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QXA
0 1991 IEEE
APPLICATION
DC BRUSH
AC MOTORS
SWITCHED RELUCTANCE
i+7
PERMANENT MAGNET
f-11
PMSM
987
INDUCTION
BDCM
988
I
Back emf o f t h e b r u s h l e s s DC m o t o r
C d r r e T c waveform r e q u i r e d f o r c o n s t a n t t o r q u e
Power Density
In certain high-performance applications like robotics and
aerospace actuators, it is preferable to have as low a weight
as possible for a given output power. The power density is
limited by the heat dissipation capability of the machine,
which in turn is determined by the stator surface area. In PM
machines, most of the losses are developed in the stator in
terms of copper, eddy currents, and hysteresis losses. Rotor
losses are assumed negligible. Hence, for a given frame size,
the motor that develops lower losses will be capable of a
higher power density. Assume in the first case that the eddy
currents and hysteresis losses of the PMSM and the BDCM
989
I
TI,TZ,T3,T4,TS,Th
Fig. 3 .
are equal. Then, the relative power densities would be determined by the copper losses. The power output of these two
machines is compared based on the equality of copper losses.
In the PMSM, sinusoidal currents of low harmonic content
are obtainable from hysteresis or PWM current controllers
such that the copper losses are essentially determined by the
fundamental component of current. If the peak current is I,, ,
then the RMS current is Zpl/d2, and the machine copper
losses are given by 3(Zpl /J2)2R,, where R , is the phase-A
resistance.
In the case of the BDCM that requires trapezoidal currents for constant torque, the losses are given by 3 (J21p2/
J3)2R,, where Zp2 is the peak of the trapezoidal current.
Hence, assuming that the core losses of the two machines are
equal and the power density is determined by the copper
losses
if they have the same rated speeds. If their rotor inertias are
equal, then the torque-to-inertia ratio of the BDCM can be as
much as 15% higher than the PMSM. It should be noted that
the PMSM and BDCM have a higher torque-to-inertia ratio
than the induction motor [2].
Speed Range
Servo drives operate in the constant torque mode of operation from zero to rated speed and in the constant power mode
of operation from rated to maximum speed. In the constant
torque region, the air gap flux is held constant, whereas in
the constant power region, the air gap flux is weakened by
applying a stator flux in opposition to the rotor magnet flux.
This is also known as armature reaction and is illustrated in
Fig. 4.
During constant flux operation, is is maintained at 90" to
the rotor flux as shown in Fig. 4. In the flux-weakening
3(zpl/t'2)2R, = 3(J21p2/ J 3 ) 2 R ,
( 1 ) mode, is is maintained at an angle greater than 90" from the
rotor flux. This allows a component of stator current id to
Zpl /J2 = J2Zp2 /J3
(2)
create a stator flux that opposes the rotor flux, and hence,
I,, = 2Zp2 / J 3 = 1 . 15Zp2.
( 3 ) air-gap flux weakening is obtained.
The magnitude of is, which is the vector sum of the direct
Now the ratio of the BDCM output power to the PMSM
and quadrature axis stator currents, has a fixed continuous
output power is given by
rating during steady-state operation. This can be exceeded for
2EpZp2/(3EpZPl/ J 2 J 2 = 4EpJ3Zpl/6EpZpl = 1.15 ( 4 ) short periods of time during transients. If a higher speed
that is, the BDCM is capable of supplying 15% more power range is required, a larger negative id is needed in order to
than the PMSM from the same frame size, that is, the power reduce the air-gap flux and i, should be lowered in order to
density can be 15% larger, provided the core losses are ensure that the continuous rating of is is not exceeded. The
speed capability of a permanent magnet motor drive when
equal.
this method of flux weakening is used can be determined
Torque to Inertia Ratio
from the two axis equations as follows [14]:
Since it is possible to get 15% more power out of the
(0.636V/X,)2 = i i ( X d ( i d W ~ A , ~ / X , ) / X , ()5~)
BDCM, it is also possible to obtain 15% more electric torque
990
O0
270'
540'
(a)
(b)
Fig. 4. Vector diagram of the PMSM during (a) constant flux and (b)
flux-weakening operation.
