his earlier defence of
lhis pr"I<,ple at the crucial ntee{i ng of Tufln', Ch.mber of L.bo,,, lhe
p",,,iou, 'whe n'. Gramsci "". lled. tho anareho_'yndioali"
G.flno dotended Ihis 'hosis
. nd defended 11 wilh gre3t dialec'tCa l
'lil l .,," ".nmh' '" For prHcltcally mi nded lrade un ioni'l' t he d; Il"",nces
Oelv.eo n proo ucer .nd ".ge eanter "oro wme{imc, obsc ure Gari,lO.
fur in"., ""c, cited lhe exam ple> Gramsc, h.d ob\]ou> ly kdurod h,m
.bou l: {he ,hop o n the CI,d . the Am,,,ic. orld the
0" Lc"On,tc>, flo",,,,or. o,ber It.li.n " ' do un ion ists " i{h in{emal!Onal
e'pene nce "ere not so ,"'pr",,,,,! by tho:;c "'llumem" O oe Searoni, for
na mp lc . a{ ' he Florence FIO \ i congre>s . cloimod there 'H, no direct
para llel betweon {he org.n izot ioo of highly ,lilled ",,,d o,, in Bri l,in and
lit<, ro, il"'" "f' he Ie_" ,kill. ,1 nletal of!he Italian labour martc{_' "
Gu'm ieri ".> fi"t 10 admit ' hat lorge numbers of noo-un ioniLed ltalta"
wort." could nClOt be 'gnore'! duriog str ikes, bUl he d ,d nOl '"'0 huw
lhlS could be .110" ed {o alTc,{1 mlomal uni"n dtio",.'" And as "e hoI'<
"-""n . ( ;"""0 " po,i' ion was nol lhal di" nt"lar, Dun ng ,he \'CT)' same
congre" of lhe C h mber of Laoour whore he lhe thCL,",,' 0 1
proo ucers and "age "a .....,,,,. he . 11;{) the new in'(;[" I,on. tha,
'UJlI>'""d ly t"'nscended !ho labour mo",,, a, moan, to iocrcas.< lhe pre"ige
of t he un ,on'_ <Tho unorgani7.cd wOI kers', Garn,() e' plamed. ' mu" dis>
"ppe.", We are con" ",,"" ,ioa, ,hi, "ould come about more easily "''' h
urg.nizati<)n in the Counc,ls, tban by ('<>ere i, c mctl-.od" .", The follo"''''g
month, 'IOt" ,th"an,1i ng arguments ad"allC,d in tho suntn' or at the U,\I
<ongr<ss i" Ikllogna. he ,upf>OTt<:d a mOlioo t!:a{ laid tiN n oon<- year mm i_
ntum union membership in onlcr 'u quahfy for declion " a conulIi,sar, "
TIo<; conlraJ ,,,,,T)' allttudc5 d i' r l.yed b;- G3< ,no may ha' c been mOTO
of a hel p than a hindrance " hen add"" ",d his fellow "'ode" , It " as
149-
Gra""" umilhe Allarchim

th is praglll"!!'m Ihal won Garino'sand Ferrero '"uppon Pu,i ly
of rrincirks wou ld meanl >leriic iwlal'O" A. the old In lcm,,1 COil' ,
m " , ion, were .,,'nsforme<! onlo faCiOI)' couneils i" the a" [Umn of 1919,
a nard",,, would b< chosen as workshop OO1Omi"." in disproponionate
m'mbe" ,' l'

Acconi ing 10 Garino , FIO.\!'s local membersh,p 'hc hirnn;o
m,I',. " m.y hal'e contair>e<lIOO anarchiSIS, seem> insogu,r,ca nl. it
has 10 be rrtallod [hat mMy oflhtm were long. ' ime ,m io" 3<ti ' .>1" Ganno
a noI,cc.bk aoa",h"t a1 Acc'nene Fiat, Gral1<li M<>lon,
Ferriere Piemom ... and $ma ll ,hop, in the suburb" The Fiat-ow ned
fo undl)', Forriere Piemontese , '''''mN 10 be ",melhios ofa stronghold
F,fty (Of LIS 2.000 work" were ana",h i,,,, lhe secre,al)' of It>
comn,i" i(On was lhe "narehl" Can<lela, In hi' I.t. lwenllCS. he was Iypi<al
"'If-educat"d ",.",hist. '" On Nucalion lh al was ,upe,,(Or by long
,hoi 1(0 that of the ",,,,,age (Of worker<. because ho "'as really an
3<til i>l fonnetl, .Ix,,"o all, in lhe M"""m Sdx,,,1and on '110 in the faclory'
Si,n il" type> such as ranlom, Bandcro .nd Ron<ag llero, were fo,,"d aI
Gr'ond i Mo,ori . nd elsev.here, ,"
For acti\'im "lC h OS G.n"" the elnerg"n::e of the "orlshoo;> conun,;."""
ere.tod '. "el)' w,do el ite Ih', "'as >I, imcnnedl>ry betwoe n u, ."d tl ..
Ilenero li,y (Of wo"ers.''' \Iuch of 'his el i'e had il> pOI itic.1
e'penen"es in the prev.ar Sind"".,o Unlto. bu"he", fon".r "",c"ionISl<
\\ore .ble [0 \\ ,n '" or lifelong flO' SUrporkrs, On the new ""'"",, 0 of
the local (Of 'hree (Of
"lne
wore an.rch""
Gari"" had been .pproad><"<ll" be tho "'<rctol)--, but he rcf">cd I{) bc<ome
,alan",j 011iei. l, f"""i",,,1)' 1i "nlH (OIT th< working-class "'O'Cment
It \\'a, dc"dedlh,l "nl, the incorrupt ible, iro",co ll y named fm an anar_
ch ist, 'R<>I>osl' ,orre'.- Pietro Ferrero. could Uben i 116
Th is ,.dical exef ul,,'e roma.""d in control of Iho luc. 1bra""h of FIa.\1
unhl'l>< April strike discredited Iho" roli cie, The unity oflhe f.<t(Ol)'
C(oUtIC it n""emenl WI, impeded by the '01)' rapid ity of il> S"<C"SS , It
\\ould h.n had 10 a<hlt\'e quali,.ti, e brea, lh'vugh in early 1920 50 as
IlOtlu be thmwn on the defcn,iR Accurding to Clark. 11O"'" ,'or, by Janu'l)"
1920 lite mU,'Cmen' had los, its (Orig inal In'pe[ U,, ,, - What d id Gramsci '"
other ominMisli "naglne tho eou"" il , d(Oing befure a "'lCial re"o lUliol\
changed tl>,o ",I.. of 'he gao",,? Tht tao\;, of Ihe wOlhhop <"mmi"".
\\ou ld be thos. pre, 1"",ly done by lhe im,""",,1 cOInmissions (malle" such
"' handli ng S".V'''IC'' (On app li '""ons of agreements, .11<1
They WeIT ,upr<=d to ma intain dlsciph>< on lhe "orl$h<'I' no", and
"",Iy ,he mo'hod, uscd in ,h. ir I'I.nL Equoll y, Il><y Wffl: '0 earry
out LnduSI!i.1 and fi",n< i. 1 ,udil< '0 make sure that lhe pb n' was 001
II,
150-
",,,",I,,,,,,
1n
TlIrJn dw-mg

(0"'''''''
CIT.'"
B,ennl(O Ros>o
,"eiTo<lenl (Or hellll!- saootaged by

for short-term profit Psychothe de jur.! Uml}' ollhe "",king
logically, II>< f"",ory COI'lIC il, would
cia", "hich would Irnnscend p.ny labe ls, B;- early 1920 it w., l>eroming
IIIC",a, ingly diiTooult 1(0 aSSIgn wu"cil, 'pe<ific I"" 10 <arry 001.
Garno(O =med 10 probic m, whe" he reponed '(0 t hIS fd low
"",,<him at Ihe U,\ I cong"''' in Ilo10goo, The o""ncili" nlO"emont ha,l
rmd""cd meagr<: rC$ult. and", nere change h,d occufITd li>c cOII""iI. "crc
''>ed 10 e nforce wltlract ual "-I"'e"",o15, but th i, rok w h,ch
II"" c""TlCl ls tICpt<d reluct.ndy, madc them 'pfl'Car a' oolhong olher lilan
" co", in".,ion (Of Ihe old inlern.1 c(olnIhl"i<>ns' ,l'
If une o f the I.adlng allarchi" """'i>ls " ilhi" II>< Tor;nose faclOl)'
cuun-e,l,no, emenl sa\\' the li m'1Oti(O"s of t he enti re emelJ' ri . SUTWY of
Ihe anarch ist pre" in I no by Carlo [)ogl io demonSlrates lh.t aoor-ehists
()lJ" ide Tu"n had only 'he "'gue" id..s of how 10 lran$iale lheor;- II\!(O
prac,icc , Ralhcr tho cou"<11 mO,'ontenl ",as UsM 1(0 >core points 'g.IIISI
" ,",i"' all,l ;o,,,all,l ",'ab (" 10 <nlil"n in,uITectional)' rhelOric, ,,..
F", all iments .nd put"pOSeS the leaders oflhe fae1",y e()lJnol l m(o",meni
had only e,lled Ol org.nlZing demonStration" A demonstrallon Ln October
191 9 aga inst D' Annunzio " !tlture of F,ume In Stpmlx-r was f(OII(Ov. cd
W1JeSpreaJ ""OlI(On In mid"'", ember eoncoming fille impose<! by
""' I'"'YOrs on WOl'''-''' aftor Ihty had sll..ok on li>c ,nni ,,,,,,,1)' oflhe Rlls,i"n
Ro"o lullon, Thi, was followed by" two-doy genoral S1nkc aftor th< <I'Ollts
in Rome on 2 De<omb<r when soc i, ll st deputies were a,,",ullN by ann}'
oflic , rs, A,wrdLllg 1(0 Clark, ',II Iho"" "l'ub lic" agltali(On, "ere, (Of comse.
dcpr<"nlg ly tr:hlltional in kl1ld, and fa, ,onlO'N fron, Gramsci', .itllS' ,'"
The otho , ta,k of con'tllissa", to disc ipli"e workers and prtwnt
"nliproducti\,e strike,. w,! 00, "el)" lucCCI,ful. Ikl" O,n Qc [oo.,r 1919
"nd 10 M"y 1920 SOO d "pul,S (m,inly <>n P,""O."I" an d di s.cip ll1le]
\\ erc refl<)ned at [he Fiat worb '" This d id ooll""an lhall he radlc. ls did
1101 seello 'Pl' ly dis.cipli ne, Ferrero .nd Garino were forced 10 repbcc
Uberti and Colombino .. ,h ", i plinarians, In NO>"ember I'll (iarllt(O l(Old
I,al work"" dtat lheir .ct ion, "ere lhreaten ing the "el)' " i.lellC. of
""'hhop commissa",'" ,"d at 'n a,"emb ly of commissa" on n
Ferrero w ,- reforred to lho (Oflhe "orkers at r ialCelllro , ", Indc--ed, il is ,h.. burde n of Giu""ppe Mai(One', argume nt Ih',
Il><se . n. ,chim be<o.me the grcOleSi en-emie, of'hc ' cl""",,onscil>U;' nonk
.J"J file, Althuugh Mo,one "rore IllS h i,lOl)' thinking ,el)' much about
Ihc Ilot Autumn of 1969. curiously . "ou gh, his argument' are ,,,,),<wha'
.lnti cipalcd b}' 'he anti_org.niz.tion, li ,t anarc hl", III""" M,rg,,,la" '"
Marg,ma affused bolh Galll'o and Fe"ero of d.mpening d(O" n til<
No\'ember di'putc,- M(Orco,'cr, wm ing in I- .h<,.",he

unport.m n>c<:1mg of,he wor\..sh.,)p held J I 0."""", 1919. he

(he c",i", ", erei$O as beonl au(hori(an.n. pa,liamcnlanan and
.,"""iolly ",fomu". al (he ."""",1 mQ\ rmm1 "'lIS
00 (he ,.loa of
""'JOn!)' ruk Tb: '""'<men( IeIh:cd m,IIIan(! inca """'cpti", public fIO"<T
,n (he bourgro;" .nd (ulllO<l (hem ,n(o politici&n$ at .hi; "",rey of.he
",fomm(, "ho ",II boob (he ( .... moo of Labour and FIOM ' ...
boo"'"
From \ largan .. '\ ' .. n(age: PO"\( lhe 'OO'clT'lC1l' "'" boond 10 dl$appOim.
bu, .hi; in(Cre'hng po,n. 10 pondo. is (0 "ha, '''lCn' \1"0""" 'clan
"""'"'","-, _00 f,lo' ","'" "",,,,Iy inll" iduali., '",f""'lan",'
had become s<> w i'\c'p",ad ,11:11 ,j "an,,' odcl",.",d on .",de'o thi; ,m.1I
group, o f "o,ke,.. \\Ito had pl'Olellcd aga in,t ",,,lemon!
of ,I>c l\ovcmt...r >ln k." 'Work"'" >Cti<ln', ,t begin., ' i, not a 'pOn ,
t.:llh.pp dy the .. c,i'l many bad,,,,.rd mdivid"al, in th, midst of Ihe
<on""ou, ""d workeD', bullllcy mu,1 be cut down to ,ize
'h the ....orters (IIcmsel,'CS', and, ',f'MY .how themse!>es 1I,("",,,,ble to
"""Ull.ion anll "i,h al
'0 ."boN,n'le '0 'ho:ir "tnd",du"lI"
OJ.lO" (M ',Ial im."",. of the ma...,s. lho:y m ..., be .,.
In e;11ly 19M GramiCi alld ,be
completely
from ,he CGL and ,he "",,,m.lI., d'llO"lIe of the PSI
a "me .. hen " .. '","nl' >cries of.n,d", sp:lling "'" ,he
J,ff=OC<'S beI\\ "'" (be fa.c:tOry touI>I',1 mo'e"",n( and ,he of
.) nIl,c.h,m and """",hlSm, be and Il1be .. "''''''' 10 sed SOfne son
or """iell anangeme'"
,he le.Jer>lup ofbooh ,he .... rch"I> and ,he
lISI, 1918 ,"" USI h.,J \\'a,ohtd ""Ih ItIkrc ,he In
Tor,no)C faC'<>I'.', A libr;!1\do G,o"anneni wa, ooe of ,""
firsl promlnCTlt ,ynJical"" U) romn"'nt <'(tnsi, ely,,,, the t"'tory cou ,,,,',1
On 6 D<comher 1919 he \\rote on (ju,'",) di Cio$"e
th., i, de",,,e<l 'UPI''''' b.use 11 k'ented IQ , tel' from crafll" union
the '11't/{"urc "'a, antlbore."" .... 110 ond the elld ""Hit might
be Ih" of the f..",,,c>, ,-', Through the .yndieoliSl Ct,n (ooc of
the members Srudy Cornm,n ... and a.c:oord,nw (0 \'igJonJ.lO a pOI",.
<1')'1, ,he LSI
L10d ,be mo'emon' '0 <end One oklegalc 10 ,"" L'SI'$
I',nna congress, beld oo:!O H i>nnbe, "
One ofGtarnlo<i'. ocoI)1<"$. dcl"ered .ipctth and oorn
po>c<l by the Commll' of SUid), bul th1J a m ... "''J'OfIse
from the delepl<"< :'>1>"0 ,ha, L \-""VI) did IlOl "'gard
'r><k unlOlt as poI..,."i.1 "" OIU"ONI)' '1l$',M'ons, fOl" ,he .."'" IU<.On$
lhot (iarino had a.]'nccd a l'C'\O" ".,.,k. corl,er II tbe congr= of (he
Chambe, of lobour of 1unn.' ''
.'''1)' coo,
""'m"",,,, "''''''
""h
,m
In ,e>j>Or1sc />;,001. Vetoh, o'P" '>SCd douto! ,,1.edKT ,hi; f..""y cow",,!,
anyth,ng 01", thon the old intomal .. ,on, ,,"h a new ,"le,
I

,n.,,,, ""'"
I'""e ,hougm
i""tinll'''''' of ooliabonol1011_ \lanani " ... pleased
"lib tht de'elopmenu; in Turin fea .... (ha( lhe """nnent
m'gh' fac,lita'e a """iali.t d'(U-tonJ\,I' lie " ... ra,1)Cularly concerned
11m poli'",,,,ns, mno,nI from ,be hfe Qf be
m,gh! us.t the
'"'" cmcnt fOl" the" 0\\" ends_ Ikq.h, bfll<l&ll' ,he d,S"ussoon '0 dose
b) fll'Sl d,Slancing him",lffrom the ',mellecnws' ofthcrouncil mo'"""",,_
II" could"", unde ..... nd "h)' L 'Ordmr ,\ 1It> .... in dn tdmg ,he
,ndu .. rial "-",,lic.lis,n Qf ,he lJS!. "b,eb u"",d ",om, from ,he mther
,,"111., 1"'1;"n uftl,e Ame"c , IWW. wh"h "crr pra,SC1l , lie also
",,,"nded the Torinose th., lhe lJSI "as. mcmNr of ,I", 1 h"d Into,
11"'01101. so implying the by tloe Ilol,he' iks of the 11.lia"
/'o.cvonhe\o ... llo!oIhi also e'p,ess.:d hI> <kl ight at tile deci,ion
to gi' C,lie ",)Ie to the OOn unLoo,ud, and aokoowlcdgcd that ,he ,nlollectuals, ' the Iue.ted youth' of L 'Ordin" had hi;1p! th ..
pra,seworthj de .. I"""",", The rqolUhOll concem,ng the Tonn.se
mo,'""",n1 w hi8hly ,.,
Dunng ,ho WIle m",,"b one of ,he rnos:o "lV'ifioan' of lhe
popular lIf'I"'al of anarchi,m (or., 1n51 fa/tlQUS anarch,..,) "ben
\1>lllesl. ""tl T uri" 00 29 Doc.mbe. ,nut>tdlltely afl<T h" rtlum 10
Ilaly.OO "-as mel by. crov.J of IOO,(XXl,
b,u the open,ng '0
1he """(>nI! alld .I) nd,col,., . . did ".,. laS!. n",
m.>J<l1' e""Oun'o, b<1",ecn (he LSI.not ,he
OCurtW \\hi;n
\"Iong<> .nIl Togh."i, 011 behalf of the SlUdy CQmm,ltcr, we",
'0
n.-port 00 the occupat"'" of the moin ''''''''I .. .nd s)"pbu:ld,,'g ",ods
!;estri Ponent., Corn iSh:!oo."" ('."'!", In L'gII,i. Toghalll and Viglongo
had di!<o\-':ITd a'""" '}'P< of "PJ>Of1""' \II\ "'" oppommlSm Q re,,) ,
I'ho ,ynJi,.hst organi;"er, Angolo roglli. had ,,!-Cd the
,""",Iy
I".,,", i,. employe" and tl>c ,tote to ",'tl k 1n1l\0I dISpute, bot th"
report, .TId ,/Ie ';,'ng tide Qf On" ,.)"nd;",I1>1 in L 'O nlmc ""0"0,
d,d nul l!,o u""n,w<re1'11 rno'rmm1 "a! no longer gi'en 1be bencfi'
"f!be douto!_ '" Botgh, JlO'runi '0 ,he Gcmun left whet-.: council. <ook!
be s)nd,,"li'1, sociilli" or commun,,,, JcroOO,nll "" (he local bal:anct or
'''' Further dc,doped "lib ,lie Tori". .... the \ .. Ianes<
anaroh"" and ,)'ndl(:al"I> beU>llC 'he ch,ef proponents of 'he f:oc,OI')
,'oo,,,,iI, that <ily n..y "ere ,be counc,l. 10
0' <T nw.imali"
"",i.h", alIenated 1' temponllnK_ The \ .. Ianese 'trike
at 'he end of b.mc nl\lrt tl..,". d,S(urblng oo"ide uampk of
clashes bet""O"" h.li.n ,,,,,,a h.(. a,1<I . """,hi",,_ ..
Aftcr ,he nen" of.'!8 and 28 Febru.!') b.mc l'lO"'n in Turin. the
"'''"''hop,
,<:
"n/,,,,,,',,,'
,n
...
. , "'"
""""1"'"'''''
,'oo,..
,n
sen.
",n
AnOl"('h",. In Jurrnl( tM Blennlo R<d$O
ChlombN "r Labour pkad<d fOf on ] dunnll a

<i<m<>n"ra"oo In
"f II>< ,-jel"'" or reJ>"",iOfl by .he """ "gh,<
"'f'pOn
"'"H I lung." . .. dh;laj<><sh,p. a sm,Tkr \ crs,OfI or lhe M ila",:s< trouble,

oc:,,,md in Tut in , A ItO' Ge"",,; .nd s.,"""i h.'Id 'poken. 'Oe 1IoI"''''l'''rrd
a".dcd (he mi. "f the _i,Ii>!! dunng Tile 'oM
grn',,"1 mile Some of his comr;>dc<;; Slornoe;llh< pod,um ofld lI.rW."

...., l'K'cnl"<l from .pul ,nj.'en ,IIoogh Garioo IYd mro 10 Slop
Tbe IIcclling and fillhlina The police 'nt ..... Ct>ed and h.lted.he
I." .... _
lI\C."e1'ng.
' "''
"err funou . TIle nt" <by GIl"n"" hlcnro
""'ll."ra I". Slril.b",. h,. tlc untkrh..ro ,he Importanc. of publIC
_,.10>1,
onc"c,mg'.' a OCt,,,n wh>ch tr. n<ecll<lrd .h. crall d "-,,ionj
(If
tho ""' king da;" The 'meeting brcal.cr' "as." insens il;'-' cgoti<T .nd
prc'cntcd to. cia,s from """)""8 001 'I, demonstration, and
orqulring I d re, form of coli"".".., class c<HI><:iQUsnc ..... ,
.""hd olT .he 1m" m,
The ct,,1i<-; tn \I, I.n Ind Turin
,,=
pOpUl:m.)" of.1It 4",n:hLS'S ond .j ndlcal, ... ,n boIh In di
\hla"" and BorJ1O Sltn Poolo tilt .",,,,h,,,. K'eral

demonSlrltllQns. The .d"l.. ion of \I. I. Ief>' 1<0 ,""uK(!
tl\( pOpulan.y of thc Dn:l",h"" thot spn ng. <0 Ih" Alion<o Leo",,"i's
lo"r, from .\1Ll an. rubl i<hed '" I J Ma rch in I.
/luom. ",prtKIlIN
a ""ponse 10 "h", ,n IIIe ofOm"""i "',.n al'nning gro"'lh of
'orn,",
SUb,.,',.,,-.' poillic.
As ". I\a, c seen, I.wnctllllad noIll,,"),s hem ho<I,lc ", the anartlu",.
1M. """. Leont'IIr had cltanj!c-d n,htr dnm:o",:.lIj. In 1918 lie had $1111
bn able 'Q support. UMI front e"onJ",S from ma\"nah.ts 10
tilt libert.n "., ond anll"., o",ly 1920 he had bc,me
msci, ",eg3 pl>on . '" r l>c per<on , 1 popul,,,i.y of Mo l",.", "oj
.xpla,"ed in dis" ",,, ,, ely ""linovUft) lan8""8<
..
I m.,... , .. WaLl....,.,"" r'f)' b<cau.", orlns boweIl ..., lie boo I

tftt<pO""'''''' mutiI be calle<! _ _ '" and
He
<""f...... vea' inJII>If,.1 C"),
1"0, and eon 001) In.
1110
O"'an=.! "'W''''''
000 1'0<'0<)" 10 ........... 00 ,,.
to ,110 bonl. ""h. <,00,,,"", """. mp""'" of po<M' p<> ..... " for \\I><>m 'to

n, ooly 10 ,n,..I<. I'IF '''''e. 110 ho. ""',,,,,,," ,,"" Ln , , ..
<1,,",,n .. 1"',,,., "ftil<<>r l.
Ln ' I.. <om,,,,," r>>r'<
,for h<ln 11 "
',110 p>f!le' "'he mJ>I de<,.t<!o Ar>d "'M"", 'he 'prople' , ...
h"!ldled ioudrn<lll!it... ho ptOcl.,m "',",i",,"<1 OIl<! ..,;,r.,d W< 0.. ,I><
J>O<'I'I.' ,..,
,0\0,",,,01l0I)'
,ha, ''''''''''''
"...
,ha,
P"P"""
!brott,"
pn>o/u<'"'"
i"""'"
M"'''
Lwno"i',
.tu ,n.be r"'''. and., I
mentioned. the Ma rch and Apnl i""es of I. Suo", arc g.really
-1$4
"P by on s),nd,nli .... and .natth ..... 1O>del. Gramsc,

""1"'''rn1 """" ofh,' mos. polem .. al and "'Ii""o' .h.of..., both ,}""m.
"r II><>ugh .. 'eH"hck". ",lh lead ing _i,IoI" In QPpoS,lI<H1 10 ,be
,O/'dlltl,..,,-II and Ihe f. ,,101')' <0" "<11 ,no,'eonC"I . Om",""i "as f<><tod to
,,,. llow his ptido 'nd . . \\,111 ' ho In Tu,in of coon,.
,II< "","I .... rchi". ""h,n lhe f"".Of}' council m,,,'(mem were <HI much
be".,. lerm,. n.o... .....,h,-,\ f""nt1 \brgan ... ' beh.. iou, di"."oful.
.nd boIh ><XLOI".s and l!W'Ch,>li tnhzcd ,h.lllht fadOf}' coollC,l m()\ e
mem "oold I\a'e '0 btcome. nal,OII.1! flC'or
"a. 10 fICO "Ilk
",,,fidenc. 111< ch,lIoniO' I1IO\on,I empioytr1 .nd ,ho m:oonl",om
.nd
tnO'emcnl.
!.l'OnclllS re,ul'ed '" j " Q a no",h i" fllelOf}' .ommissars refullOa
1<> d ..",bot. 'Online
in til< .. \\o.-kshopli. G",",,,,,, pubh,lItd I
rd>u"al ,n his 'LniLii proll:ta,ia' r Proi<fln.n Un,,)'j IL ,\',,,,,.,,.

\lareh 192() 11"", Gnom><:i ,","'e. his ... rlier poo'''on
,.,uhnN dunn/! ,ho ..-at". Although
to .. on. In un"y ,,"h ,he
"".1 .",n:h"t>.. h.. han anarch"" and .yndlCliI"... """",COUn,.
.. hie (Of .h.i, ""tion. and men'I)' di,ideo.llhe labour inlO )'e.
Gram"" i con ,ras,ed 'he $''''el orato ' O ynd,.
" Ii ,' t,... d< umO. poh"cln., ",th l!>t produ,'''''o ,,,du,tr,.1 wo,l.,.
"'1"'.ti"S hi' elaS!oir":a101')' ",he"", fitsl (1(1'.111<<<1 durin8 lilt "3f
'f"
'<1<,,,1,,,
I""'"
N,,,,,,,
"".,.1
111< I,bonan." """ ..... n' " for tho ""'" pan I . ,"'. rna..... '"
dw.,I .. ,he mo"",,,, ,n 0 ,,,,,,la, >C11'>< IlT of ,110
,n
""'d> tho I"O(><td"",pI,n< of I"""nl jW1oe>, di5Cirhno loom
f,,". J,,,,",>o,,o ' N"' ,""",..< . .", <l<r<oo<,,' "port a f"t>da,",,,,.1

",".... ,,",,'01
!"J1",,,1
by lOry <t"p.>r.. < "<> _ n , 1 . ..
tht rrc"ii< of. n."",. til< f<.r ofbomg <oIIeJ ,,.,, ... , i. ,ub" i,u,od fOO" ""
,,,",r., 10 _ IhIIt """"""",,,,he! ,he "".".... of'he o.>kI ....;..".1 """""""""
and ,he """'1'lI:""V""
"",,,,,not\l
In \1." h the """",h"b ,n .110 ra:lot) <001>1:,1

helpc-d dl'1lln
m'Olf(Slo "hich .. >< v. ,ill"" by Granuc, and ToghauL The 1':asc1O
1 I"""orio "," one of III< 1o<;01ilroUPS th>t ,ililncd 11; ,II< mani_
1".'1'" "
nat i,,,,,1 of m'<m. 1co.-mni,s,on. w .. "","'.,. helJ
Ih. Apnl .. rik. ""." "ned in lhe Acoorulng 10 Clan...
,he of PO"'-.f h3d sh,nal '" fa>ourlbly '''''l,d, l 'a ""a ', "e'"
lhill ,f "LKh a <O<rgtrU hod bttn hr:1d. a PfO'un."" J1'O'5ilion "'wld hl\e
predomi ...loed. Thi.<. [ f""l. IS too euucra'oed. II v. ... Gnmsci ",tho'l,,"n
T.",... "" " . , bohilld the m:onif.sto and ho SOl .. ' It as '0 ou,.
""'0000' '0 """'" mod .... ,C .Iomon.. , Ihus ,ho roll: of'he a narchi,,, look
<'" "n,.,cr In GI'1II"'SCI', poi<rnl(al 'Add",,, 10 lhe Ana"hi",'

(Jram.<d and 1M Anarchl51S
(,ram"i conclude< wilh. fina l ' pp<al,o lay .. ide lhe ddwes cl."
consciou,ness "nd th' d,c'ato"hip oftbe proletariat that had the
ordi"OI'iSii fro", lhe "oal'd".>1< In" ead Grmnsc , . ppealed to sp"it of
'"

Piedrnontesc

St rike
In oarly 1920th. loc.1 t mploye" d"'ided to take me,.UreS 'gainst the

hClOry counc,l n,o'-c one"L The in.b ility of loca l tm,1e union to
fomter a se ries 0'- wildeat 't<>pp.ges ow, p''''c'
"'te, "hlCh h,t prod""" on, the occupatIOn offoclOfies in l iguria
a'HI tho go,enu,,..".' rtq'Jls'lIOn of the ,\ Iauoni', factorie,. greatly . Ilger<xl
.nd alanned local md"strwllsts _led b} th. " >e<retary, Gino Qhetti, the
Indu" , " I League declared ollou,
on tbe f"c to,), cou"", 1mOvement
Oli,<ui rea l,S'i,ally sutru'lari"d hctof)' council "Ie" in series of att icles
for hi, 0" ",n,house journal_ In a 'ptoxh at lhe Genera l Confederat ion of
I on 7 March. he ca ll ed fot suppress ion of the f>ctol'l counc,is
on tho grouods th',"" could n{J{ be two alllho,it ies m tho f';"tol'l', "3
He ,,1'0 ITali:<ed th.t g",-ernmem migh [ not eomply f" lIv with the
mduw" bst" w,sh., .rxl they might h.,-e to brmg the matlel' hoad by
calling. loc , out rhe began O,er the introduction of 51'0",1<"
time Or! 21 Mareh, A5 Clarl explains;
w.,.
L<g.> [ t""" ",as. OMf3C["'''t,e fe'lUr< of ",, [im. Indu,,, ..1 Mobili>..>, ion
ilS in[rOOU<,"oo 'hought to ,nd ,,,," 'he boo'll_"'" go, ",uncot',
to "",m",," "'"'-tll1l< mdu"".1 e"",lIt,,,.,,_ ,"
de,,":
rh" Ch'mbe r of L."",,,, dedared Lh., Sutlllll<r-lIrnc W", 'i ntolerab le

to semiment> _minMul of the dictatorial d<"fr<X' of the "'3r
p<; riod' ," It wa, .11so denounce,l by the anorchi". in Umanila ,\'0'"
Such is,,, es of p""c ipic were e' ''emdy imp<>rtant to many "ork",-s'
",t"es< the Slrtkes btfoIT the war and in 19190'-0' the .l>olnion of the
It tlwrdur< ,,,mes "' nu ,urpri.. that an 'narc h,,! "or, er wa,
central to tho c"" front.lI on th.1t pr'pnatcd the lockou,- On 22 Maret.
'he 'otern. 1 comJ:1i"ion of [he Fi. townoJ ]udust"e un iiat,n ll y put back tho h.nd, of the f"OIo')' dock. The secretary of the
,nlemal COmm""Oil. Ga"no rc<.lls, 'was On . n,,'Chi't <, Ik d Ikmt a
V'ITelle .., carpenter One '-el)' ocr.,-" In the Modern
he a glass an old man,' ,".1t,po, as they say_"xp.",i" , h"J
one fia". he " ' cd 10 d"nk a little too much, he W", "dl cdL>C ated, I,..
was. tol lowe r oft', lk.",', I"
'"
in
TW"/n
Joring the lJienn io Rosso
The to ll "" mg J"y .nd the mcmbees "ftho 'rlterna l com n,i" ion
J",med for insubordmati,m. The worke" calle<1an mterna l stnke.
Sllnult.tleOUsly .n",her .rose . t the Aceaicr;e Fiat owr the rights
ofth. imem.,1 comm,ssiQn' _The prde<t's '"ppoTl for tht new
cktermincd stand was cruci.1. The profC<t agm:J to expe l "'or " fwm
,he Indus,," , Metallul'giche "<irls 'm the of 24 March I./matlira
\-o,a repot1ed that 111<; police h.d ;;L>Cctt<kd in o'e,,,,hclming the work'"
beca "", whi tecoll " '" had let them in lhrough a back ,"
,' Ithough la<er nogot Lot ions fa ilod 10 ,"1<]0 tho que'ticln' of p,i""ip lo, the
managem'Tlt e,'entu.l ly agreed '0 res<"'cl dismis"" ls, bUllnsi<1ed that
the members of the fo rmer Inte"",.! (onunission should not be "!lowod to
ho ld otflce for " year, although ""cordmg '0 Gram"'i. would have
the commissars of their' proletarian c,,,i l ri ghl5' .."
On 26 ,\Ior<h flO\1 ca ll ed a n' tm& ofwotkshop commi,s"rS from
"II the meta lworking f",,'ones. TI,e), diJed to go 00 Intern.1 on
27 and . Ithough ,t "a, <oiled ofl"he next d.y. the ,nlemal su il.e
'" fact <onll nued "nomci.lI},- On 29 [lie industri alist, locked out
Lh' "0' . =, note, lhe pt<:uhantie, of lh" "'i ke wh ich III
re'p""ts 1'<"f. ll s lhe 191 2
,,-eTC
The ,,-ori<er<' ma in .im " .. to detoud a" 'u""ffK .. r io;t i,u,i"" 'oat had been
b,ued, ., ,,0),<.1 by 'Il< Union. y" thO ""g"'''!Lon, both then ,ud I"or,
fO"TU lly _ , the J"'" .... aud It>< rol< of 'Il< I",mal C"",",,,,",,,,,. the on ly
body """gn i"," in fociOf)' rogul.""", _'f:><to<)' Coo"",Is' and 'Worbhop
Comn, i,>l', ",.r. ",,-or m,", ioo<<I , ,,-h i,o ob'iou,ly m.d. , n'goti "oJ
",n l<mcn' OIl the i"" imP'l"'' 'hlo_'''
Secondly, til<; wurke" "0'" not being loJ by t",<k un,ons "'presentati"e"
but by a (o'TtTniU"c of Ag,t. tion, elected by ,he work>hop <ommi,,-,,,
on 26 March. fhe fltst (ommilt<e la<tcd un!il 3 April , .nd consisted of
'''0 an.rch is1' (Gari "" and FerITro). a,ld the ab'te "tionist R<><;TO. On 2
April 'he Commi!!ee agITed that the inte m.1 <omm"siuTl had no I'ight to
. It"r the cl ock hands, that its memberS should resign and finally lh "t
workers ,hould not be paid for hour< on sui "nd 1hOl they ,houid ha'-e
consultod ,he 1",,"1 before Attompts to ba.e the
f.c'ory counc il right' ro"",i'".tod at Ac<"iene Fiat "eIT met by. rebutf.
A negot iat ing "am met on 6 April, Th. "orkrs' side con,iSlcd of
Rruno Boo"" . Gari oo. Camklgnoia, O1igooh. (atunro.nd Gino Guarnieri,
<-'"rino "as TIl SUrTound 1 by the wry ITfonn,sts he had b.>lllcd
through""t 191 9 _The negotiators, the prefect ""ted, were in Nncillatory
mood _BoolZi ",e!'led to be intent on removing II", 'abu",,' of the intem.1
COmm1SS10n, The (h.'pute was settled" It h workers p.>ying on< hour.

A,wr<:hiif,' in Tu,," durmg ,/'r Bi.nni" Rosso

fi"" "hll" ""'''''S<1l1cn, prom,S! '0 pay """mbers of "'" rom.
mi"joo in f,uu,," fOf {line spen{ (>II ,..
The lerms of.he by lhe local branch ofrlO\1
0IId by "" .,,,,,mbly of" orl<hop commIssars. A "'f."'OOum of I 1.579
001 of 50.000 m..u1"oO;m;.
Hll<J 79-1 In of
,lie ""II
L \\'nd ,,-a,1O rcwmc on 12 Apol ali..,. h. (I """"Y mec1.np
.. .. h",h lbe worl.<hop
,,"rd alb", .nnultbe
II", dlicmma f...,w by lhe .""",hi!" lbe pIwt of 'he <tnl !
.hrouSh ,he woosbop eomm i<I->'" ",x ';')n {o
,ore
in lhe r.f"rendum, Ahho...gh a '<'tum to wNI< imp l,ed a ""ore I;",,, ;on
of t ho: princ lpic! of {he Ill lomal <omm'$liono, bolh Buozzi .nd I' elKro
fe lt t haI {o de n}' Ihe VOle wou ld be In und<mocra{Ie an C,orin<>
cO"<Cm<d of the danger lhat ,hsc,,,,h'nll "'Or\:ers "ould igno,. lhe
I"es "f the Inlom.1 comm.SSlOlIlI Oft theit ""Urn to "or\: , Cem and
\'0"""0 (a""JIOhi,{ <ornm .. e' en offen:<! 10 elIlploy (lit;,
"'''tcabl. mandat ... and m;ig.n if "orlot'$ d"pl.;ed lad of confidonce
In them aller worl reW!l'1Cd oj Ilu"",." al thIS poin,. the emplO}'et'$
their frap
"IItn.he it>d"".nall.,, and the "aden "'pt<S<:nta{" ... mo1 a' ,lit
on II A(IIil "'.,'" tilt

'" end lbe dlspu{e. tbt former
.. IIIx>u1 .. ammg dcmancIetl,h.l,lhe ....... " .u."""d .ntemal rommi,>lons
Ie"" IJIOIt of l he" I be """,edu", "as changed so t"-'.
all.,.woo All compl.inl<
the .lI1nnaJ romm",,,,,, could onl) be
10 forst bt H"en to the f",,:-mcn ("Iork, "'IIh good "'ause.
.uSIl.... Ih.l .he were emboldened to i",,,,a';e , fle ".le,
1><,,,.,,>< of the apa.Ity di'pl' }N nmund til<: ",rc"'ndulll lie ,,1..-. sugge'!ed
tha' "'''' el'S wcr. i<>, enamoured "f tho f.ctol)' cOun<; il mu"c"'en' .han
"" '''ppos'''!, '" On IJ Ap ril {he '''''hhop CO"",,,,,,,,.. rejo"cd the
""'rlc,y",,' I""ro,als.. ",ell thouWh Iluout <laimed Ih.{ .hey w.'"
!lance on the om ... l resul.llon,. On lhoe "'-.nc day (it. Chambt. of
Labour procla.med. genonll",Lc '" defeod tilt f... tol)' co...11<il . Both
!he 1'51 .1Id t1J. Chambtr ofl.aboor Joi""" a "f Agitation....J
robll>hcd a <pee1.1 un l c nc .. >papcr, Ll>Of'lJIlH1 ,'M
In lhe ... burbs a."oo addre.S!a IlfiC angl)' .rowd in Barricn d,
\I,Ian;" A. he proclaimnl >lnke, caruN""".,olld RO}aJ Guuds di>pm.ed
lilt dcmon.tr:atll"" .
aOO fleld lem"""""ly in .he
C"art= .... "'"
Tbe Agota"on .. confronled b)' d,icmma.
Althougll" needed """onal ""!'POn," """led Ih>1.11t leaders "f'lIt
eGl Of .be 1'81 "ould no! e""""" ""lI01tJtlOfl.ha,lC<lil'l"d .he
or'fle fac.ory ,"OUlXlls. On 17 Apnl {fle Conm"u", <ailed a g;;ncnll SInko
Ih",ughout P, edmon{, ."d onrO\ll1Ogcd I peasan., stri ke a. Vorcol."
110><",..,..
""""",<;sa"
,h. '"",'
w.,
0.'"
""""".1
c''''
"I,
'"
....",.. '" and Pa, ia, whICh" ",{lItr opum"''''ali}' u,,,,"la,I (o ,he
,n Tunn. In the ... bulbs"""", h.omcadc bu,ldlll8, a, "'ell ",atlc",d
oftelegraph, lei"""", 0IId ratl "'en: rqoortcd by .he ....,fcct
Out,ide of Piedmon. the ""'len In GeI\OlO and LIlOfnO. and tbt ",,"'a)_
men in Hor=ee ond P,,,, ",fused 10
tfOOP'l 10 Turin \1>n)' of
the"" acls .. ere by and syndicali.L< ,..
110" c"cr> 'hc ",,"onal council of the PSI oclihcr.ucd ," not to
"""onal ttJO' ement of wl'I"'fI \\ hen lhe PSI refuo;cd 10 commit
'!>elf to tbe lno'emem. Ihc Torinc.., Chamber of labour ",alt:<e<l.ha, only
Il.gotl31ed ",ukment ".s pos;tblc, Unton leade" ncn p<om,><d {o
ne801 i.,C lhe fu.ure of'he "uem.1 com"""","s, and .It .... I",gmi.l ioru;,
""w ",,[rioted to (he mo .. l"orl. ina r.",o"" w<re COtwuctw be,w""n
I)' Arago" 00 Oli,."i I" efleel, II", of was reduced
!Il I po"orl ... propagand"t oc-g.n .' '1"1>e dyn.omic! in the A(IIII mile
be" ",.ny resembl.nce. !O ,!Ie (II"wo' slIugj;k of the $100""3'0 Lm<o
SyndicaliStS Ind .""reh"" {lItn, and a CQIlli!ion of rad",alliOC h." and
IIhcnanam. no", "e", quile uMbl. '" arT" ,. sali.fa<torily ""goua.ed
"itbou. tbt IItlp of ,he
ho$c leaders pmcndetl '0
de",i"", UnoffICial orgamUIIOfI> I.ad no (IltJIec1N)n un<kT.1It Ilw. OO
"''''''' ,hc$c moon,I I diTttt rhallenJtC '0 the Slllt. and (he loou<tn:..b".,
trade unlOfllc-aders ignored llItm, Afi..,.,1It 1"\1.1Id the CGL refuS!."
onl"" e"" '" lC<ure. 'pollllCal wlUI',;,n', a n<.'gOfl.11ed economl< senkmcn,
based on "'hCT tennl had .0 bt ""c<pLed J">l :as bef"", the
"-3', "riks ".r. ,-.,d",,<d '0 penury W"lIo," g<ncwu; ""le fund.,
ne.ghbouThood solldari{y and high SI'''''S wc"" 1101 rn:arly ",,",ugh.
Tbe mdloab knew IhO! in order 10 """ure ""ne ..", of v ictory ' hoy
".,e,Jed to forge ".,ion.1 al lm-.ce, HoclOf)' <""lXil. <>n tl>e Tori""'" rTKKlel
"'.re "i""ally lIOn. ,, "'"'' "uI>lde thei, Cll}', A n.II"".1 OOn,enllon of
,",,,rnal com"",,;on "o...ld 1"",( meant (perhap' u""' Slly) Willi
,ynd,calo.l> from l.guri. "nd hn, IcadinK undoubtedly 10 a cbllenll.
10 PSI and CGL
of"'" labour mo,.,,,,,nl, nil. "",,,r Iuppencd.
Garino and Ferrero 'pole on . . I (l<tISiQnoln Apoil of"'" ntttl for
'''''h I ,,"';onal politicol
)'<"1 P",hops lhey re.li,cd unity" i,k
the L$l and ,be LAI ,,'" no! cnouglt t.a1.,., (;""",,,,1, !he)' blamed
.fle ,ct} rrfOfm"'-' of ,lit CGl for "'"
,he "",.Ie. Gam>o and
I'e,rero realized lhe aboiurdtly "f Ihtl OCnl,nd "ben they denounc.d tbe
of Alhance as. dead end .. WIIl>OllI a
rno""ncn. "hich
>Onl,,""" t"'''''''ndcd KC1;>n.n boutKlanes, {lit faclOl)'council
"as"" i>ol.tl as .he pre" a, SIII(\ac.,O llnie" h.ad bern , Such a n.""",,1
org,n12a1lOl1 wOIlld h... 'e h.J '0 h., c been .!rong enougll {o race olmos.
Immedi e oi.. il war tl.o 'u,h Of8a"'''''011 e.",cd bc)'ond ,he .. orld of
' ' "!o{'Oft
"""on ..
domt""''''''
"""omml.
"''''"g
"",,,,,,,,I
r"",
139-
manlf""os. 'or for lbol ",.lIler dId In llitmalll e CQlTllnun,S! part)' c .. sc.
I ,Mo.",.al cOfICCJ'I In ,he mInds of Bonliga 0.- Gram",;
[\C'" ''ffY ,..,a] allcmpn 10 >oock .lltH bt)'<m<! Tun" hoJ 'he"
proble",s. Con"",,, "ilh lhe . n.,..,hiscs ".n: II"a}. Open to I1lbUndor_
... ThUJ. (0.- n ' '''ple. Saneulouo. L''''''niIJ r<'pOf\C1'
II>c "pnl . ofl';;nded m.ny .IOC;, lim by what lhey felt was hi.
i"a uralc "'potli n8 , Duri ng Ihe h" gh l of the ,tn .s"1l1C anatchi,,, dIOSe
to a" 'heir ,,,.picion, Ihal """iali", "'e.. tn(Ir. inlerested ' he alliumn
municIpal and communal elet'io... lhan ,he tutn:nt ensis_ In \l,lan lhe
al13"h,SI' "'C.sN lhe .IOCiali"s of doing <IOIh,n, '0 p<epa'" for I ""olu
lional')' """frornllion,l"
C\Cq>lIS
lhe Tonnesc 5O<1all'l$ dJd If)' 10 ""h

