AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES-II

PARTS OF AN AIRPLANE
1.

FUSELAGE OR BODY

2.

THE WINGS OR LIFTING SURFACES

3.

TAIL SECTION OR EMPENNAGE

4.

PROPULSION SYSTEM

5.

UNDERCARRIAGE OR LANDING GEAR

CABIN SECTION
A. ENGINE COMPARTMENT
B. COCKPIT

D. CABIN

E. FUEL TANK COMPARTMENT

C. TRANSMISSION COMPARTMENT

F. BAGGAGE COMPARTMENT

G. ELECTRICAL AND RADIO COMPARTMENT

TAIL CONE SECTION

H. FIN , J. TAIL CONE, K. TAIL CONE HOUSING, L. PYLON, M. TAIL END FAIRING

WINGS

Main components: Spars [lengthwise to

wing and crosswise to fuselage & main
members], Ribs [support the covering for
airfoil shape as well as carry additional
load] and Stringers [occasionally used].

Preserve all important aerodynamic

shape under extreme stress conditions.

Simple wing structure exists for civilian

aircraft compared to complex and strongest

wing structure for the military aircraft.

Wings invariably carry fuel inside and

engines/rockets externally. Transmitting

various loads to the central structures,
fuselage is important.

WW I Wood-Fabric
Construction
Light weight material such
as wood or bamboo was
used for creating box
structure.
Chemically treated fabric
was strapped around this
hollow truss frame
structure.
Diagonal wires
strengthened wings and
spar caps at the end
conformed with the desired
aerodynamic shape.

Aluminum

alloyed stressed
skin is riveted to
the ribs and
stringers.

It serves not only

the covering but
also as a part of
the basic
structure of the
wing.

To take additional
load, at time the
skin is reinforced

Metal Spar Construction

oWings require

longitudinal
(lengthwise with wing)
members of great
strength to withstand
bending stresses
which are significant
during flight. Usual
construction is
cantilever type.
Conventional wings
have mono, two or
multi-spar
construction.

oModern aircraft uses

metal spars or wing
beams and are

WING RIB

Wing

rib is a chord-wise
member of wing section used
to give desired shape. It also
transmits air loads from
covering to spars.

Wing

ribs may extend from

the LE to TE or may extend
only up to the rear spar.

Built up metal rib is used in

conjunction with metal spars

&
is
riveted
to
them.
Stamped ribs have holes cut
in them reducing the weight
of the rib.

Rib

could be prepared in

As the aircraft is mvre or angle of attack changes, the centre

of lift moves and produces large torsion loads on the wing.
While weight is concentrated on fuselage, lift is produced
along the full length of the wing, with generation of lift, the
wing tends to bend upward from the root towards the tip.
Capstripes form the top and bottom of the rib.
Cross member form the connection between the top and
bottom cap ribs.
Gusset. A thin plywood plate attached to two or more
members to carry stresses from one member to another are
attached to each intersection of a cap strip and a cross
member.
Nose ribs, false ribs used to prevent air loads from distorting
the leading edge.
Metal wing ribs are built by riveting together capstrips and
cross members made of formed, thin sheets of al- alloy or
pressed from al-alloy sheets.

TRUSS TYPE WING

Spars, which runs the length of wing from the root to the
tip are main load carrying members in a wing truss.
In past, spars were mainly constructed from wood, modern
day a/c use extruded al-alloy.
Laminated spar is constructed of strips of wood glued
together, grains running in parallel direction.
The spars are separated by compression members or
compression struts.
Compression ribs are sometimes used, to take compressive loads.

The truss is held together with high strength high

solid steel wires that cross the bays formed by the
compression struts.
The wire running diagonally from inboard to
outboard oppose the forces that tend to drag
against the wing and pull it backward. (Drag wires)
Wires that run between the front and rear spar and
run diagonally from outboard to inboard oppose the
force that tend to move the tip of wing forward
(anti drag wires).
A wing truss consisting of spars, compression
members, drag and anti drag wires was covered
with fabric.
Box type spar was also used.
Box structure between the spar can carry all of the
bending and torsion loads.