(b)
where V is the dc bus voltage, X , , X , are the stator d, q Fig. 5. (a) PMSM back emf and current waveforms and (b) BDCM
axis reactances, i d , i, are the stator d , q axis currents, w e is
waveforms during flux-weakening operation.
the inverter frequency, and Xu, is the mutual flux linkage
between the rotor and stator due to the magnet. By setting whereas i d , and i d B are the direct axis currents of the
i, = 0 and id equal to the continuous current rating of the PMSM and BDCM, respectively. Therefore, the speed range
machine, the inverter frequency and, hence, motor speed can of a PMSM would be higher than that of a BDCM of the
then be determined. Since the motor is locked in at the same parameters. The speed range of a permanent-magnet
synchronous speed, the actual maximum motor speed is given machine therefore depends on the motor parameters, its
by w e / P , where P is the number of pole pairs. For typical current rating, the back emf waveform, and the maximum
PM motor parameters, it has been found that [15] around 1.5 output voltage from the inverter.
times rated speed can be attained. In practice, it would be
difficult to force is to operate at 180" to the magnet flux, and Torque Per Unit Current
the practical maximum speed would be less than that obtained
Very often, servo motor drives are operated to produce the
in (5).
maximum torque per unit current out of the machine. This is
The above discussion applies equally well to the PMSM done because by minimizing the input current for a given
and the BDCM. The practical limitation on the maximum torque, the copper, inverter, and rectifier losses are minispeed is obtained when the back emf of each machine be- mized. In addition, lower current ratings of the inverter and
comes equal to that of the dc bus. Because of the difference rectifier are needed for a given output; this reduces the
in the waveshape of the back emf of the PMSM and the overall cost of the system.
BDCM, the voltdrop that is available to force current flow is
The torque-angle curve of a PM machine is shown in Fig.
different in each machine in a given period, as shown in Fig. 6 . The total motor torque consists of electric and reluctance
5. Fig. 5(a) shows the desired current relative to the back torque components. The electric torque is produced as a
emf in order to obtain the maximum speed in the PMSM. At result of the interaction of the stator current with the airgap
this operating point, the peak of the back emf is equal to that flux while the reluctance torque is produced as a result of
of dc bus. In the BDCM, on the other hand, current can only reluctance variation due to rotor saliency. As shown in the
be forced into the motor when the back emf is less than the vector diagram of Fig. 4, the d axis is chosen to be aligned
dc bus voltage, as shown in Fig. 5(b). Assuming that the along the magnet axis. The permeability of the magnet in the
forced current is rectangular in shape, with a peak equal to d axis is approximately that of air. If the length of the airgap
the rated value of the BDCM, it is possible to find the on the quadrature axis is equal to that of the magnet plus air
fundamental component of this current, which becomes id in gap on the direct axis, then there is no appreciable reluctance
(5) with i, = 0. Comparing a PMSM and a BDCM with the difference between the d and q axes. Hence, the reluctance
same parameters, but taking into account the current wave- torque is approximately zero, and the total motor torque is
equal to the electric torque only, where the maximum is
forms shown in Fig. 5 , from ( 5 ) , it can be shown that
produced at a 6 of 90, i.e., when is is perpendicular to the
@ e P / w e B = fo'(
- ' d i d B ) / ( 'uf - L d i d P ) = 1*46 ( 6 ) rotor flux. This is normally true of projecting surface-mounted
for the motor parameters given in Appendix I. o e pand oeB machines. In buried permanent-magnet machines, however,
are the maximum PMSM and BDCM synchronous speeds, the reluctance variation between the d and q axes can be
99 1
total
a,
U
0
Y
.0
L
reluctance
0
5
,
I
T, = 3P(Xafi,sin6)/2.
(9)
6 = - X - J ( X 2 + 0.5)
=
Xaf/(4(~,- ~ q ) i s ) *
(8)
T f / T , = 1 + ( L d - L,)i,sin26/(2Xafsin6).
Kqd
( 10)
Hence, for maximum torque per ampere rating, and given the
quadrature-to-direct axis inductance ratio, the torque enhancement and the angular position of the stator current
Braking
Since both the PMSM and the BDCM have permanentmagnet excitation, braking in inherently easier than with
drives that face the possibility of loss of excitation due to a
power supply failure. Hence, all the advantages and disadvantages that apply to the PMSM also apply to the BDCM.
In both the PMSM and the BDCM, braking can be achieved
by adding a resistor in series with a transistor, which are
connected just before the inverter power circuit. During
motoring operation, this transistor is off, thus disconnecting
the resistor from the supply. During braking, the rectifier is
turned off, and the braking transistor is turned on in conjunction with the inverter power transistors. The trapped energy
in the motor forces a current to flow through the motor coils
and through the braking resistor. Braking is achieved by the
dissipation of heat in the braking resistor.