........ h"', 'n \I,bn; ro<><tdcnng lcone111', unllinering portrait of
.hl< 5cftn! ."raonllh'ry. On ,he ""f)' do)' . .t11de ,.-'O .
113 Mlrth>, Togh . 1II ,..u in Milan addn:"tng I 10'1le "ud,.nee m"nly
comjXlloC<l of anorth .. " and >},nd,e"lom 0 " .he Tor,ntS< faclol')' cOI,neil
' ''''''emen' ' 'l Once the " ' ike bro ke oul In "p,iI, the .natchim
lhe" IOhdon.y. On S "1'fI1 the questlin' of\lila" Ma l,t."" ha, Ing
ursrJ \lIbn 10 nR In <Iof<nee ofTunn . "I As ,lie link" CQIIti ,1U<'d anarchl>'
and .)'nd"'"II>I 'nl1ocnce in MIlan aPl"'amllo 1"0". "hich in 'urn
halcd ""SI"'ll<"n>IOOS" "hin !he bnnch oflhe PSI. On ]8 AI"'lI.
as ,he gc....,,1 .n,le <",<Jed '" su.h W). Malal ,," puhJl,hcd on Iflock
c.lling on anarch .. " 10 "d lhe IInl",,_ In .he same I" ... of
\"'-.-. ..... T","""", 5O<i.ltm an appe.,.o Ih< Il3lia"
... ort'"8 da.,. "1 6ocro Ita,<lIed 10 M"." '0 d'5\;u'$ 'I>c .trike with
.\lala,."., '" On 20 April ",port. of solidanly "".;.,", by "'ilwaym,," and
,,"ors lI"'OIly plc.",d M, lal." . " .. llil .niclc , like similar ono, \"',Il"n
b)' Toglo.lli .",1 Ora"''''i. praised the .. 'penla"eou. ac!> of solida",)',
On 21 Apnl. i So,a publisltcd an appeal 10 lhe halian ,.-orting
db> ,,,,,,,d b) the Smke Corn",,"",, It 01", appo<ared In ,j'-.m,i' (Tunn).
001 ,j'Qnll' 1\I,lan) "'fusN 10 pIln'" . I , ... lIy. dunng!he I13h<m.J
conf........,,, of.he PSI. met to di5cll" "Iw help ,he
aI13ITh,.u m'illilend to !be Tori ...... luigi FobCln ''''gt.-d OU. TenKlnl
f... dunng ,'''' Inforeoce of sori.lls""
bting <me of the fe,.,
ddcSales ,,110 demanded 'I>c pany Ind an ""u,""",lion'" HO"CH' .
Sr:n;.'i . ,Id O1h Mila ...... rn"""" lim "en: concerned ,h'l
"'<ORert
mighl acl on ''''pu l,e. DUrl"g lhe cons.en 'he anarch"l Sori. nl of .h.
\ l il ."e.., SFI fi". gCIICml byj Ill. 'oicc "'a, nol I< ron 8
to o'emd< ,he pa<it;, in,en'''>n. of M,lan 's ><>CI.I", .nd lrade

union leadOr<, ' For ,he pe" .... h,e qlK$/<Jrr of Ga.li.
of''''' "1'fI1 >Ink" "'... ,,,,m<.Ii.,,I)' =osn.zro U a g,..,.1 defo., '"
a.
10<.,
,h.
w=
TM .narchlS1s
<kpre5sed .nd angcred by .he 5Irik.,
i'rcdi<ubly ,lIey O<'<uJN .1Ie -"",,"IISls ofl><:l"".I. They <nll"".d "hat
tlln
"as fol..., . ... of lbo! had bound "", .. II>lS
,he;, 0" n oo,,.,dl), kadcr..hlp. 'They COI1lll1s,cd the disc'plioc .haI placro
UM<r lhe (0."', "'"...'" .nd po."blc
bell') . 1, of.1>c l.lI<leB 10 ,he o,lIer tI'''''ph". 01 ,I>c '" orlelS of ScSlrl
PO"O.I< woo s,,,,d, in ",II<larit)' w;lh TU fl n. Ihe <lII<"pl",,, of 'he r'.J "".y
,,110 .. f.",,1 ' 0
secun,l' forcel T",in .nd lit(: 3113n:1","
.nd members ohllc Un,,,,,,, Sindocale ,,'110 fotll'" con,io;kTanon, of party
"nd <ce"O PU' .ho",,,,I'e, .he di'(lOSlilon of the Ton""". ,,.
1I"",.,.r. lu'g' .. lim.lLun of ,"" s'nl. ... (101",,11" "a. far
........ to the l""llm,.m Gram .. i e,prt'lo>CII both ,n July 1920. and ,n
.., The rc<Ul .. oflhe 5Inl.. for f abbn " .... u'ldo:rn.bly bad. Unll!.c
dunn! ,h. Red W I. lhe 8",emn",nl was ".-cv.am:land md secured ,he
",ttl> durini Ih. firs' da}. oflhe d"pult f,'cn. h. "cn' on.o .".... I
"a1 ion.'lIC'OCral stnh "ould h" e IlCcOInp l,!bcd llIt l< '" .a>c lhe pres,ure
nn 'he Torin"s" '"
""",,00
'0
''''''>p<It1
a'
\fle rm olh :

1920
The f."o", of ,he Apcil d'''''Nilro .tIC fac.ory """""il tn(I, omen,
undenlM: 1eadcNtip of,be llI'1f;>IOIIJII. \by ""as In u ....,."fortabl. month
for Gram,.;, llo,h of ,h. Chamber of t..bouT ond Fl0\1
,sola,ro hI> f'O'i""". and nuo:z:" and ,he ",fon",'" mmnphtd 11M: metal.
"'or\('f'> cong"'" .,' \loan"hllc. Ih. .urned on 'he r.<lory
""uneil .n.Rl".... wllo 1Il1",-n beg.n '0 , _ "mllb,lity .mong" lhe"
fc ll ",.. 1Ib<;,-"".,,, , ,\ I!hougl1' ",,,, IoI,nce of hel", " SOClall>l.l
.",1 a""d".li n"",,ICd.l ib ,iIC llilingo <Iu""i! Day """h. l<ko-loglC.1 =nm",alloo. SOOn r'"l'fIOared.''' lJy Mal' .h., OI13",hl>l> "ert
oocu,ing the _,ahSlI of <naclioo I.... .,ri , (TkUln\ rtloneJ
c.lllng ,II<' InIITh,,!> demagogu.c> A debale bc1"een
PaSt"", and
,be refom,,'" of ... 01.0 draprd In the .,..tch,,1> Ind
"nd,,,.l,>! . l.1 .. nehl had 3CC1&<l,he 1Iko1og,<.(S of L .\11<)>'0 of
,;,mng up ,he put. .nd he hl.cned .hciHI.,,,,, ofbc1ra).' by
,iIC COL to I'}ptcally .yn.llCaJi51 ","",.hty. I'oSl"'"
In . n anocte
","und 10 lhe """, ".adfl$' on.IT1" supporter of L
\"om, . . cl, mro
""lCn ,,,hdafl'y oflne """"h, ...
on,l 'ynd,coli sts
lhe Torin<sc g.."".1
o f i\pri l w", a "" ..
Mal.!e,II" ","",fHIO in L'mani{" \'O'Q had not .ddod . ""gk Sinker 10
!it.c r,odtn(ln,o,,", S'T<l< The of 5< .." hJJ not <n
.ohdori.y ,,"h.he Tori""", bit! '0 'fIi'. the COOkdcral. of Genoa and
Otta,,,,
""It
,ha, I'"
.If,I..,

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IL>.:>q IOU M . 'IJeI<lwwo.) do'fs-1>".\\ >l.[IJO "'111110""" "'I" '1\
1"'I"Ipu.(, jlUt' ""!Ii....... :;op lUJ 01 'lUIS >q! lIulmJ> ""1'1\ 0, Itl>< """'I
P"I ('UI""",,,1. put OJ>O(I) "'IW'X>I''''I! 111_""'11" ",.-...\
I>,"'o"'n -'OJ "Ida. "!IIq )OJ." """lOlou' f! l(J 0lI0:\ "I
",.18"""
H' ," ' wl"OU'

:H.lU!"",l "" Su, .., II.)'! "u,. I..... "'S "" 08 01 lOU I"'P'''''I' '4""J
pooR u, .o(PJ.>ldwo, PUI SUI""II"J '''''''''P'Jldw. S
1/uuwp ul,ml U.'
1"'" !
""'''''9
pre nc. i'l<rea,ed in Junc and July partly duc tU the vaC uum loft by the
failure uf lhe ominOl'is" , partly bee",,,. of growi ng diseontent O, er
partly by the tnte" ern ,On tn Alhani. and ]{ u'"a .nd the fou h.
conling contractu, l negotiation,,, ilh Ih< tTtcr<a>i"gly imran"ge nt tnd",.
Irtah"s of the ,nd mctalworxmg mdust ri ",. In I"" July the
' .<"" ul,,' com mittee of die 1c.:,1 br. "ch of the PSI rcsigned aft., T,&<;,
a',d Terrae"" pressed the ir 0I>pO<ttiQn to Booro's p"n'Cirotion at a I.rge
dcmonstmlion otg'n i7-cd by the libert' rtans on 7 July. ,.. Thrce ract ions
fough' for control of the Pa rty: ' he eltorahs" who represe n.. d ""''' of
the m,x imali sts (as well as r"slialli, Terra,," , 'nd Ta&<;a), ,he ab>!entio".
l>t>, and Gram",i's mmu",ule I 7member CommuniSl Ed,:cation Groop. m
Gra m"" '> pos ition .lic mplCd 10 ltocr a CO""" bet" ecn the dogmah'm
of the ab>!cnt io" ,, [s . nd lhe opportun"m of ' he eiectorahsts, Ce ntral
to Gr.'m",i', po"tion wa, a" anompt to linkage " nh a ma"
th al tran&<;entkd pany lines; the f"ctory cow ",ls wore 51111
i<km ifiod .. appropriate for ,uch. "'en if ot present
anarchISt' and syndicalist> predom,n'IOJ ,.. Allhough Gram",i hod
donounced The unotTicial demonstralion org.m7W by the ,n'rchislS and
'y",hcal i,,, at the end of I n",, , he w"' 'hl l prtl"'red lO eng.ge <It <I,,,,,,,, io"
,,;Ih Ihe ll bertari. n,. ," A Commmee ofSludy "'., el"'tod ,n Jllly
headc'<l by O"'msei', do""t o",x ..tc i" the ;ummor, Andr.a
Four of its nnoe membe rs "ere ."arehiSIS, alld in July .Ild August Viglongo
>ought out and , 0por11 On the acl",,,,,, of the an.reh"",. The VA l
congrc" in Bologna,,", g"en an e",h u,ia,t,c ,f slighlly collde",ond ing
pat on [h" back, '" Viglongo wa, . lso sent 10 and Ancona ,,) reron
on the teeent muti ny . nd ri" ng m , api.. 1of the March ...
In Vjglongo n:<e iyed cre,kn "ab frOn] Ma l. t",,, that allo"w
hin' '0 lntorv iew the AneoMn onaTc hi'I', rnony of "'hom werc " ill in
h,d,"g, V' glongo h.d been oul"'ge<1 by the I"l.'hly inacc uratc reportmg
IOLnd in A' ''nli' II; reporter had dannc'il that the rnulmy had bee n COn.
(,-",led hy officers nl lhe I I'h "'g,rnent oflhc bcrsagliNi [hreatcned with
decOfluni wni ng. Viglongo (onduded lh. t bol h 'hc mUli ny and ,h. ri ' ing
locked ,uffici.", "'!;,ni"tion but "<IT genuinely 1"'111,,]'" A p",medil.oed
plan had not c, isted: in fa" mntiny had COrne OS complete su",rise.
The ", uti"e"" h.1 d only \'Ory brtefly used 0"" of [ile h e .nflOured
a, ailable, In lhe e,ent the demorahLed bcrsaglieri had retreated to
barrack; before ,he in, urg< " " ><" eral hundred ligh ' ly .nned ih. n,
h.d ,nOHd ",10 acti on . Although the ra'iway sta"on and the hill fons
to the insurgen!> , tho Cmoddla Ci tadel)
firm ly in the
eo""ol of the "" urily foreos , The ",il",oy <Wion ",a, ,helled by 0 gunboat,
alld "cry soon Ihe msurgc nt' relrealod before heal' ily .rmed troops . ,..
<'"
"""",,,ed
\ 'iglongo d"", four oondu,,,),,s in hi' a<lid. lie de nied tha, ' oyol,,
lion " ie, could rely upon th. mu,i''''o, Army ' 0 k.d .ho re,olution
" ""hnKa l' prepa'a1 ion W", imp<:mli, c. Ho,,'e\er. the Soci ali st
Pany had ,,.,'er wn .nterested on ."ummg ;uch re,pon,ibili ne5. Th,rdly,
Viglongo dema nd ed a 'communist' ,n,l,tary organIZation . Finally, ho
accused the . n.rch is" of d"regarding the loca l soci.lisl\ ' allempt at
forging uniled a<hon. Th. local .n.rchi,.", he d . nned, had refuseJ 10
join 'n Comm ittee .nd preferred to tight in an ill coordinaled
fash,o n."'"
11>c anareh,,, response to Viglongo 's .nide w3$ .w,1I ,nd fOf the most
pan hosu le. First Ihere "'as II>< question of Viglongo', fae", , 1 accuracy.
According to Malatesta, lile anoreh,sb had re f"sed 10 j oin lhe Agilal 'Qn
bec.UU in fa({ n h.d been est.bl i, h",! to nego"ale with the
prcfec. and h",! nolh,ng to do with the risi ng.>01 Gig, Dam.. ni, one o((he
of Um"o irQ ,.\"0'" , also defended lho aCl" <1, of the .narc his!> ,nd
a, ked " hel her in order to ",oid ,,., Ial i,," on fUiU"', Ihe lOC i.Ii,,, were
prepared 10 j oin lhe a,,"rehists in shortterm tacti cal .1I ,0"ces ."" Fabbri
v. as sli gh'ly Ie.\ antagoniS!ic He did not dism iss Viglongo's rerort out
of ha nd. I,ola,ed ""011" os he h.d >oid .bout the April suike, wcre
u,ebs.M But he did Vi glongo to rocall th. t the UA I congress h.d
", d , led tho; prob lem of oooroina hon allho grass rooo;; be',cl<,> hadn't the
an.re hisls orgam,ed ", [h eff"'li"e joinl co mmillees wilh the SOCialists
and repub ll cons dunng the Red \\'eck' Malal es [a had the laS! word. He
wa; particularly re"' nt n,1 " n<e ho had helped Vig longo "ppr",'ch the
"nareh,,{S on firs! pbce. Ho cnllCi,<'<lthe theoretici.n, of \1,"lOrta l
soc iali sm' who had not troubled thomsehe bou, real prop"mllOn for.
revolu1lon'f) m,urt",h"" . Li ken ing the Anconan .nare h,s!> '0 ant iquated
\/animan plotlc", as Viglongo h,d, "'"' . bsurd . If the anarc hiS!s had
)'''' ertdor>cd ,be ,imoes of. re""lu""" organ i/"d and " "" ,"ged lhrougll
Ihe Commu nist Party, ' hey cou ld" ell a,k ,hem",h es whe re thiS myth,eal
ent ity i<tc(l.l<><
When ele<lion, for the PSI " CIT hold on Tun " '" the middle
of August, ,J.'anli' (Tunn) h,d already engaged on. six''''eek eamp.ign
again" the anarch"l contagioo in lhe Torine", labour >05 Only
,ile .b'te" "o''''t, were slill preparcd ' 0 ,oarch for .lIia nce, w,lh the
ana rehiS1>. Dc,pite the Communi, l Eduea"o" Group', encou"ler\ wilh
,he anarch"" dun ng the sumnler, wh ich . Iso included Viglongo', 311ond
oneo .1 the an"rehist organi7-<od polnical prisoner:< congress he ld m florence
on 15 ,\ugust, thei r dectoral d"" ument ",..,ed the ""ed for. unifled
><x ial,,! pany w"' better to count"r ' Ihe empty (k magogic pit ",seo logy
of lhe ,yndicalists' ,"""
".ff
'"
n.c eiec'OOII"u "on lhe eleclion ar>d Toghl." ""U ....1c lhe ...,mary
of lhe local bIn Gramsci. manifos.o had OlII"'g.-d r ...... '" and
Ganoo. ,,110 rcsponckd in"" ""gty 101101" fIllblosl'led In
\"on'
Gram",,', Clol.esl allie, in."" f"",ory cou"",1 nIOHrntn, tkmandcrl a
pcr;onal lpology; I.. in an 4r1>t1c publt'hell on lhe la>1 Sunday
l>c/("" ' ho 'ICCup"flon of ,,,,, f"","';e, Hi& answer. I ""gl ng
of .he "'IC. ", l1 eta 0... of 'he I""me& ofC h'plCr Fiw. m
1",,,,,,",,
This ,n,r1)<J""llOn d",w. upon. C. I.ny. haJj . n Ana",hl$m. 1870

1926'. m I) Good" ay (rd.). Fo' AntJ,,:M<m ' l/uII>,i(-ol alUi
AI'P"""h,. , London. 1989. pr. alld (" Lo,"}. 'Chori,ma on,l
Soc,ol Movements [m.o )..1.lotes13 .nd Iia lian Ano",hi.m'. Ilod","
Ilal,. "01. ,. 110, 2. 1998. pp. 21}S- 17. A
'Gh .narch""
italian, r,.. SIJOm. d, d .... e ren,,,,,,,". 'n I' Al."i led Ssona d"l/a
,O<".rla UJ disgrqa:'OIIe del/o 51010 IiNrolt. "01 21. M,lan.
1'1', In 98 for,

....... C')' of,,,,, rouo Ott. R
\".-...,11t. SNno drl/""'VIfO L 1,.>/;" granth g _
al/a ",an", S" ,,,Is I .JId 2. U<tlogn . 1991
2 ACS. PS 1919. n "9. Roporu of.fIe Prcft'C. ,)f TUM. 19 Decemhcr
191 9. 16 July 1920,
1 For .ccoun" <If the an"rth ,,, and .)',,<li.ah.\t 'ole. in I;"
f.<wry couneil '!1O",,,enl. see M Clafl. Om"''''i o"d the
Reml",,,," Fail"". "ow H'''en. 1977.1'1'. 113 19.135-8. fDr
G3rin<.>. 5tt 1'1', H6. 89. WI -2. 118. IlS. Fot fcrrcn::>, SOC
pp. 119. I 72, 185--6. 191 rOO" De Banolornoo", _ P 118. AI", >ott. r
c. Mas'n" ,fMrrhi<'; romunlsfi ",1 ... drl ("(>IUigli a Ion""
fP""", 1919--19!O). Tunn. 1951: GraM,ci
/"Ort/int "iJta do "" libuumu, Tunn. C. Doglio. '1
<on, igli di f. bbnn e ,I m("'i",,,nID <It, 1a'0",1"" In '13lia.
\'01. 6. I"J' 16(}-1, 424 7.5% 604 J M Clm"",n. Anlonio
On!:"" 0/ 1101i01l Communi,," Stanrord , 1967. rP,
122---!l; I' Spn'TIO. L 'om"," mll>'<> I {'/)""gii dl/ob/>rico, Tuti". 1971.
pp. 5.l-62; G Mai""".
bie""", m<.ro, ..
"fH!ro,a Bologna. 1975. 1'1'. 22. W. :\6. 58. 60 I. 77
8.127. IJS. 192. 225-R. 257. G \lllh.nu. ProIriarian Drtkr.
0."'"
II
loodoct. 1975. 193 9 ("""-c,...... "" rtlt .. "",",;Iy upo<1 Clatl l: \'
\Ia:um 6/". U. ""0' <kllJo.mu. \lIlan. 19 79.1'1'
PO I
4 S moellnK of 4 Oc.obet 1919. In rtpon uf Pufl of Tun". 9
Oclobe, 1919, A{:S. PS 1919, 81 48
5 1. "",nil,; VU\'iJ. 23 Marth 1920. p. 3; ACS.I'S 14J. Il.ep<>n ofl'",f"",
" ( T,,,, " .21 1920.
6 /;mu."J .\',,..,,. 1 Jul; 19 19. p. J: r-epon of P/'Cf. ofTu,i ". I 5 July
1919. ACS. rs 1919. 8.148.
L'",onIlJ \"". 4 aDd 181une 1920
8. For Ihe .narth, ... """ emcn, rn P,O'drnont Ott ACS. PS 1919. 0.19.
PrdOCl of"'''' ...., 19 Decombn' 1919: ikllln,. 1972. p 273: ("
lX"""n,. 'JI Sctt=b/'C a "10,""'. II Jl Oclobe, 1971). pp
1377424
9 Dc B'''olo'''ois 'he di'rule In L 'An .. AnGrch,eo. 12
Seplcmhcr 1919. p, J For G,u>tppc ACS, CPC 44 S I.
'R "h,,") (il""'PPC' U<tm 1900, )'o.; .p lo<. o_'l"'"'O" lie lefl l;" PGS
for lhe ,narchiSl> ,n 1921}.0<1 wroto for 1I1.1l"""a.,o and l. An .."i....
An""'h!",, lie " ...1,0 ""Ii, . in lhe Fein' ('irtle. For Giuseppe De
lUI" . ..., AST. !'rocu", dd Re rn Torin<.>. \loti R"oIUllOr'!an 1915
1921}.l.qtone Tnri.oriale dci Carabt...,., Reali d, TonTlO, 1920.
For
Rcf",nari. ACS. rs 1919. Profoc. of Tunn.
19 Decemboer 1919. " 3Ipnll1
\0 by fcllo'"
for hIS Abusive pc"""",lil) . "'" In 1/ Lil>crumo. 15 Jon".,)'
1921}. P 1, whe", he is IoCCU.etl of '," rTlna the pot' hIS fricn'"
"'orc (\J'I"'",,,',I b)' his centrio loor
II} For 00'8 1i1ll.l. M"nIQ' ani, PI'. 18 I. 20Cl. 212 . 16. 249. 268-71},
II [m",. rcm.ro "rotc for Don"a Ld.""",mu hcfore the war . nd fl.>r
lmanUa Va,'a (192iJ.--2>, He< pcn name " A",.rylh,. She
born in 1 "nn tn 1895 and ",.. , "n'or. S ACS. ('PC 11}32
12. G. Pcnllo. '1 comunl>l \a Iona di cia... In L,wura, nexl; .nni 1921_
22' . e SociallS'a. ,'01. 9. /lOS. 2-1. I%J. 1'. 199
jlCTSeCl.Ilion.
I.atcr he Ik<l South America .0 ="1'"
Il. A('S. rs 1919. 0 124. Repon of the Proft'C. o n"nn. 21) Marth 1919
For Galle,nl S Abo,. P
I S. Tho inddont i, oovered ,n Avnch. 1988.
leWf.>'. Princelon. 1988. PI' . 169 70, FOO"Sem.u. hf. >s ajo"m, I;!!
in ' he USA and hi, hoslil o '''''"unt... "ilh 'he .narthi>!<.0.
A. Ro.ada. nel/"emtgrtl:;ont 1899-1911. Rome, 1972. S
Gamll". 'Scm.u ""III, Sloti Ln,,, i l'odacaIe. ooganiT.f.lllO<e
".hu,. lfo'i..... D,N""II) $nt-ill/i<la. >oJ. 8. 110.
""'WIn"", '[
""lI' ,.le"
r.",,,,
'0
-167
16
17
18
19_
!O_
2'
3. 1984. PI' M",;.oI,ni 'ultcmprl ., ""'lU,ung G.nran,.

see M.nt,,'an,. p 11!2. The: btesllCcoont ,. In P. \-
'\1",.010",. s..cc()-Van,"'u and IJK, Anarch"ts: The Transall.nt,c
J"u."ol Uoocm I/IS''''). '01 68. no I. 1996. pp 16-8
u. redel ,. '-"'/'.i r;Qlleam. Q=ron,'unni dl JO'la (M9/ 1931 J. Cosen) .
1956. pp 143 SO_ For Gan .. ni durms the
,-"c Fedeli. LII/g;
Gail,an!. 1'1'.151-8.161 9. p. Mrich. SllcN and Janow . Thr
l"a..--hl<I S"'txro""d. Princ"'"". 1991. I'll 122-36_
L Jk1um, dell Florence. 1972. p. 289. L.
Fabbn. 'J ui., Galleani. SlllJi Social/. 10 hn""'1- 1912. p_ I. 25 Api'll
19U.pp' 8
P Ikllllan. 'Tho Torch Tho .flam'ln of 1M
Sa.:,()- \'anle1'i AfT.". TIl. "I/ag<" 1"..-t. 17 \by 198.8. pp. 17 10;
A, nch. Suao und liJnomi. pp. 63. 76. JOJ. 108. 112 5. 146-8. 158,
r Avrich.Alla,.,.hm I . .411 CWulllnlln 01 .11 A ......ieu.
Pnne.llm. 1995, ACS. cre 469(), Um"',,/,, No,'a. 5 O<lobr 1921.
p.2 l or Raine';. se. ACS. cre 4208
r Meh. 1""IlI Val/ralli. pp. 162-3, A. Borihi. fmro .I/a/aldw. Nc"
York. 1934.p. 1119. 1IC11Lni. 81b1i"l:",fja.p. 2119; ... Gall.an,, .nl<le.
, .. ,.110". Cron,"" \fa)' 1920. p_ I
A. llurgh , .\1...._....<>10 di """,",hi... '''Pic .. PI'- 189- 96; ...
\'1IenI"'" Toni 1901 Med,an't

s,.", h mo- 1901 Me<:h>m"
GOU>fPp<' r.sII,..lIi - 1902 _ Tumer
\" 1902 "''''''''01<
1898 i..aboo",'
Mal'lo Ilur:ml 190 1 Sho<m.hr
G,ol'a",,, I'crm,,", - 1903 _ Driller
..-.t.
c_.. Sc>" ...." .... 7 Febn.a<)-""" 6 Ino. p_ 1_
C""'","Q S".' ...... i,-Q. 17 January 1920. p

I. C"It. 1<Ipp(I' ("Wilh'M 14

1920. p. 1 f'" Anc:on .
""'-" . La July 1920.
p l ' !hila
d' Ancoo. prommpc la rivolu,ione $0<;. 1..
n Flch. f.uigi p 168.
23 H"llInI. Blh/i"gmfiQ, p. 288
24 L. G.II R" 'Ltl'in', Cron""" .\O'W'S/I". 12 l une'o 10 July 1920.
r.deh. p. 169. Qua,I,no ","s.1so IfRS,<:t! fur anll
m<liran ... publlShC<l in '",n .".. Manco,-aru. M""..n..
216-17.
16 A5T. Le,iont T"mlonll"dc, C ...buwn ROlli di Tonno to Pm;;u .. "". di Re. 14 Apr,I. " September 1920; {'""muiJ "0"0. 2J Augu"
1920. P 1
Stt
So",,,,,,,,,
17_ F", ACS. cre 1943; t'mall"'; V",,,. 18 M..ch IQ21

P I f'" n.. I . ..,. AST. LogiO<l<' Ternl",i.l. de, Carabi""ri ROlli
d, ToollO ... M'l 1920 F", I'Iolani. M'C Ace;. cre 3989_For Mu.s<>.
ACS. CPC .>4"0;
\'0\". I] June 1921. p. L
1H For (), DonaIO . ...., l"",,,,,,j V"VII. 18 \i"",h 1920. p .. For ,II<
.yndicllo", ])(fore M.reh Apn] 192<1. see elm. Ant"";"
p. 119. A.an/i'. I 1919.p, 2. ACS. PS 1919. B_126.
of III< 1'",f.cl ofT" nn. 2 April 1919. U. S<iuillu. 12 Sept.mhcr 19 1S.
v",,,,,";.
,,
29 For 'he """ il;.s of 1110 ,n II.. "U"'IOcr of 1920 ... Clark.
A,,,,,,,,,, I'P 144-7, Umblli/li Nm'Q. 30 Ju"" 1920. p. I; I
Jul) 1920. P I (i.'.n'l.ICci "oJ Pialll \Ie", acl;'. among.<l'18.m
dri,('T1.; Alios, anJ lI>rtoicn "",i. c al Ml<helin; V;l10ri0 llrogi. Ale;.
..ndro CaNk Ind Cern "'''''e """'"B>' me .. l ,,-ori;crs II Scar. Idea
_nd 1'&lI<"i . In July 1920,1>0 LSI e'en c>Qbh.hed moll Sindoc.,o
S,Jc"''lI,ca. Sec. V"'anl/O \OWl. 192<1. p 4. III July 1920. P
18 AUll",1 192<1. p_ I; AIanli'. p,M:nonlt .. Mili"". 3 July 192<1.
'"
12. Anl""io pp. 36--9S; F. SoaH.. Appun'i sull" orillin,

c ""'Helle dc. con,illii di fahb,... a I Tonno. RfI'lSIQ
s." \01 7. "". 21, I 964. PI' I 20
:q Clan.. v"'''''ei. p I'ar III< Oanno.Colombi"" dl<pult.
,,,,,,,,,Iw:
Itt

15
'"

]0. For Ilroai. 1 Guura di 19 1920. p. 2_

] I 1'", !uN>On of US I 'fIO'" Un il;-. I t t C1a'k. A'",,,,io Gram'CI. 1'1'. I
I M nu l 'o t,l.
Ciarmo
1892 -
Em,l,o Ikn, -
lo",'kn, !'iA N A
C.m,1I0 'IoaretlO - 1902 - Dy.,
e",,,,,,,,,
.16
37
'8
ACS. CPC 2290
Clarl. GrulfUci. PI'- 3S 4O,

II IIeV3. '11 sindacalo d, 10....... Ira '''''pn"""i"". c'pilali,I' e
1'.><""", ( 1915 1925)'. in M. A nton,ol, II . Bo=, IA 1'10.1/ dallr
o'igini ,,/ f"sw'Irlo . I 'XJI 1916. II",i. 1978. pp 116---17_
CI .rt . vrultlJCl_ p. 39
Ibid.T'f' JI S
\nl""IOIi.OO lie...".,. La FlOI'.p n

'"
W Ibid .. p. 459. For of rdo",,,,' proouc""'m and role of

\ Ie"""i," ,n h,,,,,<. 'oCt)( II Rn.,lu"onon- S,-,uJ":ali,,,,
and Pubik Sphnr. C","bndlC'. 19%. PI' 168---70. lW---10l.
40 \ '- Anlonioli and B Bun (t<b), IA FIO.lI 01 {OJrulfJO.
1901-1916, Rori. 1978. p. 4S9.
J 1 La Squlilo. 12 S<po<mba 1918. P 2; 19 Ocloo., 1918. p. J; Clarl<.
GramKi, p ..1S
42 AC"S. rs 1920, B. 79, Ropon "ftllt arTu,in 22 Ocrob...- 191
41 laSqm1i>,19OctOOerl? 18.1', I
44 Ibid.
4S di Cia,u, J i Srp'c'"bt, 1918. p
46 M Rc'clii, 'l'lIe ... i<l,. M, Ganno', \is,. 'rutIn. 1975. p, 90,
47 ,\CS. PS I
H 79, Rcport of,,,,, Pn:fcci " f Tut;n. 27 August 19 18,
ACS, PS 1919. n 124. Rcponof,h<: P.-.ftcl of Tu,in. 22 0c,OO."
1918. The campaign by ,'''' SF! IH,plalnW In La Tribi",a dei F<7'lJ.-r",. Jun< 1918. p. I. 10 1918. P 2. 12 No'",,""r 1918.
p 2. La 6 July 1918. P 5 Oc.ober 1918. p. I . FOf P"'tOK.
sec La Tribun" 12 AUiUS! 1918, p. 2, 12 ,",o,,,,,,""r
1918, pp. 2-3. nn, f<>tm<'d poll' or.
deNto .hl! 1""luJed ,he
anm:hiS! leadm.Itip of tho SFI C.wucc, and Angelo Sbrano)
."" <tlnorial stafb or d, and AmnII'
49 CIa,k. An''''''o G"' ......". I' 69
Ibid .. p. 39
Sl/bidp,j9

1'1'. 40
q 11,1</ .. p. 42.
54 Ibii/,
SS \laione, II bie"oio
pp 12-4
S6 Cl"rk. AlIlonio Gr"""CI, p. 4 I
1/.,,/.. p. 43
I!>"t. pp. 4>-.--4
S'l I",d .. pp, -U-5; sec ,IS<) Qu.gl"..o 'J In IIliMmmo. 27
1919 In whi<h c. l1. fOf 'JOei, 1 bo...,d on "Ofl<n' and
pc:Isa",,' "'hi<h all poh'ician,.
60. Cia"'. Am""io Gnll'uc,. p. .Appunu. p. 17.
Ii I '11 prograrruna dell"OrUIII<' ., ...."' .. 14 Augu.t 1920, l 'Orr!iM . , _ .
in I. Orr!m., .\ItO'" 1919 19}Q l<tllt<tl by \'al.m,no Gcnata ......d
... """,jo A. SantuccI). T unn, 1987. pp. 61 20. . .. 0'-'1
62 Sola... Appun".I'f!. 1 4
6J A. Gnom",,'. II """", Marx, 19t!1 1919 (""itcJ by S<'l(IO C...,nogho).
TlIr; n. 1980, p. 27(1,
no,
,,,,,t.
"'".0,
170-
(,..j IMd.p 289

M.lh,d'.1'1'. 318-'l.
66.lhid .. p.411 .
67 Ibid. p. 417.
68 INd. I' 4J8
60 1",,1
70 P. Sprl3no. Swriadi TWill" _,01,.'0, Tunn. 1972. p. 298.
11 R...II,. 'In,o" "'" a G.II...:o. P 90. For ,h.c n"p",tanc. of atw"Ch""
<Ce. \lasin;. AMrchici; \los;." -lltl.m/a Grnmi. ,\ <>arosei.
pal"'('a e >fOrla8"ujia mO<ie'"flo, Pi .. , , '154. I' 200,
12 r-; . d B. ' j Cornrnlll'" d, ,.""nll. TIl"no. l"lom';. I 0 1919,1'1'
71 Sola'e, ' Appunt ;. r p, 9 10

74 INJ
75 ll"nolomc'l 1"011. '0rrJ",., ,VIIO'., mI>Ch oflhe cm:lit foo- I. unth
,ng the """ omen! IQ/"m". I Ju"" I p. I
76 ACS. PS 1919. B 148. Fkpon of ,'''' Pn:fec. of Turin, 4 Febru>ry
1919
'7 ACS. rs 19M. B.III. Rep<t<1 21 M;mh 1919
78 Ibid
''I ACS. ps 1919. 8148. Rep<t<1 of ,'''' Pn:ftc. nfTurin. 31 n
Jun< and 13 AuguSt 1919. FOf P.nlh" .... sec ,he /)rnJt/.
n""ghl. "o""nber 1919
80 ACS, cre 3053, Report of:W (l(.oo., 1919
S 1 Ac"s. rs 191'1. H. 148. Rq>OD of the P.-.f,'<'t of TlIr;n, I 7 .n<! 20 March
1'119, ACS. PS 19 19, H 126. Ropon "f the Prefcci of Tu"n. 19
hnu3f). 2 Aplll , I I May 19 19,
82 ,KS, PS 191 'I. 1l148. Repon of Iho of Turi n. 18 May 1919.
ACS. PS 1919 [j, 126. Report of P",fw " f Turin, 18 !>by 1919
ACS. PS 1919. 1l1 48. R"JIDM of t"" Preftct of Turin, g June 1919
The lnet:lin8 held OIl 7 Jun< 1919 "as ",,{IIlo:J 'GIt """rch",,. 11 partl'O
"",i.l iSla ""Iron auu. l.- ("The . ,"" Socialist Pall) and
lbe I'rc>ctr. floorl.
84 ACS. rs 1919. B 126. Rrpon of."" ofTunn. 10 Apnl 1919

INd., 2 April 1919
M6 AC"S, rs 1919. H. I48, R<ports oflhe Preftc. ofTuriD. 4. 9 and 30
Oc.oo., 1919
M7. ACS. rs 191 'I. B 148. Report of the Pref"", ofTllnn . 12 June 1919,
SB. ACS. rs N19. B. 79. Ikpon of.he Prtfec. ofTunn. 19 Decom"",
1919
89 A('S. PS 1'119. H. 148. Ropon of ' ht l'flXT of l u,, ". 27 1'1 19
'"
lnOn"A"" in Tunll I"" Il,.nnio Ro>so
>1,,_ ....
90. "moniol, and (ku.. La Fiotoo. p, 4S$

91 P Spnaoo. Slona <kI Pan"" C_""iJl" ,'01 I. T unn. 1967.
,,,
,,,
m.o
Cl3rt. (i",,,url. P, 80
9)
R, M.ni.-.:lh.III'un'M C()JtIMu,,,d 1911 1926, Rome. 1977.

Anu",,,, (,"rurniCi. p, 12,
95, I'.'nnen 29 s.,plcm"", 1920, p ubll<hcd 35 '11 mOl ,mcn'o d';d II,
l(aha ""I 1920'. L,/),enant. 22 AJ>l11 1922. P 149
96 d, 18 JanU3f)-' 1920, 1', 2,
97 Fot ,ho::)'OWIi Ikmt:n . ..,.. p, C. \l.,;n,.U fonn.uionc mt.II."uaJ.

poIi,,,,. dt
",11o Remon'. ,n Ant dol Con,,",,,,, d, Carrullo
Ikmon. 1979. 1'1'. 7 2(1; F \l SanIOS. Slato.
b'If",,,,,,,, il ""I pcn,i"", d, Clnullo ac"",n', ,n Arch,,';o
Fon"sioa Ikrnon. Camillo ""I "",,,,'.
Pi,wia. 1986, fo r , f><, pa"'M ,e3,' I,on '0 G", ,,, ,,,,,,', attach. 'tt
Bo"",. i '5 'II mol-;monlO an ardito', f.il>rro Acromo, July 1920, p,
I. esp, 'L'un itil ,holulion.n, <d il PSI, II Lii>trran'o. 18 Marc h
1920.1'1',2)
98. rot CIt OanoIomci, ..,.. 10000ta. 16 ""ember 1919. p. 2; . Amaryllis'
I Fmma r.rrerol. 'In ns.posla a IIbno L A""r.
cArro. 19 \by 1922, p. 4.
99 Clarl.,
Gru"'Mi. p,
100 0.\'.9,621,
101 IS May 1919.0,\. 1'1', 22-'
102 0.\.1'1' 37--8
103, Clark. Amonl() Graltl'u , p. S6 QIIOtC-d ill p, Sp.iallo, I. '
111<0',-, r , ,'(mr/gli ,Ii [abbrica. Tllr ;n. 197 I. p, 49. A,ami', ('",mon.
"'" 24 J919, 'La ",zioDe 5",ItI" 1'<" risti lLU'ODe
c..
no'
liS.
116.
117.
118
do::, S<" '

'Appun,;.p 16
I Clarl. Gral#UCi. 1'1'

106.
107.
108
109
110
III
112
I]J
Ibid. p. 85
Ibid, II &6.
IbId.
Ibid. p 87,
Ib"l,
Ibid. p. 9il
!hid,p,9l,
O ,P (Ot,,,,,O r"I"",I. '11 problema dollo Comn';>$,on;
L 16 Augus, 1<119, in r Spnal'lO (<d.l. La cui,,,,.,,
- 172
d,
,h.
110'''.,
di'lot"... hip of ' he prole"ria'. b;II if l>eh". lhal ",II really bc a

di('lotorsl"p of the wholo da ... l"" can't male d"l,o.::"on. bcl"'",,"
thoc unton".d and $CO. Piedmont.... edition.
2 \0'. 1919. P J, In Juno 1920 De 6anolorno;. descnbcd 'he
d,ITo-rc""",> 1><1" .....""",,;1 and u",on ,n G,.m"",LOn lo-rm>. The
1m"",,,
1().4
d<'f 19fJfl1l1tnll'rno ''-''<SIr, ..

1<> L 'Oro;"" ''''''...
{l910-191111. Tunn. I96J,pp -8(bnnn..,
V'glontl:O. . \
1\\10'"0 istnwioni' , 0.\ .'on""", 1'1'. 'f'ost,IJ.. ,
O\.'\prla."" p. 2SH
R.. dl t. '1t"''''lSla a Gari""'. 1'1', 90 I For Tc-moc;ni. "'c
(',cJmoo,o", Mlti"". 15 D<-ccmbc. 1919, p, 2, 1l>c '()te fo< ,he non

""en prol'O'Cd by I1I,ell"'lu,l, but by til. a,,.,,,
bli e. of won:C" "ho Ii,'e in '1>e wo.\;shop and are union;zod'
Antonlolt and Ikua, La F/0I1. P
O\',!;p'ww. p. 36S
Fot <0 Bezza. 'II .indacalt> massa'. p. 124 for
l.AI Con&r<'" iCC L-'IItJIIII" S"'a. I Jul} 1920. PI' 1-2
A. Gntm>C,. ''''''' Po/",,'lllllrl/lltJl' 1910-19!O, '01, I
(,.ltXtl and ed"ed by Qu,nt,"
l",n,L""d by Joon H",he" I ,.
Loodon, 1977. P' fOT OTiSlMI. 5<.'< all. p, 540. ", an
of n>et. l"orkc.. G." "" def"n<l<d ,I>e 'Of< fu. , he non-un,,,,,",.d in
' he,", tenn" On. is deal ins " ilh ,I>e cre.,ion " f'he org. nl oflhe
.00"",1$ "Ut .",.I<pl org>n'7.;u><>n. 111.01 1,.,nM .. OIl... 110"

'0 <OIIqII<f ,he f,"",,,"<s. Trado un'"", and .),,,hc. lism 1"1
<.pable "f,n.(.a'mg a ",ob""",,') ch' ng<: b".::.u,. 'Iltey fonneJ
.. ",pon<lmg 10 lhe .. me I,,, rltal g,,'om 'oday',
..... iCly'. I;.r","ci. 1 June 1920, p, J,
119

1)0
I! I.

7,
p",d,,,,,nlo,, .-dllion. 21 January 1920. p 3

P,<drnon'esc <dllion, 16 DKemboe. 1919. p, 3.
D ,\'o,a. I 'larch 1910. p, 4 'W. """', TlO!;"cd with pko;.u,.
lhal In .11 thoc "odshops "heft OUt .omrades found. lbty ha,'.
!>tt'l it"ltXl<d by thoc" .. Oil eomrades " rommi .....; 'db <"on<>
De 1l.l101omei'l. ' 1 con,igl; dl fohbric.', 1(;1,,",,;. I June 1910,1'1'
In.
I='4

"Re.
cll ,. 'Inte" iSla , Gari ",,', p, 1M
12,1 Ih"' .. P 101

L!6. Ih"l,
127 ('Iarl,
11g.

C",m,C;. 1'1' 51 9
Ana,.,-hl</., in TUrI" dUring ,h.' 11'.,,","0 Rohitl
I DOIlI>o, I ,v",IXIi dl jaMnco '

130 Clan., inl""'o Grt,.,sCJ, p.
111 Ih.d." 9(1
Ill . lhid. p. 89
1.1.1 p,t;dmonlue edItion, 28 "",Ix< 1919, p. 2
I H /I rouo.1'I' W 89
lllan" 'Con"gh d'offieiNl co",mt>ari di
I l.T/H ..... Ana ...h,,.,,, 16 Jan",,'Y 1910. rp. 2-3,
1:>6 P,.dmont<IC roi'ion, H 1\0' 1919, p. I
1)1, Anloni" Gmm,-ci. p. 116
Pau los" Q,,'oric,oli , Grwnsci 'IIY', r 126, l or. ,,,,,,mary of thc liSI
>0. M . /I !lmlacalu'''''' Daile
1I11"s""o.o. S,"di e "cerche. Pi .. , 1997. p, 67
139, C, Benn",d Re.oi""on>'Y S}'ndic. hs.m ,n It.ly. 1912-1922', Ph D.
Uno, OfSl1y of \\'iscon,on, 1969, p. 2,"",.
lolO G""",,d, CI....... 20Do=nbcr 1919, P 3,3" CongrnlOdtll'L n""",
S.nd>,ait. I ro'lligli di A lWrg/Ii, Bologna. 1919. pp.
"
141 Clark . G",,,,gl. PII. 116-17

14, Lt'!. 'Chan.rna alld so,,,ol m/),.."",nl>'. pp. 209 II
1 Clarl, 1977. r. 9-.1; 'Rapporto su, fo", di Su,"', ,n '- 'On/",.\110"'>.
13 \b"'h 1.. 20, p. 31 7, A \ 'glooilo, 'MOOIf"" <kill 101.. di cia".,
ndla primo "",til dol 1910'. n
31 O<:lobtr 1970.1'1'. 1309
"
P"",."
I ,I, C/=.,,,, J I hnuary 1910, p, I

14S, (iur"o dl C/",,-c. 13 Morch, P I
146, 1\1," L,,"oni , '\/m"r/", blu . Pr. 184 n;
"

I>'om. 7 ,\I.rch 1910,
147, . 1I''''"i' piod"",,,,o,,, od ilion, 4 M"",h 1920. p. J

0,\,1'1', 4S2 J. Tho gal/ronl'" ,n . ngor, 5 C"",re'.
Ch, ......... , dis('''i>!i della 51>''''''''''0, 20
March Ino. p. L
149 LCO<II:1.i. 197&. 1/111"", ",,!June <kilo J'almiJ_ {'RSS, \hlan,
1978, p. 162.
I SO LI 'b",h InO, pp. 458 -(0 L
lSI O',I'JI. 418-4). 485----6.
I Gn!ItK'. p 189. oni'''''ll)' mllah_n...., 0..'. p. 492I GramsCi, I'JI 9S-\I
I q p, 9\1, On ,urn",,,, lime al>o iCo J Adl .. I.d'era/um 10
Fa"lfm. lla/um !ndum,abm, 19(}ij 1914, Cambridgo. 1995, I'JI,
217 18 Al,hough in Germ,,"y a '"II il., campaign Igainsl ,"m"",,_
'"
",nc "as "'hanced by tho roliooali" "lIhl s.c.. R Gennon.,Ire Fim "<>rid lIar. {hford. 1993,1'1',220--1
(Ian.. Inurn'" Grulll!rCl. I'JI. 98-9. lbe re",1118"mSl ,urnmtr.lime
""lIh, also be an onmpl. o( a ,,0<1<0' ""'01, Ig'''"<1 re&ime"lalion
.rod ,,0<1< 'Iself. a. documcnled by \hehod in ,110 1930s
I'opul. F""" go,ommen!> ,n r nnee and Spa'n 5<-0, .\l St.dmall.
uXalnst liOn!:. Ltlb<x III Po". 1M
Populo. F""", Bertole), 1991
R... olli. "n,""i". a Gari""', p.
\'"m.26 M,rch J920,p I,
Clan..AnlOllloG""m;cl,p 100
Ihlll..p 101
!!,,,I, P 102
I'JI 102 J
(,'manil" Suo,'a. 14 April 192<1, I' 6; ""mil' Piedmonl<se
IIApnLp2,

I
I
IH,
ISS,

If>O
161.
I

164 . . Pf'. 1(1.1 5.

Inlen,,, G.n",,. pp 9S-1: t' ..... nll" .\0'''. IS Aptil
1920. P I. Ltlwn",," A'''"li'. IS Apnl 192<1. p I
166 \'0'0, 16 Aptil 1920, p. I. 17 ApnllnO, p. L
167 C1art.,Am""IOGra .. lOS.
I.omro/QI"' A,,,,nl'-', 24 Al"'l 1920. p. I: A"'OO,oh and Ik=. /.it
nOll, p. 589.
1(>') A'<lnli'. 10 Ap.il. Ino,p I
1'0 117
171 MS, 1><; 1\120. B.60. Report "",fe", S Apri l 1920
In Ibid.. Al'ril l nO. Um""I/"N<>l'u, 18 Apr il 1<)20. p I
173 AS\t, p",r D.J 17, Quem..e, IS Mr.1 1920
174, I' M.lal'lto, Pagmc d, /olla ,,"OIII/III"Q. So",,- Ii,/. I. /J'manll<l
19:o.'U. Cam",. 1975, pp.SJ-4.
A,'unl.:, 18 April
1920. P L OS, I' 503: r,'",onila V",a. 21 April 192<1. pi,
\brt",,,lIi, 1/ PaTIllO. pp. 82 3
176. due o... me do! "",iali"",,', {'m,mll" H Apnl 1920, pp
"v,,,
"
La''''''''''"'
177 Pref R.l I -. P",(cc' of M.lan '0 ,,'" I Al"'l 1910

178 INd, 25 April 1920
179 "0'''. 25 Apnl 1920. p. 1
I Antonio G",mul. pp. 13J-4
\0"0, I InO,p. I,
I Clark, "olomo Gmm",l, pp. 135-11
183 N",,,. 4 May 1920. P 2; OS. 1'1', 518-20,

184 A,tln"- Piedmon,,,,,, rolhon. 6 \toy 1920. P I
185. l'",amui V",'II, 14 May 1920, p. 2.
IU. Clark. AIt'(JIIW Gra ......i. p. 1JS---6
187, Ibid, p. 13-6.
1$> Pirdmon'H< c-dlllon, 2.1 'by 1920. p. L
189 Am,,'i' P;"dmon,= Wlllon, 29 1920, p. I .
190, s..-.. Sprwno 0.\,1'1' S09-12, SIS-J4. '14 -42, OS. 1'1'. 538--42
191 P,edmon"", .d;I ;9n, May. 1920, p. I
192 An'9n i91i .nd fA nOli. P!' S84, S87--9()
19J
194
195
1%
19'
198,
199
200
Ib,d,pS91,
Clark,AnlOnioGmmsri,p.l4(i
Ibid" 1'1'.141 ) ,
OV, 1'1'. 567-8, 'bi9"'. II ......". PI' 20-4-6
\';gloo", " I"""",, ',P!' 1318 24
A"m"- Picd"""'leU' rd,,,,,,,, IS July 1920, p 2
A",,,"i' P,rom<m1eSC Nllion, 28 July 1920, p 2

t'""",,,,, .\'"a. 7 AugtJ$II9M, P I: M.lolcsta. 12S---27.