STRESSED SKIN WING

Wings are generally evolved from the truss form of
construction to one in which the outer skin carries the
greatest amount of stresses.
Semi monocoque construction is generally used for the
main portion of the wing.
Monocoque form of construction is often used for control
surfaces.
Ribs are made of aluminum alloy sheets and riveted to
the skin to give both shape and rigidity.
All metal wing can carry all of the flight loads within the
structure so no struts or braces are required.
Internally braced wings not requiring external support
are called cantilever wings.

The air foil section of a cantilever wing is

normally quit thick and has strong centre section
built in to the fuselage.
The engine is attached to the centre section.
Mostly multiple spars are used to carry flight
loads, span wise stiffeners are used between
spars to provide strength.
Now wing skins are made up of composites for
maximum stiffness and minimum weight.
Laminated wings have thin sheets of metal
bonded to a core of metal honeycomb material
and inside of the structure is sealed to carry fuel.
No rivets are required.

WING ATTACHMENT

Such an attachment depends on the strength of the wing

structure.

Strongest wing structure would permit full cantilever where

wing is directly attached to the fuselage. Most of the modern

planes would use this type of attachment.

Semi-strong wing structure would need couple of

supporting wires or struts attachments depending on

whether the wing is on the upper or lower portion of the
fuselage.

Externally braced wing attachment

 Wings
Wings of modern aircrafts are invariably a semi
monocoque structure.
The structural members of a wing must be
capable of resisting shear, bending and torsion
loads.
The loads directly act on the skin which transmits
the load to the ribs. the ribs transmit the loads in
shear to the spar webs and distribute the load
between them.
Modern wings are two spar construction
consisting of a main spar and a secondary spar to
locate various control surfaces, flaps, tabs etc..
The secondary spar also serves as a member of
the torsion box.

FUSELAGE

TYPES OF FUSELAGE - TRUSS

Truss is an assembly of members forming a rigid frame work which

may consist of bars, beams, rods, tubes and wires. All of them will
not be able to carry all types of loads (wire can withstand only
tension). In Pratt & Warren Truss primary strength members are 4
longerons (longitudinal members) with lateral bracing placed at
intervals. These members are capable of carrying both compression
as well as tension.

Structural members

are stronger in
compression & tension
than in bending. These
are designed to carry
end loads rather than
bending loads with the
help of truss or a rigid
framework covered with
fabric.

By arranging the

structural members in
triangles, one can
ensure alternate
members in
compression and
tension.

SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
It consists of framework
of vertical and
longitudinal members
covered with structural
skin which carries large
% of stress imposed
upon the fuselage.
Vertical members are
called frames or
bulkhead and
longitudinal members
are called stringers.
Stringers provide
necessary stiffness to
the skin to withstand
stress. Between the
principal members of the

SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE

oModern high performance

aircrafts use this half
single shell structure. In
this the internal braces as
well as the skin itself
carries stress.

oInternal braces include

longitudinal (lengthwise)
stringers & vertical
bulkhead.

oThis structure is easier to

streamline than the truss

structure. Skin will be
thicker in places where the

 Bulkhead or Frame
The structural unit which transfers concentrated
loads to the shell of an airplane fuselage is called a
bulkhead or frame.
These are attached to the fuselage skin
continuously around their perimeter and are either
solid webs with stiffeners with or without access
holes or truss structures or more commonly open
rings or frames.
Bulkheads also provide column support to stingers.
Ribs in wings do the same job in the wings as
bulkheads in the fuselage.
Fuselage shells are normally symmetrical about a
vertical center line and are loaded symmetrical wrt
the centerline.

MONOCOQUE STRUCTURE

In full monocoque fuselage structure construction

involves construction of a metal tube or cone without
internal structural members. In some cases former rings
may be necessary to retain shape but these are not load
bearing members. Very often construction of large
fuselage is by riveting two halves together. Occasionally
internal pressurized tanks are used for structural
support. Such construction is common for missile

EMPENNAGE
oStabilizers and control
surfaces are also
constructed in similar
fashion but on a much
smaller scale.

oThese include one or more

longitudinal member spar
and ribs attached to it.

oVertical stabilizer may be

integral part of fuselage or

separate detachable one
attached by bolts.

oPrincipal structural

members are front and rear

spars and the ribs.