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d.10
d.16
d.21
TIME ISECI
d.p
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6.31
d.37
0.42
Parameter Sensitivity
Parameter changes in all electrical machines occur due to
changes in temperature, current level, and operating frequency [ 181. In permanent-magnet machines, an increase in
temperature results in a partial loss of flux density of the
permanent magnets and an increase in stator resistance. If the
permanent-magnet machines are rated at the maximum operating temperature, then at ambient temperature, higher than
rated output would be obtainable due to the increase in flux
density relative to the rated conditions. Conversely, if the
machine is rated at ambient temperature, the output at elevated temperatures would be reduced.
Higher-than-rated current values saturate the machine inductances. The saturation of the leakage inductances would
cause a reduction in their value, thus allowing a greater
potential difference between the dc bus and the back emf and,
hence, providing greater current control.
Changes in machine parameters (notably stator resistance)
due to increase in frequency is a secondary effect and can be
taken into account at the system design stage for proper
performance. The majority of permanent-magnet machines
are surface mounted [ 171. Hence, the reluctance torque term
in (7) is essentially zero, and the motor torque is produced by
the interaction of the magnet flux and stator current vector.
During current source operation, i s is controlled, but the
magnet flux can change due to changes in temperature. This
is true of both the PMSM and the BDCM, and hence, each
machine is equally sensitive to parameter changes in the
magnet flux due to temperature changes. Depending on the
type of magnet, a 100" increase in the temperature can
produce a 2 to 20% loss in magnet flux for samarium cobalt
and ferrite magnets, respectively. Since the PMSM is capable
of a higher speed range than the BDCM, it tends to be used
for high-speed applications. It may then become desirable to
use a buried magnet configuration to make the machine more
mechanically robust. In this case, the reluctance torque term
in (7) is not negligible and saturation of the machine inductances can affect the total output torque. The degree of
993
994
0.7
0.64
0.7
0.8
0.9
.o
a
Fig. 12. Torque reduction as a function of the flux-reduction coefficient.
1 .o
0;9
0.8
CL
0.9..
T-
0.8-
0.7-
0.67-
:
0.6
I .o
0.8
995
~ ( x =) 4 [ s i n ( ~ ) s i n ( x )+ s i n ( 3 ~ ) s i n ( 3 ~ ) / 3 *
+ s i n ( 5 H ) s i n ( 5 ~ ) / 5 ~ s i n ( 7 H ) s i n ( 7 ~ ) / 7 ~* - . ] H T
(14)
where H is the angle between the positive zero crossing and
the beginning of the peak flux density as is shown in Fig. 2.
Let the fundamental component of the flux density of the
BDCM be equal to that of the PMSM. The harmonics of the
flux density of the BDCM therefore contribute additional
core losses. The ratio of the eddy current loss in the BDCM
to the PMSM is given by dividing (14) by its fundamental
component, which, after some algebraic manipulation, is
given by
1
+.
+(sin ( 7 H ) / 7sin ( H ) ) 2
(15)
+ (sin ( 3 ~ ) / s i n( ~ ) ) ~ +/ (sin
3 ~ ( 5 ~ ) / s i n( ~ ) ) ~ / 5 3
+ (sin ( 7 H )/sin ( H))2/73 + . . (16)
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Well-known engineering selection criteria have been used
to determine the application characteristics of the PMSM and
the BDCM. From the results of these criteria, the following
conclusions can be drawn.
If the copper losses of the PMSM and the BDCM are
equal, then the BDCM is capable of a 15% higher power
density. The contribution of the higher harmonics to the total
core losses is significant in the BDCM, and equality of the
total core losses therefore demands a significantlylower loss
contribution from the fundamental component of the flux
density of the BDCM. These core losses increase drastically
with an increase in the angle for which the flux density
remains constant in the BDCM. Therefore, low core losses
demand as small a constant portion of the flux density curve
as permissible.
The ripple torque of the BDCM is higher than that of the
PMSM. The ripple torque in the PMSM is due only to the
ripple in the currents. These ripple torques are of high
10'
20'
30'
40'
SOo
APPENDIX
I
MOTORPARAMETERS
RS = 0.175 Cl
L , = 2.53 mH
996
L , = 6.38 mH
ha,. = 0.058 Wb
4 poles.
APPENDIX
I1
MACHINEMODEL
v,
Ria
+ ph, + o,hd
REFERENCES
R. Krishnan, Selection criteria for servo motor drives, in Proc.