("",mla.""'" I AUil",1920,p. L
(,'""uril"N"",,8AugusI 192(1.p I,
l. -.....nil" .\'0.". 27 Aug<riol 192(1. II I 'bl:llo!l.>. 1'1' 1J 1-4
Soc 'Soi:lahSl I, e Am,," -' Pirdmon.
lose c-d""",. 2S July 1920,1'. S,
,'igI9ng9..
pp, I nJ-.l, CI . n:, .,Im",,;o p. 14 2,
:!O7. HJ< Ferrero and G. " "", 5 l'maml" N",'a, 19 August 1920. p. I
For Gra m",i's reply. ' "'' OS, pp, (,4 )
201
202
20)
204
""
5ProduClil'ism ,and Anti-Jacobinism
"'poe"
In 'hIS rhap'er I lit II di",uj, f9ur

of G",,,,,,,; 's ideology lhat
IInp,,'ged upon hi' . . '' lIh lbe I,boen.nans: rrod ...' i"lsm: ,he cia"
bam of w unc tl weiail!m a, and . nl!
JacOOI " ,sln. Much 'If lhe ,u!'allCe 'If Gra m",, ', argument has alre.dy
!>Nn d,,,,,us<or<l ,,' Th .. JU'I as h'i ,IOI'OIIS 'If pre fi gural!OfI
antlClpaled ,n wartim<: .rtlcles. .0 tOO Gram",i', .""I)'.i. of 'lI3'h,,, . rId
') "J",ali .. ideologi<c. " .1.. ody >C1 btfllre I. '0nJ1no! "UO"' .pp"..... The
diff.",,,,,. In ,t.. muo il one of na,,,,,1 ... and o",pha.i5, Tbc
Run,an SO\ 1<1 and .... Ton ... facl<><y c .... ",,11 are empl9)ed 10 heighlen
h,. .'''tlng cntici,m of rhe UI"Pl.lnl>m 'If lhe libertarians, Tbc delNlndo
of"",l>Ior rewnstlUCUOfl as "dl as tM ...."nlS _r<lmg the Ku"ian
('i"il War and ,be downfall Of'M Ilun&. nan So\ 1<1 RepuNic inc ..asro
hi. <1nPI\as" on the role of eoe .. i. e, e. en dH:lal9nal polilical ..",...1i"".
I'rudllCI;' ;.1 IllfO lol:.) du r i ng
10
IlusSQ
In 1918 19 Europe raced the "" k of post"' ... "''<'OI"t''''''"", "h,l.

a largo r en franchised polil;- dema,,,kd power 9"e, 'he ir own
do","),. Produc';' i,m
pIIrtlcu larly t9 bo,h indu,IIIal"" _"d
the .orly fose i>!, III U.!y !>.x_ .... 11 5"",d ' 0 herald. n<w l<"fhnul9gicll
""dcr, bu, pwducli,i ,,,, "'.. noIlOlc:ly iI m'led lhe IIght.1Id centre o f
poit' ic.1 <pOC'rum "oppcalC'd (Q ,he Ic:flthroughou' Europe. U, >pm'
.nd ,ubst.lOC<: "a, rlIICIp.>,ed b)' pr.....:ar .yndicali,II<koIog1t>. Bod la,<1'.
ncrlhe lhe .... ofTaylori.m "'I
relnf"",. SQ, ie' po"..,.'.
Lnlll =.",1) i, hI.!>Nn .... umod 1110'1'0)1011'1 melhods hod """'"
inroods in Eu""",an IlIdustry dUII"i Ind o1ttnhe "-..r. Rocrn' ... on.
dc_,m", tiu,a,ieulln lul}.lCocnllf", floun,hrd rnn In If on. ",e.. 10
..,.,k a "hedlis< to m<:llSUre tho oIegrro of p"''''''''lion 9fTa} loti,," in luli ...
iOO.,h,'. cu"or,1 ""hoI3"h,p ", .... Id
al' hough ncWCT '},>I<m; 'If
calculaMS ""go' were lhe", "'-'" 110 full "1'I'll<:oh9n {)fTo)lori,m
w"'
'0
"'B"" ,h.,
'"
mnaill<'d in pl:occ for IJ"IIod ,,-hM
1"",,_
u1Iroduccd fOllt\lOhlnt-<lpCnlOl'!l and """..... fOlTlH

of "od>h<,p "10> "xl" iduaI bopn 1(1 runelion. The eW,m
10 "hICh Tal 1ori>1 pra.;11= floun>hed n;maHled drptndrn' 011,11< spttifo:
<unJi,io"" ofloc.I,ndu,,""" Ideal-In'" <0,"",,110... fOf Ta}'lori,m "ould
' ''IUI.-c: ,I>< Itand.rilaHOf' of ta,h; IIIe .-corglnlUll"n . '"'" profe"io" _
i"",," of ""n'He rne n, ; ' he r.arrangemcnl of plont deSIgn; and II", ., te nt
'0 w hIc h crnnpan .. , were rkp""MrH on controlled mar l <'b or
f,ee, 'f1Ik "'Ih mlrl" of am""n, COn,"""",. In gene",'. It y
I""ked a pltiJo.ophy ,Iu.,linkedille COf'ICtptS of higl><r
'0 s.-c.tel producti' "), if h., "M to lbo tdeal -Ilpt. the
Ansaldo ell,ll'nttring"oo, in L'gtlna "'h,,,h dId noc employ _el ron"1
ofma""'gc"",nt bu1 .-cIted on Sto'e contracts. 1i.....,.,.1 en!;"...,nnS.nd

''''10",,1 rIlCIhodo of m.uugcrncm on ,he <hop11oor. WC1'l:
rqm:_
1<;nlOl" e of II>< labour proces,_'
findings "",an that man) of ,lie
""Junl, or Industrial unro" dunns IlI<lNennrQ "'... " arc hosed upoo fal ",
r roml ... . So "h,lo M.. belie" eJ Ih .. ,I>< 19 19 .ccord.
we", Ta)'lons, .sn-c"",nl p"r "ell.m,, '" fIe, Ihe", was liul. of t l><
A"",,,con', ph'losophy in lIIe",_ W. ca n 11:10 condude that Gram5l:i's
&s>"ml,"on of Tayl",', ,)'SlC'" imo hI, 'hwr)' or cOUl",,1 romnwnl.!-lI'
" .... thercfQtl' jU>ll"'n oh bro>dcrtrcnJ '" Ithm Jl'J!o'''-'' 11lllt3ll ;n'cIIOCI",,1
life ratho.,han <CIm'CI readIng ofille ",.IIlles of llllitan industry'
rale 'Y"CIl'IS "C1'I: bol"g
n.c.e
Gnm.w:l.
.n d
Tile cnticund ,Klmi...". of A nton,;, Groms.;i In: oS=<l upoo 0"" 'hlng
hIS re' olull on ,,,,ul<l be prod LJC1"'''1 01 not 01 all Len ,n', <'TId""emonl of
T.)'1",;,1 method, mc",ly re ikr.!cd "' nlim<'nl$ ,lt;tl (,nunsci llad h'rooon,,j
long bef"", he k,..,, uf'l>< Boishc, Ik. Gra" """ od"",,,,! ltali.n bourgeoil
le'I.", such .s fA I"... ond L l.wa . or.! IIIe I re",h and A"",rican .-..:Iie.1
mapilnOS such u La J it OU'n..... and I.l/'rrul",-. ,,h .. h ...-essed po<;l_
hum.Ill" .nd
11>,. 'o.nd of induSlnahsm He
Ihcttf"", 1hou,lh, lho Itahon we.--. .-c' olu"on>.n.. e'en ,fhe had
aboulille ..._'lra,:ag.>-ne., Prolettull"" " ..... model. '0 be
Imi""ed. and '0 complete til< <i",I . Lun.",han;l ys and Rog<iaoo"',
lheones hod bo<:n <hrc<:'I) and signlrlCamly '''m"b,ed by' 'I><ir e",,,,,meB
wilh Mari"clli. Italt.n syndICal;" t hco" ,1<. 01 "ell 0' 0 readiog of Sor'"
du ri ng lhe" Ions pt, i.xl' of .,ile m r" ly bef"", ,I>< ".r' In tum. Gram ...'
beli., ed. ""hough m,,,.kenly. that md""ri31 "000" in Milan hod 1><("",
191 4 ",,,d fuluns, InaSa;:ir>e< and enn def..-ndocd fu'uri", f""" ,he ph}.. ",.1
.tta<k< ofl""It boorgl" <r"','
,,=
1J.:I11lru. TelO. OIJl:>Io Ind Schc<:tcr 1,...-".00... n ""'" (;rlllTl"'" uncnl",.II}

",.n.fcrrrd ,lie f.ctory . .. "'" of C>.p11.h>l1!
h" ""n fUlUre """tai1q
eOl1,m""" .. llh Comllio B........ ri mnembtmJ I. 'Ordllk' .\''''''0 in ,I><
1930,' Grarl1S<.-t'. hbcnan.n 'cousin - III< ...)"1>0-",,,,;,1""'H''*
of I"" $'''''' ,".ns ,dea,_ ea rlier od, .need ")' II>< ",<I,oal
hb<-ral. r iero Gobeni Ikmcri "",.Ikd ,ha' " hon ho ",,,,I ,h. first ed,lI on
o f L 'O"/rn,' \'''''\'0. wit h i" eons ,alll
of Ihe rolo o f heavy
ind u,,'" fOf lhe 1'0111,",1,," of a hoInog.nous cla.- among" c""" I
of 'be ;"OIlSIIOpS of T "'in. I>< lhoogh' o f Gram"'i. -Jropped "" Tuno
from h.. nal il e Sardinia' and -", kcn in' by ,lie ,,ortmg> Qfmtlropohs
and it< rich ,raJe unoon lif.
he thoughl. fuc,,"'..! Gmnsci .r.d
crea'..! an ',ndltsmal
,n L Ort/m" \-""", that "-as an
rnclion 10 the .."", pher>orneno tha, hod I""n bIMh 10 futltnsm'
'.'cr1hc1o. muoCh ofille '5I:ia><c' ofGramsc,', ',ndustnal my"",,,m'
MrilC<I from I.... olllllchl51 Pie'ro \los5O', In lcks "" Ta)lm ism
r ubh , hetl in L Mwl'O_Indeed. Gram ..., folt 111< ,,,,d es so impo"an,. he had "'Io"dod 10 publi,h Ih<m in pa"'phlel form Moreover. MQSSO
I<'<,ured .1 ,he . 11O!'l_I"ed 51:11001.,(.blt,he<! by L '(Mlm" Nllo''Q . '0
" ao c, ,,,,lIent "ample of"na' Gram"" m'HI" h". mean, by an oq;anil.
,n,.II",,'u.1' A f. ctory 01 hot ,nd pan_II"'" a,,,,"n' o f
I'rofC$>Ol' Ann,balo lie ep;lOmi.ed lhe ') po ofrnodo:m ""IIOCII\'I"
nllndt:d "hl",,,,,,llal "ooer Gt;toar:i tq>c:d 10 111..:1 '" II>< f""ory"""ne,1
mo' e"",nl \1 ............. )"'1 one of 0 .malllKolll<1l,e o f loch"icl.n;
and ... ho adhered 10 the Online '110"0 voup As we "",. secn. II
"as II>< of , ... hnician, in tbe spnng of 1919 lh>1 wa> """ of II><
.... I}'stl fOf Ih. formallon of tile fac,,,,}, c""",,,1 "",'e"",,,' . nd
"hen I. Nj/"'1J
p ub li ," i"" clerks a nd toc h" ici.n, eonl"bregul" Iy. 10 demonstrate ,I\< toll .. ti, ist or "", i.li" Jl'01"nll.1
found a'f\ongl' lheir collngue . "
Wh,le Ih" mal' h.,." .. po;,iblc in the of 1919. ".ry
SOOn anor II>< polen".1 "moog;.1 II\< ..... middle classes dlmini,he<l
rapidl)' For om of Gram5l:i. 'monl hf... Amho (-unoa. """I "hllOcollar "'"nON "t.-c _lin ,u;p"""'" of _,.h;m tn g .... ral ond ltoe:
faciO!,) eoune,1 mo,.nlOn, in p>-niculor Ind l""hniei.n. " Crt
001 .nto ,ntemol uf m.-",,,,,1 .. <>rlers. a nd al though
he horl th'" lile """ mlddk would bre.l .,,a y from
innu"!'l<es of'he hu'n'ni" pro'e,!ional""e , m. 1I <hop'eq><rs. v'
'he "'""""'. h" h",llo ,,,nfes, to tlto ", We,! o f {, s"",'" ,h.,
01<10. ",."".1 hab", pt"""M. Carclla rcc<>i!n ilC'd til< Importa"'" of
eullOT "ill. fur IIIe "I,no,ng >nd uf,l>< """i.li" fac'ory ye'
I>< ,,'" bound 10 oJ",,, '''''' m II>< ..,1 ofeap".Ii" .-cb'i"",. lhe)'
,"10
"'."Oll
n",_
"'l.II"''''
u,ed
Ol."ed
''''''logous
YI(lkmly ..... ",cJ

lhe" rrofe,.",nal
kCn:1$
>lyle "f hfe " ,Ih
1n.",,"1 WOlke .. ,
W" 'C< ,''''''' ><JIll'" ,_1"<$ (rom ,I>< '..8m bcaluS'< 'bey ""ok 11\cm
'SIl(>OI'I{I< ."' .... bceo"", rho) bri ..... ,....."",1"" more od",,,,N.
We o.c< t!l<m d .... """"0 e!cp",ly Itwo
....... 11><", .p.ng
dl,"ngui.ru:"' """'"'' 'I1<l poOJnI ," I "J i,u l"". "I1<l n." ...
""",,.:r,"
('.rtll>.. " ... borne <)OJt In onolh<1' anlck ""I1C" by Villfn"""

Iblbiori, a ,rehn, .. an Barbim =allcd the ,,","""" )ear's
.tnke gi .. n btnh 10 the" """ unIOn and I n affili3tlon ,h.
Cha mher of labo<Jr, fio".'cr. Ihl> Sir.dac.to Treni". d,.d .ne, only a
bfld mon lhs <>fh(. By tl>< J.Pring (If! no mosl clcrt;s .nd lcc ilo,,' ians
"crt d<-cldodly unfa,ourablt 1OvI.rds lhe (3'''<><), 'OU"", I mOHmtn,. ' ,
Thortfore. althou,h 'here " .. p=ioos httle .,idot>o. ,hot a
prod ....t"' .lIia"". "'IS ",'<1' a ",.alt.,oc possibiltl). M""",', fi"" f"I1''''ngth
.n,dc In I. 'Or-dml' \'""m wu
h,s own P" mther Ih.ll tnlOllual
""rl.c", Th. !M Iddle cia" ",a. dcf"lCd by Mono in a fUo<tion, 1 mallner
10 ,,,,,Iude all tho$<! ,",h,idll3.is (,nd,.,lti.h.,s. profossiona l. 'reh
no.: ........ 'men ofut. culture and """""..,'. and pr"ille and JIIIbI'" "h,te collar
,,00.<1'1) ",-00 u'icd menial ""he< lha" manual >l,lls 10 ttlm 1bot, 'ncome,
\)<><; urged ,hal ,he: moddle d.",,' be
to m,. the,r nil aluable
(ur r..-olu, iMo!) Itt,,"St""'li"lI. He Ih"' the had
n.1JIlItd OOur;;r<H.I l{ICCialiSl; and Mptd that KropoIl.,n '. not'O<\ of ....1
",,,,,Id ,n futu .. era"" tho d,,'i,ion manual and tll,el
11... 1 I.boor SO weh e'peditnh ",,,,,ld not be """0Ma!),. bul \I"'....,
proJu<", ISm wh fa irl)' ",de,pread in the .""",h'.I1
I 'h G,am""t. tit 1920 ,\ I.I. t,'",. Pl""d lho <i,o,,,,, a, ei,h.r a oon<>,,,,,,,
or re"'IIl,,,, nd soo;,al coll .p..,. "'I,,.h meanl ,hat acts of
<uch 0' tho dc<1JU<IK>n of It, .. and 'TOpS du, inl! ,he bllltr
>tn k.. of ,he of 1910 were condemned III >hort.
" "late'" ""mcJ ,ho "rik.ing JlC&""nlS to ae<!Ulrt ... ' """SOil''''
" UI Malat,,,," told I"s ",.der5 that the workers "'.'" ' on the of
b<.,<om ing the ma..I"r5 of .. hat Ih"y halO prWucfd . and ,ha, "'''h ,he
'rt,,,lu'''''' at lhe: V",S ",'orkt ... mu", prese1"'e product ...... csp."" ..lIy foo.J
producc, to ellSUre ,ha, IIf. normall) Ill ... "ictOf), '010', he
.Jdcd, ,,110 n ... ' houSh' that aft .. Ihe """Iu" "" ,tltro " ill be no nttd
10 eM" 'The wo.k.,,', ho <oncl"ded. 'must frum now 0.... " _"n,iJe r
,hem"" l.-e, as lnall"" Ind t'''l,;m '0 ac, IIh lnaS''' .... To de"ro), Bood, i.
lhe ocl of 0
e: a rtbel .1.. t bUI ,"11 a ,;la' t tho "ad.... do not
",an, '0. and muit 1'10 Iongc-r be, .1" (>.'"
,""cd .,
pen""J""
,La,
'"
M.lotesta h,d .I .... a)'s brcn u""oo"""ed by KropoIki "', beltcf Ih ..

'I'Mto"e'Ous """Jd
hand 0"''' 0 ,..,"oJUlion owrtum"d
,I>< old orok" lit ,ha, ""01\.<11 "oulJ be \13" ed de,,,,,,,,Io.ed
",th," diI)" If produCtion "'os "'" 11\I",llOlno;d IIndc1 1\(""- managtmtm
Thc",fOfT. he feh the: occu[U'ion "fthe f..,oo.. I goIdm """""",""y
,,,d tl>< occup' "'' to ,.ew """'orh of !ul'flly and noh,nge
f G" "lIy, like Or Gram,. i. he un<lc rlin<d tl>< imfJOfl.n<o .of ""GUlI ,ng
",,,"rol o(,he: "",iol functions do<IC rn" iou.ly by tho )13'C, funhennorc,
'ursey Bra)' Itaf IIOIOd 1hc $l""lanu.. beN'..." Grom",i." he:gemooy
and "laI1t.."'' form of AIt.1rrh"m. LIke Gram""i. MalalC>l1!aVo Ihc

to noIl0 JU" 10 replKc ,h. "",,,,,"t lIale ""h n<W amogem..,I . 'bOl, 10
abohih the ob>lacics l(} ,," olullon ...), ch oose Ih"t ",,' ,,' ,h. ,"""", io,,s,
prncUCN and ,de.. "fa l1IIXImt ond oi, il socic,{, His Utl!f'l''''sm.
"" .. 01 .... bc<;am< t, ,den' ",ben he Imc-d '0 think Il.1ly eQuid "un" e a
bIockado by O<hor cap'I.1I", natm, Ir.I=ll",ly "'"ail <Irpendonl "" fOftlgtl
<0.>1 and ".d", .nd " l.-.di", "'"011. " "a, at ,11<: ,ncrcy of the n"".h
be.,
""y."
IlO"''''tr. ""e .narchi... the: \1 ilJI$"!<' Ellore
"""ght 10 P"" e
'hot . rt,olu' ionary Iialy OIl" " . Ihrough a poll<)' of l!)Cal
hf",'e 'old replace (oreign ..,.,1, local IgncoltUrt could f.:<1l tIIC 111han
popula,,"" and the <0111"""011 of ' t",,1 and ,ron would supply
bal'" nttd, o f in,lull!)" In somo
h" cconn<: pam phl<:\. nllct
$" ,sohn i., Ide." Itllk-cd " "d ,rr". lt to im.gine h<>v. the ''''''0''''1)'
"'Hunlng. """"u"un and <"n, .. 1 o f
ntd",,'ne, could be accomplishod Ihrough moral .ubl"" 01 ,nm: Stir.
0'1lanI7.I;on." 1>0." 110...,,,..,, r..felched Mohnari', "tre 'hey
we'" nol >0 diTTe"'"' f",m 'h< o f Gram",,', or Mosso'"
Anid", in ,he: socialL>1 and labour prc>' in 19J8 nnd 1919 ind,cate.n
ofTJ) kor \ ""n ... mc1h<>d ,,, in<: I f _ prod\I<lIQ11. I,\' "hm
In) ..:onomic .egimt. i, ..'ouk! fltt Ihc m,nd "f"orken. from m"d"'nlca!
and lhen:bv .U"" them '0 and ono 'mt",lIurgoco
Ilben" " o' nlot. 1 wOIlo" e,on Iebntod Iho ,-cry divi"on
uf l.bo<J, Ih.t ",d i<al. we .. ,uppo>1 '0 . bhol', I'h" ",orka. I", 'fi:u<d,
'm onkr '0 produc" ,,,,cd,> '0 '1'"",.10 hll"",1f in his Job. a. is fin.lI),
all""w 'hlOlljlh 1ho Ta)!of S)Slem' ,.
l11Crdore anarchist . ,ncl",lt"g \losso. ,ham! produ<'"''''
i!lO"":"''''''. HOI> ""cr. unhk, ",tocr anarth"", .n.d ...:i3" . both Gram""
",td Mos,"" (""rll'p1I1I>o M.13!<slaj "ere ;,,,,al of u[\,hinkmg POS illl';j m
Gram!oCi . nd \Iosso shared the f""",u l.,i.. infloc""" of Annibale Pa .."",
"hoo" critique of a "",,""' i" inte<pr""'u"" of "",nt<;e "."denl m both
",en II Mo
11\1) ha, in Gramscl an t",,,,,,,,, in An,,,,, io
"" :" '"
apJ>m:"''''''
""'tor<
'"
i>-"'"
I ,brOllI.', philosophy ',f l""O,i,,). '"ri""ol com munistn ', \I ",so die
.Ml .nOlc, ""'to""s "" n p'>t!oooph}, "io,ch 'Pf'<Ox,n.at.-J pmgm,t .,."
to dopa" 'rOm II>< 'm,,,I. mmd<d '''arch''t pO",""i,m rhot Grnm.\Ci
P"" To ,"1I<lc"'3OO lhe.., .im,larit tcs .... 0 might co,",
p.1rc (',,"nsc, , aOO \It>SSO $ c""""pllon "f sciooco ro ,ha, of \\d.,,',
""","u.e approath tbc Gorman'... n.;", a", """"'"
mn,ues bel .... ""n G,altU<i, \ 1"""'.00 \ldleT in IholT app'oacbes t"
,,;tonce ,.
II"", (irallb<:' ....." uld hi," ",acted ' 0 Welle, 's defin""", <If sciooce
u opt'n Quo,lIon, yn il can be "'Rn""d ,hal Gramsci 's <kft"""",
"," c\o<.c, to \\ <btr', I1wI h'J
Lul.ats ',. '" Ceruunly,
I>
.,.,I\kkm
Gram"", 'leY>' ,tood clo$cr 10 \\rbft'. th3n to Crott's, Although lie

.. nplojed ,hie .".",,1 of l",h3n ptlll"""""",ol i<leah"" in hi' bon"" ag"""
''''' ,n all IIi 'U"" ..., I>< "'5 c.... ful to cn tici"" (;cont il. and Croce
for ""demunt"" tilt .ulrural pre$I,gt of tho ""''''''tf''' """""""ity In s'mil ..
full""" TOjIhll'i rook th. Lo'o,,.an . .iroh IQ for l>f'I"in8 ana"
ch,,!> for tho" anxk. on ""tent ,r", "",;,II$m," "lor dId Gram""
h",. an)' for c"""optlan of ..
as an ,drol"llic31
of IIIe bou'l> .. ,e IO>lead, he ooneei, ed of Ihe ",ntif",
'IS on pool-Gahle. n """ct,., in m""h tl>< "'me
n:'oluuO<t
fo,h"",15 \l.ct>or. hm,. h" OOIed the affi nn"",
i""".
&I'"
(;""""., '''''''''1'1 of .., .. nc., """''''' of h,,,.,..,,,.1fOo<1. " 001.11 'h"

h"'" ,foa, Wober, ,,'hi> . , i, i. ktlO"'n f<so lutely ufll><ld 'he
C"t"""" "fUIC "'1<1I"f,c II",OIho.l Web<r, too. 'hought <lut """'''P-
" ,n."..",
""," "f ..." ,,1 rho""",,,,,. I\Od to be fo l,ered a pri"", ,,,umpM,,,,

"'" . 1", ,o.,,w
,,10," ,h.", '"urnpt'oo, , ,., nicr "lth 'he
<iota .'lom.1",>rIJ, ti>cy mu,1 "" d,,",,,ded While ;'io"'; ,,, ,I,dn 't to
I", ""nO.
,",I ;<y, tot.ol ly ;od<p<oO"", of the h' mon
"""ho' d,d ,he)'
"''''"tlfir ,1><.,.; ill 'he
Ih.,
f"'\>d1Kf <"""'b ITI;I n otld "",.. ty. Thm: ",1(1 tu>oo '0 betino:ru, GrOJn,
",," th .. 0103""'''''",1"", of'be >< ICfI" f", m<thod."
,h;,
0<",,,,,'
'r"'""""
w,,,, ..
?",n,!<, "'cop,j ('"",e', c"uCI.m o f tho i"'portatlon o f Ihe phYSICal

mothod ,ntO h,,1Orioai In''''''gll ..m . On Iho otk .. hand he
d,d nut <kn)' the "",,0.1 for ..,....., t} p<. of ""ien'ifo, ,ritcri . A Ma.:xist
Ih<or} o) f h'>loncal ",. l i1)o. ,n II>< ,",me fa,hion u \\'ebe,', (oc 10
hoJcne, Sorcl'i) oooid only >C! OUt jlO$l.ibili"'" not iron'dad 13"'. hen
Gram",,', d'\'Ij"", of loOClely lIn"ttn "Lf"'''truclures and mf""t"""u",,"
" a mcr""""'og",.1 rom .n,,,,,,,,,. 8uI II I ratbcr sophi>l'.
eltcd ,.,..1. t'en G ..",,,,,'. \bn"m mu,1 be ,I... jft<;tla, a ,.nt ifir
,o."ohlm, 000 hie ....
III ,be famous WMlcrion sep.tn>tion
""'d hlo,.
182-
"f .. soci.h, n" on OliO b.nJ, from Mani,m ",' ocunStl' d<, iee on
ocl><'.ll
Th'" of cOlI .... , ,I OI'IC dp""" .... ,th Croce, bu, neaT'" '0
1>o..'1e "n \Iosso's 0" n ,nlorp"'''tlO<t of 1'.,10",', "h"'h in
\\cbe""n to tt, C()", "i",ann, \t",'n ... "n; has '110....,.
' .... n)'
1>0.,,, "".. Iopt'd J conceptiOn nn1 far ... mo'cd trom \\obcr'
t,/.:al t}l"'. and \10<5<> di'pla)Nan op"lemology dose i!llked
'0 """hodoIO$lOal ,nd",d ... h""." \lus", "a. nei'ocr a hah,>, nor a
""''''' ,,' In h .. fof'>1 an",le 0<> T.) k>ri,m. "hlOh In f><t "as a ""'PO'I>"
to lho poIctn" lin" ocn .""n:h", oo """..h"", "' L OrdiM \'"",,,,
.wnn!! the.ununC1" aQd .u'umn of 1919, \1os"" argued ,h31 neither .
... ,1'1'",11' ,00" ,Juah,m "'" 'lor""", rould ockqualOl} de",ribe ",al"y.
l hCfe did IlOl
""oIema un" ..... I.TllI1 i, eTSOl syStem'l, but for
"",.." "",OOmS '01) mLl<h Croce or W<"ber.

""' ", 10 f,.11 ,I><

of economic d<"'nnjn.an1.5 obo' e
.11 "''''', rllct. ofhwn.n hfe. \l0H0 d,f'.... be .... ern nhd natural
of CC<.>nomy on lhe one haOO . nd 'he non-n '>tcnl u""crsal la"s of
\1"'''1 c<OrlO""c> on lhe ocller. o"t.,& our 0" n egos, Mo ..... argued,
the ... " rIO sy<t(m o f .... I"y. R.ahl} he <oncltkled. 'i' life; onJ " "
'hI> tha t "" "'<on"""'t'"
F"ononl1< I. ". d,d nol d"ectly offec' human <o""""",n,..', . Thi.
of ,01'''''' ""h.1 Gram,.i"..med to be $<Iymg '" hIS G.,mil.an ''The
R., ul "I""' aga"lSl (ap ;t. ,, a nd P",hap> In T91 7-18 Gram""i might h", C
,\ 10$5(1', olllo l" SY YOl . 'I"",.. d 'e"'HUon, .bout hI> pol",,.
For Mus.." \b.,."," h>ll '" ito ""m ,he la\lwr lho<Hy of ' alue rrom ",hieh
'he I."" of ecoI\Qmi<s were d"duced . H. ""1<"<11>0" the law, 01
,'ap;" ';!' 10,,,. , p", .J Ih rougoout the world , but also .\ Ia"
.."h,,,,j .h<xlI the b)' tho <mlC"""",io" o f ca plt,ll
,,,,,I ,I", r.III "1I ,at. of rroii t II """, cr, ool"Je lhe"" Slate"le n" M"' i!m.
t" "o"ld I.tllur. It ,,,,,Id no' ooioni>< 'Ihe foc,; of
f",,,oom "ill, all excluokd frun Mar. " ,\,1.",' " As
hum," bcmll5 e"t<n:d 'ow \I atx " in "' m""h "'
tlory p<""",",tiod "" .. 1<.1 .... but
","uld "'" "'pia", how hum.",

0, oow ' he}, 3N",n:d 01.\>
s.c><"". (bet)
_00 ,dcoIOjlY (,.hll') 10'0'" unhnd<ablo .
\ IO$SO ",&""" ,hal an """" 'm,nded a""",l>o-communi ,m "ouJJ a",,, ...
fn.'CIlo.lm rO,the ,00;' id ...1 'o"her spn,.,OOi, ,dual cl3", cooiou ...... "
(I>< 1.10" of """"OII11C "'''lion Of the OIot. coold . .. "'nt"" f"",<Iom fOf
,""'h tnd" oJual Of be ,",oI.ed.o . ' pl.", .... h.). For tbc anarrh,oI>. Musso
.:oo"n"",1, the only ",.1 un'l) I> 'man "
To .urn "P, \I""" "IS posi." ," 110< aQd " ,.
""1""'''' "..,
.".t.
M.n,,,,,, "...
I,,,
<""""""",,'.,,
"""'.,,"'"'
"1."
- ISJ-
co",.",,,,,,...,,
Gr""ucl Anu1t"h..."
'.-onh" hil. "'h} Gram"" nt"cr "'plird fo ),.10'$',.

of \b",i,m ,"" C<>Il,in""" '0 "nderl"", ,he imponanc. of his. <ontnb""""
In h" f"un h . ..flde M""" tra".fcm:d hi,," .. , , from 'hc ca p"aIiSt.

",wncr of. firm to its manage" For MO;$<>, hi, for m "'0,, 1,1
nb,,,xt\ dunng 'he ,h:>i",,,,' <In ' e
cemen' " p""lucti"ist alliatIC.
of fho 'prmg of 19 19, Th,s fonn uf prol'lluCli' i.m . 1"" "' li ed uJ'Oft , IIC
di!-3fJ1'C.r.I'IC' of''''' protection,S! .nd bourg""i. "ate Mosso
.g.... d ,hal only in a "ould
"""'I'IC It, real .ign,foc"",., but he .1>0 sa,d ,1\:11 ....n in lhe 1131), of 1919
",.IIfrd prod""",,, ",'hn ,,,,",, de$pCrat oo undc!pO-id "orl.... "ouid
be more tole!)' <.",lId"., to u;i>cr in ,he a"'.' uaJl>f<lmlll'joo,'" Li
("""""i, \ 1""", beli.. cd that .. If-d,;c'phnt Inmcd In 'M"",) "",.,cd
,he """" faIClurabk human ma,."al r"" ,he <,,",<I""'tion ofh .. 'fUI,,'"
ci') '_
The
ofthe f3tlOT)- council """""' .... , pr=nlcd \I<>MQ" orh
In to 'mpkrncnt hil ,aluef= ,."ion of Ta) 10'"''", 'The
producer ce.",d fo be a m><hint aM bamc an aw . ", 'nd COrtiC,"",
r l,m"" of prod...:'i ",,', he "'roIC, II "0 The formafion of 'he
<ou""il. 'he ,rad'lional pruc.u of prod...:tio" Id., been ",'c"hrou.n

rho produc,i' iSl natUIT of lhe >uno;t., "'I)
upon ,he harmonious
n"'<glng of the ,,-,U aDd <""iou."",, o(,tIt protIII<cr<. "o<lId
tI", '",g,mcnlcd' ,mage of commum"" ba!ol on a ' .. >tIC soc,al order ,
Wh,le \losso he".<cd ,hal the 5(}'\ icI ,)"cm m1gh, be "rru,rd
'0 <pee' fie <"mafic, and 'k""'ll1ll'h'" eondit lOllS. be ,n",ted
1.... 'lh. fa<IO<)' >unc,L ....... IIn,,<...a1 p!teno:ncnon, IJ.ucd upon a c1"",
"-lIh ,he: prodUCIl"C f"'l'I, " '."rd uport ,he ,nll\3T"'. of,he
at><! file, upon ,h." con,roI oflhe"
,hrough ,,"'ocabte
,,,antl.,.s .nJ I"r""sh d,ff.,.nlla,ion of funtlion, ,n 'h e fa<lory
gu ..."'c,J by fhe ' n"u",1' Jl<',s,on of llbour, S....:h I dl<'i.ion of l. boI"
,m, ld ",,1), f"""' ion ,f commun'lm P'\'chology
""roble to "",onflf" produ",;on
Mo,,,, cm">-1ged fU!llTt unllS of !cchnic,"", . "ached ' 0 workers
""'>I\"il>, These would be cll.d It)- ,he wm." them"," ,
"-<contlly. unlike To) lor, 'hoy "ould 00\ .<!.bh>lt unfair
and ,n<Li,'idu.liS1 P"""'''""es; ""her ra.h .ni"...." "ou!d det.nn,nc ,he
'IUOOard tasl:' ,hal mu...lim""'. p,<'tt."orL< "-as ,he: .-.cp.
""" of commun,sm bee"u,", " comI>,n<"S -"'age ,1"'<1) ""ith ,he I1\0OI
"""..,... ,m,.-.Lcd '. Tht -".rdor<! , .... - "-" an _,mila'i""
"fl.} lor', eoo<:qlI of the .... ndatd to the toQ!I".",,..ms ofw communiS'
of
<o,,,,,,ils. Thn",,.ns """IJ thc:T-<fore be ."",mel)'
imponan, ,n \los",,', pr<lIlO'Cd .} .. cm "f f..lUI) <"""",I . 11>c)' "ould
tnon"or ,he approp<i.""" of p!i'MI)' ",",.,,11. IIttdI for
IlIey
0.. 01 Jctermioc ",,,hll,,,"t .nd clenc,l pr1l<1I,'" and fhey w!d "mud,.. c
,"'" 8<,.n"t,. method. ofworlc, r,n_lIy, ,hey wou ld .,,is! tn d... rm ;n,nl1
bo,h 'he qUlntify and <1,,,I,,y of" ork on lbc shop floo r Although Mos,o
' hat fh. thnl< ;.lIs' un"s "oul,las.. e "pon th e,cma)or
,kCl>ion, with worlc"",' .', I>t d,d "'IUme ,har lh. d"'",,on
bel"n manual ."d nlcn .. ll.bour "oold p'r<i,t f"" lions ' imc_ H"""
indeed. """Id ""nual prod...:." nun"", . C<)InmUniS1 con,''"OU" .... if
'tthnical . nd m:lnw! jobs ",err <I,ll "" d.arly del,,,,,.,rd,n a socict) of
...1f_ m.&""grd COO"" il.
\ los",,', an''''n In h,. r,,,,,1 a",oI. dcmo>fIl,'laIC< the clo!.c k"lSInp of
b" ,dea!! to Gram"',',_ n.e of a prodI><:..-;' ps)choiol), .'"
.-......lied by the IInroducti<><l or .. h;u Kropoo.in Ind fomt'r termed ';",,,,,,,1
.d"":.lIon' Although Graffllo<' t'!C\'Cf "'hcd uplD ,he Ru ian ana",h;" Of
,he Catalan <:<It>c..""",I", ,0 ",infom: htl. 0..-" form cd""al'"",
app.1ITn'l; Pr<llelcult, with '" o"-n ..:lflO..-lcdgcd deb!, fo both ltahan
'00 French '1'",licali>l lhough', "1\'1. porposc, Funh<",,,,, .
Gfotn",i ",,<or "'l'IIJlJt...t 'he rr",cna",. of\I",,,,,', "ltcgnl M"':""on,
,so
- ISS
,",.,.,v_
'0 L
H" pn:f>lO<) ph,I<X<>I"h'cII ",mads conchdcd, MOIOso "'"m OIl in hIS
an,de to ho .... TI) IOf" I)'",.m of "'POl""i""
.""" Moo ......'traclrdlo TIllor', Il'f"OKh ba .... "<11,.,kd ",inll
,he .'p<nmemal 'y".m to ded....:. ho...- ...-on: ""'\lld be boIh Ie'" un nll
and m<>n! prod...:ti"", A, a ulor,an '1a)'Ior". fIOn
<""IT".
of 'he ,),,"'m T'Iooe ,\"",nCln '$ .ySlcm depended upon
the \\ ,11 of lhe worhr ,n onkr '0 implellltnl a I1llionali''';on of
"<pee"
produ";",,
!'he ",ic n' ific org"ni''' ion of worlc " . s fcdlOced '0 four princ'l'b
I imly. mcl!>o<lI ,,'ould be lubsUl u,cd for h"ph ... rJ f""tOf)'
o'llani''';on Sc<onJly. clTun "'OIlld be .'p'nded "" lh. special.
""'i"" aoo f",in-ng of foctOf)' "crlcn, Thirdly, nch "or . e, "01.110.1 be
n'IOI'I"OI<'d ""
lhc de""" or dilT",ul,) \If <3th ,ask could be ""icn"f",
ally es .. bli,bed_ F'I1.lIl}'. ,he", wl)Uld h.H '0 be. d",,ion of
re>-ponS,bilil)' bel" <en and ,he "crl...-s, "'lh ca.ch ,00,,,,,1001
lI"cn I compelenl .... illnm .."
In h,. ,h,rd 0rI",1e \ 1",""
the ""I',ul,;! ofTI) Iori.m,
H. oJnlLu...t ,ha, up 10 flO'" ,he l)l'.m of ""'enufic managemcnt pn:.
supposed capilal"l """"l To) lor had lillie undcnt'ooi"l1
Ill' for the l.bour mo",mcm. '1e,."helcu.. \I.,..., beh.,cd It..,
'hc ",,,n,,iie kernel of T.ylorism m,gh' be de'acbed from it< c.p".I .. ,
'h>'
.,,,,,,,01
con,c' L'"
fi",
w"", ....
'"a
.""",.,ion
rcpn:"'''f3''''''
f.,
'l"'''''' 10'0""""
prod""".
"h,eh wa, d,sc,,o:d in \'u,,",,, ju," .. G"""",i', Schooll of

P",lctan"n Cull"", """ urTying WI II> r.rs> 1lurn.ll
\1""" Idm,mjo .)'S.cm of e<iu<a1l0<l !hal ",ndc.-.d '.he produce,
H""'" """ coru;c ...... of <0Ilec1l\. life'." Admil1edly Ik rouneil, """Id
hal t .0 coop! techn,ctan nd
e J'n'<lnnol ,n .he immtd'al'
f'O'H... olu""",,1)' prnod, ... on to lhe '''.m upon h,sh .. Ianfi
'0 allrac1 lhem lik. th. R..... i..... In ,he kmg Itnn lhe produto:rs "ould
llal. 10 ge ..... ,,, Ih.i, o\',n G .. ms.<, "-<I "'ritlcn a g.... , deal
nbou, lhe w of ,he 1'311.n od"".""",,1 ,y"cm
prod"".d
pa.-.. i'es ..
' han producell. S"n, IJrly. \1.,..., .... 08niled Ihe ""cd
10 3 'j'''cm '" h.r. 0". bet,,",o. n.ilhcr ci'"c n" produc"""
,nd",d ual ', where ,he on ly tlia' ok'e l,>!" i, 'he ey il tendeney
''''',>rd, bureaucracy a,," P'fI"'" ark'. "
In hIS ftnal .nide "" Taylor MosS(} ske'ched. 'ys'em '" "h'eh all
1' 311.n; "e", eompelkd 10 ."cnd ",hool u",,1 'echn,cal or 8) onna"urn
od"'''''0<1''", <XImpic'od Aft ..... ard. oil graJu ..., "".Id become prod"CU> 100 enICr an awn>rril" counc,1 F' .... III .. ort each council ,",ould
<
i,. own o/flCe in "h"'h hu","olll a4d <pc<:ifically "I'I')ied ",icnHfic
"oo,e. "'ould .. h,l;! Ill< 'c-a<i1'lI on ,he"" ",hool. "ould ,.le
'urns 10 be engaged ,n ,ndus.!). The rtSU11 "ould be .n ,nltgra) Mut""""
and ,he eros,,,,, of Ih. d"
of bbour
The produce",' coufIC,ls "001.1 ,rocll><lt.1I of._iety ,n
put'i""
!'"IIlIe,an>, bu ...au".-.". o!poi",,,, ,"loU"'""I,.nd scien",,, would bt
'"'-"nbn-$. Indeed. \ 1'-""0 <.""1 pcnt.ou.ly c"""' 10 on authoril>ria" J'OS"ion
he 3'Ol"ed ,loa, 311 po\<<, re.,.d in ,,,., '<>uneil' and 'hat 'hey '00
long"' 1110'" ot her uvni<o, i",,; Othe, po.... ,,', except
frcdy
ti cyo l".d by ,h. ,oune Ll < .hrlll I"" "Co.. ne iI; W,TC '" the e nd merely
ad,,,,",,,,,,,,,
.ha,
,I><,
":,,It.
,.i""
It.
,ho..,
"rga", of mln,i,ion 10 full anan:hl>t <O,"m""''''', .., ",en the ..... ren,"
M",<o """""i:<cd
<"",uall" and cox"'''''' would =ruin .f,c..- the
,n ...
had completed.
",,,,I,,,,,,,,3I)'
.ha.
,-,-.,.,'IOII
The RCCeplio n .. r I'rlHl ur. h I. ",
h "d,/flCul"o dctcrmino 10 "hI"x,onl Grllns.<i'. Of Mo...,', produc"

""" "-''' endorsed by ,he maJor,,), of "''''kcn ," lhe faClOry <oun,,1
'1>0'011""". but " ,,,,,,inly did find c3d,... Mild.
",..,laroh,1' ha. " ",ed lhe ok"rk>p=nl ofl ... O<l ethIC ,n ,he ....... ,nd"",,31
work,ng d." in 13te ni"",ecn,h, und e.rlj' '" rn" .,h""nlU'y 113Iy." h "
In .. lueh a ",'0<1. .,101< wa, w,de.p",,,1
co",monpbce 10
.'11008" ' hc 010'" "i"ble suppO'W''1 of ,he faelory coune <1 ""', cm,IIl
S""h srned enamoured of a '",lig,oo of wor.... . s 'he '!'lIM
un,,,,, .., G,no C."agoo P"' It .. the ..,ademle. has deftnedth ..
'''''''' prosa,cally as '"on. ,deoIogy' p<rtups too roma,,"C t{)
he acccr<o:d IR we, fIC,cnhel.".;, cml,nly ",flected tbc ,<kat of <Oo'Ile
,IOSO'S, ,ollal>o.-..,,,,,, !l> ,he "'orting cll. P......,n, define,
"".lodeolo8) combini"l
.",,,t
tho ode. oI .."Orl; .. monl .n.! ........1 d.'l, ltIc pnd< 01 bc-on8 P'1'r",,"o,,,,'
",Ib tho "",..1""",,,,,,< ,"""<fII'on of """"n"'I)' b<l..-.m work
. nd pol i'o<>1 """ \ "j'.'"
"or\,
\\,ori HI""lojl., ,ndu.dcJ. . .1 '0 corry ou, "hil . >lre, .. n,

the ;onpun.lICe ofa" illd i" id,ul'j .b,llty .,><1 honc'S'Y '" form'"g ,h. 1)." ..
,clf'TCguT.,ion . A hi,m'thy on
"nJ Ihe "nuc {)f lal>ou,
i's.<lf w.s nu' quc>"m" " I ,,,ally, A"d ,n COOlmdic!iQn l{) all of ,I",.
",n," "r ,lI<kpendffi<'e .lId in,,,., i..., ,ncluded vlder and an" ' pwd""",e
,'u;to,,,, '''''h as 'Sa in' \1on'b(.
illes< ,.lue. lie",
"""=,,ly 0 .... frt,," II hlCh I colk<;'i, ,SI or """li,, mo"emen' m'gh,
tJcncfi . G"""",i'" produ.r",,sm >OI.Iglli to p>p<r 0'-':' tl>< inhcn:n1 ,,,,,;.ion,
be,,,,,.,n sl,lleJ and un,lin.d .. orle .. , and ,,...,.. """" aspee" of """,l
'deology ,h.JI perpc1ualM p",,ndu''''11 ,ndiscipline .nd 'enden,i
to" anl> clas, collal>o.-..""" or e,en cfOSS closs
rhe produc-,,,;'" "Oller" i,h,n ,he factOry rounc,l """ernent m,gln
be soc;"I,>! Of Th. """.10<1 I nco . . "!iucol,hal ,he m:rn,ly
""'" eigh'."""r d.:>y nt."COS,IIJI. an ,nc..... in ,he inlcn';ly of
1"'00UCI,on '" order 10 .,,'" ,n poI.",.r ""'oTllt(DC"on m eap""hSl lilly
hen in h aly \ 1.11. belie"cd "'oriol'> ""he, than "nell.."u31, ,hoold
th. sy,l<ms of "'ore effiCient prod"""on " Hughe< l.a em",
"t.,,,
h,,.,,,,,,
-_,-
1.1<_<><). " , , _
..
_I _'_
,""""

_ ofoaoI
......
....

..... ""modIrm..o.O<>
C.......
,"It""....,
ool._.....m..nr.q
"pm ....... "' ........