CONTROL
SURFACES

CONTROL SURFACE
The control surfaces produce aerodynamic
forces to redirect an aircrafts flight path.
Primary controls i.e elevator , aileron
and rudder.
Secondary controls i.e trim tabs.
Aux controls i.e flaps, slats, spoilers etc.

To keep the weight minimum, the earlier

control surfaces were covered with thin
cotton or linen fabric.

FABRIC COVERED CONTROL SURFACE

Generally truss type fabric covered a/c have their
tail surface internal structure made of welded thin
wall steel tubing.
The vertical fin is built as an integral part of
fuselage.
Rudders are attached to the fin with hinge pins
through steel tubes welded to both the fin and the
rudder.
The horizontal stabilizer bolts to the fuselage and
held rigid with high strength steel wires.
Elevators are hinged to the stabilizers TE like the
rudders.
Ailerons are built in same way as wings and
conforms to the shape of the rear end of wing

METAL COVERED CONTROL SURFACES

Most modern a/c used thin sheet metal for the control
surfaces.
The use of corrugated external skin provides extra
stiffness and reduces the weight of controls by minimizing
the amount of sub-structure needed.
For a sub-structure the control surfaces are constructed
with stamped or forged ribs and spars to form a
monocoque or semi monocoque frame.
Control locks are provided when parking the a/c.
Control locks to be marked in distinctive fashion NOT to
be left in place during flight.

AIRFOIL CONTROLS

PRIMARY CONTROLS

Primary Control Surfaces

Ailerons on the wings trailing edge for
roll/ banking control.
Elevators on the horizontal stabilizers
trailing edge for pitch control.
Rudders on the vertical stabilizer rear
portion for yaw control.
Moving the control surfaces changes the
airflow over on an aircraft s surfaces
changing the balance forces acting to
keep aircraft straight and level.

 The ailerons and elevators are generally

operated from the cockpit by a control
stick on single engine aircrafts and by a
wheel and yoke assembly on multiengine
aircrafts.
The rudders are operated by foot pedals
on all types of aircraft.

AILERON
They are primary flight control surface
used to provide lateral (roll) control of the
a/c.
They are usually mounted on the TE of the
wing near the tip and rigged so that when
one is moving upward on one wing, the
other is moving downward on opposite
wing.
Downward moving aileron increase the
camber and lift and the upward moving
aileron decrease the camber and lift.
Leftward movement on the stick, or wheel
in cockpit raises the left aileron and lower

ADVERSE YAW
A condition of flight at the beginning of the turn in
which the nose of an airplane momentarily yaws from
the direction in which the turn is to be made.
When a/c is subjected to a roll to the left, the down
going port wing will experience a new relative wind and
increase AOA.
The inclination of lift vector produces a component
force fwd on the down going wing.
The up going wing has its lift inclined with a component
force aft.
The resulting yawing moment is opposite to role and
hence is adverse yaw.

 The

aileron of an a/c are rigged for

differential control, causing the up
moving aileron to move a greater
distance than down moving aileron.
The differential is sufficient to bal the
drag between the aileron, thus
eliminating yaw.

Frise aileron:

An aileron with its hinge line set back from the leading edge, so
that when it is deflected upward, part of the leading edge projects
below the wing and produces parasitic drag to help overcome
adverse yaw.
Rudder aileron interconnecting spring:- Since aileron drag is
produced each time the control wheel deflects the aileron, many
mfrs connect wheel to the rudder control sys through an inter
connecting spring. When wheel is moved to produce right roll, the
interconnect cable and spring pulls forward on right rudder pedal
just enough to prevent the nose of airplane yawing to the left.

 Spoilers are plates on the top surface of

a wing which can be extended upward
into the airflow andspoilit. By doing so,
the spoiler creates a carefully
controlledstall over the portion of the
wing behind it, greatly reducing the lift of
that wing section.
Flaps change the camber of the wing
aerofoil section and/or increase the chord.
Improving lift characteristics at the
expense of increased drag and wing
torque.

Flaperons: Control

surface which serve as both

aileron and wing flaps mainly on
swept wing airplane.
Ailerons that are rigged to serve as
ailerons or flaps are also called
flaperons.
When employed as ailerons,
flaperons move in opposite direction.
The use of flaperons allows the wings
to vary the camber.

 During low-speed flight all lateral control surfaces

operate to provide maximum stability. This
includes all four ailerons, flaps and spoilers.
At high speeds flaps are retracted and the out
board ailerons are locked out of the aileron control
system.
The out board ailerons are made up of a nose spar
and ribs covered with aluminum honeycomb.
The inboard ailerons are much thicker and is of
honeycomb structure.
Spoilers are sometimes used when descending
from cruise altitudes to assist the aircraft in
descending to lower altitudes without picking up
speed. Onlanding however, the spoilers are nearly
always used at full effect to assist in slowing the
aircraft.

Elevators:

They provide for pitching movement/longitudinal control around

the lateral axis.
A backward pull on the control stick or on the wheel column
raises the elevators, thereby depressing the tail and lifting the
nose of the a/c for the climb.
Fwd motion of the stick produces opposite effect.
They are normally attached to the hinges on the rear spar of
the horizontal stabilizer.
The Eng determines the rate of climb of a/c rather than the
posn of elevator.
If the elevators are held at in affixed position, the throttle alone
can be used to make climb or dive.
The posn of the elevator is important, to establish most
efficient ROC and good gliding angle when power is off.
It is almost essential when breaking the glide and holding
airplane in landing posn. The TE of elevator may have a trim
tab to adjust the down load of tail for hands off flying at any
desired airspeed.

Elevons:The control surface that functions as both an elevator

and an aileron.
Hinged control surfaces on the wing TE of delta wing a/c
which are moved in unison to act as elevator and
differentially as ailerons.
They are especially needed for all wing airplanes or
flying wing.

Stabilators:The controls are same type as those with elevators.

The main difference with elevators control sys is that the
entire horizontal surface pivots when ctrl forces are
applied.
It is an all moving tail that works by changing the AOA of
ctrl surface and there by changing the amount of
downward lift generated by the tail.
It is an aerofoil that replaces the normal elevator and

Flying Wing (Elevons)

RUDDERS

It is a vertical control surface that is usually hinged to

the tail post of the vertical stabilizer.
It is designed to apply yawing movements to the air
plane that is left or right move.
It is operated by pedals operated by feet.
When right pedal is pressed, the rudder swing to the
right, thus bringing an increase of dynamic air pressure
on its right side.
This increased pressure causes the aircraft to swing to
the left and nose to turn to the right.
When rudder is applied in flight, the aircraft will turn,
but continue to travel in same direction as before
unless a correcting force is applied.
Thus with rudder only, the aircraft will turn sideways
and skid.

RUDDER VATORS
Movable control surfaces on a V-tail a/c that are controlled
by both the rudder pedal and control yoke.
When the yoke is moved in and out, the ruddervators move
together and acts as rudder.
Ruddervators provide the same control effect as
conventional control surfaces, but through a more complex
control system that actuates the control surfaces in unison.
Yaw moving the nose to the left is produced on an upright V
tail by moving the pedals left which deflects the left-hand
ruddervator down and left and the right-hand ruddervator
up and left. The opposite produces yaw to the right.
Pitch nose up is produced by moving the control column or
stick back which deflects the left-hand ruddervator up and
right and the right-hand ruddervator up and left. Pitch nose
down is produced by moving the control column or stick
forward which induces the opposite ruddervator movements

AUXILIARY CONTROLS

AUXILLARY OR TRIM CONTROLS

TRIM TABS
Small moveable portion of the TE of a control
surface.
They are controlled from the cockpit to alter the
camber of the surface and create an
aerodynamic force that will hold the control
surfaces deflected.
They can be installed on any primary control
surfaces.
Normally on the elevator, to permit adjustment
of the tail load so that a/c can be flown hands
off at any given speed.