1"f""1'''''' foo- "",,,,,,wl;
'"'
'"
tailor 011<1 1.,., Itthnlcian, a.o; "elll.l orpou;<r oflhe uRSIltt".. rul T..,b">Ci ..., Ln ..... .x.cnixd the iong-auhi,>hc.l ,),,,,,,rn on
on thc tailonna trade for ,he n:a&rs of l.
Sum". O\-e, ,he 1""
<Iocatl<. ,he "l"" had
'he "mergenc. of la<ge, coope' .," <
"ori,l!or' " hlch h.d ' ended to rerlace homeworl< ."" ,nlOllor , hOI'S
Thi, had ''''lIled III< capab,Ii'y of f": loo ttl A"". , .. lor.; 10 5igll ,ndll' ld",, 1
e'-"""'CI> I.,c..:l On P'C"'< m'e' . Hdndinh .. ,,1 "lTn <OOj>C!lIli,'c
La (mi . oo,ed Ihe 8nodual <m<rg'''''' of In" prod""'''i51 .. ilo, who
rep'a<e<l old.. hab," of .11<1 " ilh rdltCdli,mal 0,
'rn li"""r P&SII""" .. G." .... lhe mos' ","rnple
of an an.--chlS' "ho prce<l "'''"' io.IcoIOi)'. II. "' ... ('nlployed In a "'&hI)'
.lllied an..! ,nd" IJ .. li" pOi"..",.d .om"".-herc be,"'",n
,he Icchn>cWI \1",.", and Ics;o slliled shoplloor "arken; Ganoo deKribed
,he uniq"" )IO>"ioo of'lor mOOelmal .. llihe pI.nl thc ,,-., ...
beong I COl'"' or mar,!ui, .. "ho<e ",""',hop proudly boa".d ,h"
SIgn, 'Ie"'ple ur "Mi',"
I" (" "",,', m illd Inc p rOlluClI\ ", qUl l ",e; o f Ihe <ounoil mo'.",.nl
"mo J 10 rll"' gc " IIh Inc cullu", of fial ;I>elf Qual",. c""t rol " .. JUI'
'ItCh an ,uncil, In ... " .. d and ,mpro,ed upon_
om,,...
,,,,,,..iCtl
Tho .. orbbop <Omtl'..... ",.. on IfnI'II'O' '''t: "'" ot;eru or 1'"'<'1"""""

," hI> ,,<lItohop Ikcause """" " ptOCIIo:, '"""11_ Il<r"", "'CIIlIU
,!It
tiDC'. m) P""" hod 10 '" ,I\n),,;/>. ' .... So. Ih< .0ftYn!....
,,,,,,Id 'If!
10 til< ......M.."'"'' ,...., "'"

l<c_
< ....
< ".,.-., In"'"
'CtD<Il1. and r<>f>' ."
1'fOdu<'_
dtmo<>,,,,,,,,
1"',1""" . . ""'d I""
'0 cI.,," ''''''''''
p,,,,,,, ... ...
I.ike Gno",,,,,. Ga""" "'""'od 10 J,'monSlraw 10 Ih. publi c 'h" fi.t,

wurl<en; "ere and p,od U"III. e""ugh I" replac. ;,.
own.rs. 10k" G""" 'ci, Ga,,"o lnoullh, ,h31 ,h. occupallOn ofohc
f"",,,,,c' had '0 a and mor-e
rrQ<luc...-. <onsciOll'!l/;>;_
H(M IMtt dki Gari .... judge T.ylorism' \ \ 00...-. ,n",he<! in the f.aboca.
1>On uf'ooIl or,hemodel. fO! moulds in h.nn. "nsinnng pl.nt, " ....
"'" whjtCI ,. "'"" and m.,.>o" Sludies II1Ilil "ell ,nl,lIhe 192&.. AI 8ru""
Beaa r"Mo, ,n <or m>nuf"<lunnH inJ",,,y call1,...,o ... , 1001 ",,,,h,.,,.
"'PC<:'O<> all<l a c. '(101)' 'n which <",Fbmansl"p
f,,,,,,d p m'olt"n, NC\'onil<-le on hi. old Ill" Ga"no wa, forth'igh' In h,s
<ollJ.mn'T! on of r"yl",;s", .. h< h.d ,cell ;1 Ihro ugh tn< Bed:!u.
'l ".m '" It,,) in lhe 1930.. 0' a, he unile'<lood Inc ""'Ihod" u t' So, ,el
Su\;h;,rIo) ....'m ... ""t hIS .,:achmen"O lhe machl!l/;r)' oflho le<bnoi"ll",ali)
ad,..""e<! 1:":10<) S<>m<11"",S blinded him 10 n, mo'" I>f"'ClS
..
A. an onatth.SI he m>y ha,. !ittn opp<>Sed ,0 , be ",,,,Itanl deaden 'IIi of

,he """'Oil' pcrsonohly due '0 apphc.uon of "">cnur,,, m>nag""""'!. l>ul
... 'rrod""o,' he industrial proareSlo.
Tbe II3P be'wcen til< productmsm of I Gra",;.-i. \.l.,.", or I
(i.nno and "5 ... coptan<:<: b)' Ihe hull of the rnotal ".m;CTS ofTunn, '11.1
quilc f",,,,,,!.bl. ProdUCI" im ...,,,,,,d Ul be "'lIulTli (hal tedmolog"al
"., n."u ni So Ih. , Mu"" n"'<$ ,1", Mow>', ')'i>' ofTnyluri,m.
"'nh ,g 'standard ,all' ,ep lacing 'he p,re'-rlHe, ... as I conlr"d;e';''" '"
.. rotS." i\J ". ha,,, aln:a<Jy ><co>, the m"jOI d iIP"1'" ,n Fial from tb.
.ulUnm of 191910 lhe of 191{1 "t'" on lhe problem of
ho" 10 arPly p,..,e""",_ If TIylori,rn meanl In),bong 10 manag.", .'
,n Ih" "5urely iDdicalro a "..,... effoc,cnl mctOOd of
1"",,,. aDd """,_no,....
In any COSt. lhe <:<)I.hu"" of wOOo. prod"",i' ,SI. hm".-.J '0 ""n.,n
lnon.icAlcondn ,ons . An inlore .. ins rqlQIIln I. ,\""'" (22 \1.)'
11,,,,.Ikd til. occupa' ion of tho f.etOllel of 'l'" p' .... iou'
how bel" oon ' l illed .nd un,k,ll.d ",,<an>c
,., ><ulc lhal
,lor door 10 pol;u ,nl."'o",,un," S"nilar ",m imenlS
"o'e ""hoW by an.reh,m ,,,,,.Iling Ihe ded,,,,, of m ilila<"')' afl<'
September. '" hen Ih.)' dncribed 'h" ruptu'" of lhe of nc'l I)'
.... on" ... :rnd \O'.ran u",,,,,uad ",-onm; . .,-en bt::fore
,he rna ... s.ol,np oflhe $pnng of 1921 brouthl ,hese IellS""'" dearl)' to
,I><
One .... <th,;! a'lltJrd ,ha"n. P""'tr of'h" ""'I' ,,0rI.'1q! cia"
I<,,<en! as """n) ,,0rI.e-rs felumed 10 ,he "
"" ""'" 00 '0 other
J"'" on 11>0 of 1920,'" <}onn<> al'1 conornded 1n.1 ,he>;! AtW
rc"roil> "c" In ,mpon.nt i("ola,,1c faclur '" the o(,nc f.clory
<""ncI1
'I1li;;- ",,,derc..:l older Im<le ""ion """,I "",, .nJ mcllK>ds
o(,,,,kIO, bUI he al"" .!dod 'h'" lhe rn;w ....o,\anwd"" "a' fa' from being
:lllomol/<1lOu, blocl. On ,he one hand, 5n1,11 KnlUp' of \' .... 11""" ond
U,dle.., e.fried .... ith lhem """",hi;.o polo"cal tOO,'ions. ho .......'"
01"""" from " I..,,, ""'" '" lhe mountainous rtlions or fUI1he,
.f",kl ,n I"" \ <n<10.
en"", or anocoa,ed ",,h ,he C..thol",
"",,.1 1llO'('1r!tn, G,U""P!>< Ik!u I"" danned 11-..1 ,Ilt 'ang"",d 0('''''
mo,'ernenl "tI'C m.ulo "" loung" lesl "on.-=. p<q)Ored 10
qu ..,,,,n ololc:< and thei, paltn,'s al,umpti""" funllCntlofC.
Ga""" liS<) (!'Called ,hal ,herc ".illeJ II<"'l<l <Ie.1 of be",.cn
Iho ... 'I"'".nt ""riers' w" h casy ac<tn '0 ,egCl.blos "nd fruil. ("'Itt
Ihe", nal,, " "II_go. "nd ,he ...orm urban wo,kc" c.ught up Itt II",
po"wa, ..;on. ry ,urgo. <omp)c,cly def.n<clo .g.onS! the ,i", in ,he
Scp""'''''''
""",,,ted
""rf..,._
<110'.' ' ' ' .
,,=
"", of I" tltll."

The "MinS cia .. of Turin .... a.o; ,herefore b)- 00 "",ans umfie<!
'"
tbt fac,O<)" """<'rnCnI. A .. ad,,'lI of'- OnJilH' .\""'" demon

.lra'.... ,ha, ,he
not obi" ious ,(>.he d,lfe",,,,, ",hlCh
",i,tod l.IlIO<Igl:t ,h,m ",""rs. Enta \I.ua ""I'OIe complaining alKlullhe
un","rain.ed nld" ,J""ij.m di,pl.o)'od by ""'ny of h .. \1"tt1
''!IlIc<l .h.. hch"oo lile em",I""'''''''''' ,n lh. f"<lo,). u,ina
Ih." " '1011,",,1 _nd m"",ul.. ,k,lI, to ad, ane. ,hemscl, , r,,,,cul.rly
dang ..oo, '" I", orinion ,u, an o<lo<. '; <H1,1 h,enn:hy une found '"lOnll"
m.nual worke,s (111< "ory conslilue""y un wluch Gr.:unsp<,) I' ho "rp'""n,ly "'jc"<'od produc''''i'' coil=1I lsm r... "",..."..1
\\ one"
""pcno, m,d"",t ...1c",d<m .. l. could usc
...,,,,n
c"" to dl>'J'1 .hemsclH' from ,he" len-tduca,od ..-orlnu'e,"
TllC", d"ulO<l'
placed ,n,o ",I,.f by M.unno <>anno's
beha, lOUf dunll3,be rno<Iolrnak"", .llIle ofrcbruary 10 Apoil 1919, Wb
coil"",,,. i:IOrp.n.ng .hre.tencd to pi.... he rno<Iolmakm' formid.>bl.
"age dlffo .. r.li.1I in je0p.3ro). c;."",,s oga1o'3l1,ni"" began to unlll,d
The .. wo 0uelledotT by 'h' rebru.ry accords 'hat lo..-.rod the
m,, ;mum the modelmak.rs <OI,ld e3m S<)", to n ...," thc
d,fI".nti. ls of all m...1.nd <"g'''''''''11 wo.hrs, A. Gari"" ,..:olls:
Md""",,,; ,,=
",'h
.he"
,,=
"'g"
_I. . .,. . . .
,f" " 'ru<
Tl>e ",..xr. of I 10M .aiel ...., carry ou' tho . R...., ...'III <'en
""', " ,m!"nF" I hnle on )'0" "'1<""'- "" 110,. ,ntTno<d!he ..."" of'''''
Iov.<,,' In pnn'''rl< ..
in III< I.... "''''''J. bu, ... r,1< bun \1<
00..' ..... hcado '" _
Df ... ''''"",,:I;'''''''
""'tT
=_
The Slnl e l< not only u""."a,nly in 111< "'''lOOny of

the ."a",h", It i< ,Irang< ,"", .Hn ,hough Goti"" won.d for
""''' of t hIS period In , smoll c<>opem" .... fial I> "' the c<nI,e of h"
Slo'y, H (hn ".d Ih. factori.>. ,fit Lingollo p l'nt. 'hen utldc,
c",,,,mcllon. wher. """ "eo<end I fcl low a" ... h", g"< h,m. gui<lcJ
,our For G,,;no.he ,,,, ... 1hnul"l!Y Ind ,II. I. )oul of Lmg""u
'.n "hM he bad Ik.:,<lcd 10 IcO\ < such >u""'HJdmg' .0 "or!<
,n 1 """II !hop'"
Olhe "d<nce 100 d!'><m1iLl .he monoll,hlC image of ,he
"onon. Upward ,..",,,.1 mobility for ...,lItd "'onen ,,-as ..,..1 pos"b!h,),
on Tlin . A long"OOtnlll, .. t>dy of the 1& >IOn", of ",,,,,,,I
g....... I""', ofi",migmnh to T unn ,n til< fitS! half oftbe IWrnll",h <:<:ntury
"'-":lIlTl<nl' '1I1S pro.;:<<$ in,en:,!ing!y," Bigau, hal al,., "",Sled !hal w,thm
the cal ",Justry wd. I ,no blli 'y <<>old be c>pee,a'ly ,w,n. I\'o'kers coul,1
bc<ome f,,',.ly quic kly .nd "ho loft ,lie fOCI"!)' m'gIlt. Iilo
Ga'ino. be qUll. ,lICt.ftll in small "'p.;I" or 'nlnuf;ocruring ""rl"h<lps
Fut1he"""",... leaSl unlll ,he middle or 131. 1920<. to<bllOl"I!ical change
'"
,,-n mtd ..
rhrougtl ntj!<lIlOtiort< ""th sJ"lIed "orl......" 11-.0 possibditJe<

of "",i.1 ",,*"10.) ".11 .. technical rotbbonll"" m<anl
t1l:ot CHn nod",ol. ,n .he factory <","neil n'IO,,,mc:n' d,spll)ed
[",linl!' '()\\'lfds .he" " ..... nodical i<k<oloKlCoL po5,,;on Glnno rocollod

that many tTII'''gen; ,n .nginccronlL mJuSiry rose: from
bctwcefl w<lrhrs. a,KI evcn .mrloj' .... was panlC u
larly ovide'" '" 10,5 m..:hani,cd plan15, G .."", I I", ,,,,,ail ed lh." "" cr. 1
of AWnd l' nS'.....," a nd m"nagers wen: P"'grt"II" a",! dcmocrallc.
aDd !al... .""f,,,",l>l, Agnclli. he eOl1l1mlC..t. >P"""""d p31 .... "1I,,
""""h,)" " "b,n h" cmp"" , ror",e, manual"
""h """'"
.,,,,,ri""'" If nigh! school. cwld ""h,.,. '0fY prom" ......
,oo.od.
and (;.rlno boR no ill
ard< them. Indeed. on the contrary. h. ".s
proud of'llt" ach,.,.mt11" Dunng I JOb "' ,ho half-com"I.. od L,nB""o
plant he recalled ,he ,,,'', m.n.agc'. an .. ,,,,on". '" ho
l\ov.' liS >o:I1iclll)" in .. gralod I)'".''' optratod, Al IhlS
fulu .. d""",or of Genoml Moton atrl".J 0" th. !oCone .",1Ga"",,
pl ... u," in thl> ill1(>O" . n, Amo ,iean 'ho ,aienlS of 1he fo,,"'"
",,",cr froll1 TUlln"
I ,'ctI ":,i,udes ,,,,,-.,d, Ap-.ell, n(ll a, ne ...", , onc m,ghl 'hink
"""th'J roc.lls ""h "..d. lhat Ag.nelh wU 1\lr,>Otod to L 'OnJ;M \'uO>Q
and lhougll' ,11:01 (inunsc,, an",tO'S ........ , hi.. e bNn ..-nltro b)- one ofb,s
en@'n".".... '" DunnS.he OCCtq>a!l0l11 Agnelh ofl"Cfod W lurn hIS emp,n:
mtO a "on.", e""l""''''.' Al,hough !he pL"" "as .toll,n 'ts n<"l 'lases.
he """mod 10 be olL"cn"lt ",'on"" .,1,"" conlrol of FLlI, or ,'cry
f<>nn of profi' _"",ing A8,ntlli ":lS IkfOOflhz.d b},'loc
OCCUp'"0'" ftnd G,olitt i', propos<....J leg,sl ... "" "" .... , h."" a,ld
icg.l ill"l1 Wine fo,", of" corkers' <on.",I: he'""os me,d), calhng
lhe bl"tT of 'hc m'ca l, an<! ,imull'"c'Ousl)' ,he po"tl ons o f
"",iall>t and lrad. uni"" ,dD,",i'" r or G n"" Gi<>lini', r rop<o><d
"'Olle,' con,rolla" .nd Agnclli', .",,"Sled F '., C<><>t><""". w<n: JUII
fW"lh<f abrinB ","",pic< of tbt <Ianil<ruu<ly c<>mq)l'''II inll """,,os of 1..;LIf\
c1i.n,<IiSl C3p11.1<lm Gr.lm .. 's ....lIl ca .. ", for unease. _ ....... may
bee. ,he nunurina oftbc .mal'ie> tomo..,.n ..... le .. aDd ..... ""I'"m<nl
Gori"". f.". '''''lance, recaned \bat I'\lf\..sMp comm'ssars an<! managemem
wo;.--.: not al"a)5 a. l"IIloJhcad<. noted ,hal "ft.n thett ,,'as om<)()Ih
collabora""" bet" ... n the rtprt'>Cnl31;"{ of the "t>rl.;hop and (he fornnan
F()I" "m,,, ,,,i', pan. he rcali ze'! 'hat i f propo",d Coopcrol1\. h.d
beetl implem< nted, no1 Qrlly """ Id ,I", w,,",ors be ,kpendtnl on
financiers bu.,hci, p<(>bable f.ilun: with,n I
c'p,tol", .nml,,,,,"''''
coulJ ha,. d,!oCrod".d 0 form ofprod""""i'm . nd 'oc ........ d lhe
prtSligo of Clflil.lI!! ,,'on,oM proc1ic..,.. And ,,,,,,," foan
heighlrncd
,b,
ori<.,...
"",,,'ion,
",II '''''
.,,,11,,,011
Ila,..,
ho>,,"
,,=
'"
"hen "od"", 10 mum 10 the finn al hi. moth!:r., fu""",1

""->nl} die. lhe end of ,he OC<:UJIlI""" of,he r.."oon;. "The

for .\",,, ""as .ando.hwJ by the heha,ioo,-of,.,.,
"..", l orsofTuM."
\ I uck of lhe rtl)OfIlnll ,11' L s".,"" <"<,nemung ar<3i outside of

Tu,m 10 in"""",,,c sociological 0fJUD""I" 10 the I"'I"'tantY
gf a""",h"m. ,yndicalism or ",'en thc-or cios( ... l.t","" repubhcan,,,,,
Anu"" lo<choa "'",,e abool h,. nali .. Romag"". "hero: _;ali"" "-'"
ba,ed on family Io)alu .. ,ha, luml ,,,Il001 <"hild",n tnlO r<p<tbliean. or
"""a,,""'. lender age. Thi, w"' 001 lhe hc.1lhy Torin.se ><>ci.Ii,,,, llf
til< f. clm)' worl,JIO!' but Ihal of'lI<
,id In 1920 Alf"",..,
Lcgnetto 'he popularily o f . na,chi.m ond ,}'nd;cali ,,,, '"
\t;!an d... lo ,he pololi<al COfIf\.osoon in
m"Mls by ,he
<:o"ar.h of ,he 1oc.1 ",.. ,mali", Tho ><>ci11i,IS h.d 10<1 <onlact .. "h
lhe ma <s:and lhe Ioc.l pololi<al 'acuum ""as by I""",hi", and ,he
US! Bu, LCOfIe\\O al", 11'&1>1 'hal blu;.o the local urban ero\oI)' d,d
DOl coneenl,,"'. "odors
fac'<>fie ... 'hIS 11 '0 ,he prt, alene. or
u",l,11ed 0\ .. od.... and a la'll" )lOI)ulan"" of enmi,,"l' .moni
whom the Iohenon . ",
10 noun.h."
LroneUt Hh,.f ....ons (or the p<1'$"lcIlCt o f a1l3rehis", . nd syndIC . I
,Sm ,II )l.lIla,,; tlte polit ical i""ptLIUdc of 1M SOI'"los", Iho pec uloa"li o' of
,I> ulb,,, layoul .nd !he cia" cotnpo:silion of III<" "OfI;,og cia". ,,<"re
..pealed ,n Ihorr Own fash,"" "hen Toalt. tu ond ",nt til< ..
f.mou. tqlOfI On
Pooenle The L'I"".n h,nlorla n<! eha"",'cn$C'd
by In enJlcso lImIy ofship)-anis. $lCC1 .. od., sugar refine"""
n e"""V>. P<)hhCall) II ,,-as ..."'-"'ned foo- ,he seclanani,,,, of iIS Itll ",f"""",>. "",-,imah5ls and ,),nd,calo>l> - ,,110
for ",0"""". lite local popula.cc. Funl>ermo<c. indu"O) "a, of
,h... ""'8 ,,,';c.y 10 inlp;re I"ol .... " .. n mo\<"rncnt. t)",,,i,,,,,1
by hco')' ind,,,"y "'ltn who dcpendod "n 8"""n",en,
i"I1<>I:"'" 1>1:<ld lo nll on order 10 ",.;nt.. n Ihm ,.k, d,rooSh ." itie,aily h,gh
pro!"' '''" lanff,. ,he .. cnlrcpITo<u" had IUrnl into specula''''''
In .hon. in con lnoS! W I"" he. lthy in,lu>l'Y "f lurin. lhe
hco''Y indus!O)' un 'guna ,,-as pollute<! .. ,'h ehenld,,,,,. r unlletrnorc. ,he
prod""I"'''1 .. orle. " .. I''E''I}' :absc,:! from the L'g ....... n factQfJ . .
the ol.iUed "oder ""a' in the ""nor,') lhey d.nned 'hot:at s...m th,s
mean'
pell) bourgtots ,nd,.. iplincofpagnl "od.... "' ...... belmed
the d.se,plt<l<"o, ",<pODded 10 SOI'iolosy in a pm\,,,.bly
for hrighl m:tn",,' Fann" .. rot. in Oox(mbcr 1919 .. 00" il ,,--'s
P"'>,blc to u!Ie dA" .n. ly,is '" <xpb,n "by "'Orlffl in ,ne <am, "",.ltty
sa"'" prof"",i"" eho .. ' he s)"Ji calill' o. 'he soci.lis",
c.r
Many Cril,CS uf Gra",,,,,, ', L Orr/me ,\uom hA' e "!Cd . da" .nal}'s is lu
d''''I"<d" hi, ,hovr,eJ, F,,,, ,llS <Ia",><,d ,h., he ,he
of AB""Ih ond ",ho, industnal",s: ,he) had noI bttn IUme<! ''''0
"""'''''' by lhe ".",- <NIOIt1). ' Second. ,he ron;!!IU<"1l<Y ,,110
<uf'POl"<'.l ,he f""""'Ycounc,1 mo"'menl Slid 10 be- t",,,,ilOl).

'ngl). IhlQUlh rlUon.o.liz."on. ,he ,,'Ottc, "a, be-mg '''''l''
by ,he "o,l (T.o! Th .. idea. IS "'e ha, e Sn. ;, fa"",'ul as sc;cnhf",
manJgcm<"lII "'IS .h,n "" ,be ground, Ganno .,woed ,hal tt.. malS n:dund_
""i<"5 ., F,., on 1921 can he oscnbcd II} ca ",... ""'mg from lhe I.boo,
",arhl.nd polol ,cal bladli<l, ng "'ther Illl" rallOnol i,. " oo.'" A d" rd .nd
final obje<loon .. "; fi .., ad\-ao""ed by ."",tiI ISI' ><>eh as F.bbri a n<! EJ,:mc,n.
a n<! I.,,,, I.l.n up by AId<) G. to" "
limp ly GrI",,,,i anticipaled
lhe oIT"",. of ,oJu,m.h,.""" m hal}' b.,(on: "C", fully "",ked oul
Unlil the 19<0. h.. l) an ogran.>o
IndeM . ., 0< ",.11 k"""n.
"",f."",'-I ""","h.m dep<nded on ,Ii runo! Pul ,,,npl}. there "Cl"<
noI """'-'&10 f":I<ln<' ,n hal) 'n 1919-10 10 con>Iruc' Gnom",,', 'fulurc
cily ...
"".Y
Qu,"
""'ion
Gram",i u>td ada" .""Iy". ' 0 di",,,,dll hi,lnarch,<t aad

oppetICnl" "The p.-oduc'iv;" cilY wllh "oll"''''l'lioo.l and ",\uIUl,o,,"!)'
wof\,:fon:c ""' Tunn" Gmmse, conlrasted lhe" lI<".hl> wilh til<" mom,Jnv
oflhe rteNi'N ",to til<" liSI"
.
.... ,-.: ".,0:.1 ,... ro,," " Ii>< fOIl< lho to"''',,"n;>1 ",,,Ju,""'" bc<. _
,I>< d ... of Turin,. ,n 'I>< m.. proi<"'"",,, (""'ory .. otl .....
rnolu"o" ....... of'l>< 'l'< pred,0:.1 by 1<.,1 M.n. "'" pc1ty boo.o'FO"
1)"...- II> "'" dorno< .... 0tId .......,tu.m . rnuddJen.
I; ,........... tIuI "'" Gont ..1 C""fl<n,,,,,, or i.abo:;ooo ...
compor< '""<>Iu,,OROr)"
,han "'" ........
"'I'"i'cd by ,lit Uni_ Suldotoi< be,," .. ,he ('OIlfodmot"'"

'_", f<\oJ";",,,,'}" "<Kl",", of"'" \.ni\'"d, "h il.
, ",,,,,.n,,0:.1 "'I''''''''''" ",b<h "

"'"
,10." Uni""" 5",<1"".1. i.
O<Io<o.,f"1 It 1<.. ;" a the g<I,,, o,,,,.
C("""
"rt<l Ind" I"", mil< ,yr,<.1 o f tilt

f1I ion 0 f Ih. "O<f J of CY f><11 Y l>ooJ ,.
1\>,< "'" b<rorn< . .I,,'" ')[>i<>1 . .... P'''!WI'' ,,'''0
....

bc<om. ro'"ow ....,
192-
,,""'.r>'
,n
".1"<
St.,,,
'"""""" ",oIe,."...
,ha,
[00V,." '''''''' " " ....,'''' tt.., the _ . of ,to. m,""';,y (M"i""iKd by
,to. L"",... foo- ..,.". hot>< an: found '" .im'.I.. 000 <'qui ...l ....
'"
"'m< ... ,""t
>LImN""in .... "flcn tl><

of tb. maJOrIty <><pn"',d by the
(""rrnor. ...... \tohy i. " <h:ot .... ",... I,.on..-. of SnIJ1 " - . . - I><
""",,"""'" t..:.,.otd. and I<os ..".!nd ItIon t"-
\to'hy
"""'" tl>< _"itun! """''''''"r .... P,.nc:mtttlO "" inoodvuocOO lIwo ,,,,*,
M .... J>am ....... R.gg;at>O' Why Ii" thaI.t Il0l_ tl><......""
"."., .... 'n Ib< Old 5)m'c.llIt ChomOorofLobc>w "'W hc cl """'..".
"'Y . . "nQ r..w 1",<1 O,'<f to,"" )<"<0\' ('""fl<,..1 Ot,mhcr of I"'''''''r !
10 ,,h.t "'oy do the ".inen ond tile V.1 d ... ITKI. m<"'l><n oftb<
l"""", S,,>d"".Ir. d iffcr from ",i n"< .1 .... " .... ,.."" arc onemlx-r. of tho
("""fl<,..11",,'
the aRl",h'<1' dtd DOl actqll b an <n tbe: flel that "odtlS In
larg. l!IduSlnal
by n,.. u... "..,... a.j,a""N poIiticolh' than lho$o
in """tier """!\S. The AUSlria:n .n''''th,S! htS'Of1.Ul. Mu h:>d 11011
.arl.er Ih.! 11 "3$ the .. nallc-r to,,'ns of c<n1ral tilly thot I.y I I tl>< b.>c:k of
tfle Red \led. ond d"rinr tl>< ""'" F.bbri and Bcmeri "'J'Oatedly
tl>< ""ol"t ,ooo'Y elan of . n ".nal
and peasant And",
I "rthonno",. h'SM",,1 ",.... ",11 ,ho" .. ,h, t the "it""'t;"'" 10 lhe USI
fe, m"ed "">OnS not i.oldy anri!>u' ablo ' 0 I"" duo oomjlQS i'ion "f a
g"c n "odf""'e. B,8"lZt ho, .ho"" ,hoI ,he OI .... g' h of'l>< LSI., M'lon',
Alfa Romt(t IIllm, "".. d.., to ,he I<kl" OfganolalJon , ki ll. of jt,!/M
"odt"tlo. T1Ie:)'. unhlc F!O\! un",,,,,, .. haoJ been Ible 10 <><gani .. m,1IOrl
.nd "<lmCn ,nlO their unron dunng the V.'ltile Rug.flOri', h,,,,O<)'
of An .. IOO has iho .. " lh .. TOSh.u,, Ind .... '111""'80 . figu ... "erc
'1>COIJffi Togh.tn Ind \'jglongo had e'"l!lI"flItf'd the "umbo. of uns!<illl
"or l e,," al 'he Moc ",eo (the h3$i. of !ogh.,,,s at><l \"glongo '; d .ta )
Us,''>: A",.ldQ. c"'p loymcn! rrturd. lI.ugafiori dcnlOn,traled thot lhe
compos"'ut' of ,"" ",orklo",e " ''">tned UlI(; I", nll1 bet" Cen 19 19 and
19.1 \ "hCrcb Togli'II' and "oiO'>I Ihal only 25 1"" crr" or
lhe
"en: . ktll ed. ,n fftCt at le ..1 half",.",."
. An . .. Jly "1111O'Un,. at1ide .of r.id, of the """ioIogy i,
(""m", ,"",,.,,,, , d,/f..-enhlnn>: the amh"", ofleadcrs Ind "'101.
1.", ...1, from the an.",hism of factory
'1 He w", pameularlt
'cnornou. to" ants IRlfCh1S1 ,nl.II"",u.l, "ho, h. "rotc.
an,,,,:hlSm ,,,,,,, 0" n pri' ate tn'cll""' .... ll'ropc")'. lhe" '",;son dct .. for
,he" pa""ol . r It), pt1:Se1lt and futu .. '-I IlorHhi. Fabbri .nd '1,1. ,,'11.'
"ere "'peatclily dcst:rrbed . , ' he etHrtl'rcneo", 0' d,arl, .. ", of an. I'd""
,Mology. pm,t ical ",vol"'i""",, Ilw be . n'rchi ,ts;
Mosso ,b. w """t,"Sled f,w",rably wQ"'gli,", ,he joomalt>t. ' j
Mocco'er. 0'rtM and r etttf<) "ere IwO nne .nd loy.1 "onc" The"
prof..... '.OIIIlt<m rna<lo tlleir .n.chmen, ' 0 In .."h'lJI' of little COllOom '0
G,,:un.. ,
,,-=
"'110"".
"""'.f"!>
,,""'en
Fnr Fabbn "rom""i', drS""'''''''' "m.",f",ial Ifan>",hu.m

1"'1"",.. i, ,,-as cqUlJl) lJ1X
!O <a)' lhal 'he \ !M><'" dialec1ic "-'" not a prolcunan C... llon.
but h,d betn forth b)' a 'm:>1! aroup of ,nl.II,,,,,I. '", ho ....--c.i..
,hem.."c.\ th", with i, 'hq Ibnk and 'ntcrpm ,be:
mmcmc"!"
It "a bo "",iou, 'that it i, p,";: isely ,hi: Min "IS of L Q,,/iM ,\"0'"
'" h<) rn. ' c a,bi"",)' di",,,,,, ion, ""tween of >narchist work ..,
and groups of .n.rchi" inrdl""tu.l s aud r rofessional ;deolog"t",
An .-rh,.,n. f abbn oonclU<kd. had .[" 0) S tat' larned relal"'cly h'sMr
.. ge of ""If... d""ale<l "'nrk .... lhan """"II'm SO i, c{Kl1d be argoed
thot the ,doolo&.v ofltaltan \br>."m had bocn . .a'e<llhrough a dictator,
,h,p of 'I> ,,,,.111,,,,1. 0\ erlc:..-c:d,",III INn ...! "od.... "
"-as no! me .. I)' I ""'*"'8-<las. concq>l"'"
"''''''c,,'
.n,..
The deba,. 0' .. ,I", Ideologic, o r

h,lm . u<1 """,ali,,,, ttl Gra'mci',
mind be reduccd ' 0 Iwo >epar"'" proh lcnl<; the degree to "h ich
8n.n'Il"m il as a d""",,' bod)' of,do.s and p..",icc ,,"h
0"" .It!oonmoo, h!>I""y and the ., .. 10 which M.n,s", w .. a ""'''''Hfi"
""",ah.m Of all foor founding mom"" ... of L Angelo Taoca
d''9la)I ''''' &"",.,1 tn,,,,",",, and dorlh of knowINg" <oncom,ng I""
htsto<y of ",he, ..!tool, of """ial"m. It i, lhu. 1Jt..1 ,he doba,e
be,,, <en ,I>< lOtl)n:h,,,,. and ,he ordmO"Ull bq: ... 0' er In hi.,,,",,a! con
lro' .....' concern,"g'''''
of,!.t Oat tl""" claJmed ,hat \1.)" u.y
arose from """ . ir>l a,><l tr..de onion I"""IU"" "h ,l. \b'l;arita .rg..,d
,ha l lht
hi,1$ hod o rigina'ed ,he holt<la) .....
T."," "Iua ll)' appe,red be ,I .. tlIO>' con,ilten,ly ho.tile 10" ,,<1.
'M,ch"", A. "0 h:"" ><-'en. in May 1920 "" arg'"'' "!:I,mt lhe a""rdUSIS
a' ''''' <lumbe, <If Labou,. he xcu""i Grn",s.;, of be,ng an anarcho,>ndi<"a!.., and he 'UpponN lhe ,radt umUtl kade", < .ttack> on Gram",,',
ana",hi .. aU,,,,, ,,"h,n ,he rXlo.} cOIIlIcil 'ncrtbcle"". 11 "
llOnlC .... h III appamlIJy ant,I,bcnan ... pooition <lutinG
tbe birnnjo ""'<n. A, youlh I>< haJ """" okc-pl) infiumced by ,I><
S)'nd,c.I,,, theone. of Anuro Lab'iola and Fnnt" I roncoFunh<:nno",.
hIS "". rth fnr an ltahan ,rnd,1ion of wo.... ng..:l ....... If So.. "'.... ", led
him !O ,h. chamber of labour. "tr,oh. 3$ " f hove ",cn. had depcBdc<1
greally 0" .north,s' and ,ynd rcah<1 P'''f'Ono"" ('"'. Chap,er 0".1. lit
also exrre.""d I ,ympa, hy for ' h" ul<>r ,.n the
oprra!,
'hc POI und ",hot "on-\I .."" Ind I, bo,,"rran,'ingod
(0
,naill",,,,,,n _;ah!",. In /. 0.11",,- .\'""", he ""bl"hoJ a SCf><' of "",dCI
on lhe u'orlJn """,.hOb In old .g. Tast:a ,ailed the <lobate in L
\t'
n'
""gin'
'n,,,
'0
'h""
r",e!
.Ite"''''''''"
'oro",,,
19S-
o"er d,c
ong ,n' ofM,y Day t><! =ognm, j hIS own intemperance

ekmcn, in Gr3tnsci', ,oough, " hieh
ca,ne cl""" , t" <yn<l;,, 1ism. N
Ne\ert heless. on I gl g T.s<. eoltld bt a, ,nlokranl of Ihe anarch i>!>'
idea, as Gram",i L Lko Grams<! ""bier Rllm
of "", ,"h,rn.'" A""",hi,m boded an org.nIC c<>n<ep'ion nf hiSIOl)' 'be<:ause
il lad.d a philo"'phy of history' For To",. an3tc),,;m "an ideolog,
"OS a con fu,ing h<!erogenCDu, <io<1Tine On lhe Otle hond P",udhon a',d
B,kun in h.d been Left H.g.hans. On Ihe olhor. Reclu, and K,opotk ;n
bad ""e n TolI"we" of ComIC and Spenco,. Anarchistn. Ta",. wr,,'e. was
., its \\'hen i' ignoreu hi'toric.1 ut'c lopment. bUI 11 was ao ItO
monge" in Ihe abso lullSm ofi's moral va lue" So Ihal oyon in 1919. "'11 h
.11 hi, pedantry .nd p"'Judl<'e. h",. could al low Ihe anarch,sts a ro lc as
mom l g.dfiy rather than mere ly. a, '" Grams<i', eye;. "elic"1 'lIy,
1<,w,mh ,flo """ ",hiSl<. """ proi>rng
,ha,
NO>'<"h< I"" "'0 l><lie,'o 'hot I,,, or con h,o,,< l1{u,ble at><!
0<><0".1 ... k for to., ,",ol"ioo IIJ1d h"lOr}'. All ,n>l ,'"''''''' h,,o tbe f. tal
tooo,ocy '" "k' "" a lifo of th<i, 0"'0. md<r<"Jcn,ly of'ho rea",o, ""y 'lley
""0 <",,,ed All fOml. 1<00 '0 Oooom< ro.xe.), or they """",n, i>!'" .00
'impk forn". bet}' ,"'oIUhOo'1')' mu>t possen. Ii, ' Iy and ,,,,,,,.1 '1'lTi' '0
''''''''''!'l"Y' J'!'O< 'ioalooo
The .nar,h,,, is, moral di'P"''''''" In"
,he p<TJ><tuJty "rhu",," ,.."" i'y from <ocra""" to
A"",oy i. noI. ')-"" " ," "I'f'O' i,,,,,, to """.I i.m. ... t ,t eoold be defined
to., mo.,{ "",,,, ion;n wh ich pr:K"cal "OO1 "" "" L'" II<tioo mu" 0., "'1\"",,,,1."
Gram", i adopd T.",.', gadfly itnagy bot m 'ptiod It of. ny PO""'"
,"'cnl. f or Gram",i .n.tch"rn \\"S the subve",w ",,""ep{ion of any
oppre,'-Cd "lass bdor. it be,'am. Ihc ruli ng class. Froedom "a, not on
.'orn.II"'hln<'al for Gram"'i. ""ho, Ih,' e wcro only oou,<:ooo< ' "
prnlot,1fi'n concepl'ons "f f",k,m, bot for lhe booJrg""L> ic, f",edom m.ant
hh.",Io.",. I, ,, tho froounm was is! co,nmL.ni"n ."
Th is ,urpr""'g orthodox M." ist poSLtwn ad"pd by Gmmsc, "
",n""""n of hi, s<ient,fic "", .. Ii"n. 1\, we han ""'It. Gr."n"" ctJr.'tantl y
attacked po,;",'i,t and OvOI'.lionary ,,,,,i31o.m . In sitn il a! r.,Io,oll, anar_
ch"" Mal .. e". an,l Fobo'i Iht pos iti"i,,,, of Kropotk ",
Funhcnnorc. F.bbri ,10" "".ck to i!\Clu<k SttOM and Th i,d
Inlen,",ional," Fabb,, 's anicie, we ... rmho r pr<d,"",olo
Of grcmer in,e ... " "ere l'lerncri's who was <I""" '0 Gram",i', tnllld,n
Ho"cYcr. for our POrpos<' Ih< mO" ac"to critic was I'rOl'" Gnm ",i',
pe""nal and ,J,olos,cal tics ma<k hIS cri ,i,i,m ofthe Sard,n ian's 'enti ,,1
comm"ni'm' more 'harper.
As 1 11,1\0 expla",cd, Mo,,," , mcll>o<l"l"g,eal approach 10 Marxism

"as close to \\'ct>er', . Therefore hc ne'er ,,,'cnJN 10 what he
to be tho OO{onom,c system of Ma"ism to the 'ystcm of moral
ph,I"",ph>' ,I,a, "as anarchism To compare the "Ulho, of CQptlQ/ ""h
S!Lmor, Ilal unin, Tolstoy " n,1 Tucker. "as point leSS. In f.Cl anarchism,
to Mo,,,,. is a ,.Iuc 'Y"''" (loa! '-' til onl) bo,ne <kom i"'n' in
communist "",i",y. Tho d,fforence """,een """",hi,,, and \ta",i,,, coold
to" round ,n {he 1.11",', "Money 10 .110" ewnom ics to ,olon,,,
"f mo", 1i{y ,,,d ethi" . For Mo><o ."arc l",,,, "os n.. ther a liboral . n"
s!:" i" polo","1 pl"lo,o l'hy no, ' " ppon i' 0 of staliS! coliecII\ I,m. In
aMtcho-commun i.m .\los", fou nd hi' L'Ia Attompt< {o .i oua te
ltah.n cornmuni"" in \!an,'m were mi\ lo",lmg ""cause "'t><h of ha lian
"""ah<m de, i"ed fro", Baku" inism, "here", M."i,m W", .-cStricte<l to
, <m, ll group of ,mellec!U.I . Indeed. he fe lt tha, many max ",,, I,,,,
o.,h,b"Od ,lte mo>l ueplorablo of " ha, "as ",ean{ by Ma"i,,,,
Mo>so d,cw {he . ttcnti on of 00111 Gram,", anJ Tu>ca to tho ,deologioo l
.nd Bakunm
filiati on, be",ee" .""rch,sm and Marxism Did not
share a common grounding in Feuerbach' Nor d,d Mos'" accep' {he
,. lld,,>, ofTascll 's cr ilic ism of lOe of a"arclu,,,,.
Kropo{kin . nd Bak Llnm could be placed "",hin ,flo same broad s<hoo!.
,nd on 'n, case Mo,,,, d,u t'I04 accopl the neeu for a ooli,1I o .yllcm; "ukod
Ilak urun', ",.jor comnbmion wa, his insisten<e that ,,.,{om of
Ihought WI> ".'er com plete, tho,eb,. ",klmg ' l{.h,y to lhe baule of ide ..
For Mosso natUTal 1.\\,s wore . serie. of .pprown.tions that could not bo
equ",c,1 ",,10 "'<laph,,,c, of tho u,alec{ ical nlCtho<!. Each ",icn(:c
rc4u,red ,I, l'arlioular la", to .,pl.in the ph. nomen. " ""ught to undc,
"an J Unh ". Marxi,". in(:lud,ng h,S fncn (l Iho unorthoJux Gram",i
Mos", cou ld not embrace" ha' hc {hough, a ".buluu, la" of di. lectics {o
,'Plain the I.", nf h"'oncal dt,e!optttcIH. coold ".\'Or .<cort {h,S
IJ" ufl."", " hich p"senlN ilSClfas {hc ti m1 arbiter of.. hal w"' ,uper
"i1l0us and what W", ",i< nt i(,<.'<
M."
J"<obin h m and Anti-Jatobinism

Gra""c,' rC'I"""o 10 Ihe .ngry len" published by G"ioo and Ferrer<.>
"t email/I" ,\'''''' dunltS the ir di,pmes in thc su nlmeT of 1920 dearly
'rei' <JUt hi, mdo"cmont Oflhc ",10 ('-Co ,00>" . p. 166).1 " ,I he "ro{e
{10m anyone" ho m3ln!ained a
oo{ ncce,,",y carry
"''' the fO"olu,ion CD,""pord<,1"" tl>c political Ie'cito a charj,'an ononng
po!oOll "'aler 10 a >ic!om of{yphus," Ilo"e\Or, "h,lc Gram>c i',
\ ie"." ,night 'pp<ar transporont. thi, bog, the 4u"stion "" to ", ha' tYJl'< of
"at. ""
;,lOt< Md In m,nd To .. ""I . _,,"'" d,d hI> DOO-ideah'il and ""","'Ii, is.
d.,h ""h lbe ofobe Ikolsh<:' Ik Whal .I,d G",m",i
mean by ,he dlCla'on./o ,p of ,be proIelana,' J JoJ" dId hi. ,n'Orpre!3t'on or
",'olu"o",,'Y mo,"'''''''LI on W""em Europe "' "'ell as ,he BoI.hOl 'k
Rn"lu'ion In Russia .lTee. h" OWn ""ncep'oali"""n of lhe stare'
Sm"e 'he: pe",eplion' c"ol,'ed dur ing lhe penoo 1917 1920, "" ,0<) d iJ
Gra m",i's "i,h li!>erla, i. .. , aboul IhI: Nlc nf Ihe alhei'
hi, unonhodo> but M... " , posi,i,," !IC"rt allowed h,m to "i<pcnse .. ,,10
'he
of tho .ta'c or ,ho d i.... 'QriI"p of 'he prole"'''''
II'oge,ho .
In ,h,. !.lIon of ("""pier Fi,. I ... ,11 employ ...", thomes 10
tho ., O/U,,,,,, of Ciraft'l!<:i. land hi!; 1""'0'"
1M role of
,ho SlOl. Firs!. Gram",,', notion of Jacobon,sm <""nItS drastically from
,ho WI , years to 1920. J><ob'ni""" I key concq>lUIII bcnchnu'l.
"tI,,'h how Gramsci". pol""" bec.",e mon: alllhofnan:>n_Se<ond.
juS!", On anuh",I"" r<Yo lu, i"n i. b)' ," <>pp(>Sito. SO 100 do(-,
Gram",i', " I' RUSSi"n .vena ,h .. au,ho ri" ri'ni,m
On lhe One hand, Gram, apP"'I""',d "ari(}U.iw:,.",.Io, ","mples and
thonl e" fro'n furop<an and '\onh An>:ncan . ..1)'
to bil coulICil contntuniStn; ... hile on lbe ott.:.""nd. 'an"," """Oic,i,,>! Polish WUrt'" him ,n a
Lnum;.t d'=IIOIl Oy!he aUlumn of 1910. ,,'i,h ,he de'.a, of'ho f:>e1<>ry
cOlt"",1 mo, m>en . and ,ho need for "'PPOf'Im of.ho So,-ieI RepublIC '0
f'fI<Iorse rhe Coommc-m', PoiniS. U"""", d"",rded nlOS!
h,; "Mi.Jacob;",,," . .... en ,fho ,I"",ys a ""hor hoterodo.
L en ,n,,' ""'nt",n '"
E\O n " 'a,""r ca,",1 re"""ng "fGra",,, ,, carly wn, in", .. ' e. I, """lrJ
dict ion' in hi5 a'IlIJ."ob,""m; or><! lJuose bome grtotC'
'" "'on' inf""""'ioo .bo", ,ho poli'ics "i' hi n .he 110>1>11<" Rn .. i. bee ... >:
3' .. "'b k 'n h,m. In an}' case, lho lonn "a, no! firs' used In Ih.
of
Ru .. ian poh, ....; ralhor. n"Jacobin,,," defined ,ho cultura l bet.., KJU.
pa"c-m, e,hib"cd II)- 1.&110 on'.IIec....1> lie lrlIn,f=td Sorer.. ("rocc',
Of So" om ini', Cn!!" ...... of on,JdIedau 1lt"""It"""l Ind or rtpublican
"''''''gogucs !<IltIOllltr
1\, .. e h", S<:efl. tho 00""" "f free .houghl "-''' usctllO cn,icin hbernl
. ,Id an.",his's ' Masoni,' imdl",'"" I,. bu, Gra",,,,, Wop1<d .nd
Croce', ""","n" of 'he be ha< io" , of Ihe Fr<n.;h Jacob,", ,()".,d,
'he
lIi sto",o ll )'. heobi,,;.m rtprc..,nl.d ,he coercion "f'he
pe .... nl!)' by lho ","\emon'I" and ccnlral '''"g i,a,. raking h IS cue from
S>"'e",;n,'$ Gram",; idenltfic..l '" ,ho bu'taucrocy of Piedmon .
e>petially In i", Jo.::oblnocallOClhod. adopIcd _,hem and ,ns"lar
"",1<""
Oft
,1I"s'"".
"""'e>,
"Oft,""
pe"'""'I)'.
-198
,ho,
pel'<al\l' policies
und.:-muo>ed !he robc<LOIIIond lqI'imacy <>f,ho pOlI .ute. Thu . lO.he e"enl ,hal boIh ("n"". in h" pohe ....
and h,;; enem,es. in 'heir ":lie ofm,nd . hart<! ."'U3C' OO1,on,
(If n"', and wron, ,hey mon: oh !'foblem ,h.n a ",Iu' ;on to ,ho
en;i, Oflho I . bcobonosm'. GronllC' Wr"OIC ;n 191 ;n fu""", .",,< k
upon a fonner h"ro ofanli.Jacobi n,'l1
i,. "'"",.."" '''''''' ofh,,,,,,),: " .I... ,.,,<p<>n<I, in 01><".""0"'- . ,, 1,
0\'11"<,,,... ".....}'. shod<. who<h '., .I>o<1'u''''Y. ....... "'"

,n hi.."",,, r""". ,,,,,,,hcn _'",,,,., "coonrJ<:t<d ">' .... I'u,.' rneo>",,,",
..1Ii<:h ",ep...."cd on ItaI) by G.<tmo So"""u,,, md has g"= Ill"" 10

..... of fA ''''T,Q !!Ie PO" .no! L .. the: prc;.tn,
""'" ",I,m.{ _ioni"" -.x" (rom ,he: """"_ rom.. of"""""",,,
,no! po,,,,,,.1 I,' ....J proposeJ In _
time ...... 5f"'<O _ .."
<1Hb up be,n.
1<1<,1,..
",,,,,ian"
Thl5 <ll:f1nll'''''. I..,,,,, .. r. "., nut n>:rdy employed to dd,ne"'" h,;;

libeml' on lhe "lIh, oflh. !-I:>i:,.I0,,,_Dun"1I
,he I'l l 1"""00. pe.jorati ... u.-ge of' boob,n"",' "., '0
<11:",01"' .. '" "ha, Russian Ik,.::oluuoo and domes" c faclory c(}Unell
mo'"emml .. not. HoIO .."...-. tit" ""'.... I.lftlChina mll ily to sui'pon"",larl)" d,m"ul, f",,'" ,hon e""'rgina from RuulI For ,ns!3lltt, Gram..,,
J,J "'" .ondemn ,ho di.solu'ion of ,he C""'tllucn, A .... nlhi) b)' ,ho
BoI.ho, ;kf bec. use ho o.gtted ",tit lO11,n', J""tJfiea,ioo
,ho ("00
""",,n ' A.."mbly Iec'ora'" had no! fa i,hfully "'tImed tho
"hange, ,n Ru>s, . thai had occurred . ine. ,he 'Pllng "f 1917_Accord,"!
to Gra,"><,. I d,uol", ion of Ihi ; <kmt>Crallcal ly .""Iod body" . , 1101
hcohini"al w,u"'lh" Syi"m of """'ct, ,he.l and fUlU.e
""JO/i'y in """'d)'. ""
Gl;tnng <I"'I""'"" ioo. ofllll. """ can be found PCJ'p"",d ,n hi; ..-nlIDp
,hrougt>Ou, ,he ro5.fO_ hen I.,. I. J Sept.mber 1920. Gr.o,nsri
published an anlde .",ollin!!. the ,,nlle> of. Jacobin"",1 ("omm"''''1 ran).
the f<)llo" 'ng <Ii} be .... meJ 10 mum '0 hiHII.l<f thorne of an" )",,,<)/).
,niral c"",,,,,, I,,,,,. fa, ling '0 mrnIiool ,ho ",Jt, of'ho P.ftj- a, all .. ll""e'C1".
b) ,ho end ofSept.",be,. "hen ,ho OCCUp"UOll of,he (..".";,,, >ccm<:d Ioe'
foo de ,h, and tilt , . n"", faction, of ,ho PS I ""re p"" .."ng lhe,,,,.. hcs
f.-" '''''nci,1.11 ,,,,,n,,,,., L" .......,. Gn,,",,: , d,,,,I'ytd fe,oc""" Jacobini,m.
perh.ps f" nhe, inflmled by the r "b li cOlion (If thc li,c""'(Jlle P"III'S
OJIII<>S,to,," w,ho
-=
,ha,
"nom."...
""'"""""01)' """'<men' "". ooiy \>0 !wed "" 'k< rr<>""",,n \OngLJU<l.
L">d""", he: kd
",thou! pt.woomWo"......,thw, tho _n" of