BALANCE TABS
It is used to decrease excessively
high control forces in some a/c.
Loc in the same place as trim tab.
Control rod is connected to the fixed
surface on the same side as the horn
on the tab.
If the control surface is deflected
upward, the connecting linkage will
pull the tab down.
When tab moves in opposite
direction of the control surface, it will
create a aerodynamic force that aids

SERVO TABS

Large a/c use hydraulic actuators to

operate control surfaces
.
An artificial feel sys gives resistance to
pilot which is proportional to the flight
loads on the control surfaces.
In case of hydraulic sys failure, the control
surfaces are controlled by servo-tabs.
(Manual reversion)
In manual mode, the flt control column
moves the tab on control surface, and
aerodynamic forces caused by deflected
tab move the main control surface.

SPRING TABS
It aids the pilot of high speed a/c.
Control horn is free to pivot on the hinge axis of
control surface, but is restrained by a spring.
When control forces are light, spring is not
extended, the horn acts as a rigid link.
At high speed when control surfaces are too high,
the spring extends and the control horn deflects
the tab to produce an aerodynamic force that
aids the pilot.

GROUND ADJUSTABLE TABS

Many small airplanes have a non-movable
metal trim tabs on the rudder.
The tab is adjusted on ground to apply a
trim force to the rudder.
The correct adjustment is when the a/c is
no longer skidding left or right during
cruising flight.

SECONDARY
CONTROLS

LIFT AUGMENTATION DEVICES

Lift mod devices give us some good compromise between
high cruising speed and low landing speed as they can be
deploy when needed.
FLAPS :- Most commonly used lift mod devices on TE
These surfaces change the camber of wing.
Increasing lift to drag for given AOA
Speed of a/c can be decreased without stalling.
PLAIN FLAPS

Merely sections of the TE of the wing, inboard in the

ailerons.
They are of same size of aileron and are hinged so they can
be deflected, usually in moment of 10,25 and 40 degree.
Effect is minimum, hardly used on modern planes.

SPLIT FLAPS

A portion of the lower surface of the trailing edge of

the wing from one aileron to the other, could be
hinged down in to the airstream.
Lift changes are similar to that of plain flaps.
SLOTTED FLAPS

Most commonly used.

The lift coefficient increase much more as compared
to plain flaps.
When the flap is lowered, there is a tendency for
the airflow to break from its surface, air from the
high pressure area below the wing flows up through
the slot and blows back over the top of the flap.
This high energy flow pulls air down and prevents
flap stalling.
Large a/c use double/ triple slotted flaps to allow
maximum increase in drag without airflow
separation and destroy any lift they produce.

FOWLER FLAP
They are type of slotted flap.
It changes the camber of wing and also the
wing surface area, thereby increasing lift
Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it
slides backwards on tracks.
It increase the drag vary little, but
increasing the lift a great deal as it increase
both the area and camber.
As the extension continue, the flaps
deflects downwards and during the last
portion of its travel, it increase the drag
with little increase in lift.

LEADING EDGE DEVICES

When energy in the air flowing over the wing can no
longer pull air down to the surface, stalling occurs
Separation can be delayed to a higher angle of
attack by re-energizing the air.
A slot i.e a duct in the LE for air to flow from below
to top in a high volume stream. Is utilized for
delaying stalling.
It is also used ahead of the aileron to keep the outer
portion of wing flying after root has stalled, this
keeps the aileron effective and provides lateral
control during most of the stall.

SLOTS
Many high performance airplanes have a
portion of wing LE mounted on tracks to create
a duct.
As the AOA increase, the low pressure just
behind the LE on top of wing increase and pulls
the slat out of wing.
When slat moves, it ducts air from high press
below to the upper surface and increase volume
of the air in the boundary layer.

LEADING EDGE FLAPS

THEY MAY BE DEFLECTED DOWNWARDS TO INCREASE
THE CAMBER OF WING.
THEY ARE ELECTRICALLY OR HYDRAULICALLY ACTUATED .
USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE TE FLAPS.

SPECIAL WING TIPS

AIR FLOWING OVER THE TOP OF A WING CREATES A LOW PRESSURE,
WHILE THE AIR PASSING BELOW CREATES HIGH PRESSURE.
THIS DIFFERENCE IN PRESSURE CAUSES AIR TO SPILL OVER THE WING TIP
AND CREATE VORTICES THAT EFFECTIVELY KILL SOME OF THE LIFT AND
CREATE DRAG, ESPECIALLY AT HIGH AOA AND LOW AIRSPEED.
METHODS TO REDUCE
TIP FUEL TANKS

WINGLETS.

STALL STRIPS
IT IS IMPORTANT THAT WING STALL AT THE ROOT JUST SO THAT AILERON
WILL STILL BE ABLE TO PROVIDE LATERAL CONTROL THROUGH OUT STALL.
IT CAN BE DONE BY INSTALLING SMALL TRIANGULAR STRIPS ON LE OF THE
WING IN ROOT AREA.
WHEN AOA IS INCREADED ENOUGH FOR STALL TO OCCUR, THE STRIPS
PROVIDES ENOUGH AIR DISTURBANCE TO HASTEN THE STALL ON SECTION
OF WING BEHIND THEM.
THIS LESS OF LIFT WILL DIP THE NOSE OF A/C WHILE OUTER PORTION OF
WING IS STILL FLYING AND AILERONS ARE EFFECTIVE.
THIS WILL CAUSE VIBRATION AND GIVE FEELING TO PILOT OF IMPEDING
STALL.

SPOILERS
ARE CONTROL DEVICES THAT DESTROY LIFT BY DISRUPTING THE AIRFLOW
OVER AIR PORTION OF THE WING.
SIMPLE STRUCTURAL SLABS.
WHEN OPERATED BY THE PILOT, THEY SWING UPWARD IN TO THE AIR
STREAM, THEREBY REDUCING LIFT ON A PORTION OF WING, THEREBY
ALLOWING INCRESED ROD, WHILE STILL MAINTAINING SPEED AND DIRECTION
CONTROL.
WHEN RETRACTED, THEY FOLD DOWN TO ELIMINATE THE DISRUPTED AIR
FLOW AND DRAG.
TPT A/C USE SPOILERS AS A PART OF SECONDARY FLIGHT CONTROL
SYSTEM IN AID TO AILERONS, TO RELIEVE CONTROL PRESSURE AND TO
INCREASE OR DECREASE LIFT.
ALSO USED AS SPEED BRAKES BY INCREASED PARASITIC DRAG.
ON GROUND USED TO INCREASE BRAKING EFFICIENCY

VORTEX GENERATORS
STALLS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH AOA BUT SHOCK INDUCED STALL
OCCURS DUE TO CRITICAL MACH NUMBER.
A SHOCKWAVE TYPICALLY FIRST FORMS ON THE UPPER CAMBER OF THE
WING AND TENDS TO OSCILLATE BACK AND FORTH RESULTING IN
SEPARATION OF FLOW.
LOW ASPECT RATIO AIR FOILS ARRANGED IN PAIRS AT THE POINT WHERE
SEPERATION IS LIKELY TO OCCUR.
THE TIP VORTICES OF THESE AIR FOILS PULLS HIGH ENERGY AIR DOWN IN
TO THE BOUNDARY LAYER, PREVENTING SEPARATION.