"Ir,,, m.... II< trII""'<l} I"<l"mI b}
",. a<.emblo. Itolu,"",,, I,ke
'"
by ,Ioe Army', ... ff

b., . I..... y taJ,;"" pl.IT. <..I, the ."",,<s.f" ,
.rod ""r,,,,.b'y """,,b ,Ioe un,u,,, ... f"1 It .. ,ho .. , . of ,"" I"0le"",.
I .n ...ro 10 ...." ,1>0 ",,,oiu,,,,,,.ty SP'''' <0IISIaI'I'))' II in ,he: ",. ....... to
tho " ...."".,. b", b k""ll !hom oudy for
hich "'" p>Ieu,.,ot.
.. ,II
'0 ,"" ""II for mo'OI,,,,,."
. ..
"",T. I""
A.,..",bh., ",11 ".. ly noU fy
00f<,I"
p.qr<d
.. ,
act_ '" .
,,,,mod,.'eI)'
Befort the r"mrl'""r Po",,,. for Gram"" ,"" Ru"'.n R.... oIUlion W3.$
reah",,,on of"Jeal,,;I phil,>OO(lh) In one early ar1icJe "" related a,.... """"..
!qIOI1 of hew. ,"" common mm"'il ",m.. .., of. Russ ... n .1';1 ",m,,, ... d
IInpnlo(lllCd .'On
Ililtl'S had fled For Grarnsc, thl< .n
<... mple of the:
,I0Il of ' '''' Kan, i.n impm" " '" "hln
,"" spm, of ''''' R"s.",,, R 0' oJu" on dunng "'" 5pI1ng of 191 - aller
,"" Oc'ober Re'olo."on. "" publ"hed I moral d,alogue on
hm,u'ions
of ""I" ,d ...1 f1'Ndorn and ,he "'""",) for ea.:h ,nd"'o<I,,,1 (n <or",dor
,he <ffec{ ofh" ","on on ''''' .ollec,i, ")'. In I more ,hc:ore1ical '."', in
Ju,"" 191'1 II(' dt..,,,bW ,he hber.1 ..... t. ". "b,.h o'.r, ""zen i. a
SftS in 0Ihe:1"J .... m, .. 10 <lril. do ... n or ""brnn to h,s
_The h,ghe, "<$ ofk",e .n.! solidon!} are di""I,-..1 Ind "'Placed
by 'COInpe{,,,on. ,he p""",,.1 f<>un<ia"O<! o f.1I hu .... n ,oeiety', ,he
ci'iu" bomes. 'r<c" leiS .nd d"J""n'ed ,nd"',d,,,,1' " ho " od"f, from
an) soc,al ntOO<,ngJ. In So, ,tt Ru,,,. ,he ,nd" ,d""h,,," ofll", I)"
and Itlt< h3d bn by I <011" ,,,,, <.. ""pera",o
Thu, , 1110 1> by ',he <omrade ' , soci.1 i><>laoion .. n'plaeN
by "'l!"1111311V<l, Til< flO'" " " "",,m!> the oklor ooloful efl'""ts of' freeJom'
The OO,ni'll"on of ,he ca J"lol1>l;. ,,' 'he 'he "",hhop is 'li m"ed' 'The
wtJtkr' OO"'lU<<5 JOnIO effec'i,. fr'ffdo m. It "
long.r "'" . g. in>! "II . '"
ThO' col lcem'iSl bill ,.,hrr libe".';.n '"'.. pr.totion o f tho flol,hOl'ik
' "'OIUlIOn ",cm, hanl to reconc ile wl1h . I."i.ol Len inism . I 'hall now
' um '0 II><
q""'''oo orho" ,nuch Gram;.ci Imow of len in " poloti 1
1hOUII "'
5ond h,lf of 1920. T "'0 PO'"" .hould be Slf.ssed
!'",Iy, I{ I,'as{ un,,1 I.,. 1920. he "'eleorned any ... Wi from Ru;,i. tha,
,ndl< . led ,I"" tlOO Il" '!hc" k suck ,he a".rch ,S!> or ,he Left
S<;.:, .h Sl R,,o lulion. ncs. "cr< I"<l'-'red 1(> <ul'P"n (he """ regime. and
>ondl). I cl<lr .mphl , .. by Granul}' of . he
Coonmunl> ' !'ony ""I)' oeeu""", ,n late 1920 or eHn early 192 1' J
The
f""'gmtm of L .... m1 "tJtk
Gram""i krKW was hi. le"e,
... n llen to ."",her G. I Slflro, ,n 1916 and published in II
G,."I" Pupu/oJ as '11 \ '"", Pe",icro di Lentn,(, The True Thor!Mh' of
L"",n) (25 AUlluS! 1911/1 5<p<omher 19171. Later ,n 1918 he published
frall""""S of lm,.'. Sf><t, ..... ,.. :-''''10 of these thrtt .reid..
,Ilt"
,,,,,,,'1',....
t""
,w,
,.,t\l
Ix""'" 'no
,ILt,
f,,,,
. 2M
the . ,duI"'< m i. <If. ,'anll"anll"'''Y In fae . ... ".., h. ,.. !-C<n. Grnfns<:i
wos ,fu,' y .1I .... 'ed to 1.00"n '\ more hbcnanan-lne h" ...kontradts ",'hin
the P.n y "loClf
Thc:u ...."e.II). ono can the <""ne ilis1 Len;n o f alUl
" "h,he openly Jacobin Lentn of Irhw ;5 10 "" Done' When
did G"",ms.; 1"0'" ,hese how did he imcrpm Granu<'
r,1SI bee."", KqWI,n,ed ... uk 1I"1uJ11S W be 'hrough <he oClltUl'lOnW)l
Rlppopon, Rappopon Ru,,,an J .... "''''' had li,cd in
r""'nc(
1890 Or'S, ... l1y I lriond IlJId supporter of Cerno' .nd the
R.,-oiuI""",,". he """",""",he: Z,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,1d '""''''''''''' dunna:
,b,,,,.,,,and wasdose'" ,he lirOw""...... group. Ahhougb h< ",as.I,,""
oomc1b,"S of I he ,n fac-t JOIned the Ft<n<h CommUniS! Pony
ond r<cmamed a It1(mber un,,1 hIS friend BuUwin ".". e. ecu{ed ,n ,I><
"f1C.
G=, l'ulics 01
Gram..,i published scI..".1 an.del. by Rappoport in 1/ Gndo del PopoIlJ
In 1918. litre Rappopon reponed on tbe d"-,sooo>,, ,dun Ft<n<h soc .. l"",
and oonlnbu,ed an tm.m"ng
of PI. 1to.ano, .... h,.b had bet"
publIShed in I S .. OS> IIC .. La,.r, Rappopon hinted at "'" 'Jacob,"'
I .n in in an In,oIe p ubli <hed ,n L '"".,ro. ",'her<c h.
,be nt! ror .nIlJl.h,.ned e"to '0 k:od ,he pIlS$". mal""'} lhrough to a
"..-s.ful re,olu1i<on ," In h nwoty 1920 Rappopon r<"P"ned d",,,,,ly on
port""
"""oed
II
i,
1<1 ""

Ahik>ugh Leonardo Paggi aoo Ala<1air D..',d"",
cI. ,m ,,,,, (Omm,." OO",ngrodcJ II>< ,mpoManeo o f the to", nt,'onloelo"

R' Pr<>I""1 l1". Lenm'j ,do.. . dean b,ll ofhe"l!h.'>J L,nm's pamrhlc"
Rappop<>n o.pl.m;, "as a ""I ha", 0" ",,1 "" fdunn,,,,, . "hoch "as ,he
fIT,t ,.', '0 . 11,h. ' ''''ti ol b'or to b< .,,,,,,i,,.d ""h I.eno"s "."'"
The ' rgum<n, <If II 'hm If '0 M R.pf'Ol'O" o-'pl.on",' '0 h'$ ltaio"n
... os .",,,,1 u, COtn"'''''II 'km,tton ', fc"om""n and re,'olu"""ar),
,y",hculI"" A """I u",," nc,d,'!!. h odd.d. ' ,i, olul;o!lan qu.li no.,,
j IIlme-ly g'oup' of men who only I, ,,,, for {he
"",,Iullon Rlppopon . Iso "",. lIod his 1;", ",,"h t en,n on Pan'
dut,ng {ho <.fly 1900. , I or " "' Iho. firS! onOOJo.'
M.nc'I' he h:Id ",<t ",ho unrese-r.-edly CTIIIon.od (he II<" "Y for ,n'Um:< '
,,"" .... "llOu, b<I1IM . fn,d of be,nll de-n/)und OS BI.nqu,'L AI",.
mloresultsly, Rappopon "",n,,<;ntd ,n I,al)' fo.- ,"" fiTSl
len,n',
r ......... ' . ,ork, on Lunarrhanky .",1 Bogdaoo', .' en ""WIYlnS " P""'''
<>fI.:",p' __
'0 h,. r<codol1
In hIS ()'IIo'n "'I)' GI1Inu<,
wrno of R"r9'por<"$ repon on lmm',
thou"" On 201"koe-mbcr 1919. rmn><nIinl! "" It" .. ..." by lm,n to
Semi". (O,a","". "",cd,haI Len'" ernphasiLe-d 'he- ,mportance of prof<: ....
soonal or as I>< PU' n. 'n,ohuoonari qtJ:Ihr,cati. ""hich or
t,,"".
""cl.I'"
""
Gram ...i ,,"" 1M Arwrrhifl.l
eoo,se ""b hIS pwduc,;\ ;\' ;<koJogy, Sl,lled

W"'" liknod '0 w",ken o( the (.Clory ew",," mOl em.",.
.herofo", .. r.,'olu,i on"ies th. ",.d"ne' of the re,ol u"OI1,
."d Ihi' "'SJ'OO,ible '1\Crl. flO!" merely 'H>l310r:1
(;r.urucian prof'>!i>OIU1 ,.,ol",,,,,,.ry WU """ sc,.ntiflC """i.li,. in
,he: Kn><:
he r.l1SaJ oxoOOm'!oI,c ,,,,h.strial .0 the k' ,I
o(""'olo"",,,ry M.n. .. m_ Ra'htt .he 'ri, olulionano qu.hf",",o help<d
word.I1Me '1',1"'" of wun,,,I. The h,'lOn cia". like Ihe
""" ing cI.s,." worldwi<k. "" .ddcd. h'l'e unders,ood 'hat IOC 11\"-,'"IC
o r lhe ""oIU"011 lIthe 'yste", of coo""il, ,'00 Ilo"ev<r. by ju"" 1920
th" full unporul""" of 111.:11 ill" ..... """,,,' oomncd e' IdenI "''''''' boo' ""'\
..."oonl of lenIn'. hf. "" publo_hc:d by LOrd",. ,\'"",,,, .,' ZitlOl IC'
do<.cribod I...."n"." IS -.hI: b,ble oflllt molOmtnl" In O<'ober !910
Rappoport
'0 'he same 5"bJoel '"' By
G..",sc, 11$0<1 a more
."tllont""a" in"rvrelOlO<.>o as ""'mo"" io" in hi' b11lcr q UaI",1 wilh S<mlll
and the m,\lm,hr.t"
K""" ledge of 1M S'"k "Old ""' 1'001 ""idc<pn:ad on hal),
un,,1 lbe ,urn"",,. of I 920. an<l Gnun"':l h""",lf probably did It(lIll,,,,,, of
" on"II.,c ,n ,he 'Pf'"I, The "ou'".n .'l"'lri01 . r"", W........ w oil ...
Ihe "mlic.li>1 _i.Io,1 Lnneo l ........ in,isted on ils imJ>Oll in
i" the
pointod 10 Ihe w, "" a, an ,,"Iltul io" that eou ld
.non:h"I' and ..xi.h,r,. wh il e Gr...,,;ei . 1Id l ogli." i l"n,l>led
il from frtt><h arid published" 'n July, to, lOlha,,; .nd Gram"" had
".nlrd 1o lr.Insl.,. 1M and .. Jj"" a. Slo.r and Ii.....m'.
"h,eh pH n much rrealOT H,,!!cbao flol'<''''. ho ... ,he st e
holp<d '0 dc, 01"1' g,.ate, [rdim, on CO' ,I soc, .. ;- Ind<!. in a" .",dc
ent illed . St3 10 t
Togliall , ""Ied Ih.1 l."ins work dem"" ,lrulcd
how. "",i.Ii,t ita.c. ba>cd on , .y>lcm of eooo<ils. coold tm"""nd bolh
.narch"l ",<>pi., and 'he C""'CmPOrl")' liberal ... Ic C""'Iucnng'lalC
pow'..-. "uher ,han aboli'hina ,lit ,Ulc form compklcl). "<><lid tTl facl
. .. lit<, fr<lont of au'<JnoonOU> ",.tustri31 Ofi>n,ulion_ (II
cr.ar!) the ",ew.g .. "'e" rd horn /!-1!m is to br nO'h' > and Th"
,,,,d d,d "ot pr.senl I coh.nom ""cOOn' of Uni"i,m. bUI ,uch
<onl",<lidory "I",ulk. of Grum ...' Ind Ih. Imlm"","i ,oword, Ihe
leni"'" mtrd)' ",noeled .I\(or uo<ou,ntics .bool "hal in fac, ""'"
harJ>crunl! ,n Ru .. AI.hough man)' R"","", III ed ,n c.ile ,n Italy bofon:
lhe war. and Lenon bad bttn Lno..n II\roup.""idn ,n 'lu...,I0",,
'" 1911. in 1917 the Soci.list Re,""luhon' r),. S<JCl>ontlin (. Junior) h.d
Sorra u, chief Ru,,,.u co".spoode nl "" A.dh" ,10' ;,Iur.lly
<;.;.ci.lo" RnolullOl,a,y rothe, Ih,n H.,I_he,',k mterp!1.111100 o f l!1<- Ru"bn
re\,olullon "U olftred '0 rca..k ... ! or on 11 July 19 17.
.ha,
"')I'
""".-ned
,,",J
hbot"..
1><:,,,,,,,.
ru,""'r ,""" l ..."n...... descnbod by Gram",i IS Ihe loader oflb<-

on Ru.. ia. "Ihough I.enin ",-u coosidered an impo"1l11 p;>thfin<kr In lhe
,<,'oluti on,ry [,cn ;n h" f."",u, 1'1", Re,'olution
C.pi.ar. pubh,hed in 191 7. G.. nud '''''O<'f'Orn!rd SociaJ; $l
R"""lullOMry ttlllCi ..... of on"""". '1arxi<.m. "oold recall
wnh bm('TJlC<S how Sam,':1 COOIK1 bad mi.1ed hIm for ...,m moo,1Is '.'
A """'" Imporu"' "'n ...... c on Gramsci "-a!' W'zne<. IhI: R"I"","
Polish fello"", of It"", who la'cr bcocamt. Comi"lO", agenl.
He Ii"cd in Ilaly from I'l l II" 1924 and" o.ked in ( ;e n,-", and "ron " a,
.:hn,",an. fo' the "",st pan for l tal Lmler llw: l'S"u.Jollym, Eslkk
an<l 'Mol7yn' be I"'bh'iltrd itries of a rt,,,,., m lhe Tonnesc .ooci31i"
press II", collec,rd and .ruulllni for Gr.lJlt>c' OOcumo:n'" Oft I'oh,h
.ffa,rs _nd Russian RCI'olu"Oft. lIi5 IttOSI In'pon.n, "",d.., "c",
Torero d, LeninTLc""'s \\or\(.) (1 4 SqH"n.bor 1918. /I G'i,l" del
P,-,poio) .nd . C",1I lu,' Ono Sol ;el1i,," (" The So, COll5lilUllO"
May IQI9.1. ,\u<),"l. both rr<l'iOUily (.-cdltod '0 GramKi. bul
c'-en he lr.IIlbIed an IlllCk Ii'om Pr-avdtJ on lhe Wlte of the Itl&lin
_rmy on StpIember 1917. in "hoch Gnrmsci ltdmi11rd W,IlIe SoIshe,
lhe: ml)O! fom. bohlnd lhe d"integralion of Ih,s f<>tJ'JIC' p,IIM of
pow.... ,..,
\\\z""r". in G .. m....,'' J,>eU;>,oo 8""'J'S help<d 0",,,,,,,
<k ... I<>p m.ny oflhe majo, ilk,! of LOr/liM SUQ,,,,, Wi,ott'. 'Le,,,"',
"3, published I anya Kaplan$ un,<;ce>.f,,1 ,lte"'pl on
lenin', 10k .nll-Jacobin'"" W"'" ,"nltar '" G",m'l<i5 SiDtt W'I1II"
arguro 1h..1 "_rl.n bad bobo"ed 101." Jacob,n!c.1 f..... "', L<'n,n "" 00
"'apolwn, raIl\(, he W,O> ,he uu.,.., of lhe RUS$lan prolCla nal I\( "'..
f"S! amongst equal. 100
\\Iz",r". ", 11 """". 0" O,omICi wo. m."l\(d by ' he onton 0,",""" of
;e,'o",1 ",Iocr ami POl., ... ilhm lbo 1131i.n fOCl.h>! mo, cmenl
during.he n:wo_ Indttd. by ,be 'JX1ng of 1920 111 open debale
lkyeloped bet" ..... '''0 fac,i"", ofConnnrrm 'gC't115 in lllll}, Onc group
,opportrd whik .he ",hct s..ppor:ed lhe
In ... mocb
.s the pro.S<rr.lti ilrouP
the Iuprem.ey oflhe pO"Y "'--., lh. ""''c.
'" f:>Otory (}",ocil. B-o,dig.l endo,><d Ihei' ,tand, Fo' hi, P'''. L"ntn.
appttCia.,.,j DontbKei, lies ""h I'"m. M,ni,tor "ill, and O1l\(rs In
ltO'''''nmcnl ... "",an, 10 al
_<t:lblo.h """"""", .. I ",b.ions ""h
althouglt pm.. ",I), lenin callrd him I boarded IIn!>ttolc _ In 1919.
and up '" ,b. 'umnle' of 1920. Ooonbacci and Scmrlo na"nlrd
,,"h Lenon and II\( Russians 10 "'Ole poin" .ga'"51 .ach other. So Ihe
.arly Co m,",om ....1S used to '1<1ll1. pc,,,,nol by ,he Iw" Ic.d "'g
Italian ""'''111:110,,,, 'lI',,1
rm/""",,",
"",.sed
Ie_"
20.1-
T h o< cunOU> Ih"t .,Ieaol unll l 192 I lhe C QItlinlem

d ,d nol ha, pl.n
\\",h tht le ft. II al so ",Yeal,
Iht '''ent
of a rouih ,ltd ,ead y "I"rali 'm of ""inion< Iha, ex" .. d
"ilbin the RU;'>I"" <Iornu13led in'ema'ional 0'll.n,zallon all.a <l ,n thi,
n"" of de,'.IOIl<""nl "". ('I' 'hl1 m.U" d,d Gramse; support
e'"Ct)'lhittll "hkh .,,,,,,,",ed from 5o;,,'"k, R""'i;I. Altbough
ht CtIdoI'Kd the 0.,10\:10. ,",um":1""', 1M d,...,lution of .he ConsUl".,,,
A<;s<mhly and len,n' d"l.llOHh,p. he ncHrthe .... m;OJ;nt2ed ,hallht",
"en: """"' .. d,ff=nces I n)(tng" lhe RoI",",,', k lude" th<m<rh <"S. Fill"
,"<lance.... "n ."'.'" I t ,he ,ime that uti Communi", "I'J'O'CII ,...
lIrt"Stlu, (>S1 unl). "en
T pro-leninist
""h Bulharin', DfII'IH'u"" LO , ... "s"",,,,,,nl, In 1919 Gram""
cnllC"ed O"d,.nn' 11I..,.,p"s .' OI)Cn,ng up ""8"1 '. 11 ..... " 'Ih the Well
on , ..... land of P"n$..ipo beeauSt ,I appeared ,ha,,'" So,jel negoci.'1lI"
S.. , 100 many concoSlioru 10 (o""ln captt.Ii" . E.-en lhough ...
n"",gni70d 11 ,. as a "al<. So".. Ru ..i. had ", ClrTY OUI d 'plom,me
"'\1<'4'.1","1. ht ... >011 ....... "IS".,. prq'lOmJ., Ib ,. It"'" to

polic'es 'hat "QUid
be assoc,.ted
Len,n ', norm:oli.l.al;on of
flll"e '8n ",I.IIOIIS and Ihe NEP '"
Tht dcl>.:tlc b.,wttll T.,..,....,t and 'M, lanesi" CIH1l:lIIem agents ce111,w
on Iht issue ofwha, " '1' "",ant b)' Ih" dtClalonh, p o f
proletariat. The
ro. i""St group ,,,,,11IIk<1 1><>1 01 .0 JeRY Ilcn ryng (who s,gned h"
anicle, b R>'''8).' 1'" Ii.h eng'''''''' wh.o had tl'oJ " ' It. ly , 11"" 1905
A< a of MOfJ!.lri he had helped "'ga ttile demonstranon, during
Ihe pre"'"' ,iI i, of the T." '" Ita ly 0".1 lale. inte'!''"ted ,he specd... "f
lhe Sov,e, d. I'Wltton " ", mll thei, 8r pe,ra n<e. ,n Tun n in 1917. Whil e
l!c nf)' n8 tt'' 't>laI,-J nIJ rty of,he firs' !'agmcnl$ "f l."mn 's "'riling> '0 ",..,h
I, " Iy ' n laIC 19 \ ? early 1918, h. Gram",i . nd Se".ti the disti ""t
"npression
,h. qu ...... I. be,,,,",,n lhe Uv\,he , the Me nsheviks and
Ihe Social'" Ro' ".re 1<$5 se riou' lhan 'hey wCTI: in realil ,
. J"",O('. S\,pponro an athall<.-c of S-ociali>\ k eYol"li"na.ie.
and and Ihl>. ' . ""
i<lenl in mIlCh o f G ... mse,,
"m,ng' ,t"$ "onod
n..e other of Gram"", 's I"'>"""t ".'" ,llI"tt Bolshevik, wh.o
Im"N d,reclly froln ' he cI'il'''aHom Uk""ne in 1919 ,

Alex;.an.l.ro, ie DegOit. Sofia h",,..,,,,u (Fkn.o) Sololo,. la .. and
l)an,,1 Riedfl They bad "orI<<:d cla""""" ... ly tn ,ht Ulrai .... in 1918.
."" "i,h ,Ite Fn:""b .ynd",al", Ma",el Brod),. had ..,.,ght In di ... rr""t
r "'rtch sa,lan and rna,i...., ba5td ," ,he eri"",a.' I'
On.- of !be moll impo<Unl eontnbultOlli Ih" group of Ru"ianl .nd
rotc. P' e 10 I. 'o..J",. ,\'""", ""I undoub(<:dly fi ..."".. l T1Ic;r donation
f".
PfC"'"'
,f'" .""f,,"'"
1.,.,
PO<"_
",,h
,h.
,It"
""I'" """". "..,
'''r<:
>G'
in ea rly 1920 probably kept the Journal .lIoot.nd G ram",i ledged

il in lhe la.1
of JonUll)', ," A lth.ough Ihi. group distrusted Scmui ",
"" u"",loable .arnSl. by 192(1 he had found hIS OI'n bac ker, 'l ,colai
\bri.o' ie I iubar<ky ('Corio ",,;coi,ni") , "a"od to contributc
1(1 j'''nfl' 191 g and ,n 1919, II. ""bloW:<! h;"g",phi<05 of len,n artd
underl,mng the
of ,he 10""'- fill" til, dc\Clopmcn' of
'he Ru.s'Jn Rc'olulton ,n 191' ' In tbe autumn of 1919. uling rnor>c)
ioWhcd hy lhe ('OIII'"tcm, he .lIOned Ihen""",,,1 journal in
C_"n",.." Although Scm" "al otfkially ,/Ie ed"",. in f"'" Ljubarsl)
c<lnIrollctl cdtlorul pol",), "'" ooly d ,d C"",UnlS_ rq>rinl much ".luable
tn(onn.",on on ,he Rohb< .. ,kt; " also beeantO' , ... chief "I'JK"'ition 'o.he
b)' _,."ng , ... " "',.sy "ilh syndical i,m. In an anld.
published ,n December 1919. ljubar<k}- noted that RUSSIan f""IO<)'
coo"",11 had hecn ihon"Sh'ed. '1"",,"'01 ond und,;c,phned illllilUlion.
n:qUtrC"\! lhe i",da""c Oflhc
and the ccntn! I""emm"'" on
on\<. '0 run and m:on.l1,,.;,. damagJ tndustrial H. oJ",
a'-Stn;>d. .. Ilh lhe full en,bul''''", !o<tppOr'I o(Scmll i, ,hal ,he dlctalOlSh,p
of Ihe prol"."JI ""11M eonscious d ,.... IOf>h,p of the Socia list Pany. I
\\ h,l. Sordiaa. from hi' own pc-cu ha, ",,"tion. "a, ple ... d lha, ,he
Russ .. n Bobhe"ks ellliorscd hil ido.... Grarmci. 'UWOlled by hI> own
Con>,",om . ci4ttncd ,h) , '-";iccohn;' was m'Sla ken. ".Ithoug h
III>! "" .. , ,t1O(\. ing G ram",i O,'ct th" ,,,,,,dent '. Iso Com rade
"";cu i",, l>n "f.,led" b)' Gra",,,,, Olt 'lit ,hwIy and " raeltc. of the
I'h i,J Intc"""o" ,I' , " Rt odel tlttcnonod tn prt nt in May "nd in support
ofGr.lm ... i l1tc 1\,Ie 1and ' Nic<olini' had been grow 'ng
1,>< >orne " me, In "'jII",1 while Riede l soughl to support t lte P,od,nonl
by "n lt><<cssfll ily '0 otc. to "mili ' . ry = Iion
WLl I" " ,h. 1",01 PSI b.. noh in Tutl n , 'N;cco li",' .upported Se rrati',
; h,,,,n tng of Ihr:sc
" "U,t:!,' ' "
(;r.",,c,. we!$C\l the lenin o f the Apn l and rM
u"d R... olwlo" In ,h. ""nit ' P"" , Gran,;ci .. "i , le 'lll< rJ rty and
Rr'oht"""" di"""ly "',pot><lod \0 :;.eml; . and Niccolini', ""nl.-n,i"" tha,
,he dOCI8I<>r>1"" of ,he prol''''''1 " ,,. the <on",ious dictator>h,p of ,''''
;0< .. 1011 pany
"'tIC
'mpofI""""
",J""",<rI
..,,,ct.
.J,
Tho Pori) """""" tho l'""'IIi""""' ..... Ih.. mas> """-=>ml

.n<!
th< row
of d,C1>''''''',fI'i. a dtct.ltoHl".,p I=<d on
. on "'" ....... ""'. and " " " " _ "'fII*J"'< of." ,1\.0,
,.. . ... _ " ,nd.<pon ...... ,flh<II
to be acromp:'.tK-<I. I, """Id
be d, ... _
-=",,_ OOOIttJOIIOIl tho mk to the ",,-o[ul>On
"""" to
,il<
that th ..
haol ...... 11\ HSWnCd a

","I !he <)-..<'11
_In.,. ' h< '""'>eO """""""" load
m....,
.rr"",,,.
.''"''''>t.
,r"
rot:\\.
m,w"" ..
d.,rn
ro.
of
"""",,,'u,
20S
.n ....cd.. "''''1 f"",,, Of jmO'>C'oli.1< po .. ..,.. f"",inS the r<IOIUlion>ry proces.

mlo the fOnru oftl>rt)-- The mul' ....,.,Id be 10 d"c" Ml<'<e<>fulll 0 ""mbet
of men. 10 -ma5t<r' hoItor)-, buI the lUI rtloIu,OCIfW} rox' ",,,,,)d dip [rom
lIIe ronI",", ond "'fiucnco o(lIIt pari). "'luch ",..,."d _ , o u d ) bcrornc."
orpmoJ; 10 Russ '" or< no IQlllI"r r"lICliooing Rdormlm In
II", CG L '" ere ""I 'low III I"'mllng 10 Ill< """,.hl)" of G",,,,,,,j', claIm,
boul IIIe !'Ower of in<!umi,1 m RU<Sla In ,he ,um"",'
of 1920 Biandi "'ported 1"010 !hl! Ih. f1l<"lol)' c"," ""I, had
""",0 ,O"btl<"<l _. rho d,"''''''''.'. I>< eonu rtLtod. , h... SfOUr of yOllng
intellecl"" I, cany out aboul Ihe (,. 101)' c"" 'tC,l. an<! Ihe i' '''''''relical and
h iltoncal funcllon,
larel by no'" by Russ,a n . ' ['<'i
enet" ", One of G",ms<,. fi.", ... loX31 opponen". Guam .. n. In,
,"' .... d ,uppon..- of Koll""",,'1 WQt1>;..,, Qrposi,ion II ,he In'ernallonal
\ It,,,l ... od ... Fffi ... lion . . ,n C"""" ""gon ,n July 19.w ",hen:
ht II", ndidl) admined lhal Ih. fX10f)' COI<lIClls had
mm:
op['<ndag of ,he uni",",'" I urthrm"lOl". the dOl'n(,!! of
lIuno;anan So"", Rq>ubhe ... I"nbuted in la'll. pin by Gmn..c, 10 II><
10' .mment". i!1lbl1il) 10 controllhe
and >1""hcaIiSl illCli",,
lIOn. of ,he Hungarian ,""'" un)()/\, lnoked. ,h,. exampl. ""os u!-Cd b)'
(ita"'",, l<> d",,,, a d"","'llOn hrlw n lhe 'Il",,,m of old-!.,h,or>ed
>In,h<",h,m and ,h. allnu>m of ,,,,",,,,,Ibm. bt" 11 "'IS al'" C'-em""Uy
omploy<"<l 10 juslify Ihr ereallon ofpolmcaUy '",p",;:d ,""mmuni" grOIlp'.
,.Ia bll ,h<d Iu OT);.ni,,, ,II 'he ,hop 1100' and ,hoo-<"I"' " " lhe
a"""".",; <>f ",Ju'll)' ,.If-o'll",," anon. thO! f,,",bmem,1 prineip le of Ihe
f.oto/)" cop", iI m<" e",enl il",lf. 'l'
,h.
,ndcp<ndcn'
C "nel",i"n: Anarchist, and Ordinrn"<li: T ho SU tf and Ih,

I n d ilidua l
A' fi", dw: R"",an btouatn ....."h, .. s and mnin .. IiSl ......1""
,ogethr. A .","""hOl or "'" ,01,., of the 801.".,
.," oIU1>on K<med to be ronlinnauQII oJr ,be d<x""""li,..d ond
""on mo-t.hod< of ,Ix: anan:h, ... and srnd",.I,<1, II""el<f. boundanc<
be"",,,,, libelWian ..,.iah"n ond Man"1 !'oclliism "'-.re qu,dly
I.. bed. Mu<h of ,he deba'e the <NIImu"-'" and lhc lib<nanan.
0'.' ,h. n,S.,,}' of 'ho "ale
,he dieta,onhlp of 'hr p",lel .. i.,
j"I1"""d p."diet:lble Jl"11",m_ Org.n,,-"110ll.,Ii'1 """.. him 'l.ICh., Corrado
d."""
=,\aI>-
""iI
""
Quaglino. Luigi Fabbri.nd [ moo .",ph... ized Ihr need for a

f"'" a,,,,,,,i .. "" of sclf'g<l'-cming Ix>dics 10 lhe 01.1. T1K:y IS"",d
Ihat.ln 0,,10. f", .... ,,,Iutlonary Inn,fOrmall"" 10 OCtu, remlu"')n,m<$
"'O\Jld ""'<!O Jure lIIoIl"001.lC1Ion Ind dl>lnbut)()/\ remaIned und,,,ulNd Funl><"""",,_ ,hey .1.., ,"",
fonn of organiz.d
cocn:ion ""1> ""Iuired_ FDf ,heir pon. T"Ihalli and Gram",i ""'''1n,z, ,h. dang." of an aulloon,.".n d<S'JIC,a"o. of lhr ,",olu1I,,"_
Toglialli c'-cn sounded 'cry mu<h I, l c \laI3l.>I' Thu,. co""llIding lhe
do""IC ""ilh Piel'" \1""" '''''' ,Itoe <01< "f,he ,he
,n ,h. Togli.tll wrot. ,hal ,I n",,,. no! be prn.<>rutl d,ctll'".y"P .
h"' one of. <I,ss. and ,hal we .. ,,"h h'm. ",,\c.d Ih" ,\ one of 'he
da "sc" ,n31 run, IhrooSh Ihe )!IOW "'. "" ,l' \1 hlle (ira"'""
'" rill" du ring" polem,c '" ;Ih G.nno r .rrero '" Augu,1 1920 t ha,
T" Fac'O<)' Cooneil. In Tun" I "ben.", n- '",'H"" b) ,he "",. ,n,
" . ". Ii"><y <>l><-y
n '"'1<1' or de,olopmrn' .0Id, in so fOf IIIty
"''''''..,.., 'i">< h,,,,,,",,,, """'...... off"",o) IOIId do<, ... In ,I>< [acl<lfy
"crllnl d"", tIx)- Or< , ltal and oJ.,.. M.D.I" .""",un",. <lo ... 1><1 ..,. In
h,,,v,,,,II.,...,,,,,, """"'" """,...".",. '" Ie"",""i .. mUllS The "crlOH"
Slale i. tile C..,,,,nin: ofl'lbl>< .. fthe prolrtari.. """Iuti",,_ F... ....
""""ins d .... d L<fXd"''''
,hal ,Ite) .,,)) be _ '" \Om .... anI,
,lie of'/I<''' <d) "
,lit" .."
the........-
., " .... in Ihi' lolcnnt 'pun lhal d,>cu,,,,d L",,," Ind his
wl,h \"u,izio G .. ioo, Ga.i"o hi, "" n p<>S,lion &1
'he congress of 1"" Chamber of taboo. in \lay 1920 all<! 01 Ihc UAI
,n July_ He .. 11 ..1 for" ,,,,,,,,y of f.C"tory cOI,neil, in which '''''
die'",o .. h,p of t ho patty,,, Ihal o f poltllt'II )- ",n,,-o lled """ ;"5 w(",ld
tin<! no pl""._ ," Gm,"", i o( endorsed 1,,< . ,13",1""
and Ga,;"" recalled ,hal G ...mci's hellcmony of prod"" ... al'" ,,,,,.m
& dl",a,o"h,p of. P"rty-' l1 He plrt,oul.,l y remembe d one cfU<i .1
conH ...,ion with Gramsci . bou, ,he falC of'be on.n;h"," ul'kk, lhe rul<
"f'he d,,'OIl<)f$h;p of ,IK: prtlku'; .. In hIS ,iny G",msci nplained
to hlln JI",icnlly lha, 1M dICI.,,,,,h,p of 1M prol<1:l.';" "'"1> no! lil:< any
"'hrf dICtll'OI'lIhip. ,he personal dIC",'onhlp of but 11K:
real I","'''''' of C()TtSCiou!<lC>1 oil<! ,he Stirore of p"""- 10 preHnl lhe
boup'" from oand<nnlnltl@lhr""oIUllOnaI) I""'C"<"'. lbtrefon: "hen
'IK: "odlrtg cla.\S """'I""'m:! PO""'" 'OJIC "'... s 00 long .. Jealing
,ruc and prop<1" d",u,onlt,p' but ,he sci,ure of lhe I.","" o f pov.c' 10
realiz. "",i.li,"" T1K:n G.,ino c.rl>lned h,s po,,"on

1"''''''''',
",ilI.
'"
)<'"",,,liy I. from ,he ,,,,,r:oo;nl. <leII...:I ,II of'h" 1.. id 'Aoo,,' ,11
,he 10.. -am: ",tt.)"" _ Grm.oc" buroo
pDln' ""_ E,,,,,, ","Lee"",
d",.'""h,J'I 11,,1. by I",'. <On , ..... torm tIl<rn ..,,-.., Lnt<, dLOU'","",,1'" of
l!fWI'>ofmcn and thcf<f..... mInC, f _ ' i\Pd .. my

i<""""",. I oddo<l 'If,,,,,,,,,,,_ Ln lUI)' dl<1.l,,,,<h,p " .... bhsh<d. call "
... h,oj )<'0 .. . ....... r. .... 10 be """ ... ,11 be '" toea"", ..
1&>'"" .... p<>:i'i<3l
S"!O, .
,hi.
fo", lru to iIOC,.1 or<k, ,n .. hKh 1nd" ,dual. """Id "'" be sacri ficed to
ab,u"C!lon,. to a OQc,oty baseJ 00 "ho...... hla""" """Id n'"
<Nih ,Ad" ,d .... ls "'ho i<,bK.ibed to it. btlt ,lI<i' "",jally groornkd
,ndi'iJualny,'"
In<
fin,,",, " ..,. '0 h ..
'ho1." " "'"
...... ,. JOOd
rod
in """ and put "" Iw>ck

."', .... "",,', ") tho< Gan"", i' ... 'ill tI'C'Oer be H<
_III<. you.n: """,plncly ofT .... ,,,,,k" d<pan<d. ..
fi>Id .. I>u, n<II or ... kfII ow """
(irarrcl dLdn', ."
...... "" h,> ha".nd ..,d,
"1'''''00.'''
for hIS I"'n. P''''rll "'II susp,.ious of lhe 1l'8.lian

r""' ...... QI\ of{' .. '001)(";01 _In" ",-t.m the d:SCUIioi"" 10 rhe 1IaI. \1 ......
Gr..mso,'und Togl ... ,,, s SUSp!<'IOnS
of '1alo SOC'llt"" In In "nod. ,n L "",nit" .\0'-" he denounced Ill. CGl',
.uf'I'OI1 f(ll ,hi' '.....
of,,,. ,I,ncal indu .. ,y lih Gram",i
.nd TOIIIi.lli he: u$nllimLI., "'iumC""'I"ml' n>lion,Ii""'i",,, Slr=ing
lhe: d:lng... or.he 11,11,,,
lIal. ':0 In a .-.,.,... of'he: Brlg"n
.-.rO"", .. [""Ie \ .ndc-r>.ldo. U Jor;"/i.,,,. ronl'" I 'tlfJ1 \ 100.0
...""r.do,J 'he .-..clcn of L
.\"110'" 001'0 coof"se ,he ndenc;'"
'o,.. ,J$ <. n.Io""""" .nd n.. ion.Ii""",on 'PUrred "" by the: ",ar wnh
<Oc,ahsm lIo"c,",. Mo>110 J"'ru".<l ,en. ,. ,Ma, Ihtn 'ultt.! ,n
L '(.mim,' I"m'" ":lelf Co",,,, Sea"",,,,', blucp""t> for the 1.. li." Ik J
Army publilhrJ ,n I. 'Onl",, lI",ed Hf}' " utl>oWaria" in 'p" it.
",hile Togllal,,'1 pra,se of Oen"le "gn,lIed a d"lurb, ng st ... worsh,p
.. ,..,ng" Ihe Q"lm(J"'Srr , Mo.s<> d,J not """,pt Ih.1 ' 11>< \ t ate ' had a ' moral
pe,..,,,a hty" ",lom.1,,, Ihe ,,,d ,,idu.1 ut gMlp' of indi, idu" ls <JT that the
,lie ""ccssary loOUrce oftru lh onJ low, IlL
MolSo lhertfur"e opposI tlle ""Im",',,-/i', 1.1\" iog II'seliani,,".
"'role, had ,,, meJ HOlel on he: .. ,. bUl hi, """i. li st fri ends ""o ",cd
'0 ".,nllO PI,' on hi' f"'lll(Om , dcp<mk"". Llpo" ' h,rm""y
btl" "', .. ' he ,l.\loIe Ind lhe c<>uncii> WIS con.i<kre<l a Jang"rou. addi" ,i ",,_
ror thi. "">", IhoIIah,"ul of an.m:h'm f, .. dom ..-os re.lized d ..
'.-.a,i,. ten.k>Il. foond
,d",,1 and need,_ '" ..""'.
loll hal "o"en ,hat anan:hist. foulld ,h<mscl'e. "ugllollx1"ttn 11><"
''''0 "ronl lradilions oh'llu"ury communi,,,, and indi"wlIlI] autonomy
MO>><I. I"'d .. plo. mOn: lilan """'I. folt th" :mu-adie, i"" knly'" For
\101'10'''' POS"""\'olotlOtllOry soc .. "'oold ""iiM, be an "'Pr.,"" nor
In all embrac,nll 51a", but !'lIthe:r dynami<: collectlOO of "u,onomou,
,noj" ,duals The d,m.ul. wl for lhe aran:hi." ", 10 .-."",,, anti -social
and unrealtll1c ,ornknc,"
thetr ""n folJo,o.'=_ \1<>1$0 1001""
""aliu',,:.,
<1""'01,,,
.(ft,f",,,
1x1,,,,,,,, It"'"
''''''''is'
N.
1_ C \Ia ..,. Brr .... n l 'l }ionsm and Thnocracy', Jou",,,! ,,( C",,""'JlO'"!'n. JlIII<"", 3<J.--L
1 0 l)'I"n,. S, ..!"!!i.. '" ,he Italian Clr loo""ry 1906 . . and "Ifa Romro'. in S T0I1,day and J (eds). 1M
Au"","""l, 1""",,1')' and II, fkn",..", Foni..", and F/"x;N/,n,
Cambndge. 1986. I'P 87-8. S. \ 1.",.". La IP!511onnkIl0 for;:a I",,,,,,
S()1I0 ,/ (a" "",,,. \I,lan. 1987. 1'1'. 82-1. I' R. \1 ,11>00. 1M CirKhroric
Fa'N'" lI"",an "mJ
,n Fa<dJllwh. O'ford. 1993. P1'. 35-19,
fl.. 1)c" "",". 'I"" 1.011 P... d'am: ,\n It.h,,, \1 ... lwoo.-i"g Empi.-.
Oc''''c<cn Model, of 190G 191(1'. on C F
s..lx-I and J. Ze"lin IN;).
P""im{;"ts, Flt_<ib,liry and Md"
I'rod"<IIV'I /I "Sle,,, 1",h."""li:"I,,,,,. Camb, idg" 1997.1'1',273--leN. An",n R.b",lMch ,""" of II>< of ,he 3<'oal , pphcation
of lu}'loo.", '" Eun'P" '." us ;1> cIT,,,,, un ,nte lk"t",,1 d,scou,,,, ' ',he
It""
",,,/oJ, ,,(
de!>:"e O/>(J"I ttl( f a,'lor 'ys,em "M in n... ny w'Y' n""" ,mport.nt Ih an
me Human Ifolor E""'gy Faligue
a)l,i ln,' 01'1:1", MOO'"'''',I. N,'w Yo'k. 1m. p. 240
) O. M';o'le. 1/ b,e'''''<J ""'<J, A"'<J""," w "perala nt"!
1919 1920. llologna. 197\ pp. 7 19; S. di IJri,w
1!iOlJ-I'J2G. M,lan. l<ilill. pp. 191 1
M [ alumn. 'Un ioaUSoa JdI"Onl"", /1""'0'. L 1
1919. p. I, \ tay 1919. p. 11.24 M'j' 1919. p, 22. 7 )00<' 1919, P
tM rHr'tr of 'tl apphc.,ion, su
.'Ia,

Jl.
C. le' )' .. Amonio O,,,,,,"ei. St1t<'1i0flJ {ro", C1I""d
by D"id r OipCS and Gtoff"'J-' 'o".II SmJlh. tran,latC1l .... illia,,,
n""H.,,"Cf, London 19!1\ Hwor. <1 ""'fJ"Un lba . '01. 9, no I.
1988. pp 7:1-6 I or ,n loaly."" A. Tambomo.. E."I, "''''' In
ilailQ d4119fJJ al 1911. Ibn. ]977, pp 114, lS3: C Road. Rrligion
,,"" 'M R".""ln InIOlill.'",,,,io 1900 1912. london. 1979.
R (" Wtlham,. 'Colifc!L\e Thr S)"n,b... h", of
'"
l'rokunan Cultur". 19(J5--1910. Slum' H'.:;.... ,. "01 19. 1980. 1'1'. 396.
corned on ,n ,he pn;w..- lie
"'as k",,"'n b) Orams.;, Of J>lI"'I<ul31 ""PO"''''''''' was Ihr
role of pro- T.ylorit" .... "'h'5.. 'lOCh aJ Rot, Ott:-' Papal"m ..
IIpIt""'e .lferrltj"", -",.. ,. II{ R",,..,.,j,,,, Rnoluf;(}tI,}""
lrl-192_1, Dotd=hL P 68; G C""",f (hoe"
/t>r TM '" lIori m ornl 1840--J94f1.
Rcrld.y, 1989. pp 110- 11. I' Tudo, J<. R""o!ufl(}tlQn
S\ und 'he FuM, Cambridge. 19%, I'P. 16l\-82
6 A . .\Ofe .,,1 l ,-t'1IO.1970. p. 4), U. Carp,. 'So" c"
;, ismo antibo'!;l>c<e ""'lIIIc'i "''' le,..tI 0: orrumi s"ll"iJeologia de l
fuw rismo ', u"um Cm" <I, OX", 2\ 1982. 1'1' l-- 18, G. Bergh"" .
I'",u,;,,,, am/ PO/llic . <en ,j,,,,,,niJl/k"'II,,,,,
Fa.','"., Re",
"iii' NrN----/944. Pro"d.,IC . 19%,I'P, 180-%.
7. M B, u>ni.'t-.:olesuGramsc,nd 1915
"''''poranea, vol. 10. no. I, 1978.1'1" J6l---6; M Toll>, 'SIra1ogia
"",glom c 'I' ,luppO "'1',13los1100 ,n Om'll'''''. Proble"" dd Sociol
"""'. '01. \ 11. 1976.1'1'.221-14. f Oroms<:i e lafoNmca
proJll:j"..,.
iNX,,"i::,,:t<J"" /o,oro
. 19$6. 0 Sci",,,,,,,. GflI"'Jt:/ am/1M nr..,.,
of lH",ocrQC1'. Aldol'$hoI. 1991. 1'1' 9'-8. For.n
.m;-"'fJI '0 hn\; "'" produt", ...... orr """",an social,,", andcommunism
to ...., \1. Se,dnwt. Al:am" II;;"-!: Lnbor In Par"
""d &1 ....../""" [)urillg 1M Popular front>. 1991
8, For Someri, ...., F- Madrid C"miilo BUn<!rJ, un
I/a/iano (/&91 19)1). H,,-o/u:.(>tI<' GOld . . in E ..",pa
f/91 7_193 I), P,,!01I, 1985 l!-ernen 'H"" quo or' producti\'is",
,he scholarly"',,,. of id,aol Se,d",a". r.;;c /l urkers, pp. 46 7.
110 I. 169 71, 3 II , F", o,heuOtnn ..",s On G,.m",,, prociucl" ""',
,..,,, p C \Iasini. A""",.o G... m.<rl .. 1'0""",, ,,,I,, d" u'l
/,/"'na"". 1\1,1,", 1956. pp 1.1. 14. r. Spn . oo. J (mJo"" nl<O'" j
....m"J:1I di ;ubbrica. Turin. 1971. 1'1' 64 ,5, \1 .. ,001C. II ro"o.
pp. 10_11. 14 IS. 6 107 11. m 9. E. RU"lIliano. 'The

of labor and Capll"l", Rllliomohl) ,n Gram",,'. Telos. no. 31. 1971,
Pr 91 9; F. Adl ... 'FactOt")- Councils. O",n"", and Ih<- Indu>U1aI"" ...
Tdru. no. 31. 19'7. pp. 71.;89.851. R \bn,,,,,lIi. II ParliW
19: It""",. 1977,1'1" 6--1. &6--. L l'a>=mi .
. \\ "' k Idcol"lO and CQnscn.U! undrr h.I,," Flsci,m. lliSlon' lIori
slwpJuur'",I, 00. 8, 1979, rp. 9.1 r Ik F.lico. ' Ro,'oIu,ioo and
Pmduc'ion. m A. {I ). to Om ... !CI.
London. 1982. pp . 197---f1: L Olla' """. 'LI di ... ,pl i... ron", ul""ia',
,n J Shorten (ed.l. TnNlg a"d ,,,,jrw

Grom,r;. Turin, 1988.1'1' 198--208.
9 c'1kmcn, L 'op<"r(1'oldtna. Art'S!. 1934. p. 9.
10. Stt ,he hll ofanid"" on r. 14) tn ,110 1310
Cl:1l'uty
,n Tunn. rhe educ.r,on.1 An8elo \{05;.o iO'l:1ll0d 'he
CfiOVlOph 1(, fillill< dunn,laboor Unlil. Ta}lor'" "Y""'"
t1 " .. , "",..". arpIicd m 1110 shop Ooor As I ""","'. Angelo \t"""
\\3, nQt ",,,,cd 10 Pietro \1<><5(> On Angolo Mo<>o', tnnUCDtt nn
,110 'Luropcan S<,ero:< ofW""''' Rabint-oh. ilu",(J1I Mo,or.
1'1' t n--42 .
I I Sci: AC!A Ca,.",l 'G il ,mp'eglH d, 9 August 1919,
G !) ' Im p'''S''i ore", i ".lIe Nm ," ,,;<Qn, ''''omo'. 25 Oc'ober
19 19, p. 181. V. lllrb,.r . 'Po>" dol l'om,,,,, Noo\'o', 6--13 De<cmbe,
1919. p. 232, P. Borgh ... 'T""n " , di
3 ).""al)'
1920, r 2s.1, M Srr.tgmm, 'Gil u ff"" l""nil<> ""
.m""n;"",,,' '. l""noe,
14 Febr,,:,,), 1920, P 291. P. Boq,h,.
'o,;";"s>iort ,u, Con"gll d, f.bbnc. rome "ruIMnto l""nito della
prod"';"",,'.28 Fobrulty _. 6 'Imh 1920. p. .1(17, V Ra:b<:rn. T",,";';;
c Opfflt' ne' ron .. gli gest,OllC' (t'e"O" I) \tarch 1970. p. ] 16, P.
Ilorgh, .. p.,. """ cooperal'" d, ,Ddus'n.. 20 \llrch 1920. p 329, P
tJ,orgIti, 'Ope,ai c rapi. 3-10 Apnl 19211. p. 342. G Casal<. 'holu
7ion< n,oluz;""" delll clabo imI""S""U'-". IS \lay 1910. p. I I .
,b,d .. 'I.. To<u I nt"",,,,,ionaic. 81i 29 Ma} 19M. p. JO:
\1 'I'OS13 deWOrdone ]\-"'0"0'. 28 Aug"'1 1920_ P I 12, P.
Ilo'llh" 'Gil i""'gnamenlt del!., 1011" <lei m<1allurgici', 9 Oc,obet
'"
'"
J9')..400. '1''''' debate abo,,,
p,i,,..,
,,,,,i
It,,,i,,,
fH!>U''''''
""""i
C""""",..
n."",on\!h
"1""'0"
""cr.,,',
I no, p. 1n , M . S'ms,olli. 'G li ,n5<I!"."""'I' <kll. IO'la dei IMlalh,,

g'"'' " b' L pra<tici', 1t>-23 Oclober 1920. p. 14 2, P. 1101):1" . '(; 1,
del ",Umt brc. 24 Ikoombe. 1920, p 179 . The
"onuibulion. of oro A I.unochl",ky. 1.i'lruzione profe.
,ion"1o ""lIa R",.i. d.i So, i.t", P. Il:omp. 'T""n iCl c riyolu. i""o.
20
1920. 1'1'.
12. s...:. I': Spnal>O (<<I,), t.. ""'lUi'll ,/'Qi.D/1()
,-o/ume u"o. L .\110'" 119J9--19211}. Tunn. I%J. 221.
11 Ibid.. p. 453. For ,l\c ....1. of "oden. on 1hc pK".r
rSI 5, \{ 'I"""""nlt, 'II fl"" popolo d<'glo impiopu. ,n \1.
D<:glil"....,,,,,'i. ,'111";:1011; ad '<K1<flismo ""Uo"" 189:1914. :>:aplc<. 1983.!'P. '-' for im"lar
m Milan 10
,110, of Tutin in 1919--19M,"'" \1 "I:"""....
(;Ii Imf'l'7lall
0/<&0 19JW. I'I'U pp ISS--
'"",mber
_"""'' on
'"
",,"'Ii"
(1',.,,,,
1.f 'C,rlo f'cui'

M""so!. t produzione in "'g"TlC
cornun,SII. \'".,m, 7 June 1919, P 16
15. E di 101/" Xnlll 101. I. ("manil" \.,,"
19.'f!11,C.mn.1975.pp 31,S!
16. \' M". W 'lrat<' dd f);"nu. Mil,n. 19'9, pp,
lOS 6. III 17. F", tho c",,,,tt.i..,,..!
( iramSCI ', """ocP' of
h.gernony
coocept ion of " ".n:hlSm, ... r " " "";-,
B",y.. M.I.te.t . onJ t"': an"chiS! ","01"11""', A"""h", Smdi"" ",>I,
J. n.o I. 199t rr 14 ' ,4 1 )
I 7 E MoJinan, I fUI10Ti prl ."',....", d.-llo ""-wI,,,
Milan.1920,
18 &t"m, "oto.uOnmsci',pp J6J-.4
19 C Lt';-, . Wcb<:t aDd AnIQ,uo Orun5l'i' In \\ \tommsrn IIId J.
(od,) .\1.... ltd,."
III< london.
be.w"""
."J

21
12
2J.
24
pr
391J.-2
u""
P. ROS$ AII!""io oramsci ,ull. Kien>" ",ooem,,. Crilic" Ifar.."ld.