AIRCRAFT STATION NUMBERS

IN THE SERVICE , MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS OF AN AIRCRAFT, IT IS
NECESSARY TO ESTABLISH A METHOD OF LOCATING COMPONENT OR
REFERENCE PTS ON THE A/C.THIS IS ACCOMPLISHED BY ESTABLISHING
REFERENCE LINES AND STATION NUMBERS FOR THE FUSELAGE , WINGS ,
NACELLES, EMPENNAGE AND LANDING GEARS. FOR LARGE TRANSPORT A/C
ATA(AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA) HAS SET FORTH ZONING
SPECIFICATIONS.
FUSELAGE STATIONS:
LONGITUDINAL POINTS ALONG THE FUSELAGE OF AN AIRPLANE ARE
DETERMINED BY REFERENCE TO A ZERO DATUM LINE (FS 0.00) USUALLY AT
OR NEAR THE FORWARD POSITION OF FUSELAGE.
THE POSITION OF DATUM LINE IS SET FORTH IN THE TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA
SHEET OR AIRCRAFT SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE AIRPLANE AND ALSO IN
THE MANUFACTURERS DATA.
STATION NUMBERS ARE GENERALLY GIVEN IN INCHES FWD OR AFT OF THE
DATUM LINE.
FUSELAGE STATIONS NUMBERS FORWARD OF THE DATUM LINE ARE VE
AND STATION NUMBERS AFT OF THE DETUM LINE ARE +VE.

WING STATION(WS) : - TO LOCATE POINT ON THE WING OF AN

AEROPLANE, THE WING STATION (WS) NUMBERS ARE MEASURED FROM THE
CENTRE LINE OF THE FUSELAGE WHICH IS ALSO CALLED THE BUTT LINE (BL).
WING STATION ARE INDICATED IN INCHES EITHER RIGHT OR THE LEFT OF
THE FUSELAGE CENTRE LINE.
WATER LINE:THE WATER LINE (WL) IS A LINE ESTABLISHED FOR LOCATING THE STATIONS
ON A VERTICAL LINE .
VERTICAL MEASUREMENTS ON AN AIRPLANE MAY BE EITHER POSITIVE OR
NEGATIVE , DEPENDING UPON WHETHER THE POINT IS ABOVE OR BELOW
THE WATER LINE.
WL STATIONS ARE USED TO LOCATE POSITION ON THE LANDING GEAR ,
VERTICAL STABILIZER AND AT ANY OTHER POINT AT WHICH IT IS NECESSARY
TO LOCATE A VERTICAL DISTANCE.

BUTT LINE(BL):THE BUTT LINE IS THE CENTERLINE OF THE FUSELAGE.

POSITION ON THE HORIZONTAL STABILIZER AND ELEVATOR ARE GIVEN BUTT
LINE STATION NUMBERS.
COMPONENT STATIONS:SOME A/C COMPONENTS ARE GIVEN THEIR OWN STATION REFERENCE LINE
e.g.AN AILERON MAY HAVE AILERON STATION ESTABLISHED ACROSS ITS
SPAN STARTING WITH AILERON STATION(AS)0.00 LOCATED AT THE INBOARD
EDGE OF THE AILERON . POSITIONS OUT BOARD OF THE INBOARD
STATIONS ARE INDICATED IN INCHES.
OTHER EXAMPLES MAY INCLUDE ENGINE STATIONS , AND VERTICAL
STABILIZER / RUDDER STATIONS.
NACELLE BUTT LINE(NBL):IT IS ESTABLISHED AT THE CENTER LINE OF THE NACELLE FOR LOCATING
POSITION IN THE NACELLE.

ZONING:-

A ZONE IS IDENTIFIED BY ONE OF THE THREE INDICATORS:1. MAJOR ZONE,

2. MAJOR SUB ZONE ,
3. SIMPLE ZONE.
MAJOR ZONE ARE IDENTIFIED BY THREE DIGIT NUMBERS e.g.
100,200,300
MAJOR ZONE ARE DIVIDED INTO MAJOR SUB ZONE BY THE
ADDITION OF THE SECOND NON ZERO DIGIT TO A MAJOR ZONE
NUMBER e.g. THE 300 MAY BE SUB ZONED IN TO SUBZONES
310,320,330.etc.
SUBZONES ARE DIVIDED BY THE USE OF A THIRD NON ZERO DIGIT
IN THREE DIGIT NUMBERS, THE SUB ZONE 320 MAY BE DIVIDED IN
TO ZONES 321,322,323,etc.
BY REFERRING TO ZONE NUMBER ON THE INSTRUCTIONS THE
TECHNICIAN CAN EASILY LOCATE THE AREA IN WHICH INSP OR
MAINT IS TO BE DONE.