\.,, 1. 14.11(). 2. 1970. pp 41 60
Mario ,\ IIUlfOh, ' 11 10<,.1,,"'0 conlrol t. 5I';<n,". p.t. [1', 11 11110
Togli.lli], 'PQ,I ,tt . L 'Or-J",,, \,.0,,,,9 July 19 19. pp n. In.
Spri,,,,,.I... culfura rP 193 9
J 0",,,,,, f PQ/mcal n"'''ghl. O. (",d. 1981. pili
II S ltugllt'l, CQlUClo<unur Qnd .\d(,trl, Bn&t.too. 1981
pp 92, 17.1; I I'o.JO:J;:I. 'G",,.,,.'i'. """",I th<or)' of Marxl<m. In (;
Moon (cd.l. and lMon', J ondoo., 1979. p. 148.
U. 'L"ilersalna &: ""hu.,. ,n Fern. I'P. 127---t.O; Jl. Dt
G,m ann' .. L,l>ena ioo;"i<l"o l< < 001"" cOllcm", in AtI1()f1to Grnm.ct,
" ' ibiJ, p. 224,
G 11", t I" , i l'Q /""o".,. a"'IIIICi e if dlama', [' isa, 1<)7<),
PP 21 2.9,\ 100. and e'ptti.lly 101 I t ha,," dr.wn alltn!!""
,hi: 'IItulan"ts 000 p.",lkl.
anum.. , ."d \\d.. r, Off Ltl;-.
'\1 .. Weber' AI"".<t Roben "ho d12"" to
'be ",l,,,,,,,.!up bet" eon Gr."n",,." arid \kbn-', 0",,,.1
.,,,onee. Cbltt<!...-. 1986, pp Sl-J02
C,rlo Petro (p,ct'" \ 1"""'1. L'Orrf'M ,'"",u. J5 <kwlxc 1919. P
Ix,,..,,,,,

""
t"
26 Ibi,/
!7, /1",1
28 C.rlo Pc!" 11'1""'0 MON'I. ' II , ,, ,< ,,,a Tay lor. i <"",igli de i pro
duttori It >!Stom. Ta)lor.
"'imti iica <101 I.,oro.
L 'Ordm" -"WI". I "o,"<mhe. 1919. r, I
29 Ihid .. 'JI S;!'""'" TI),I.,,- 0 i "''''''Sh dc, p><IuttOfi E .. me <Ii akun,
1''''1;."i".,;,,,,
'''110'''.
conc"1t 0.101 tl)'Ior;!rno', I. 'Onime

8 \Q\'cmber 1919. p. 197.
JO. Ih,d .. 'II ,i..."", T'} lot
doi produnon. l'aq;lIr'ttll' ......
dei ("oo"gl,', L 'OnJiM S"""", 15 "-o...",ber 1919. p 21b
""'''Mh
1 L Ihld.
IbiJ
33 Ibill, 'II ,,<toma T. ylor e , con.igho doi rrudullofl La .cuolo',
L .\'",,,,,, 22 19 19, PI', 209-10, On Prole!cul! ><e
.1>",. fn 5, Als.o J. 5<:"':m:f. J\.og<i.Plo,". Len;n il bol<.Ce"i<mo
al b"lo'. E. lioo<J)awm (.d .). dfl "10"""'0, Turin. 1979.
'01 2. pp For 'he <fftt!S of on
GIlI"""i. _ C. Ke",1!ors. A"I""IO Ora",sd. II mOHISI,f() Ifulio,
"_1'10" 1915, P 61. II Em",i"I., Am"",,, C""""""""
S,:Joo<>iuw lor RQt/IJ1 pQ/lfj<J. Lorxlon. 1979. f1I' 140-1, C Bcrmas11.
'LoUont"" 0 \11. """,,,,,,,1 . Lt lUI fokloro'. In
S. \I h. R. Gua,,,"i. A 'bog' no. R.
E Aguzi.
C 1'0\00 . A, T"",ioli C. Bermanl. S. Stu.kr 30d R. Lupeno,
arum.,., 1111 collfm5tafa. ,\ I, I,n. 1979. pp. 94 I OJ , Gr.lm<c t.
L 'Ord,,"' V"ow" 1', 556-K In ",any wlY! Piet", Mo,,.,, pmS'" "'''''
"'a, ,t"" t.. to ttl< Luwpe.n Scienco of wort "'t h.... tllan T.;-lor Tile
Eurupeao Scl<OCt of wort ",hoxIl ohart<l \IOSOO's quesl (<II i"'l"'" ing
Job .. tI.fae!>OrI ""ltcr than To}'I,," ';O$I.,,,,iOO<d " ... to 1111>.(
p><Iuctl'i,),. $<-c, Rabmba<h. rAe 1I"",.,n p. 222.
34 Ib,d, P
Ib,J.
36 Ih,d
31 IhlJ.f1I' 209 10,
38 ,\ 1 BotTII. I, 'Nira d.., Im'Oro "diu ('ull"m lIalrano ,IJII',mlw" (,!O/i"i.
to,,,,,,,.

,9 \. Ca,tfooo ..o. Gi,,,,,,,,,, 1.<1 FUJI dul 1899 111 1945, Turin.
191; tJ ,pp 114 S. '1,,0 .. Political T",,,,,,,,s.nd l.abour l,;nion
Sirugglc Won.tng Cia .. Conflie!. ,n TUfi" dunn, and afk-r!be r ,,,!
\\O<!d \\ .... ,n L 1I.imson and G. Sapelh Icd,). S",leJ. SoriQI
ConflICt Fin' World 'Ia. Annuli fJibliOla a G
Fdtnnrlli. 19'11. p 237. R. BoII.my Ind D 5<:1>, ....
'bn<he>1er. 1991,1'1'..19 43
-'it . .ti"i. 'won. "Ic<>k>gy'. 19: 9. p. 93
J I 1f",1, p. 95, For self . ..< 0, fI'M""i, . 'I.nagc mon' S,mt",
1986. p, SO. P A"den itlO. '1.. cultu", soclah"., Un. nUll,"
, i't.."" d; , alori'. in V C",tron<>m (cd.). /.<1 ,''''-'crtif <kgJi sirummri
",,-,iuli lIa/I;'lno, 1%6.
pp11568
gil,".
-213-
41 E .... '\'i", oper:lla, .... coloaJI <ill propn.tan. L 'Ordine \'"",,,.

11 \Ioy 1919. In SI"I.no. U. ,,,II.,,, p. 137.
./.1 II La emy (llughe. La ('mi.\. '\'11.1 01"'''".1. II <olllnu". . . no'.
L DnJuw ,\WI". 18 OI:tollo, 1919. In SI"I'no. U. ""IIun>
I'P 317

R Am><", and P Pn ..1"; WI.,...,.,Q JrlI".Y)iT). R<>m<:. 19S0. p. 314$ I"'d.. p. 3&
.j.j
46 Il Ikzza. 'Soci.1 Chlracl i,IICi. AIIUU<k .. and 1'011=' of

Ikllo, io' of 11>: \1.,.1"""'01'5 '" Italy tho FifSl II'orld II .. ' in
l.H. Haim"", and C. T Ill) (.ds). S"'.fJ. It,IT' and Rc,'O/"lion, m
Pe"{It'Ni .." II",,", <n Ihc
E",I,' T,,,,,,tlirlh C"m"m'I, (a",bfldll<. 1989. p. 409,
"lid Pin. Noi

60
61,
62,
pr, 33. 46
47 Mu\W. GI, operai, 19SO. p 212; S. Musso, 'Ope,"I,,"I,u," dc ll "om

nell' Onlme .\'''0''''. In F. Sb",kn, 1;''';a. p. ISO
48 1>1..""",. IIl>i..,mw "'''0, PI' 10-11. 14
49 Blgazzi.' \1aD3gcmcm Strateglo. p, 8] For of'ho Ii..... 'u ...
"h,ch PO'"' to ,ho hc!erogcne'ty of tho 5110p I100r and the ""xllll8'
.10.5 ne!ghbourllood> ofTur,". >C'C S \lusso. 'Torino e il "",,',men'o

. .... II dJboni'ollOl>08T"fll'. in" Anlo",oli. ". Ikrgo.
n..",h, and L Gan..,i"i (ed$I, IMan/) op;;r-u/a doll' IJOO" oggr. 101
2. l"l.n. 19'. I'P. 2'14 7.

.'\0 Fnnc. 'Le 10". mrl.llu'll"' L'm"nll" \'0"0.26 July 1921
I ,,'IMI ",Ih an aD3n:h'5! "";"5'1,
I G lkna. ' llte Interregnum Turin. r,.t .nd InJu>lnol Coolll<l bc1,,n
Wor and F:tscm ' In (' 1\ ng lc) 1<.'\1.). u{ lAbour
Nil J9]O, Londo n. 1993. p. 121. Rc" elh.
GJ!i"o.p 112.
Sr,i,"o, La c"llUra. p, 118,
1 Armcni and P'l'a. SOl I'n'",,,,,,, p JS
I""!. . 1'1' . 35----6
See II G riboud" 11,md" , mIlO "P"ra/", 'r unn. 198? Hena.
'n.. In'errcgnum' , p. \lu...o. 'TolO"". P 242
5/1 1l1pu>, ',\Iana,ge",om p. 80: F. Adler.llajjan ImJusmo/
lSI, (rum [ ."",,IIs'" to F""'If"'. Clmbncltl<. 1995. 1'1'. 144. 196
57. Am><m and P" .. \", ";,,..._. p. 36
5g II I'aulesu Quen:io!; led.I, Gr-u.md ..." I"-"j",,,,,jano,,;ki s""j
CQIIlcmp<>r-unrl. \hlan. 1977. p. 96.
59, Cla,k. AnlOniO Gmm,.-i. 1'1' PO-I. 79-&4, rar G aflno, "" !l.e'elli.
'Inlen- i.Ll a Ganoo', p 10 I rar his p;ln. ""h ,ho worl<:e,,' ,ejec!ion
"flhe pr"I",,,,1 of a
Ag,,,,II, <Quid hI, mI. as
6.1.
M
M,
M
6 i.
68
69

<<><>pcn",'.,
a 'cap'''n o f ,ndUSlry. to tho organi.. t''''' o f hal. 5.

Adler. Iwllan Indll>triali,tJ. pp 2H 6. OurinK lhe of lhe
occupatoons r ia' had _hLI\etJ it, >I..... (roo" T unn 10 II.."'.. company
'n the LSA because Ag""lh IMIIIte C","'lj"e mlgllllcad 10
lhe "."ngllt ronfi>C2t>QII ofhl$ ,"uitlt Sec. G. fIcrta. 'La COOJl<'r.UIOnc
IlIIpo<Slbde: La Fiat. Toono e il "b,.n",,, """'.... In G. Ben. (ed.l,
19JO. 1991.1'1' 232 16
Clarl<. Anl",,;o Gro"'S". p. IS4 Fo.- L \'"'' , '--'S]IOII'" S 9
NOHmbt:r 1920, p. 2
Adlor. H.h.n Indumialist<. 201 2,
ll'" l heme was by M"o,..."d Rutlgll . no from Se'gio
Bo logn" ",e 'Class Compo>" Lon tile ' heory o{ ' hc pany at lhe
origin o f lh. \I orke .. <ou110115 rnovorllo nt' , 70'10\'. \'01 13. 1972. I'!'
57--S3
Itol'elli, 'In!."
G.. ioo" P 14S,
Ikme';. L 'Op<:r-uloJoma; A GarolO:', poJlliCtJ jloriogrou"
P'<a. 195-4. p. WI Gram",; 'llis ideal .... lIy COUntry
",Ibou! ,uP"'r",ru.;:lUre"
,\ Grarnsci. L 1919- 1921/(edlled b)' hienlLno Gem
lana and Anl""io A Sont""'1. Turm. 19I!7. p 387.
p. 434 U, ""/",ro. PI'.
INd. p. 459 .
Palmim Togli .. li .nd Andre. V'lIlonIlO .. Rlf"PO'Io .ui di Sesn;.
L 'Qrdrne .\''''''". 13 1920. P 317
i.,.
''''d.
"0 'OIe",'" . 16 INc . 19 19. p I

71. I/"d, p. J; D. B'ga"i. /I Purldlo, Op<:rm ,
"irnp","diwn
,,/I 1900 19n. \1II;,n. 1989, pr ,
P. Rug. lion. Uom"', nlllcchrllrt apifa"'- L A",,,ido Jlmlnk it fi"ci"'l0
1922'/945. \h lan. 1981. 1'1'. S9-9Q. l'oS"i ,eSpolldcd 10 Togti"" ,
cla,m ing ho "'os m" ... p.."'ntro . ..,., /"01111 ()peru/a. 16 M.), 1920.
P2
.l (;"'",,",1. L 'OrdiM ,'-""IV. PI' 4J8 9. 441 . Sche< ..-. GralJUCl, p. 9-\
1, G",,,,,,,,. y/f'r,ilJlU fro ... PoJtttNl/II'"ltmg. 1910-1920 (",lectal
.nd edlla! b), QDlnlln II) JoIu! Ib"lle"Aj). London.
1977. P 187. Jtal ia/\ 0n,li""l, G",m5<i, I. . Ord",.. .\',/0",. p. 41't9.

11><,/.. p. 114.
'6 I/"d, P 645

IUlonw. 16 \by 19W. PI' 1
f ",])O
O' ..",b..,- 191 9. p."

78 Spriano,l. .\'U'IIl'. PI' 16 7
2 15-
lI.nolo"",,,.
100onld. 16
79 h",., Na,ma c an.,,",., del {ascismo [lo"""c" 1950. p . xx\'ii i,

'F'nta,io' (Angelo T.><a), 'Luigi BI.nc e I'org.nizzazione del
pt, !. L N,w\V, I ,\l.y 19 19, p_ S: TNI'" b Comnne'. 24 ,\ Iay
1919, p, 17: 'luigi Blanc I' o!)!,"m.a>:inne del I",'oro', pI. II. 3 I
May 1919. p, 27 1: pt. Ill, 2 August 1919. p. 41 AI", >co, E. Foum,cre.
'Un. hem ' ,Ii Slalo socialiS!,'. 14 1920. p. 45 . 26 July 1919,
p. 85
SO A T (I\ nselo Ta",a), 'Socialismo e . "ardn". L "Onlmc Nuo''O. p_ 221
la",,,,',

Jh,J
81
83,
84
85
Gr:nni. L 'Or<i,ne NuO\'o, p 489

l fabbrl. Anarchia e com"",s",o ',c'c""Jico', Mila". 1922
'Comun ismo .narchico . L 'amine ,.Vuovt), 16 July I q 19, P 86
'Comun i,mo .norch ico e eom"n ismo '''''00'. L J--10 Ap,,1 1920, p. 346. For Gram", i', conception of.upcr>'illon,
A. Cires< . 'Grn<n$oon, App.-ooche,.. pr- 2 12----47 _
SO Gram",i. L 'Or<ime "'uow>. pr 6-13---4,
87_ For Eng l,.h translation,""e A Da>'idson. A,,"'nio Gmmsc,
TO'l'Mds an IntelleClual Biography. London. 1977, Pr. 98----9 :
original i, in A. Gram",. II naSllY> Marx: 1918-1919, (ed ilod
Serg io Capriogl io), Tu rin. 1984. p. 149. FOl Gro",sol', changing
ITH"rrrdl" On of tho Froneh RC"ol nt ion , I. Togn,,;nl. 'G i. oob,n
is",o 0 bolseo' I>JM : Alber! ,\ t. thioz e " I. 'Ordi"" N\lOvo"'.
SlOriche, "01, 6. 1976. pp 523---49. P. Glnsborg. 'Gram", i 3r.d the
Era uf Bou'lleOiS Rc,'ohtt iono in Italy'. in J. A.
(cd _).
and Iialy \- 1'0","<, R,"'ol',IiOJI London. 1979. Pl'. 54-5. who " me,
huw Gnu o" I cMgger.[c<\ tho importance of the bom,;",i, ie '" t!>e
frooch R<,'olution. For dt" re, ,"'" ofGr.mS<ois .nti-Jacob,"i'''' and
Jacob i"is "" ""d the rciatiOlt>hip of t!>esc themes to thc inn uence of
$orol upon Gram"", see II. Porte lli. J.cob LnlSmo antij acobin ism.
do GralTtscl- D,. Iti4UOS, no, 4-5, 19 74. pp. 2&----43. L P'ggi.
A ""0,,10 Grw .... ci il mooullo prlllcipe, Rome, 1970. pp. 10-12. F
11m,co, 'I I 8,o\'ono arnmsoi 0 Sorer . in V Comparato (ed.).
Sord S,"dr e n"",ch,,. Florencc. 1974, Pr, 177---<)5. G. B. FuriOlli,
SOld e L Iw/i". r1orene .. ,\ lo,-" n' , 1976, pp. H7--K S Onufrio. Sorel
e " m(lr<i<mo, Urb ino, 1979. pp . 324-5,),,1 \alatest . 'arnm",i il
sindac.h,mo m'oluzionario_ Ren.ssw"i sui ra pport" tTII ,nahoi storiograi'e. e guidizio di ,'a lort' . R,cnrhe vol . 10. no . 1.
pp . 336--43, D, Scheet... 'Two V,OWS of 'he RC\'olu"on: Gramsc i
and &,rtl. 1916 1920'. His/on-o/unJ{",,,n Ideas, \'01 11. no . 5.
Im,pp.6J7-53
D.".
<,
-2 16-
88, For aram",i'. po,i'i"n on th. Il.ussia n and Lenin >co

M l_ S.h-adori, G,."m.,ci .. il problema <lOrico ,Jdla
Turin. 1970. pp. &-9.93 S. On the dlw>lul ion of tho Con,,' !Llen !
",e 1\ ammsei, La ciua 1917 1918 (ed i'ed by
Se!)!io C'p""Slio), Tunn . 1982. pp. 602 3 For hi. Ii", , tatemen!
"n ' he RUSSl.n Il..,olution", an '"t i-hcobinic. 1 revo lut ion. Stt
(iramsc ,. La ciua. pp. 13 8- 4 1
89_ :" p 146
90 Gra",,,,;, Sclce11Qn.<. p. 349 ; ,,' I[alian origi!!,i, Gram"'i. L 'Online
\'uo,-", p . 688
q I Graln>(:l, La "'ria. pp, 240--- 1. 529-31 On 'he ' KantlOn ' Grnr:\SC!.
Stt A. G"orra. 'S'oricismo ed ctic. li lx,,"ria nd glo,'.ne Grnm",i',
in P Roo,i (cd ), GramSCJ C{" cullura con'''mpoM"ea. '01, 2, Rome,
1969, pp . 126-46
n GramSOl , L ,.\'uo.o. pp. 49-50
93 II Grid" ,M Popolo. 16 Febru.ry 191894 Da\idson, AnlOnio Grams." pp. 83---4 : A GTII"""i. Sailli 1915192 I by SergIO M,I.n. 1976, pp, 365-5; 1/ Grulo
del PopolQ, 16 ,\larch 19 18. p. I: 22 Ju"" 1918, pi, 29 June 19 18.
p 2.6 Jul) 19 18. p, I
95 S. Cap!ioglio. 'Scr im sui r"",ismo ,iI An!OnlO GrnInse , . II Corpo,
'01 I. 1965, pp, 219, 221
Q6, 13 July. 15 July "nd 7 19 18,
97 'Cio <he Marx lIOn h. pot"to pre\'\'Cdc rc', 6 - 13 Dec 1919_ p. 23 I
'Come conoblx lenin', 10 lanuary 1920 p. 263
99 D",'idSOlT, ""lOnio Gram,ci, p_ 164; Pam! i. Anwnio Gra"osd, p" 303
100 1\ . Grtllllsci. L ,\'"0'0. p, 36J
101 12 Ju,,< InO.p, 35,
102, 'I I BoI",cvi,mo', 9 October 1920. rr 134-5_
103 For LNne. <ttA.-anti'. 28 July 1920, p, I ForWo iss, see Amnti'.
28 Jul; 1920. p. 4
104 L 'Onli'le ,\""0>'0, 10 Jul)' 1920. p_ 65
105 " Venturi . lIivoluzwnari 'lmi in {wi", 1917_ 1911. Mi lan. 1979.
pp. 1J---77. 176,
1(16, Gram",i. l.a ""J JUI"'a. pp_ 265-7
107, Gronl,ei, L Ordille 'vI/ow . p. 696
108, Gra"'''' i. II
Ilu"" p. 353_
1()9 ammi, So,,,, . p. ]91
I 10_ \e","". RiwAuziolWrl, 1'1'. 196--2.18; S ]'>;oi"", MIl.,-"",ali_,m" e ai,'i
dello jlalo Ilbcrak ,,",cola Bombacc. (1879--1914)_ Milan, 1991.
pp. 374-7
no"'"
111 Gram..". II noS/TO Mal';{. 1'1' Pr. 127-9.

R"m"'i"'t<IrI. I'f' W 100. 111. Gratn..:i. IIIIMITO Man.
p.
II'
11-1
11
116
117.
118
119
120
121,
112
I 2.1
I

126
127.
12H
129
no
1.11
In
no
" .. <1..1'.116.
24-3 I Janll3J") 1920. p 273. ';'n,UIl. R""'/W!I()fIQn. 1'.118'''Mum. R"",/w:i""",.,. 1'1'. 200 I.
Clan:.. Imon;" Gnlm$e,. p 125
Gram..:i. L pp. 493 "
Spnano.l.a cuilura i,a/,aM. r
ror R,edel. S<.'C 0 R,. 1.110I!3 ,ml><sn3"'. L NI/O'"O. 8 May
1920. p. 4: Ril'l)/u:iO"lJri. PI' nl 1
G,.",,,,,. &1<:CliDflS. r 1401. in h. li on on,mal. L 'O nline
,.\'''0' o. p, 37t\ Venw,i.
PI>, 20s.-<!,
I",mli '. 8 June 1920. r, I: A V.n'u". 'T13 propag .,... """,.,ie
inlln.'g.""n" """311'!1. Le ....
<1<:1 "iaggio In Ru""
deW ...!.!. 1910". .\f,,,,m,.,,,, Op.-ro'lJ $ocw/m". ""I. 8. no. 3.
pp I: G, Petracch,. '11 m,m doll. fI".luzioo< "'" iet,ea
in 1,,1i. 191' 1920'. $Jon;, CtJII/<''''".,.."roM'' . ...1, 21. 00 6. 1990.
W 110"L3O.
2<) Jul)' 1920. p I. Ven!ufI. Rno/U:","Qn. p 11)9; Adb.
1/"1,,,,, /mI",m"IJ,fIs. pp. 105 6
GJ1ImKi. L 'On/'''r -"""'t>. 1'1'. 16f;....9,
p ' .. 'La delle ,<Itt Pcr .h",J.","no polem;e . L 'OnIiM
\''''''V. 2 Augu'l 1919. p. 9-1 r l>l" 8cI\<13l "," cy. of .,mud!;, of'hI:
Ilah." a"a"h.m tow.nb !hI: Bobbc, 'k ""'olulI"" """. P. C. M' >1n1.
'Gl i anarchici i,.lian, 1.1 ",olu"OI\< ru .... . /li"isia SW"UJ dd
Soc,"hsmn, no> 16. 1962. l'fl' S. fedcl. Una b",,.,
(jli """whili e /" /I"ui" 191' 1939.
\11 1.n. 1996. J'l'. 39-12; 80 2
G ra,n",i. Selcc'iM$. r, IN. In "'"'i,ul h.h.n. Gn""",. L Onlme
\'UOIV,!'P. 6 44-$
I'I>I"G.rioo, SI ........"I.' BoIognJ. Ott C"'''nJ''' 'om. I July 1920.
1'1'2 };6July 1920.1'.2.
I'auk;n QuM.;,,,h.
'''v. p. 68,
Ibid."" 6S----9
["oKl;e. em""",, .'",a. I '\priI1920. p.)
21 June
'Cornun;,mo I""",hico', L'Ord,,,t .\'1H11"1>. 26 Jul}' 1919. p. Sf>.
" "'rina""'. Iko. p. 109
'COInu"lSrn<> anarrh;'o e CQ.l\un'SnlO il;<o. L 'Onime .\'''''0. 3 10
\pril 1920. p J.t<ct ... GJ1ImKi. (Xn!ilc and the I IhlCal SIaIC in IUly". Hi"",,
II.no.l.I990.1'P
1H J JoII. """",h;,m bet" .." CommunISm "lid lnd,nduah,m. on
f<>n<Ial",,,,, LU'8' [,,,,,"dl. A"",..lrjJ"", ne/ """'do .......
T unn. 1971. p. 21-1
1 U 'La h""rta .""",hin:. li>f,m,,,. I Apn11920. pp . .l-4
II,,,,,/,,:,,,,um.
Ii.""
C;""Ift$,',.
ha"""";".,,,
. 218
- 21'1-
- 6Co ncl usion

I ,,,II !IOI ,"" ,nlere5U"l.I al'kl d......... ';' ;mc..-''''' y<ars In det.il
HOVoc,cr. lummI'} IS nett<..!)' In order 10 1M
of 'he
h';I<)"""II<I<'" of ,he /tIetJnlQ tWR>
(IOC,,!""" of,he (..,ton.,. ,n Sepcemb<r 1920
,he
The I,bemnans
unable lO lead <hI> der",,,,,,.
"h,,11 ,..s ;Ittred by ",foem,.,. .rode union kark,.s)up. A, """,t. II><
ar'l<l",hisIS roukl
<,"ted./all <VIItpI. In II)" ",,,illi lO' mi
ment ollien Of i>"nohlnl S()ff)O 1001 of ,,,,Urre<;'IOn which mIght h:I\.
i<>reed lhe hand of,he m.. "nah", In lhe Maunzio G. """
,,,,II
,""m 10 ." .. , .he dec,s"'" of ,"" .",," . . I of . ,
"hieh ,be LSI .,Id U", Iud no "VI>
On 17 !M:p\cmber 1920 an .",raordioa'Y nallOO3I of FIOM
opened. A, 'hisoona"''' h"""ro ruled oullhe ,,,,,,,fOflTl'lIon of on ioo" ...
,n.1 d'q>UI. imo. ""'01,,"00 ",,00..1 .... 'ional pohtiulleaJc"",p. In onk,
for ,h. oc. ,.p. ,;uns 10 b< ph,f",o,i,)' condudeJ he demanded
"orkel\ be paId for J.y, on . 16ke. ,hal s,n k",\( cleri,,1 .nd ,<:<hnic.1
il :t''' bc rrQI<:<l;"" fn"" 'Cf"l",b by 11I<'r employers.nd lhal 1'10\1
"PI'''>C Pr"n. (i ,o'"M i 0,,,10 11 ," propos<:d \\orkers ' conlrol
1 !Cenled p.>nocu1.oIy b l1lo, .bout the J o<: i"ol\ by , he
d irtttorot. of the PSI on I I s..rlembc r to . lI ow the CGL to pu"ue .n
cco""""c ""ul.",.nt of ,be J"J>Ule, Al the r 10\1 coogrt" be . , pl.lnecl
1" 'llbc "Ia,'tmcnl ihO<lld hl't be.n t'''<n ful1he, by ,he polillCl.n. to.
',nolm ion.ry ""t' He tontinut:<l by ob.er.'mg ,ha' the CG L alld (he 1"S1
had J>UJ>Clu",d all MP"!. and lhe "o.h" h.d nO< un(\(r>l00d the full
of lbe dcc .. ,on ."" tom,nU(d to Inn tilem ..
If the
"as ",'I'ICt.d w tbe f"".Oti<s. be fol. I' """Id ,.. ult In wry linle'
In O.:lober 19M, .Ilcrlbe f":lon .. ""CIT .,acualed. GiolL", lrT(C"ed
lho< till'''' lea<kr.hip "flhe USI.nd t.;AL I'be ooc13lo.u did"'" .-..pond.
di"""'"lro by 1M fiB! su.o .. ful uod bl'lhe fasci'IS ,n Bologna and
r.rrafa, d,strl<ud 1' do<:1nnal di<pu,", thai for..lIa<Io>'ed.he
of.he ('ommwtlSI rally In hnu.vy 1921. lbe 'IOCialiSl$ """".
or-Ie_... llnoomJ .M penUtl"" of the untll.ho Spnng of 1921
f.,.
!oI''''''_
,,=
h,o,.
,,,,,od
"h:.t""",.,
,1\"
!>-.',
Gro.",1 and
.fnarrhillf
"hoe"!hoe Iged 'blalo,,,, InJ ocbe, impnsoned .""",blO!' """,nlcd I

from ,lie" colis in 'hl.n. Ho .. 0' Of. iUr """"'hi" bombon
of a ''''wded ,h " . "hieh hod been ,n!onckd fo' Ihc offic.. "f ,h.
nn' doo,. ",,,.rely ,o. to f<t. M, I".".,
A<>'lIh i. Qualglino "nd cmnI'llJe . juS! .. it "",ei"ed sign ifkan' ,ul'f'!'''
from.n unl, l. cly coolt .. "" 110m G""".." to In ,lie .,cm.
\"Ia"" .. f.>cISt> ,ool O(I'"nLoII< of ' he ,n"...lI00t Ind ,he offices
or j '"",ml" .\",oa. Ilthough " ,.,u",red on un,il 1M \\a",h on Romt from
offi.cJ ,n rl\a1 c,t}'
l'ht an.",h,SI' pla}'.d ttnpo,.. nt rol,., 'n th. AId,,; del Popolo ,n
1911, n" gmss ,001\ Il"rnmili'.!) .n,if'SCL\! coaliuon organ,..d by
,.""',,. and po li lic. 1 mili lanll 11<t,ch,ng from fi",.h"", fase,'" and
D' A""u"",an legioona"cs 10 ",publican., """aliI" a,ld <ommoni", ... a.
P-1",,ul .. ly "",c.,..ful on <cnu'Illlaly when: tht lrlkhl100S of libe"an,,,
'""b'c"i, ,<m' " ."'" the >tl'Ol'lgcs'. bul ,he >C:<:L1nOnism "frhe commU"'>Ii.
,he of'he """.1"1) and the ,n",.b.",} of "slnde.,hip
,he df,,"i of lhe Mditi del 1'<>p01o.' Finally. in a I&>t <k'l""f3.t.
Ih ,,",ch.-, Ied mil"'a)mcn hel".d lh. mo", bureau<ralic
Allt.fIC. in 1922 Th" locked coon!,nallon and came too la'.
The ref<}(m'I" In lhe CGL ".re <kopl}' IU'ptti"<ls of COntmu",.' pan,el",,'
"00: III< SFI ;!>elfwa, rom lpa" by rom".ling soc .. lt,t. oom","",,1 and
,)nJ","h", faclion . hs anarch,>! 'gene,:II,' ".'" I.fl .. ,thou, an Irmy,
I he a...."'hi ... and \)'11(10<01",. .... re ughl ,n the crOSlifire bet"C'Cft
lo<X .. and <:OI1lDluni>uOOt the one hand. and
by f..... ,>I>
00t 'M other'
F", ".I.te", and 0''''' I.""h'g .,,,,rch,m rM ",.1 """frontal;oo with
'he """tIt"n i,,, come rmm nltdlnl ooward . ",,,""'311)" afler 'ht Kron_
,t.><l, ""'01, and
aero,,., "f,he "'1'11:'>100 ofMakhoo 's ".a;.:,nt
and ",ho, urbanbased anarch,.1 mo,,,,,,,,ru, iI,cn b) 'hc IllIh.n atI.!",h,".
tgu rodeh At lhe LAI Congrc>' of'o"ember I the h""'" .""",hill'
furmally <knounced w So\ ,., "'Xi"", Gram;c, Borghi. Fobbn
.nd in "''I'''''SC to tho <oogressiooral ",sol"n".,. Upon LW'n',
d ,h c<>uW ""'y tk:cl.re IhO! hi. pa>.>'"M .huukl be <elobrotM
as. holtJ.ay ""hor 'han o.,m,,,,,morn,ed,. mouming. F.lX,,' a 1c..
h",., h I",,, th.n M.I"."o "hen .,,,,,,i"g Len'n', li fe He sIL11 belt",.d
lha, Lo"," had be,,". "",ia li .IId .... him ... m.n oftl",
lefl. cwn iflte had dcsor'l))'ed tltc Ruu"," Re,oI .... """ 'hrough hi, die ..",.;.1
method> fabbri. like UI<' Fedel, and Camillo Ikmtn, de,,,,t<;d the erne'S<"r'IC'e of . ,.,,' Cbs>' of'''LP' men. comm"saroctat! and fOl'tJ'lCf "''''''''''
10,,10"11 t1 ""a ,be bedraulcd Sot iel popul"",n L'ke many on ,he 1.11
,hty dill ""r porediet lhe umold moss murde, 1It:I, ,,<>uld intl,e' 00
'I'"''''''''
.......,tS
I,,,'/,,,Ild
'ho ,,'ilb," 1 decade; lither the)' fcam.! rl'''''"UOOt of a f"""
"f d,.131on.l c'pnali.m

fl,t, .. <on 1921 "n<! 1921> 'ht . n. ",b,s' rank and file .. "'. dri"cn OU' of
'hc '""'on", .nJ forced
pn"cny and c, ile, 'lhe: anarchi,,, prol!3bly
.uIT.rctl g"'"'c' viQIe,>:" in P"'I""1''''' to t"i, rtumbel1 ,h.n othe, poit' ic. 1
opponen', "ff.."",",,' Si,null.n""''''y.lhe USI rolla!*'l.' r.""i" >q0>a<l>.
'''3lroes .. nb a commun,,1 f"",iOOt. di<pUles w ,'h cIe<:IOIlIIi" .. and 'Ilt
pttUIlaI'tbC:S of Armand<> Seq"'. all lOOk thei, toll IJorgIu kft the st<ttWy.
<lTip of lhe In 1922 The LSI "'gem! on """I 1925... uh I bn.f
"'," II dunng the Maneon, emi, of bu, w.... lhen outla .. o:d by ,ho
''''0

\1>0: \ta" c"" i eril" of 19N. an<! in 1925. \t. I.",1a and o, IIC'
,.,,,,hi'15 m>t"lO lT .. d itopon""t <o",a<(; .. ,,10
Libera. " Iton'
commun,st a"" fasei,, orpmla"on or,er.ra!\S, " Itt the la>l fe ... """"h$
ber""" MItSSOlini OJIPOS,t;oo. til<: aNl,chi,,,
L"".",
and .\nIO<l bmbon' u<h 'ned lo:t<Sa"inate h'm. 7.1mboni ... as 1)'''''1tcd
by In enraged m<>b ,n llo1ogna OfT II October 1926 In 'O\<1t1bcr. u"ng
h, n<"lI'" aI a !"",ext, \lLl$IOlmi de>lroyed ,he final "e.. oflhe Iibcr.1
AnaTCh"" "'.'" d,,'.n into o' LI. , pl""ed on lit. pen.1 i<I,oJ. or.
,f '00 r.m,,", like pl.o"<l undc , a ."..:-ios Qf ito u'" a,.,..,,,
110" C'Of. .1 .. a1'S ... t.. ned .n .mbiguwl .,titude 10"'3rd. ItIS
(""ncr .ub'..... ',..' "ootrades According 10 l. ... " rabbri, l.uigi f.bb, i1
daullh'. ,n ,he early 192!H p"""",ed r.bbn from ......"'1 b)
10.:.1 llr>loptest and ."en >cnt In to ,heu house 10
hbbri '0 bttomt I }OUmah>l for PopoJo J Fobbn reJ<ctM
,he pl'O!)OS"l "<I' of It:Ind and 13101. in 1926. hct:omc """ of only ''''"0
p"ma!)' .. ltoo l ,e .. h"" m all of Italy 1o ",fusc 10 plc-dgc loy. It}' ttt
and ,hu. wa, ,"ro "x il e' ) An.rc hlS" ".ro """' e in
l'uft>. 'ew and elscwhere ,n II", 1920. and 1930.. T1tc:y "arried
uut S('crol un,,,,,c.,dul aucmpts "" \Iuultni's Itf. m lhe e.rly
19'1(h,. " The .no",h!,,. "'",. ..... 'i'" In Spoin du"nK rhe Ci"il \\ or and
n.. ,nt .. ncd pan, .. n lV""JlS,n ,he \ltlane<t. L,gunllnd T"",an} dunn;
,he Res" ... ntt
The tt>o\Omcn' "en enjoyed a br,ef ""ulllent. on tht immtd, ..
pOStw., peri<>d. ,,, d""de nl c.. ntt,.",,,,,. d i,",on"''''N by whal til.."}' len".d
Togli.tt" o,"erly moderato arod bu",auc,att< poli ,i, .. Jottlcd lhe liber
tlnans. Troc.ky"" and Bordillh,m ,n a ,hort ]i,ed agam" , ,,,,
CommW11" Party.. But these de,,,Lopmcn1> .. ere lrol't$itory. \\ hon a 11\1"
mo'Clt",n' of mainly unsk,lIed .... tbctn "'on...... lfIP"ared 00t ,ho "'''''''
,n 'he 1.,< 1960<. ,he to-O'\tO L.1l lhe", ,n oc Man'SI
lallSllal'"
It.'"
G,,,,,
,h.
-223
Tnr lnc"" Anarchi..s 1921-15

. . and 'y"d;'oli'l' ",,,, .. ned ",I."" cI) ,mpnna nl ,n T"n" """I
The mo,\oo,", of 1911, In Ihe spring of 1921 lhe " "arehi,IS a nd
'j,nd,oalo'll' J.comed 10 ><>melhi ng ofa rcvi,'al , Thi, "'os ca " ......t
by the of Ihc """iali'4.' and coo'"'Uni,ls "ho wor< busily
tnll"S.d in onlemeeinc "arf."" 'Tho Itbon>rians mob,lizO<l
suppon for pol"ic.1 ,,">one.. anoJ comrades\. ",Ii<bnly "'''h
lhe ..."......100 of"'" 1<:11 T Ind In.! ,he ineroasinl i",lus",al um ... ,n Tunn clu",d b unemploymenl ond AJIl'OIIts in,rodl>ClIOn
of coll":l i, . piece .work. bul ,he" !UC<OS' "at shon )" 0<1. Grorns<:' a,'<!
rarOOi. (or the commu r"SIS. ')"'p3I h,ud ""h iOmc oflh. dem,nd.
'"h,",,,,0<1 hy lhe h bon. nan . 001 cautioned 19ainsl dirtc' aclion In
of 110. Tu",ans Ind Apuloans, In Michelin and. in April. Fill.
,.... ttsofully lodO<l out ...mrrs and Ihcn _kO<l I 10 1.000C1'ttploccs.
n\all) of "ioom had bt<-n hbc1wun or ;;ocoa],,,, mll,lS"" diJrin;1be l>inr"io
,n
'''ppot1
"',.." "
l'he Iobort",ia", "e", to Jign, foc.nl JUppon m a f"lI

>.Calc sho"down wilh employe,., 3n<l lhe ,lale, Meanwhile. ne" dl>pu'.'
en' piN wilhin thm OW" r.nh be"" a yroor ,!o,nonaled by III. I", J ..
" ftl ... local Ln,,,,,,, the i"dlvidu.IoSI all<l lhe rm110\1 After ,he 'II.1reh,,, bombing In M,I.n and lhe lod.",11 ,n
Tun". ,he .... monc S,,,,,,,,,,,"lo "", quicU) ..d .... <'illn i... ignillclnce ,.
11,w.o'". P .... '" F<"m't') rtrmoined .s ,he 5UUOf)' of the 10011
branch of HO' I h.. bnII.1 murder in Dtcombn 1911. '" <:1\ ,f f lOM
dJd 1\01 cou ", for much on 1911 a nd 1922 a> 'I> I>"" ,n. ,al ,nembcr$h,p
,hr.n' from a I'ffi'"a' h'gh M 20.000 10 Ie" Ihan 1.000, Fe rre", be m.
'kc'ply """I",d on Ihe ' I'"Sile helwee n eomnlUn'sts and "",ialim 10 '" in
,unlrul oflhe local bronch hw:",asing ly he joined "'n" G.. rnsc, ' $ liocuon
and eVen wRXe f"" an,elo$ in the doil) I. 'Oo-dmr '\''''''''. bul ho bocame
.u<c>tt' In local anan:h,., (lre!C>. \largon'" Md o.ItooullCC'd bclIh Ganno
I ...... ,., communL\l "008" as early ., bnUlry In! How",.,.. by
"" of 1921 mos1 a ..",hi... ooemed 10 '-'Ion.,hot F""""
hId becQIn< too m"ma'e "ItI. the ,,,,,,,,, un ,,,,. "h'k had becQrne
I,,,; 1I<Ii," po litic. lly, "
r errero's proximity 10 !he cQm muni,u IoJ 10 "",no n"her ironic SI" ",
".'1" AfiOT Ihc mas, of Apnl 1921. tho ,,"en131 eon""i",,,m
'"'''' donunalO<l by W _i.lim \\00 cllkd for ...ferondum to
,he c{mlpc!enc. of!he e.oculi .. of the local bnneh of flO \! Ta<C1
ond l"orn::", both C>pJIOSCd the "'f..... ndum by 'rguI"g Iha! 1110 pu,<,d
,oonm issi"", "'''' ...,. "'p<C\Cnl' li .. of lho ""'Qh'1I003,)" ';lln foo '" h,ch
r unn .... "",cd. lns,.ad lhej had lhe ",fertndum bo;c<l no! 011
"I...... the communl"S
l1J.d ,nn ... ncc, The orr/inm,;"j I>ad ",,,,,,,,,,,0<1 lhe" own 1"'1011<.1
lcK"cy '" Ihat ' hcIY n.w tl-\rly cou ld m' ",I .. n II. prt<.c""o ,n ,he mc!al
" ",I .... n ng industrie., Altho" gh Ih.n 3.000
,,>ClIO",," "",od ,n lhe refo",ndum. II><} rnJ..:l<'Sod Fe.... "" and hi , ..
"hile ,n CkIOOer 1911 ,lit p.>1l)" ...."" COIlI",1 of hl"S uocmpIO}',nenl f"nd
on.! on ro.;o,,,,,,bcr tb<y moi""',r.od conIrol oflhe AGO. bot from "'" m,Jdk
1921 II>< ,hom< ofthe f..lory counci l d's.tP\"Caml from lhe columM
I)f I. .'w.."
IfGr. n""i did...,. ""rott hi. ,,'on\:; afl'" ,he LAI dt"""",,0<1 lhe So>- itl
Un,on. loe.lly at ka".1Ie was more .ym p,uheUt to tho """ .pan y Arum
dt l l'OpI>lo un"lllOfdig' onk",d him 10 .h,1I h,s poliloO", f Urlhcmt<>ro.
I>< "a. by from Fabbri and Borp,l1i oooccmons tile
Labour Alliance Ilo",c, or . Acr ", Ia" ICB,I lI\i".s in March 1922
"hen lhe LSI ",fu<cd '''join ""h the """,mum"'. GrtrnS<1 ooc. ap,n
dt""""...,d '1$ ant'-communl.' ladeflh ,p. Catlo Beruu', communi"
f..'ioo ""Ih,n lhe SF I helpo<llo deS,.bJh>e1he SF!.nd Ihu. ,1.>1
"ty Laboul \ Ili,l1C< $ttIned prepaml '"
Si""I., contr'.dicloons are C\- Id.cn' in lJoe column! of the dai l}' I. OIdmo
,\ ''''''0 in 192 I and 1912 , So""'111"'" adjacent "'(lUld
I.. lian "",,!Ch i<l SUppOr1 fo< the p<1'SCCulcd .narch,m 0< Soc ,alo,1
u""",,"" in R....... and """""""e '''I'P'''' fo< 11>< plighl of Sacco
",11.1 \":ut7<11, In America." One COIl IJ. (or i",,13ne . "me bon ","'yon
G""""",', and L 'OnJJlJt' ,\""", 0('1Ie """,Sbdt ",,011 t: .. nB
hrn.;h .00 Ru,an >oureO'$ Gr, ,,,,,,, _"",01 II) admJl !h"I,he rebel. wero
"",w ' cn bul "",,, ,e "" onl) 10 Il>on reeluec Ih i. a
\ aSI con'p,rac}', l' Tnt d<311o of K in \92 I
prod"".J I series o f '}'Up',he"c . 1'0\.,,,,0<1 by Viti'" Serge',
o.kll..,llIion of U""g ,he recen,ly . ..
(0
T.ur 10 uno.knnine hi ....d,bihly." Finlll)'.... hen tI came to Ih< Ln><.K\f
'i",dIo."k G""""" .ughl on I ""I d,k",,,,,, Wh,1e to< ne .. r hod
mu<h Um< fOT Borghi. "nl,llhe l'Sr l....d<;nh,p brok< .,.,...,11' "ilh II><
Cooll n,.""n 1922. .QUld only 'oice hI> .uppon lOr 1'01,.013
V.cd,,s procomlllun isl f.e"<>11 ''''TO ,,"'". , Aflerward, . ahhough he
e nd orse,1 ,he COminIOm', (ina""i.\ . ,.i,la n". 10 ,11. pto-comm""",
f";;liun. he wa. <k<:iJO'dlj' U"''''yaboul "ch i" oppoi.llion 10 'M
""liS bul ,I>< ne,ghboumood circl .. oflhc unions
i,""
C(;L"
Fmbl<nW.ie of G""""",', a"",>de. m"" bo lhe
"'I".bbk 0' Of tl>< poI"",allcpty I<A by P,e"u r ...... o ,ftor h,s ''''kn'
... . ,1. in Decombor 1912,
I
[)unng 1M days 17 20 Dctcmbc'r Jill!. all ..., .I.\.n .<IIi-fase;S!.
"...., brutall} munkml by the <quam of IX n".hi and Rrand"""ne.
llH: """'rmn """'C'f <'lid.... !be OUmbcr or I.lOOur and the o/To< of
L ,\ow"" ... trt ""S1myo:tl " long'mn tuSH ""'''acre ....
be >Ought ,n .he '''''' ,ha,l'un" had ",,,,ted a<,",,,h, in April 1921
and Jllly 1922. H"",.,.r. the ,mmod,a,o co"", lh. 'ph i ",lh,1I ,1>0
local"",.,o bel" .. n 'sond wa',,' fa>c;'ll <In Ih. one MIld . lId ' ho mon:
model1l1< ' len" .os' (."''''' led by the -aMrchisl Mario Gi oo.. on lhe
",her.'" The ntr" or ' he
.!tctl""", of the wen: mili",n,......"hm
,he ,ram dn\C1'>' un,OII "hi.h had the highoSl p<"",enlaK" of "n""'" of
any un"", dUII"i lhe July 1lIc fir>! ",,10m of the rnassa.::n: IO-a.
F",,,,,e,,,,,, Pralo lOtio /1m

guarded tho "lfk.. of l. 'Ort/mc
,\110'" apllUl (....,at Prall> k,lIed 110" r'sc,m dunng. I"e nIgh'
'"OOH''''' Ahhough the bacligroond up 10 'hl$ .OII(r(IIl13'''''' '.

pon1oularl)' obscure.11Nn ,he result of. pe.sonal
the fa"'''tl took tl>< Of>J><>nunity to ""u lo " ith Ihei nlt f.", i"
ad,,"rsano, Ilowe\'rr. illS probably lhe ,a\<: Iltll Mu..solt ni .nd tho f'''''$ t
hi<cmrchy in Rome ""lherOfJ<red nor

lhe rna,sac", tit... to U()\O,'<:'d.
On 18 Dc>::cmbo. Foncl'O.nd Carlo IkNIt Wtro
tll< dead, {k","
", $hot thrcc limes tn 1110 boock. whIle dc<ptle "aming' by Gioda Ind
And",. \iglonlO to ka,.. Tunn. Ferrero ",a Ulhl by. faliC;<l squ.d
''''''''1
lie ...... l",hN _..-do II>< Cltamlt.:r "r I..obwr II. r.u ..:1 I<" "" or.! " ..
',,",,'od I",,, lite b'ltldin. /t>o.I "',,__ mat...ttln f"l_ edl,n ...
F""" ..... onoJ ",!>or ..-.rl= W<R i _ - . l by ttt. I.",,,,,, On< oftltrnt
..... fnrntl b", ho I",t<t>d<.l "'" to f.nm>, 'rn"l1 "" I... fiwr, tt.
dId IlOl s<1 up ."''" Oub',," <q,ild""". ( '-' they p.lrool.-.l
t"n".1 IT>Icob.-< ccfom<>ny,
Circle OU[".I< tho
'".
,,'a,
c< 11 "",nt,'J In un,,,,,,,. 'I ... " r ... ", fm,ro. I
r;OIro F<m:ro
'Ill<)' dr., h,m "1" ' .. " ttt. ..... , " i, n"dn'JlU, -\',," .... I basurd, on o'PIt"t""
"f 11>0 """"..,", ond "ill mor<: blooo.. and It.......,II not.l<od
".""" lorry ..",cd."
H. "as ,hen d",gI do,.n Cono \',"ono lman ...

and hi. bal1erod
corps<: <<)Uld 001)' be tdtnttfil ,he"." <by thrutJsh hIS (;t""" C"",. card
Ga,;"" ..... nHI Ih. funera.i. a ll ofTunn ",as
.,,11
t.nori,.d and only lhe

men .nd I I "Omon alte,>ded 'Jot one: ollk,.1 froln HOM oppea.w.
ahhough t he un ion dId ""00, ""uth . Ag".1Ii olher To ,i n.", itld",.
" iali " , "or.> h"".,tlod by the " nle3lhed by nc V""chi .nd ",nl a
protO;1 to Munohn i In Rome."
Hj ""'"
f", I
.. .
Gnm"", had botn In M""""", bu, In obituaf) "I'I"'ore.1

In the th.rd "'cekly
of L
Although

",.i.,
126
Gio,.,.nnt I'mxli slgO<'d the it had bern llhos"""rincn by Grllrn\.C1

In " tbe IS p"""'n,ed "i1ll I repon abou, ,be dcdicanon of 'M
f"'I"')" .o.mo.1<' ferrel'O, &.ml momlls la .... In M,btes",'.
la<1 ro"je ... LUIgI fobt>ri n:-jc<:l.d .11<- communi"
appropri.noo of
""me. :ling" hc1I>o, the "'00"-'; It F."."..,
FI>CtQI)' "f M"Io(Ow hod .tty c,vil ,h.n r rol'Os comrado> '"
,a",i,t
Ho ..... o'. ,he cotltro ... rsy 0"<' F,moro dId !IOI Cea'" hc-rt . Writin!: from
M"""", in 1924 Alfonso leon<:t" $OtJgh' 10 drmon.lr.t. 00" ,he R,,,;,i.,,
anarch,.t> had happIly .on.bonte<l "'ilh ,he Bol.he, 'k regIme, II.
,-jewllhr Ru,*Ame"ean Bin Sltotorr ... ho had kllOwn Carlo T"","o
and hal ian '" IIh I 'leapoli.an ICCrnl H110 inlen ..... 1
Sandom,rsly. the R...... n anarcho-')'IKI"lll->I, .. 00 <Io,,"'od that \blalesta
had "" e of hi ..",..,." hen he publj,htd h', oi:Inlnm8 01"' ....1)' of
Lrnin . LtOIlWI .""'...... d lit",.... ond SCt;O,,, .narchl>t. to
friy%us <oonl.r.n,.-olu""",n.s. .00 PlClro r.rrcro iC.wd IS .-ok loodrl
for the lIah'''1 '" Ilo"""e . Sandom".k\, "role. bli!,enng letter to lhe
,norch ist """',parcr
the cmnm1ltee of lhe It, li.n
Commun"t I'any drnyi,," the lubstance of Leon.Itt', int."'i.,, ,,'un """
.nd S..... toff. In hi. leUet. p"bliwd ,n I. l.:nuJ in Scp4cmbor 1924, he
eomp.orod Le()nCIU unfa'oorably to Torn MaM "'00 drf<!t<I<d mIller Ihon
dcn .. d 1M prr><.'Cu""" of the ln3ICh,,,, and R.. olutionanes by
the fhlL.t>e- 'l rti,me. al"" claimed tltot Iloist>e-'ih ... ,el
.l<n'cd Ihi, PCfiCCUIlon and ronch>drd by 1I<l11nl thai ,n fact hc hltd had
many eon"eNo' ..
1t.Ii.n communISt, ,n \105<'OW and abroad .00
' I ... t"cd I .trOng tmp",!.",n thaI the ""me and I"'"""n of Mal.to<1a
w3; I"Shly rtprd<d .,en b;- til<m'
rcrl)" tn '''"''
was <>'aii,. ,md embarrass ing, Ckafl y Sa"dotl'i rsk y w"' " lortured
ind" 'iduo! '"
of the So,""t Jdegotion
lI.apalio Confer
enee in 1922.lrading 1... lion an"",h .... Ined In meet hltt' in onIer to di .. u
the ca.. of ,m,,",oned lI.ulSlJn .narch".. and prncnt an} funhcr
<cut"""'. tlo "'.n,ed to cry.fkT ",.d,ng I .." from Luigi Fabbn
bl:<aIlI.I; the Inalth,... rnon: lhan an}'<lM 01"" had I"'" their hfc in unJc,10 """ the .. ",ILl!"'"
and" i. 'hey "loG
!lOW bern Intpn>ncd
b)- ,he '"monopo!uu" of ,h. "" Glutton In Rus.s'" And I Ito.. become. ;n
I or""n iCtI .. , ,ho" dlpl0tn.3t1" reproscnl .. i, e ., the Coon of Mr Ltmn
and f,iend., I..... 'I' 19 H , he "'role a letter from tht So"",
Union to f.l>bn. now in <,ii, '" M""te' ideo: 'Nt,lthina fo r me a n,l
my f"cads. The ,imes h,,. 1>0"'" fU';OUI', SOOnly ofl.r, Sa" domlr;ky
di .. ppe.re.l inl<l the 0"13&0,"
Fe .... ", "IS IlO1 ,he onl)' 10 dl. 'tOlero,I}' '" l ',,"n In ,II<- early
t'"
1''''''.1'0',
."d
'.1> '"
1...,,,.11,',
,,,,,,,,ber
'0 1""
hit",
-221
Aflcr Ills Ad,mS. n.. I ui'l turned to robbery a ...d " ..

,hOt d"mlg In anned II<)ld.up in I>lc 1922 aoo lor Imp<iOOflN." Other
P'''Ot' " ""otI<O' for lboi, i... 'ol,."",,,t in lbe
"""dor "f f"""i,l, "lid ''''1I00:I1,,,, III< """uP''''''''" of III< facT"",,, 1)
Many kft I unn, \1arg.:.rH.l wnqu" ..... "'C in
dunng the early 1930.
bul bo "" <kponcd by ,II<: .uthon".. oftl>< Sc<:ond Repubhc. Ho aoo
Rat/aide ... '"'''' ..... fl'<'ed IftO' tift ... month, <klotttl"" on
'"'Pl"hln "forpnlztng lbo Ardtlt dell'opolol )i",d in " , ile In Pans in
the ml<Wlo 192Qs .. nd then Ii, cd 'ICro1-kl"lIy In ,he LSA fo< most of tItc
19:1&. and 1941k In I"" early 19)0,; Sci"., ... a. in'ol,cd In \I,.hele
s.:h.rru ,.aIII.<"on IlIempI on \I"!>OI'ni. "h'oh its orig,n, to
lhe . ... In lbo Aron, Ll\Ikr ,he """'" \la, Sanm {and kno ... n to
h,; In Brun,n. Schill""" bocame a IcadJng fIgure In L"AJww,,,
.A. R'/'''".1n, Ind he ,,,n ..
ref,ac,O<} "nlll hi' death '" 1987,
'el"med 10 Tunn oOcr lbe ".r. and .... , a colourfu l figure In
I.. ha ... ", ... ",h1>ltl umil h.. dealh In "
In Turin ..... ,nta'''''d r.. ,,,,,, ,mpo<13n, dandeSli"" presence
Ind helprd
l,beN 0 m",or fOOIoold lmong'l foclO<)'
"M,,,. ,. frnn .. f C1re, u. Peolro \I...... and ha lo Gln""i Ila,. '" and
.... ure 10 lhe "'Il'''''': e,'en I"" an" f."", G."no ""; foreed
b)' the 10 ,urn h" nll><kln ... c""""ra,i .. tn' O a joinH' ock
<0",,,,11)'. '0 Oilier i'Of,nese .""",hi". fWghl in lhe Spom;h Ci, II \\.r
M",,,, d,ed in Allied bomblnM ra ,d (>It l"unn ,n 19-15. ''''mcally he
n.cl helprd <k"'" 1M,,,,b ,lI<l1cl'< the "Of " D<J,ing ,he Re,is"'llCe
the '''arc h''l> III P"'cl"''',,1 foughl . 'ongm\c tne ,o mmuni" . AI least "n<
",,, ,nber oflho lJ,tr",,,, dl groor. Anlomo Mall'''' . d,ed "' a NOI.I
c.mr 1",,,lIy. "" ",.1 an'td",t mililani. pl.)ed key role,
III 'he n"' " .ncl til< final inl ulf:l ion in Turin duri ng I9-IJ 5.'"
<;pa,,,
,nN.
(i",."".,,
Gr om sd and Ih e An. r chh l,: 1 It" Hnal

Rcfore Iho e(ln"''"tl l>l POri)' " .. mad. 11 1.g. ' on 1926. lhe I"'ny pro"
tlcyOted '''_PIS of space .o lhe .""",hi5l' and lhe .yndic.h.l>.
Articl by' the ., .ynd,,,.h,, (;,u'CI'I'" lJ, \,\uono oAplal""J lho w.al

"f >}lIdocah<m. en<o un.. rthcd Croce ", old a.ccu","""
of ,he rel'l ion<hlp 1><:lwocn \Ialalc," and ,he: IIourt>on Quttn of lho
""".;0.10111 of ....
"lttl. G ..
TO!II .. n, and Ta",. retUrned 10 =CS5
,he kgacy Idl by h.l.. n ana",hlSrn. 1o AI Ta"". K"'''' di",,,,,/lanl<:d ... i' h
tho ll"""1Oj ,nn ......... ofSlahR ... tho ("""'''tlem. 1>< rtad I'I<aeane In Pari<'<
RlbhOltqt>t ..... "oNllt" GllImS\;i a".I)""d lhe syndicalim in r.f.rence
'0 lhe """Ih In It .. e .... y OIl lhe 'Soutltcm Quol''''''' and In tho Pn.ro#I
,ns..,.
Gro"'",i's J\OOKtP ofsub\'c"i, "m. 'f'O'llanclty and the pecoli ..

.... talnulol'S of ,he pref.'!<isl lei) in It. ly ""ohcd a ..... "d ,bo off<" of
the .nareh,,,, and I)'ndloall>" OIl Itahan polmcal CUI1U"" In lhe 19,0.
Togli.ll i. a. lI""ary of lhe la"" Sti:IIOft of lhe Corninlem. prod"",d
"""" fallly ..... I1.w.I."".d aceoonlS of I.. lian ..... "'hi,m. Wo"h)' of no,e
al'C oh.ruary for FITi"" \101"<"$1. in 19]2 and h.. 1<lure on lIah.n
..... "'h"m bor"", Il1.lian .ommon,>ts II thoi, PO") ,,11001 al M"",,,,, ,n
.' lIo ..ncr. hIS OIhe, pUI,'1ClI1 acti' ilies dunng
pcnod are """
da.. A. 'rcdcnc<!' he bocamo the """""",," gn... of tho SpanIsh COO'U'J'tUrUSI
P""y from 19)7 ,o.he flU" f III< R<publlC. Wha, roI. be pl.)'ed in 1100
P"liO uf,Ioo In.reh"llll00 Iho Puom,'ilS. 01 foo thai mall., of ,he PolL'"
rommum'" bid," \1"",,,,,_ IUIOII opC1IlO doNtI. tic Im",d
,n Sp.IR 100 lit.. 10 be dl'<II) ,,,,'01, cd ,n Caml1lo (kmcn', tkath dunng
B.rco!..... \1J) and "",on' ",i""""'. may p<lIn, 10 .\ I"""lini,
>ecrc< sen "'11t} ,n8 OIl' ,he rnlltlkr dun"1l "'" obaos of lOOse da) ..
"h,le ... lUll>' lonj;o. and """,,,""I)' \'inorio
".re rn>t>obly potSOnally
irnplicll<:'d In lhe sul'J"O''''''' of tho '''''reh" In Arali'"' and 01 ,....11<:"'. 1.:1.b1t o'cnllIally ended up in \lO'1CO
IlI<n ,n ..... " CII)'. The", he " .. Implicaled In lhe murdo< of ,he
onliSI.lInt" .""",100- "d",ait,1. Carlo T""" . Bu' Doroohy Gallaghe,
da", .. II< ";1$ murtkml by a l(I<al Mali. boss 00 Mussolini',
Aldo AWOIli cI. ,ms ,h. , T"IIh . IIO was fore.d 10 rubber".mp the
<0 "'0""" ,i,iled upon Iho Pu h,h Communim in ortlc r 10 sa', hi;; o wn
hfe I " ilh n is ",,' n brolhcr-inlaw. Powlo RoOOlli . bo lJ
and "m " red by ill. N'" VO. iI loolcd as if he .nd tloe Ilahan Comm""",
Pony ""uld SUITo .. Ih. sam. f",c 1$ the Po le. AI'hough Togli,ni In'Y
h, ... hi, I"'''Y 1rum e purge and nughl be col le<! a "modeml"
<;I;, I' n"l. he """ """ y enlerod in Ih. campaign .ga in" Tro" , )' wllh gr"",
and gu,!". rog l""i . 1'0 <knO!lnceJ It.lio n an.rehlll< hk. Bemo"
and II.., 1'<IOm "'Y h.r<hly. l 'alli er 1M: oppo<cd ,10<0 o"lnpaign 10 flU the
.Mrehi" F... "".,"" (;1>0/11 f""n Sla lin', gnp Ghezzi's case w.. ,!lamp.
' oncd f""n Pani by Iho IJ.elgi.n ..... rehist Jacque< \10,,,,,. Vie,ur Scl);<
(r<e"lly ttlused from. Rusli.n pmon) """ Angolo Tasca. In 1936 or
11117 Ohe", " ......1I0"e;l up In \he G",a, Purg<"$," Dunng the 1930.
T....:l wM I leading follutt ip l/Ie French and Itali ... "",iali" n'IOY<_
men1l IIc conSlantl y tt,urno;-d 10 the non L"" ,n,,' ,..,heal tradi';o", of
IMrehi,1 '" pre. \ tl .. isn oocla""n, 110" ...... if Toglialli compromised
h"nself ,,"h Tuel's lif. "ai ca51 under .no""," due 10 St,II _
on"ttly relationl ,,"h the ugi"", d unnH the WaT."
Pan' "1>11 ..... cenl", for 1..1.... anarchISts. and.1 "as heR 'ho tirst
g,oup 01 haltan lnarchlSl ,olunl..,,, aoo JTOI<mbc" of Carlo R... sclli,
1)",
ordo"."
Conciunon
e LibtrrlJninod .. 10 IUPJIOf' 'Il< "",,(3roee '0 Franco', coup
IkJllco "n, one of 'Il< mOSI ,ndcpcnJcn' m,nd, among" 'hc anarchi",
Ind
,enion ofGuura di Uane. "hOoh oppcarN In Borulon&.
OfIIK'>'Cd the FAI in'ol"e"",,,' III the Spa""h go, cmm"",- (krnt,i pleaded
""to his Sp.oni<li e""trades 10 .... pIoy til< ukllbtoan tnKI'hon of gunnlla
,,ell II '0 mount .n,i.,mpcnali.1 eam",ign in \ ' '''''''''0 10
"""l"" I It'ar lie WI. "'" "iI.ned 10. bo.M in til< ""''''' "ttl<
up 10 the Day,. to calm po"ions on o!'Po"ng anarchist
and communl\t <odeli ....
Llle Carlo ROSIooOI". VI too ... ould d", It lhe hamh of.1Ie french Cagou.
lanl> a.the bthesl of "".uoIinl In early Ju ..... bulb ""'" ...-ere di><nth3ntC"d
by lhe of ,be commU"i>" In Spain. )'ct bulh sa ... the need for I
conllnuod .. ,,10 ,betn Berneri '''u .lurn-d ""11b Rossellt 10 .. quesl
for I ,h,rd ,,oy
I democracy and Stalt,,"m Carlo Rosselli,
brol""r. '.110 ... too d,w ... ,,10 hun. ""'sa n""g )ounS hi,mria" "too had
"nl1m Irnpo<un' _ount, oflhkumn In Ital)".,1Ie Fi .. , hUnn"uonal and
,lot ofP'_ ...... Ca,lo had .. rill." 10" d'lr.cnohon undoeJ Sal'"em,",
,he Panl'o d' Moone ,",ould carry on
on ') "";"ah.m" I"'n. In ,he I
.be legacy of.h" Ihmj "ay. nd yotlng Inleliect ... l, .",,10 as Aldo G'''06<"I
and Vcn'uo. wlto e'\roUn,orN Torinese onarchi ... i" ,he 1930<.
r<l8""C"d .h. Impon.roe. of f.de",IISl and "berlari.n fonn
uf $1. li!m. Ahhouih lu'g' hbbri hod .... 10 ... wnllon. sefle. of ' M'cI ..
federal"'" r,... Pcn."."." t li>Jon,,, a,1d Gobe11i', /I,,'I)/u
,,,,n," '-rberal. G<>b<lIi d'Mln I'an, of ,,"ound. n,h.r inni,,<d on nim
by
faKi,,!."
1)0",,& hi, ,Iay In Tun Pn..,n. Gram",i .""01"" orcd "''''ral ,alller odd
indi,.i,I " "h" al1archim. one of whom lalcr became a commUni" ""d
I}"d I", r.pon. " "".,,,,",Iu,, , ,.,coll,lI o f Gram",i '$ li fe In his <011.
h,,- I. d", /lrfi"mJUr/," Beme"
!nO'" .pprtti.,,, e of G ",,,,,',
Icg.oy, II<. la<l I'u " ',e 'K' tx:fo<. hi! murJ<r wa. '0 br<>lldca>1. heartfelt
<>bitt"''}' f", the rc.:tlll ly dec ..ased Gra,,,,, , from lhe .tud,OS of Ra.dio C ....'T
un l May 19.17, Two day. later his body wOS dl",o,""",d oubld. IT.
om"" al ,h. ''''''''''lill' ,0 ,he of Ba", .. luna. '"
h" II."
".rf,,,,. "'
In
bet"..,,, _ ..
.I;>ou,
Tn,,,,,,..
,Ii",,,
"
w.,
Bocih,. Mr.:o IrcoIl> dl an" ... hra. r-.ple-<. 19S4. 1'1' 248--52; G.
\'.,0..... II
IWS<)
All'''''''''';'' t """,to""""D _rara 1W11919---
2,
1920. Hulogna. I'll, 2S6 8; M R.. 'elh. Im .. " i'll a M. Ganno.

MS. Tu"n. 1975.1'1'. 157 9
M ","'oniolr and B Ikzza. Lt1 FfO.\1 dall. ",'g'"' aliarclsltl(l, 1901
Ran, 1975. I'll. 625. 627. 630: M. ClaD;. Antonio (Jrom.<ei ofld
.hl! /I ... Fadrd. "ow 1977, p, I 72.
A,un,,! j Pied",,,,,,",,, ediu,,,,). Sep<'-""">c.- 1920. p. 1. One ye", l.i.ler
F mmI FtrTCrO blan"'" 1bo orrJ,.rnulI fut IIQI ii, ing ,be ica.d Gari""
de"",nded. ("fwnlto \01<1. 1:S Sop! 1921. P 2. The role ohhe an:"
ch,ou. dunr'lPIIC ",n Turin i. described in Re'"elh. 'In,,,,, I ....
pp. 157-9. :--; .. urally. the t;<l"or> of
Srnwni,,,
.... ", on, ... ' oflhe RC"d Guards. 0.... "'port described 1>0>0' 0
had been for pllferinS Sec. 'Ces= . A ZOIIZO. P...-lo ufl"",'ne
OC,upall. (""""ltClt S;I1Wr",<I. 2 O<tob..- 1920. p. ),
C Lc' . . 'Cbansma and soclll """"ettIeTII>: &ric<r M,bl..tund 1..,ian
Inarchir.m. fwil. '01. J. 00. 1. 1998. PI'. 13-1 S.
P Sj>nlno, SMri" del Ira/jaM. ,01. I. Tunn. 1967.
1'1' I St. I' Spruno. Gram""i. it f..... ismo. Sli del PopoIo....
(',il;'-" .11"".;,.,,,. Qo..a<Icrno.l. 1967. pp. 175--99; \I. R05S' . .
"<HI IAtIl'rmlill>mo di f{Wrra "gli ardlll dd """"Ia 19/
1922. Pisa. 1997
l1u'1lh,. ,\1,",,:1) solo. rP 272-SO; P Sprial1O. pp. 197-214
On ,be SF! .nd the l.abour AII,on<e 1. F. Dom.:ti. '11 SindK"o
r erro, i<,i ,,_hani <lal <:ong"'''''' d, Bologn. olio ocioglirncnto della
COdl.. ,n M I\nronioh. R Berll.rdi . ,Id G . <:lleoc">7" (.ds). /I
rind", .1/0 "'Xliii a/fuscism" /907-1915. Milan.
G'II"".

I>
n.",,,,,,,
16
7 V M.nIO,anl. M",,,rj'" hi" I.a ,1,1 Dimw. MoI .n. 1979. pp
628 9. l' C. Mus i" ; , '(jli .".",t"e, "ahani . I., Ri'olulione Rm,a .
/1m,,,, SloriCO old '01, 8. 110 . I. 1%2.1'1'. 165 6. Fo r the
UA I ",."Iuti"" ..,., \I.s;nl. 'Gl i '""rch iei. I'll Gra",,,,i', r,.,.;e
.niele libtn. pcr 'U'".'" eo,i al"'<110 "i pore. L 'Ordi'le V"", ...
:!4 ]1;0' ombe, 1921. in !iocfu/t"'w e raja'mo. L 'Ordrne 1'.''''''"0 1921
/9.'2 (Tutln. 19(6) [U.",.f'cf. SF]. 1'1'. 407-12. For 'he a",,,,h,,,
""f'Onse to GramK'. l. 1 abbn. 'Saggi <Ii <li.l.tlic. com un iSla '.
.\"'". 2 1921. p. 2; al'" sec 13 Ikc<:mber 1921.
p 2. I January 1922. p. 2 On Oo:cember In I the Ton"""" a ... ,..,h'$!t
i .. ucd nun,feSI" donoo"",ng lhe ,I.nd<rou of Gram""
S. '01, K",rch,o, "'01"1.00 '''''mni>!i. L__ nl/.; \'0'''. 7
1.
obilWf)' fo< lm,n IS 'lunou
1,'/""'<1, I february 1914. In E.

senm 192431. ",,- 1. C"amtZlI. p. 33 . For tho
\1a"'''''''!
-211 -
".1 ......,
bcI,,= fabbn and M"bl<>l& O\",..hI:: moan'ng ofl.e",n',
d,ff",..,.., ..
pol"icillifo, _
I' "lIJOc).Bny, "I.l ts'" and m" anarchiSl ""o/u

1;00', . "01 >, 110. L 1'1'. J 1-4
8 Ill" Fedeli I, I'll ,,,,"'rll,,i,, di allil"ila "",,rrhl<'a I h.lli. 1951l. 1'1'

Alk. ,I", collar,.; orlhe 'Irg,,1 Ink.' In Augu", 1922 " !CpOn
in [/"'"""" So",). I Scl'lembo. 192:!. P S. ,rod : 'o'pe<iall}' in ,Ilt
III Umo" . ln Tuscany. in L' gu,ia and "' [m,li, I"" dc,""a
l ion hos 1>0 """hodic,1 aoo . lmoS! COmplclO'
9 C. &n ... OO, 'Re"olutio"",} S}'ndicah.m in hal),. 1912 1922', PhD
di ... , l of W"ooo,;n. 1%9. pp. 311)..71; M Antoni"h,
:i<Ir d,,...lIa t "'J:<1",:::a=_ Of'""1Q Si..J.. ..alm"" rl .I:)/,.;"",,,rio
'''' kJ tiM ddl '0"", mKl. ,I \1.OOun.a. 1990,
pp. 1M II>< m,omaliooal d,mcnlion. 1ft II. \I""organ!
Thorpe, II Tilorpo. 'n.. 11;,,-*..... n..OUtn'tJ Rnl:)/Il'i"""f) S>mf,
culi.,m una Inn'rnatio",,1 Lohor 190 19lJ. Am"ord.m.
Ch3p1<I"S 3- 6: M. Antun,,,I; . .i mwnJu Bu'!:hr. 11i"i""" SmaUNi<
IIUli""o, )..\ .. ,,10'; ', 1990. PI'. 109---37,
II) A. Landuy'. e I 'AI'enlinD. ),1 il 3n, 1972, 1'1'. 367, 477,
II Fed<h.1I pp. 86---7.
12 \I,nto)\,o,. \/":or!" blw. I'll. 635--'1 for rabbt, i""iden', $10< l oc.
Fabbn, b'lll StonaJ'w" _I,,,..,.,,, Pis>. 1996. p. 15J,
13. G. ('omlo. 'l:em,S'U""'" libenaria '1II1"'N in Fra""" rlCl 'on'onn.,
f", 10 doc soc",,',.n B Bezu Icd.l. 6/, ""/tUllt I'",ri Itall<1. Gli

"",.,,,,,,,,,i
pu. ; a 'uaa:",,,.. 1811fiI'NrI. \I,lan. 1983. pp. 831----912: G.
L !Xhitro mil
I
,1/" ..<>Iilli, \lilan.
I' H,""con" Gli "",,,d,i,i ndla IfI"" {'OnI .... ,/ fa5ci,mo.
P"loio. (j Galzenmo, . Auo"lIli Inan:: l"c, MUS!4lin,' "'. G
M.nf.. (fit.), I. '",,'i('l$l-;sma r; ... 1992
I ('. 7ro rl>YJlu:iOltc e Liber'l''''' unil"", "ella S""gn"
deg/i UM; M,l.n. 1995. For loarch", oc,i,,,i,,, in ex,le aDd
Rr;'>UlTI<c. $<'C Gar-osci, !i/ ..-ia aN Bari.
19SJ. pp. 13,2' 4. 45. 61,63 4. Ben, and Manocchi.
In I"i,,,,,, S,,,"C" dell. R",i"cnZ3I ,0 TOIeI,\I. Gbi1U"" I.,be,.."
um,ruse"''' e fla"a d'II"/'u. fl<:><c""o. 1977; D
G.llagher . .,I/llh" Ril;hl E",,,it.. Lil. ""a

"ow Ilrun,wi<\:. 1997. r o. Ih. Rc.\isl>nce.""e Fede ll, I..-n
rp. 109- 18: P. reri . "narch"a in /ml'"
(/944 19.IO!. 1)"'1/" ",.i>le'lZa alia 'ICOSlu:iDne. Romc. 19/8; A
D.da. I. in ',,,Iwln> '"'''' ... /Xi"iro, St<>na
t/rlI"Q"arrh,.,,,,, M,I.1n. 1984. I'll 9$-139. G
.,..;
<>pITO'.
h,,".
d, "',,,1,, ....
or
,,

llanf.",soo,a .. U, ,..",st"'=Q 'uIU G/i Q_rchit:i e la I"'ta

contn> tl
I g;ontali anorr:/t,,,, damk<lm, ,94J----4j.
1995. G. Sahcni, 'Re",,,cn,,,, o,uom soci,l. II Mo';menl"
.n"",hieo. I. lou3 d, hbel1l21on( 194) Rn"ista S",,,,'U
a,'II'Ana.du",,,, ,o1, 2,"",,1, 1995.1'1' 27
I For 'llc 1tC"",i., uf ,Ile USI .00 'ho ",1>0 " .. d"", in T",;n d"""g
I". 1911) .nd 1921.
I,.mtmi'" No"u. 21 N",embo. 1920, p,
1. S January 1921. p. ), 2 1 January 1921. p. 4: 22 \Iarch 1921. p 2.
24 \I.rch 1921. p. 1: L'Ordi"e V...,,.,, 23 J.n.wy 1921. p 2;.!5
J3nuary 1921. I' 1. 30 Jon""'} 1921. p I. I February 1911. p. 2, 6
r cbrual} 1921. p <, i Februar) 192 I, II 2. II) frbnJ3ry 1921. P S,
11 Fmuary 1921. p. S; 2 M3rch 1921. p 1; 21 1911. II 1,24
A"1:"" 1921,1' J; 25 AuguS! 1911. P I 5q)rcnlbo:r 1921. p. 3.
Rcpi)I1;; of,l>o p .. rccI "f ,I>< Tun" to II>< \1 m,s,,,,. oflhc Inrmor. 30
December 1921. 1 Jonu>!,- 1921. 2 FrbnJol}' 1921. ,n ACS, PS 1921
B,84; AII".,ioo, \1<1.lIurg'o,. T""",,, For- ,I>< c. "ici\m of Forre nd
by Iluo'-Zi. ee Umanila /I'o\'{,. 9 l'/"",mbcr 1921). p. 2 For
O....
a,l0 10dOll', ....
Clan., AllfOlt'D Gn>ouri. pp. 189-9), I Adl",.. /Iolia" 'ndbJlTrallfh
lrom 1.",u"I",.. fD F(ue;,,,,. 1906-IPJI, ('Imbndgt', 1995, 1'1'.
24."\-4 In. pIC' ;"".1)" ci,od in'.,,ocw "'i'h In anonymou, anarch,>!
mil",n" (;"",n"" I'",.". 26 luI) 1921, p. 3. I>< cia",,, 'h3t u'.f
woB.n had be<n o.ac:k.-d from r .., by ,I>< 'umme. of 1921 They
wtT< Il>U!oII)' 'the bo", """I"liooari", '1U\d now 'frttdom in ,I>< ,,"'"
.hup$ is nl}"h. the most n,ked "':lctlon trIUmph , und,, [urbcJ'
Mo",o,'c,. ,fie lrchnici.ns hu,l .ne"c<1 In Ihei' fom,o,ly imptrioul
man"".
16 h.r \1"Vn'.', .. -"'" .\'D''', 3 "':"" . 1921). p. 2. lie
claimed ,!t.u GIn.... and Fenno ""'"ly ><tpporlCd ,he """;'1i,,, .lccloral
camp,uJII'n 19191920, and II"" both mtn \\'or\cd hand ,n gWH
13uou, durinK!he 'trike of Apnl 192i), .enno Ifl<l G.rno derunt
lit c"'"IlIe. Soc. L'",,,nlll' "o"u. 9
embe. 1920. p. 2.
1/ For fcrrtro"posilionsm!he 2, I<'< Amo",.)!>
ond Ikru. I.., FlOIi. W. 66 i. 671 2.1>81 2, I '" G.utno. set L '0..1",,.
.\""',,"0. 26 Ju,," 1911. P JUn( 192 I . P 3. On ,I>< d i",nchantmcm
"uh O"nno aoo r crrero of tho Toon<....., """",hlSl,. ""'" i:rnnla hm:ro',
"'J>OI1 'n /. An"ni.... .I"orcnICIJ. 19 May r. 5 For r.,,,,,,,,
8rI'<lcs . ...., P F.'n:I'O, d<m
1'f'>[\Crn dc, pmic'.n I
f"ore dc, dilC(:"P"u. L DnJ",., .\"uom, 3 I obru.v) 1921. p. J.
r""i."",.
m""'
2.m
",lit
""0\
t'''''''
-2B_
he S'HS a p<"'lnlSl" 1II1.'rm" ion or 'he efT... " of prolonge<l

,,""mrlo)' "1CIl1.
"","y iIope> ,r..o"he COII5Wl( ''''''''''' in ,he "uOlbet
,II< ...",f'Io).,.J ,,<>oW coouitlu" '0 ,he i"""",,, .".111 of rcbolhoo
a _ .... .,..... nr .. on.... , """ "' .... coo"'_ <Iu( "'"
Cn_" .... prod ...... ,lie O!'P'>I'IIO <Ike'
AI fi'<I. ,II<", ."'"
""wm.. ,,,, K"OOtll ,I fOl.lllO.l in, P. Fenno, . Ad un ann<> dalb

'mI,a delll FIAT.l 'On/,,... .,""",. 28 Api'l l 1921. I' 1 Altbooglt
!wi coilabo..,e<l ",(h ,he rommunists. he

abouI lhe d"II,o..dllp or ,he prol<unal. Stt_
.\,)'..,. 23 rebnw) 1921. I' <, IS M.",h I. p. I
1& As,..". 19M. JIll n. U 5. Abo $ .... lOOII)TTIOU!I "'I"'" in (/maRl'"
,"VI". 9 \ja",h 1921. "b<", lhe ",fcmxlum is dcs<nbnl a<'1 ",.1
J<A.' f,o-ero ",,"ame ''''''"'''naly Kopei,.1 of nIa<S ac,ion in 192 I.
AAer 1.200 .. on.m ,,,,,,,,,,, ke<lat 1'..... ,... Piemolll""" In Sept............
I. h. "1$ ",pont<! '0
SI,d at ",""nil: '1' IS not e-noogh '0
hedk lhe at """"mll'. 10 VOle in ""'OIUbO"",) rtsolu,oons
.,IIl,h"n 110 10 ,o" . ldly aco.pU"g,he .ond,,,,,,,, III< bosses
IIi.'. . . mdll od..,lIy: IrSI (.lk nlOfe """00 . See. No"'. 28
Scpl,n'btr 1921. p 4
1'\)1" Crams-i', p">l"OI1 un Ih. A,Ji,i del 1'<>pO lo and ,he L.bo",
Alli'".5 p, Spri.,IO. Cram",i. ,I
1>11\0. Sli 'A,di" dd r<>pO"'.
Cm"" Ou,d<mo 3. 1967. JIll 175-99
20, Fu, (;ru",;.:'s poi " i"n al\" lit" USI C"nSrtss. See SF, PI' . 471}-J
I t.e USI "." .u,pkious .,.n before ,bcir s.e. 'I com"n i"i
\ "111"'n,, "",,,,alnre l'Unionc S",dacal., Gurer" d, I 8
hl>rul') 1922. p, 2, !'o< Herut l. >CC L OrJi"e .V,,,,,,,. 4 Oc,obe' 192 1,
r 2.6 r><o".",I"" 1921. r, I . 19 Jon""y 1922, p. 3, 11 Api'll 1922 ,
p, 8 Jul)' 1922. P 1. )0 Jul}' 1922. p. 4, 7 &"," ",bt , 1922, p. J.
On Ikn>'i's from III< 51 1J "" 10 hi' """""'. S II ferro. ".""r.
htle-naM. 29 July 1922. p. 2. Ho" eW, (he ed,IOfS o f
'- mann; -',,"a ftl' ,!Ie SFI'! Klion, had been 100 Jfll>l""
21, I. /1'010":>. I S \larth 1912, p. I, For lhe caml"ign.o
Sateo
_nd Vonull;. $ 170.:,00.. 1921. p. 5. 6 1>;o>embc, 1921. p.
I... or 01\ (h., communis.s "oounucd .... " c.,nl",gn. "'" r "{,,,;,';. 17
1926. I' I. 12 1926. I' 1. 2? July 1926. p. L They .'.n
helped ,"" iNl",h'iI> hold ,11cgoI cIcmonslnu"" 1k-t the;,.,eoution:s
001 "'" Sc:a.;h'L 'Lllion,', r!'. 6-t 5. \IUS$Oh'" tool;
.., amb'i""".1t".. 001 the
\ ion=li .na" II. fell ,hal the" pliW>'
Anotlle,
"".e
f.""
\.II".
2.14 -
nlObihlt Iialian MI ;on,h.1 r""hng. a. flo .... and abroad.10 lhe

oflhe bu,

for ,nIgh, fnghl.n a..-. y
"'COCIHIce.lcd Au",,,,",, bank k"""" "'" r V Can""(fllro. 'M u,,,,I,,,,,

100 th" ."",h,,!>: lhe 'ran""I.n,ic coni."'. Joumdl
'" \/0;1",,, II",,,,,,, \01. 68. "" I. 1996. I'P, ) 1-62.
For un'n",( 011 .... """,.0<1( . ..., Sf'. 1'1'. 98 100, 109---10. L Drdm,'
'I1{)",.lso pubh>hed the folio" ""ide<. 1\ Il Braiis-fool. '1lOmi ruS$l. 10 Marc:b 1921. U \larch r 2. 12
PI' 1 2. ($1' " Radel.La "'01 .. d, Kn>,.... d'. 11
1921.J>II I 1.19\1')'1921.1'. 4 The rnos(,.'eahnsIn.dc,
"oj; an lnon) IYIOII> rrpon (rom M"", .... , 'Ln anni rsa";":
1.1AI'''' 3. (ha1some
c,llenl mll".n .. died II l{ronSladi 1I"""'"r. n,,,'hc, the Soci.li"
R.'<llu,,,,,, ....... 11.. \lcnlhc:, 1!Or . ' "n lbe .,I1"".l<:< of a third
'",1\ .. ",,' ""01""001 ,oold ha, ... -on. F", an ",."';.,, of reports ""
lhe R.,oll in ,he ltah ... .".,.,h,s, prtS see Fedele. C""
""".... JIll. 9
2) f", Sell'''' Ie<: P C 'I."n,. in Ilali . Meno 5010 d,
rlt<r.he Cdi d,l>al"" (1876 19161'. A," del Coo"egoo Int"""",(>.
,,,,I. di S,udi .. ",. ann; dopo. Mil . n. 1'177.
r\>. 36 7, \" Sc'. ' La n\'(>lu,i""" ""sa c .ku"" ",ltche pSeudo
libcn. ",,' . I. ,\!!Oll'. 13 Augu .. 1'121. JIll. 1-2. """iaily . La
<oor($si"" i d l 12 lan".,)' 1922. p 4. 'I.. "",nlog"" d,
I\nn. ndo II..>'lIh,. I Aug"" 19n. p. J Fo< Klt>pQlkin . ..., V U .
' I',wo Kml"Mk,n. 1. 'o,r/,ne
30 Jauu.!)' 1921, p. 2. 27 Man:;h
p 2.8 \ loy 1921. p .1.
1\
I." COSleu:i"",' /''''1ila ('",,,,,,,ma. /9)3 !6. Tll rin.
.\1)"'.
[,r.",,,,,.

(1I<-re"Oo. ("1'('1. p. 107
k De Iehe,. '1 f .. " ti( '1'01''''0 ti, I),cembro 1922'. S,,,,,; SlOrici. ",I
4. no I. 1%1. PI' I -122. G C.",."". TortI!(). M,lan, 1971,
L. Mn,"'a .. del fa,.",,,,, T",i"" \ 1919-1926
U. 1.0"'''
.",1 N (cdsl. T"mwfru """mlmn". ia'cj,,>w, .\l ,iall.
in provincia
1 1'1' 2.17 .l i), C. Oosio.. Le o"g ltl1 del f
d, T0"'10'. !il.d; Sloe,,,, " . 3.1. "". I, 1994. JIll 18.l---206
26 1)C Fehce. '1 ('",'. lIP 59-62. 7Ml, C.",ln<>. Strage, JIll. 78 9;

r. I!'
..,,,,,,!)
Ong(n(."",
Cn",."".. .. PI' 85-6 On ,he diltt'l<',ponsibility o r \1"""',,,,.

Uemn. Itt.lled lhe (oll""'inll in 1930..... L ,mg' d, Ton""',

Gwr-ro di Dn:cmbc-t 1930. p. I 'In fOCI. ,he Ton ..... fasc,,,.
"",11,. ha.., 10 many find,ng h"".clf rre>ef\1
""nnR Ic:lc:p/ooo< <_II '0 ,be poiili<:al aUlhonll<"< In T unn.
\1 """I ,ni ,!.lid the r.)lIow.nll: "As the L.a<kr of f>s<;i,m I regret
In>! )'00 e,,'1 ono ... orth.",: as 11.. head ortho go,ern" .. nl
J .nuSI ofd", )'00 rlleas< the 'ITC"N On .h.
ils<lf. sec ('.rut>O. PII <&-9. 78. 8.J--l
2K
rr S < 6. On ,ho rn>lCJtI oflhc iodu!ln.hSlS. sc<: Adler. 1101,0"
l"d""rlull.<tJ. 1'1', 30$-9,
!9_ G. (A LIt Flbbrica Ferrero a \-1"""" L -OrrIme
\"""" \I.",h in ,pt, PII. q3-!t_ . . IQJ""Ja. I \lay
1924. 1'1'. 2()"'1
30 LI dellit alll",hici nello "" L L"im. 5
,1>",.
July 1924, P J
.11 I "'""".' L'IIf... IQJI}f!IO, '01. 28, t>O_J.
1975. 1'1' 10. redole. t'"" t-..... 1'1' 131-7, F", Sandomtl.ky,
IcI1Cf1o 10 F.tlb... 1. l""c Fabbri. hiRI Fo""";. P 137
'Pour I. def.n.., de r .,..",hi.me horoique .1
"propnatt'U,. /.Q Rnw ,41Uln;h..,... voI_ 2. 1923. 1'1'- 12--16. Pre,j
ousl)'. ,n J,,"ua!) De lum and hi' 83"B " ..... ,n"o"ed ,n 1
"'tit 1M polte. ,n .. "ICh one anarchiil - Raffael .\-hla ... "
"as l,lIed. De Lui" wllS wounded. bout .",aped and recuper
.,ed .11 fnend'J hot.... He hodjuil b-n ... k:t><;d from pri$(ln Mle,
><:" "'8 an I8monlh "'111 ..... c fOf a nn. off.,,,,., . He had been p",sued
by lhot pul i,e f(l, ,hot robtoer)- vf. large numbe, of railway (ieke!;
l)u""8 ,he ,nl.J,iaa"on \ Ia" . ,i{a ... s brl.fly de13incd Emmo
FefKro wondol'td Itow I)" I.ui', ... he h.d been 'befo", hi' arres{ in
Ino. fino .nJ hono,1 "Ofk"-, had be<om. an ,Ikg.list" SOC
21 la,,""!)' p. 2
H FOf 'he
rd.f of . brigad ief of{hot c.ntbin ie,. during {l>e occup.{ion
of (h. facto!)'. {l>e .".",his' , Rosali and C. n , ,'e i\'OJ "m.
)....... [)eli.
ye.rs and Giul-<ppc Rubino 10 y.ars
"np"><>"'''''Ii.
U",,,,,iIJ ,vMa, 9 July 1922_ p. 3.11 Ld"'riorio.
27 July 1922. 1"Il. 2 1 ror t!le murde, of. g",rd o{ Sal igh.no IM{i,{a
Vign"I . () C .poni. Ca m,tlo Cado Guili.no and S_ Polli
.-ci",d Clgltl y<a n, MOil'" Viti Ca rto MoUOjl.""" II lea"" G
C.I 'Hio. G 'Ul<'ppe \Coono and ArmaO<io Giorcclli 2J y..... , FOf the
",u.-..Jn\ o f Sc,n,ula and Sol",",. Lu,g, \Ionlo<on, and \1. AI al.=
.-."ed3O aOld Aaosut>O IloI!JIO Ind r .n:titl3ndo Beda 17 }eatS
... petli'''' } 5. 20 JanOW)" 1914_p_ l_
_14 for rbe {nals of Schllnruo Ind G.llean,. see Fedeli, LUigi
{hlurtmll 'ann'- di /("''' (I !l91 19311. Cescroa. 1956. lIP. 175--8 I The
nl"
s....,.
..

""\C"
Ihal lhe Inu-ofian,l.IllOOlIo<t Sch,anna IlId helped
1 de!..,I'I1I'"'' of Anini del Populo ...... ironic in {Ite opinion
'"
('",,,"i,,,
Ill' 1.""tII I om:ro. >eo

-"U,,,. 20 0<100.-,1921. p, 2. So.
prc.iI)'. h... 1to is. eoo,'ineed ha, be<ome
lhe nf.he PC<'I'le .. On tho "'hcr hand. on 1t.loA"",ri "
1!I3",h,,, "",.tled Uorgh, SI}',nM .bool d .. '\e" ',he
",,called a"u-org.>n,zau"'lailiilS w.... the be>1 organiz.-.:l group' !itt.
A'nch. hili I"" rs. p 1(7. A{ hI< trial Schla",na claimed lha{
he ooly OOSC'Twd foomaliorl of Ardi'; del Populo., a 1oc.1 c ...... ery
Sft. {.'"",nota ""'''' II ApnI1922. p_ 2_ For hi' 1.>1..- see Ikmt.an..
...M Torch'. I' A,""h. SaITO Thr Anarr:hisJ 80d,
gt"<1IImI. I'nnceton. 1991. 1'1' 212 I 3 In Iny._ Schi.a,ina "-as .....
prortc '0 ,"otenec TM h.1o-,\menean a.,..",hi,{. Joon Vall00ne.
.-olled
Ih .. American

"-as a dedic"N
l!I3fth, ... buI he h"n..,lf .oo!d", make 1 bomb, coold "'" c,cn k,lI.
11): !itt. Allleh . . I"'-'s. p 152 FOf MO'Prita, see ACS.
('PC (OO- IM 1920..nd 19,0._
f edet.. {;" Jrtn<,""w. 1'1'. 98. 126- I 11_ Zocam. '1 -I,alo;" e
I'''''B'''' d, Gu, .. " ... L,beroi '" ltaha. II {()" ... sed, Voc, di
'III'. Ri<'illa d, SII)<-;O 1930'. /{i.JSlu
.'>10';'-" ddl ' Ind,.. hi51'tO. ,OIl 4. '''', 2. 1997. 1'1' for all<'lhotr
>lOOy of nc'il hOO"'hoooJ ...",hism ""ring f.""sm. see H Zone:
Anarchiei di qu.n' ..... Antofasc",no. vo{a quol,d,an. nd qua" ,"'"
. . l!l"k ( ampo hera J, [J"' .... ,. " /{i"ijla Sw,i,u dell 'Amln'his",,,.
",I 2, "0>, 1. 1995. 29-56
J6 ,\IOSIO was Gucfied by {he polico Jue to h i' e. ,li .. frie nd 'h ip ,,"h
Cam illo Rcmerl , For I", of fidehl}' (v ,he Reg"'te. see ACS,
InR7. 24 l'eI,,,,"!) IY.!O, h " [nun. feRero, see ACS. CPC
20.12. Icrrcro. L"ltna. ennie, for 1919 and 1938 For Garino. see
It.vetti, ' [,"'''''SlO a G.nno p 100
.17 , P,elro R.i""rI nf ,,,mata d,ed in h.nk. , .. ,\1.
,\lIno, /I"u,J, Ji un "IH'<Jw (.olm la guidu di G'''''''''i).
Rome. p GiuS(pp< P"'H'ilO "'..," an office, in the FAI
bool"= JUt .. 19,161nd February 19li. s.", ACS, CPC 42n, Pre"",n.
Giuseppe Da"'e Ant .. ,,,,m ""tII,,,oJ ,n S"",n fro.n 193610 1939
110 foogh .... ,he Ascaso column and ,,-"" ar=lod afier Barcelona',
May In), I I. ,.",.,neJ ''''pn>ooed and WIl> deponed '" fiance j"'"
heforc rranco'l 'ictory ,n 1939, 5 AD, CPC 19 L An.,....",.
Dame For \1"""" $tt Grom..-i e 1

,0 J" un /d""nJlarw. 1956. pp. 3
F..- \bimne.!
P ;>0 for !he 19-U-5 wil ... and the R..."""",.
,ha,
orr"
....
' ';,1 .
T Imp<:m,,,,
fOsi,'"n-.',
19,
'"Fo,
a 'I'u,,,,,,, D.n" Cagoa l lio Ilaroni ... 11.

"01 2. no. 2. 1995. pp

/I,..,,,,,

1), \,,'Orlo. i L UnIIJ. 11 JuJ>C p. I. 100clClkr 1914. p

2, 14 ]\;OHml><. 1924, p. 2; S Augu., 1925, p. 6. For Grieco, "'"
'An.an:Jt"" e 1>0000"'''''. Slalu 1926. I'P 1927. I'P
21 38
40 \las,n,. M,I.n. 19"4. 1'1'. 380--1.

41 A Gram",i. S..I".'>#I' from 1''''1110.1 1911-1916 (sclc:cted
.nd edlled by Qt."n"n 1100.,... 'raoula,od by JOOn \13"""'-' $). London
1978.1'1' 441 62 For ,he Qwdcnrl. sec A. Gr1In\SCI. Quad""i tin
o. .....rt ledi,ed by ''alenl''''' C; ....... WIIl). TUn". 11115, ,,)1< 1---4. 1'1'
.n. 6S- II. 3 III 20, llJ-32. 777-8. 843. 927. 930. 1581 91. 1808.
193940. 2021. 2<125. 2481. 2829. 2988
42 F. R,S'oo,e.-,. 1913. TQlf/iU'1I.
'-01. 3. pl . 2. Rome.
Illn. 1'1' 94 512-27, il
Spn.no. SI<)nu. ,01. J. 1'1'. 86-7. ISO. 214-16. 263, 272. G. BocCI.
p"/",,ro TOII"""i. Bari. 1973. 1'1' 2H2 305, B BoII<>len. SpanISh
C"i/II", u"J L.ondooG, 1991. p\>. 87$7. On ,he ""Ie of \"lIon<! Vidah In Nonh A",...-iea ""', Gall.ghe,. All
1M ChlplCr r ool1"""
44 . Fo. TOj!h.,to on Gheu,. i R'Siooi.ns imrodu<,ion 10 ,-olum< 3 of
hi. "orll. ()p<',.." 1'1' XL-XUI 1.., pp. 300--5 . 448---'0.
489 On T"I!h.uo onJ St.h n,,",. "'" BocCI, T"lIliw", 26$-78,
r Sp fl.no, SI<II", 'h,' f.'''ropi:u', C"",,,,,,ni,,. London. 1985. pr,
51. A. Ag,"t i. 7"'II/IIlIIi. Turin. 1m. 1'1' , 223 56. For
th" victims of St.1; nism. Itt 1\ 1."0'''''". rl"',"e
Jd/u in (lIISS, PI'. JI)-5, M.Tl{uuni.
hi". pp. 26, 1' .1010, Ln" 165----9
4.1 (j Iknl (C<l.). 'Preble"" del n""';"",n'o ope .. io. Sen" i ","<he 0
S'Qrid iTlC<liti d, Angelo I'a",a. ,jnnul, l/d/O ilibiio,ua G. G,
,,)1, (I). 1968. pp 1.1-1, 18--26. 43 il. 121 7. 231 -44, 24663. 296--306. SS8 60 For T!I5C"s plllilioS m II>< 19JOs "'" A. lk
Grand. In S,alm 'I Shad",,", AnN"/() Tusa, and ,M C<"i.i$ ,,!,he Lefi
In 11Oi> O"J F,on'... 19M 1904j. Dc: Kalb. p\>. 69 I H. rOT 'll< vi<h)
episod<, Stt f)c G .. nd, In S,oh" i SII,,,"'". 1'1' 155----68: L. Rapllne
'Tr1I VI.h)' and la Resis'en".. SI""" "01 IS. no. 4. 1997. 1'1'
119S 203
46 eM lIama.C.,mlkllkmoncl.rI\o(,wonespagno!a,in8.ogrape.
1'1'.61-88
o,xr-r.
47 I' II'Snoh. Cudu ...a JXn'iero politico a:i"ne. Florence.

1985
48 I' C \1o\;ni, ',am,l(o s.,mrn collabont<>n> dl lI'nJlu:io;,e LibffaV,
1"lon,';. '01 l. no. I, 1947. pp. 30-4, G. Manfledama. UJ
h"''''"e, /'ulgl Fubbri,

"",u'r",e"1

iwlien

ia luue
P',is, 199-4 P 81 . P Bagnoll .. Picro Gobel" aDd
rho: liberal n\'ol"""" ,n Ilall', Journal oj McJem ""Iian Slwlie.,

, .. I 2, no. I. 199,. I'P 34-44., \1. Sea' ""'. 'Ilcmcri, Goben;,. 1.
,;,,>I<IL1OO<' 'taha ... ', SiM''''' drll \'(>1. 4. no. I.
1997.1'1' 7S-84
49 f7io Tadde .. [), n,amo"/. tie, l1r{rall"ri. 4 Ott. 19J7, p
r Spriano. G,.,._, In parli/a. Rome, 1977. p. 100.
SO. o..S, ... lIy bro_"",-$! (WI 1 Maj' 1917 on Radio C''TfAI Barcdona
and ,"Inscribed '" drllk!rallari. l21une 11IJ7. p. 2. For
Be.... ,,, dcalh. _ Garm.c" SI"";a. 1'1'. 151-8. Spn<lno. SI""'-<l, ,01
1. P. 209, An 1pJU<"..,,,.obtll:lf) oflkm<ri ond "" modem ."""hlSrn
"'flttCfl bt Angelo Tasca opp!:ared in

d. OasJr. 2J Ju"" 1937.
P I. Stt M Gt,,,.sonl, 'II fllo TOI'" ddla "mapp.utenza" Be .... ri.
TIS,,"'. Rmlla '01. 4. no, I. 1991. 1'1'. 8$8, Tho ,-,rnpa'gn '" ,cleo"" Gn",,,,i had bttn going 00 fIX .'" ornl
llo",., Cr, .' moo,ing of I,.han .nd anu f."'I>1> hold
in r.ns on 13 July IIIJ.4. BoocOOI. on beho1f of tho anarch ..!>, dedined
10 join th'l "ould Ix: on dUl.'" cOnlr.oJicl;on ,,;th the . n"chi$!
tn f"", .lIlhe dclained in RIIlSi,' Dut lu<)' PO"""!, wlII"w
AllIe,;can Alben Pa""" .. "ngod , fkr the H.)"n,-",lccl
R,Ol, "'ro" an und... d I.u .. to .dd""",-d 'from a nm i,.
Am"';e,,.' to pi<"d ror G ,,,,.,;', ",Ie..e, Se., ACS, cre 2499.
(ira!11>l;i. Am"" i"
Bibliograph)'
I. \1a l u la l.
"I fn/r" ...
.\CS PS Arch" 10 Centrale dello S.. <o. \lim$l<1O dell'ln'<:m<>. Direzione

Gmmol. d, Pubb',," 0,"110"" Iffari e risen-ati.
,-
ACS CPC. Arch" io C..."",I. dello S.. <o. C"",IlOIlo I'ohu<:o C...,,, ... ,
AS' I A"h" 10 di 510 d, \lil.oo, fond<> Prcfeliurl. Gabi""lio. ' l,lan_

A<;'r. Archi' 10 di
d, TO/mo. Tunn,
<;"'"
IlGF Bibl,,,,. G fell"""lh. M,lan

11 511 1010""'''00111'''''"10 o(Soci.1 II i\I(0)'. Am'lordam_
IH) /';npuNijlrffi .l1"""$trlplJ, PhD Iht>u
,,"J '''''
l'rl

1)e... rnncJ. C. 'Re'oIUl,,,,,ary Syndicall,m in hal),. 1912 1922'. PhD.
Un i' .... ,'Y ,,( \\ ,,,,,,,,,.111. 1969
l.u,S' I abb" ColI,;on. Aml'erd.",

ell i. ,I I , 'In'."'II'" M, GarnKi' _MS 'r u" ,,_ 1975,
1\.,
10 1''''''''1'''1''''''
L 'A,luMIU dd Rrl"""""
/. 'A,."nllwa"'la
A, ""Ii -'

Yorl)- 1937,
1916 20
(!';.w
ed,,,,,,,) 191
f'''MI'('hlan) 1916-21
1_ '.f'wn' .... AnarchiC(} (!'iu)

1912 U
$o,wnn'a ITunn) 1920_
LA; l),f<sa I Flor...:.) - 1917 !O
fm'd"... (I<>o1don)
/I G"d" Jd Pup<>lI1 n unn) - 191 .... 111

2,,\1
(iu,''''''' "I

and M,lan)
""".ta,,.A, 1In..., II"",,, II
191 22
I", 0"""1:1 5o<'i<1I,' (Tu"n)

L<n'O'''''''' .h ""Ii! (Turin I
1901-l
1920,
192}.. 6
/I Ld"'rWril) (I a SpOLIa) - 1916 20
/I.I/..,aliu",'c(I (Iunn) 1916-W.
L'OrJmr( l'unn\ 1900

/ o...Jmr.\'",,,<.>(Tunn)

([),,,Iyl
(Thud
I'ae,u u/.,.,,,,,, (\lilan\ 1922
e IUI""lu (ROtJ\I:\- 1924-6.
I... Rn.,... ",,,,,rchm .. (Pans\ 1923
La .I< ",,112 II","rtta. BoIlt'lImo . . 411<1
F,u"....'"'' F.."..,. , (Turin) - 1916-17.
L.. Sq.,II" (Tunn) 1916- 20.
11S.,,,N(r-..ple.) 1919 ZO,
I.q ()pmJ'" (P."S\ 19!1> 12.
Sm", 5<1(:",11 ,<ko) 1932--4
C""'''''iJ .\'",,., (M ,Lln) 1920,
(Rq",,) 1921 2
I 'L nil" (ROtJ\I:) 1924-6,
L 'l "i"r",,. P"p<'/ure (\1 il.,,) 1909
li>l,mM(AnNIl31 1911 IS,
""I "",:;0/0 d,
/)rc", /"",wn! (London'l
19 111-20,
Pumphl.-a
J Conarc<w S,nd;"'ak 1 c<i">lSli di jubbrka
6ololln .
U" I. /I fro>rfr ""irQ ",,,11<:;',,,".;,,. 601<>111\0. 1910.
Gobo,,,
'I.

Ito,k"
!nO' imento 'indo,ak It.hano', An"a/r

drllo BiM",,'("u Frllrl>rrlli. "01 14. 1913. 1'1' . 382---42 I.
,\"" "'''<>1. r .. II p,an,o t il no<>. I.. ",1,,"0. e 1'""lOfi,mo dni"I>, \1 , '11 mo"mtnl0 onarch,oo II. h.no n.1 '. Slo.i"
P(J/III,a. ''01. 11. 197).1'1'1 1H
. n\(>lu.I1""'"o ,loll.no e moddk> '<><I",'n3h",. do
F,t,,,,,,, ('"md"n, al "ndo".u ""'i......1i d",du;,,,. (1911-1914 J'.
Ri,..... /,..S/'Jrrrhr.'ol 5.no
'Gb .w.;1u.:1 It.d,..' e La pru"a ,.,......lI1<I!>diak Len"", di anotth""
In'.'' tn",11 ( 191..\ . 15)" Ruma Swnrol ddl "A"",...Ir"IIOO, ,01. 2, no
I, 1'1'. 77-$7.
B'8noll. P. 'P,no
and the l,be,,01 R.,oIuuoo in 1... ly'. -",""'121
'" .I/,xI,,", "oh,m Ss..d,rj. ,01 1. no I, 1997. pp. 34----47
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'N",. su GralMCll'ICl R"'UlQ di Stona Con ,01 10. "" .l. 1978. PII. 354----78
Bell.m). It. (;r1Im5<'l. ('nxe .nd ,1>0 I.. h.n Polmeal T "",1111""'. limon
"I PoIili"ul T1I(>UIl/r '01 11. no 2, 1990. 1'1' 3 I)-S 7
Berman. P.. 'The T"",h anol lhc '\'C The Unk_ n afienn:l1h o(the Socco\'anlom Afhm. 711< Iii/Oil" 17 \ Iay 1988. PI' 17 20.
Ilona. (; .. 'l n <0>0 di indulfn.II,lno .",d... I. Fl O' i del pm"o no' e..
S.'nn,' 510"". w i -I . no. 1982, pp. 131---02
Ben,. G .. JII""al ..>Ii " ",,,,j,,,,,,,.>n). 'I'robkm' dellllO,' ;mcn'o 01"'''''''
<;"' rll il <" t"" itOtlCi ,nIII' J, ,\IIgdo Tasc.. Amra/, della
("""K"","m<) F,/mllrl/i. ,,,I , 10, 1968
IJertonr. G . '1'"1.",,., oor;:hcSr 0. Am ic;<. 11 pnrno m'ggio e I. rrop.,
gan.!., ><>,,, "11>13' ..1/""",,,'1110 Or<-mw ,. S,,,ia/i,,,/. 2"J se rie,. " ,I 3.
n". 2iJ 1980. PI'
1.1
l3ergam', G .. 'Un" d,,,,u,,,or.c Sill gioma le d<, gionni .......")i'I' G,s",,,'i
'"I CIII> I ulura"'. An/lQIIQ('h
J.19N.pr 65 9
, "('10" com"",,""" .nd the theOf)' of 'he ran,- ., ,h.
""g'n
lhe OOl.l"", ill """CTlleni'. rei"., no I 1. 1972. PI'
S7 $.1
Conn"ITVIl. P. \'.. \IuSS()l",i. Soc<o-Vanz<ll' and ,he A ..... rchi"'. The
I ""$lI,lan." <(lnl"" . .1.",,.,,,,1 ,0(.11""",, /laloro. ,'01. 68. no. I. 19'16.
1'1' II 62.
Capoosho. S .. 'Scn", suI (U""'''Q di An'<l'''<l Grarru<: I. /I Corp<>, no. I.
( II!
I BVTgh,.
I"
,,,I
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I!/ .-I'li,/(.
Adle,. F, . Factory Cooncd . Gmrnscl and lhe Indu,triali,,,. 101

11,1977, pp 6' 90
Alh", R .. 'Oddi .... \IoriO"', l.<Xi.liSll!. Bibiiogru{lCO--Swnro
s..!>..lpm". ,,,1. ..\8. 197(1. 1'1'1 51, 91
"ndclSOrl, P.. ",. AnIlOO""" of Anl""io G",msci' .. k .. u(t Rn,i.....
"" 100,1976 '7, PI' S-78
242
218 J.j
CaIp!. U.. So"ffi." ,s.mo eloorgh<,ia $QH"""" Appunll

<uW,<kologi, dol 1''''1'10 fmu';,mo. lA''''''' no. 2S. Ja,,",1'}
AI'''!' 1982, PI'. S---38

c III soc><"t;i ,tall.",,'. hDIID
1'\'. III olO
na"dson. A . 'n.. Val'} 'iii of (jram!.C ... n S'udles. PoiiriNJI
S1udin. ,01 20, 1972. "" 408 81
Dc Felic<:. R., '1 fani dl Torioo d, Dtcemblt 1922'. S1uJi Slorie" ,,,I. 4,
,., .. ' 1 rad,cali

ronea. noo 1#>---1 4 7,

no I. 1963.1'1'.51 In,
ne ("""no. S .. 'MagiSlllllura. '"l lthlCi 0 110' emo. La "iccnda della ba.-.da
Jol MalO"". I1ms'" dl St"'i" ,,,1. 13,110,3,11184.
pp, 121 72
[)c,,'oni. C. ' ''Ques!i""" .1I",onIO<O" c "00"'0'''' Sociale" dUIllJllc I.
pn"," guerra mond,.le ," [(.I i., 5<><-1,'1" S,o,;a, n". 37, 1987. pp.
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Doglio. C, 'I "'''Sli <Ii fabbnca e il "1O",m<mo de, I3\OraIO'; in [(.1,.'.
'(,JOII'''. '01 6. 195 I ,PI' )6Q.--.4, 424 7.
1)0<'0. C. ' Le orig,m dol fa.."smo ,n pro"...:i. di Tonno'. Studi 51"'''("1.
'01 35.110 I. 19').1. PI' 183 !06.
l)un"'80. J .. 'La" and order ,n Giol",i.n ltal). A ca", stud}' of'tl<i'n),
of BoIog",,'. I"'",,..' (Ju(lrIerh', .-01. 25. 110 .1.
1995. PI' J81--400.
F"",. J \ 1. 'Soc,aIlSl -Calhoh< I\lh ....cs and GMl<i<-r. \\ orl. War.Dd ,he
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S. ncgh S!ati Unl, i , sin-d.,:.I" t
degli cmigmli " ... llaRi', \/o"ml<'m" Op..'UIO Soc,,,/iSla. "0\ . 8. no .1.
1914.1'1'
Gem"'.n .... \'. 'Gnu"''', "G,omaIi5l..... CTili,o .\/a",i.,o. ,<.>I. 4. 110 1.
1965.1'1' I - I 8.
Ge""'501'll. M .. 'II iilo "",..,della "u...wancnn": e Tasc..
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(;,"IIO'!1\. F. '1 gruppt "Ibm.". dl !'>iln" "Ibrr,..,. di Mil.lIO"
""II. ttl. po!i7ia fa",,!)'. R",-"" ."...., '" drll,,"archl5mIJ. ,01
4. no 2. 1997. [>p.
Itce.. y. {I, and Cera ...... F . 'Domol. ",eu.. ennuis 0 il on ..,
oh,eo ",1 .. 00 18'10 1910'. R",,'a Jdl'Anarrh,sml>, '01. I,
"", 2. I \l9.t. pp. 6 S---9-I
,nc.
(;,1'1'3' ',
R,,,,,,o
244
I",prot'o, T.. . a Tonoo. 1)'"0 Iho Boronl nell. It..""

cnu S''''',Q d,11' 'Ill 2. no. 2, 1995.
rr.SJ H
1!<Ila. G 'La nhal,. "",,"hroa ,n hah. 11'1 Ono < 1\u,.nlO. 'ewlni"",
5010, 'oJ 1. """ 2 .J. 1991."" JS7-411
D .. 'Le quanier cOm"," 1,,",IOIre ( comm. rep<oS(tl'''''on Ie.
"""'rncre'\" OIl' de Tunn aU ""bul du XX' ,,;,cit.
Soc,,,'. no. 118 1982. [>p 79 97 .
. '''Pcrrhe mlo P"P" era un feml\ler<
"I,;"" famigha <>ptrai.
'''1'11,.... doi prim , drl ""'0010'. R"",,, dl
'01 9.00 . r. 1980. pp ,l7-M
L.,!d" G . "" lla
In!emazi-oll3 lo . 11. <>pp<:>l;IZ'Ol'Ie
al fa",,,,oo. Dol/clIlI/o lId ,\fu,<,<> ,it'! RI.m"!;,,,,"""', \ 01 38. 1983,
J'P 121-S6
Lc'),. C, 'M.lalcSI. ,n [ "Ie'. A,mali ddl" FOIId,,:iol!<' bigi inD""',
u .\/"",,,",..,,,
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m""

_. 'A ''''' \'00"& Gnlln><:i', Bound",,' 1, '01. 14, no. 3.

1986,1'1' 31---48.
'An1oni<) Gram"". Mlrw."" I""'"
edi.ed
b) ()a,'id F"'l!"'s Ind Geoffrey !'>"""II-Sm,'h. , .... 11>1. \\ illiam 1klC"1
h<> .. (London. lIuw,.. '" l.hw. '01. 9. no. I.
J'P 75-S
'. 'The It.han Soci.lisl .nd 'he Second Imom:monal'.
1/1>10'" Rn'iffl, "01. 58, ..... I. 1993. 1'['1. I
_ _ . In Londo,, : 1 he E.... ofl)'II3ml1c" In \'uci<) >"J
Anum To.i (eds). A Cfn,",1 of Em'II'IIlion '0 Bm"," . IlJIiib
,,' IYMI, E<>VI'j. ,upplen"'nllo ",,/i,mi>l, mi . 13, pr
15---12
. "(' nari,,,,, ""d S.""al ,\ loHmc!ll, Ln"N Mal,"'!.l ,nd lI.h,"
An.r,hi,m. Ihlc'" \<>1, :l, no. 2. 1998. JIP 20S Ii
\I.,cr. C .. 8<1 ... """ T. yl,,",,,, .IId Thn'lCnt<y'. JOllrnal o( C
ran 11"'1",,,,'. ,'01 . no. 2. 1970. f'Il 27 <>1
Malale'la. \\.. 'Grnn",i e il .,nJK.1t<mo n,oh.. i",,"rio Rcnes,ioni .ul
"'J'P'l"'> "" .""h,;
e auidl;ro d I ,,,lore', R,,"Nrie Ston(!t..
,altO.no 1.1981.pp 327 n.
\lan,n. J. and lhe en"s of Lrl!IInacy in Gnuruci. H.w""
,,(the !kimu5. ,01 10. no. I. 1997, pfI I H-S6.
\laf1I1.... lh. R , 'Lna I"'lemica dol 1921 d, Gram",i sull'AnJnIl-'
!orincsc:. "01. 10. no, S, 1972, JIP. 14<,l-.(,8
\1,si"i, P C .. ikn'ICn <oll.OOralore di
I '-01. 5, nO. \. 1<).17, 1'1'. 30 4
"'''"''11''''''''"
'"
Bibliogrnph,
-. (;It anan'h,'" "aliani b R,mluon' Rum', R"1!ifo St""ell de/
\ 01 8, II<> I. 1962, I'P 69
\loo'clwne. R.. 'Soci.I, ... , 0
II PSI e i! de>.I,II<> ""('Oe
"",i.b,lot. c akooh<mO ' . J/o",trm:(1) O;MTQW e Sor,a/isla. \'01 8.
II<> I. 1985. JIll. 3-21
MQr.tbuo. G ... Antooio G"''''3Ci e r,de. li,,,,,, lIund;.O ;t.liano. I)uo 'e,"
a ,o"fro" ,o'. 510"" c \'01 , 6, no, 4, 1979. pp. 74'1-55_
Monis, J.. b\C;,n1 and ,he Onsons 01 Soc,al f'r"'e<:tion of
Shoph<peB in h.I)" Ccmlemporo,.. Hiuo,..'. \'01, $, "" .1,
1996.1'P 285 )18
Mu,,",,, S, 'Pol"; ' T.",,>on <><l L.bor l.n,"" S""ggl . \\.orl,ng-Clas;
Conflict ,n l unn and Aftenll(
Wood \\.r, L fI.imson
.O>J G. S/lpcllo I<,hl, fl.,,,,,",,,,, L and S/lpclh. G_ (ro,L Stn.k<.
coon", u.w lit,: F,n' 1I000d [1"r,Amwl, <kilo B,NIOI""" (iiiJn("".-I"'".
'01 n, 199(191 . JIll. :! 1]-1).
r- icld, K. and SCW, L '\I. ,hng for G..",,,,,. !wdullllslor., \'01. 6,00
6. 199 I pp 209--27
P.. '," oia' esta ,nd ,h nJl.h,,1 ..""I",;on . " narr"i1iSl
Siudie,. '01 1.110. I. 1995, pp .
Oha, G .. 'Un
e .n!J""I"' n'ta alii' 'g,l" della Grande Gut,ra
U PC' 11 00100 del ",Idato"'. M""-!,,,,lfl.., Opcraio Sociu/ula.
'01 8. "". 2. 1989. JIll 2H-M
Oruol!l;" S., 'COI "m, pnxtun',in. noll',ndustn.l It.h.. "" de! pnmC> '''' c RUlli" d, Stan" '01 7. 1978. PI' 161-99
.. P.. cia... oper,;" a Ton"" rIC1Ih .on, 1'KJ6.---1911 '. R""Sla
Ji .\/I";a . .. "01. 8, 00. ), 1979. pp. 32 I 66
PaU', L.. . La culwralc>" del <;"do Jd pcpolu. Cml,a ,I/m-..;'\la.Qu. ,denl<> l, l%i . Pl'_ 154 74
['.",,,;n;. I , IJ ,,,,lo!;y and under Itaha" Fa"",.",'.
illS/Or:>' lI<Jrl,s!I<Jp h"rnal. 00. 8, 197<1. rp 82 108
['ernieone, " , Golle... i ... hon T""",,'m In ,he Lni''''' State>.
Stud, "01.)(1. $q>t_ 1991. JIII- 469--88
P<"tn,ch,. G_.II ",110 della nlOIUllOrlt $(I"ft"" in hal;" 1917-1920',
St""a 1'01. 2 I. no. 6. 1990. 1'1' 1107 .10_
P"<<>nt. P. 'from 5p....lt. 10G,am>c,. Tdw. '>0, 31. 1977. JIll.
- - , aoo!1te '001> of [uroc""""u""m. Jolt",,,1 01
s,x:",/"!:y. '01 12,1977 18. pp ..'
Plcl, U.. . rhc I.eel of .narchy: u.mbroso Md ,h. po liii" of ellm, " ,1
<eicnce in r,I<,.I :nifieat;on haly. Hi,,,,n' 1I",t,<hop no. 21,
19S6d'P 61) '-6
'Ci"",.],'.....,
'Ill
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-246
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G ... Anl<""O Lab,iol. < I" re' '>101", del mar< ismo 'u.. , tr",
lepi,to1."" con (k"",e in e c"n 19Q.I'. Annali
fliM", ... " (j,ll/'R/aCOmO Fdl'''','/'. "01 J. I %(I, pp. 264-341

t""fl", '"
ProcacCl. (jtO' anoo, ["'!lul.. peo"," .tld laoou,

h.ly, 19 1.1
19I5. ,,01. 1989.00, I, 1'1', ) I
Pucci, I L.ff.... s..ndomir.ly-\t,I,'c.ta. ,01. 28. ""_ 3.
P 201 10
M . I:""" en'" popoIa ... t 10 <;cu.,la \ lo&ma on Ita!;".

,01. 19'J). 71. JIll 214-19; HO: _H I

Rapone. L.. 'Till \ och) c la Rc<'Slrnza. 51""" Sro<i<'i. \ 01. 18. ""_ 4. 1997,
pp, 20.1,
Relollo, \1 , (jan",,:
un .n.",",,'o" IIr-zu,/Xnlo, 7.
198 1,pp 5180,
Ro ... da. G .. 'B .bliOleche pojlOl ., 0 f"l' 1l i"a culturak dol PSI \1,1
Ot","ntQ 'o,c<:cntQ.

2nd """.
",I I. "" 2. 1977. I'P-
R,,,,,,. I' 'Ant(lf1lo Gra"""" SlIlb ", .. nza """"'mi'. Criliea I/a,.,-",,,.
,01 14. "". 1, 1976, rP 41 60.
RU"gl1ano. l .. 'T1I<: IJeolog)' of Uobo< .nd C.p"alal Rat"",.I,,) ,n
Gra",,,,,. T.'/,,,. ""_ J I. 1977, PI' 91- 9
S,,,d,,,,,,. 0 .. e guerra """al . II nlU' on",n'o ,nareh"". I.
,Ii lib<'''''''''''' 194 3 \945'. ddl 'A llardu,"", ,01
2. no. 1. 1<),)1, pp. S 27.
- -, 'Con,rollo oomie,lio ."."" ne ll ltal i. ',pina '. 1/""'<1
Slo',,'a ddl " ","0. IQI . 3. /10 . I. 19'16. PI> 91 I <).I
D. 'T"o V,,,,,,. of ,II( II.c"oIulion: Gram ... i and Sorel. 191(>
1920.11'.<1, .... EM"'P"'>"
,,,I 12. II<> I. 1990. pp. 6)6-
5,,,,,. d,
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, O",m ... ,. ticnrol. and ,II<: Thco<)' uf ,he l,h",.1 Sill!' in Ital).
H""")'fllP,,Jili'<I/ \01_ II. 00. 1. 1990. .". 491 SOl
Sc.llDO. \\ .. Bfrno:ri. Gobet" Ia '" "lllzion< ,t.h."",. I/m"<1 S",nea
.. ,,,1 4. ""_ I. 1997, JIll. n
Soec h'", !' ond ;n""d ue""n). 'L'az,one SI'<>It. de l paro"o
comunis,a in dur'/lt. il r."".mo 1926 1932' _ Annali ddla
R,hII",,'"'' . .o \'01, II. 1969
247
lJiNiograpnl'
SolI, c. r , 'API'll"'; 11111. <lni,n; lroncll< pralle"" de, <"""glo di f.bbrira

u Tonno',/I","aSt",,,-.. rlrl Socill/i"m<J, ,'01, 7, no. 21. 1%( PI', I 20,
I'" 'G"''''Ki, il c IIh "Anlili dd Porolo''', ('nlleQ
I/or,\;>,o, QuWm" I, 1%7, PI' 17}-99
Telo. M, 'S,ratcila eOlUIKIo .... ,,,lul'P" capilll",ico in G ram",i',
Prol>l""" ,M Soci"Jj"",O, '01. 7, 11176, I'!'. ZlI--U
Tob.l, 0., 'II
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St()ria "01. 6. 11174, PI'. 175----303
TOf;:nann,. I . bel",., ,""": Albe" Matl".z L
RlccrrlH St""CIot". '01 6, 1916. PI' <2}-4 9
T\lm.b>.,m, L., 'ClIs>( opo:ra ... "'P"'T"""'","" <ondao:alc dunn", 13 Pnrna
vuc"" \londiok la Camen del La,oro d, Io.. nzc. 1917-IIIIS'.
R"",,'hr S",,.,,Iot". 'ul 9, no 111711. PI'
. 'lo"I .. ,mll \I<>blll:..""" and Slat. Inle" ""tion '" luly in tbe F,rn
wood Wac Hrt;<:ts on Labor L"",\t". '" Llb",,,,,,,.oo G. Sapo:lli
let!' I. S"",, S. ..,,,I C,,,,/IICIs OM Ihr F,n' World II"r. ,4"ooli Fonda
: ",,,,' Fr/lnnrlli, '01. 27, 1990 Ill. pp. II
ICIllun. ,\ , 'Tn pnlJ>Ilganda sa,ic1ica. Illtlllal!inario5OCialist> L. impres-.Wn! "alla"" dol' iaggio in R.... i.. ,11.m."mlo Qrw""O e Socialisla,
S no J, 1985. PI' 36)-91
I'iliiongo, 1\., '\ Iomenll <lelia 1011. dl c l>.", ""lIa pn"" me1.i. dcl 11120'.
Ii/'ollle, 11
1970. PI', 130+--22,
\\ "I .,m,. R ( ,'('.-.II":lI,e Imm(>f1.lily : The Synd icoli S1 Or ig in. of
Cultun:, 1'Xl'>-11I10 . .511l1ie /1m"", \'01 . 39, 1980. [lI'. 389
po""'"
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ZOO"" ,1 \" "".<ch lCo ,It qu.",cn: An"ra ..;, ,,"oo ,na qUOl id i.na nel
qUJn'OfC"ldll.tr;ak Campo Fi.", di [I ,.",i, '. Ri,,,,,,, Slar;ca dell ',4I1"r'
"hi,mo. '01 2. no I, \995, 211 56
Z""an;, R , 'I _,allSlI l'Ot'it,ne di Gu'SIo>i' c L,berti on hah;: UfUppo
l'"mc''' d;
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Abra,c, M I" 1011" III Ilal", ( I _
19.'61, 1%7,
AdlomWll. W .ilcg<'m"", A Stud, of,4MO",O
r,,J,,,,-..1 and ,"11".... / 'f/oron', Bmoley, 1980,
- -. f'l1Jf'f>n,t: F""" .ifaMrni,,,, I<> FUJCi'"" Cambridge,
\ tA. 1991
Adl , r,

Cambndgc.
IndIUI""/IS/' f""" Lhrrv/,sm

10 Fa.Jcmn.
1906-1914.
,lgO<II. A., '11 f'a n"<1 ('00'" '...... Ton"" &11. fo ndazione .Ue leU'
..:ocz!otuli', in A AgOl.IO.J><I G M . lJravo. St()ria drl
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/ 'tlnll(aJt:i<",o r 10 "''',<lcn=a. l u"n. 1980. pr o 15----
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1l00.... "m (N,j. St(lnQ dd ",Q,xi.",o. TUlln, 1900, \01 3. pt i, PI'
no 60,
, Pal""ro T untl. 1996

Alloo. R , (;era, IJ , t.c.", G .. \I"",dcQnC. R. and Oh,... G .. /I rr",po dd
1'11'<"" d. lila ,,,nair dd proh,/"rwo di Ji""
\I,bn.I991.
AJ><I.e"",, r .11<1 Delt., T Ccdi). II _, '"",,,'0 oporroio D""".
rnografico. ,011 1---1 II""",. 1975----8 .
IkrgWft. ellil"",,/ 1'0/111<-, o"a 1M
Ga,.,J.-.r"lIC(1on, 1991.
An'on,oI" \j., 'Dotlb "'ga d, mtSlicrt aiL-. d' indu'tna (18118
1914j', In ' I, Antonioli .nd B Beua CN' I, IA no.u origm, 01
("'''''ltIO, 1901 - /9.'ri, 1),>", 1978, PI' 9---W
, t f!I'OII""w. 1" nOJIITil R "'alloi (/90/19141. Mol.n, 19113,
1,.""""/,, l'Un,one /Iu/iano. \I onduna, 1990
'I, nico \I, I.,e" . l'O<!l'""c:ll''''''' <>pOt1I i il \ inda.Lali>o"" (1 889
19 14}', liau,i.io A"IOn,oll .. I=W"R rli"'I/Q organi:,,,:;,,,,. 0fXraUl
5""/,,, "/",,,,,, ''''OI,.;lollorw < """re tra 1<1 rldl'OlllX'enW
;I.("JC;''''O, I bnciu.; . 1990. pp. 203 63
__ , 'USI .,,'" II cong"">o n""onalo d i Genova ( 28---211 gu igno
,n M An,o n,oli. A:i,,", J,MloJ alla l'cn",mo I", /"
dell
fa Ir,s",,,, Mandu"., 1990, pr 165----20 I ,
, /'''''ro Co'i, II ('in ali.", """'''' Ildl 'onmdHa. S",di 'e<li. P,,,,.
'011,,,.,,,,, ",/
I

, 'II "ndar .h snlo ,i,olo",,,,,,oo ... l'ano'. In \1 Anloo,oli. fI

,,,1""0 ilalia"" Orillin" 01 (""'i"mo, p,,,", 1997. rP, 125 1St>.
Amon,oli, M and BezlI. a. (Nsl, IA f'lO.I/ ()rigm, all,,,ei<mo,
Ban, 111'8
A"I<)",oh. \1., fkmard" It and Cho<:COU(l. G. IN<). /I ,i"aorofO 1'-'"""
,in'1 il"ltonl <kJllr ""/(\tti oll"..-i<"''' 190" 191$, 'Iil.n. I \l94
Armon'. R. and I'"". P .\.", H''''''''' Rome. 19110
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. ...
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119
""'011. of 117'
s..: ... ""
... " '0 ,30

Opffio"' , uI;',., II'OL) 1. ' U. ' 9.
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p....,
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t"!.-le>!<.IL.!<ll
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<l' .. ' ...... J<>....
Po..r . ...... ;) ... ,.1.. '9

P.... "'-\ ....
.. :'9

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,SPDI ,0.. .... ,
.. "'<0 '''' ,
Soc .. " .. 1 _
'"., M"""-J>1 \(I. '1 1

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1.... 1)0
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11. 11.'"
-..J ..... (;,_ ...
. ... , _ ,
""/0",,. G.I. 100
,'O-1{I
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1Q1. 111
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/'n"""., r. ",
"",."" I",,,,,, ,,,,,,.1,,, _,.

--..
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v..t" ...... rEoch'" ....... ,<1.., , ...
"""".,, III
,..--.,""., .... 10
{l""'".(,''''' I' . 'jQ
p.",.j,
.,
'.10. '41. In 1il'1

'to .... '.-..:> MI. 101
p-of,_'
N_,
N", r_NO
No r 0."'"" 21. 12
" ,,,.. !'"
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1""" "1
po<f>lI"'''_ 'b
1""1""",,,
"_... R,,,,I.. ,,,,, 111<>1_ ...
IO!. 'G<. 14!. ,''. P'. ,'"'.
pmI"",_ n
f,.",,,,,h 19

Roo ... Uj. C..,;>19 }()

R,b, .... G ...."". !: . I!'I
R" ...... 'fo.I ,... "'" 010" R"' ....
"..... , j , _ of_jot"
...... 0t0I.,
... \.1,.... _ . In. "- p < _ l'

. . 6
I'r ..... r_ .....
M"""". ' 6.". ' 1. 'V. 11-<. IS.
I),
T...... e .'I" 1<. g)_I. fn ;.!'. llO
271
Index
T''''' ''. L"", l()O , Wl_ ll'>
Tm,, ;, -", ,," 10)
' ;I,1'f" 1. 1. _,... , J<J
l u'" 10. 78. "l. 'N. 119
r"",'.
0.-., " 'I-'l(l,

V.le<>. r oolo
Voo-:I<,,,"<I<,

V< " " Ill ,

V,ct"". r .. "''' lW
To ,-<> oy1, I I " .

T" "", .. "", 199, , 00
lOO
.:!'
"",", I, . \ """",l.9
\" g"mll". An,!," 9<, 9', 14,

m . 1M < 1'14
l 'AI , , .... Uo;_ 1.. 1;, ,,,

LC . .,." U.""", Come,,'" " ..
""moo""
(,M""i'" \',,," I n , Il6, 1'16_ 160

,1
"'
\' '''''', Gi;,,"O ' "

V"" /,"",,, ) I
I I Il \ . 1< 1. 1<7

l 08
Urn""" 7
"'I' run'), 11
" ""'" -" " I' J. ,.,
Wo'". F"" Wl
W""e<, A.,.,. IJ5_lOJ
"0"'<" 79. 82. 96--,
""" ,n,," J. '9
Un """, A.."h;<> 11>1,,",, 119,

Il6. ll1_ lll. ll9.nl
C"""", ;". "',."' "". P;<rn""",,,
124
Com " ;,,,

(UCAn I,"

Tot,...,.
U"'""" S,od>c,l< ,.. "... (usn 6,'. IQ.

!.O. 1'1. 8" 'l, n. 119. !Co. Ilo. Ill',
I)g. " 1_ 14! . Il). '19. '9J. 1'14_
!13_ l,",
Un .."" S;nJ",. l< To","" (USn l:;<l
Un"", for
(." " ",11)
" ",'m Dn-a"",,,,g>r

1",",,,,,, '19----102

I" 15 1 1. I j,_
11 . 18!
.. "
0.""","'"
"",,,<1 I,,,,,,, I
U n;,,,"'-' J'orob'" I,,""" ',on) 37. 99

100. '" 01.0 L 'c'n",,,"" r"f"'l""

U'''UI''y ofT , nO 6J
U SI . 'n' S,od:>,.1< '''' ....
U",OOO', A"", III
l..o,'",,",- L":.",,, ;,., II
Z,m""",," "
lO, ' it

ZoO""" '. Gn, "'; lOl

Z"",. ,
272

!1. 8-1

Carl Levi - Gramsci and The Anarchists (1999)

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Garl Levy

Gramsci and the Anarchists

F.. li t"""'off", ...

"'" ..... ofth .. pubI"' ...on .... ) be <q:If'Odud ,n rOlTll

ISS" I 8\973 '4I9 (iI .rdbkU

1),...., by JS TH'Cf<1tJOI. lI'dhnporou"" , _

," til< l ",,I K,"(idom by II'OC !look \-I.....

To Ih t' fll efll Or\' of Jam es J a il

1,;' I " r\l. p'

The h. lia:n An,u'"h1.I!;. 187(1

Tori ....... Anarch"",. 180-1'114

lile hlrnnw "',.."

Prod"ell ' ,stn . " d Atlt;Jocooi,,,sm

In .... n..:IIOO\.1.I)' ."'., and """",hIS! predom,,,,,nce In !o:o])',

F 1151 Iss ue of LI> &001" MoJ.. ,nu. jounlal of lhe

!' ion, Me",bt.>hip (Tu.in a nd I'r<:>vi",,",: I \lOO . 14

Meh" ,0 dtllo S ... ,o, Cuel l.no ]'olilioco Ccn'rok.

"",ni, io Ce<Ilraic dcllo Sralo,

<II SICUf'C"UI. I)" IS;one Alfan Gcnenli c

Fondo f'rtftuura. GabiDtllo.

"",h,vio d SlIlo<li Ton""

Tho .... "'h....

Flhl'P" lUI'''. '01; "'''''IThICI' C,,"ea

1"""'''''''', ,,,,,,.11,,,,, """"':"'"

,he" mem... ",II ""rite ,baT

(j.."ano Sal,omlni. as quoted Ifl V M.n'o',ni. /.0

.,cage lId DIU/III

The his!ory of 1I.1i;,n 'Oafchi,m from ,IS In (h n"nn,(h

q""''''''' rarely ]IOSCiIln I,alian I.boo< h,,,OO)'

b cull. an ,"'<rnI'''$ "fltah"" plebei." ttIlture.

{Iallan Anarchml. I iPQ-19/l

Borh Tun,i and Gramsci rough'. bank "llaln" ',lib.

The F irsl 1870-410--'

( .... 1.<0,. 'hooI_ .....

L""",,,,_ I 'l't0 _ pI"

Wnll III< effec1i.e ro:-pre"ion of the: 1890s. and ,he

rhe halian Anarchi.lS, 1/i7!}-1914

\I.p ' ./ O"onW"", o f th<

P"" in h. , y. 1900- 1"

,s.,."" . C.. I L",, 1810

'n;, " ". Good",. , \l .\. F", A"""'i, ", 1/0",,,,,,,.1"""

London, ' 989. p. lJ)

.doptiog 'Y'><licali>1 argLllncnt . Through ,I",,, co",rol of ,mponan1 pow",

Gru",fCI and 1M AnarrltlSu

,n haly. Tiley " ...... d

",e", dttply ,"nu.need by Mau,n'3n huil'ge. This me'"' lha. lhey

and ,1>0 0)'11""'''' of

doc,""" and I"*'lic. thai ,ved OUI

s)ndocali'" <>ptcd for inlen.m;on. for rome, Frane.

"".JOnltI "'lI"niuuons,1IOf did ,he pr .. 10."ly

'....""0."", "'E-'''"atlOl1' in a dl'IC,phno<! fO$h1Ol1 <l<

I. rly sound ...

Engels" .. rill!!p. Thr" kIlO\'> 1Wg. of n-, C""""""ISI ,Ifamlml) or C"PItal

br."""" IOClOli" ""'I0"",n"

11I<)1"lar unity. r""r,dcd on ,ell prod""li.. rel>!;"n,- TI>< fact",)-ba.>ed

/I"/i",, A ..",...hiJIJ. IIi"O /9/4

\'on.. 1991. A. De Grand, 'GI01111, and ,he Soc..h,.,'. on SI"''''''''

I/antl"'" "f'r"iJioniJlffQ Stirtl 'apln.

Roben,. W. L ';tiMrono til

II 0,,,,, ..". o(,he f'S1 n be f""nd in J. A D"Ii. 'Soo,ahsm .nd lhe

RMloIr.. III'SJ t 10 l'/aSCi/a <hI plJn,/o dl ............ 1892- 1912. Ban.

1'_ Thc ,hl.fbtoal'lptut< of M.aLatcsu oro 1.1, "C1tbu, rnco

5,"'" I. 1915, pp. 179---f18; G U, hlnoui. 'Pokmtche: ITa