Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ΑΝΑΠΤΥΞΗ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑΤΟΣ ΠΡΟΣΤΑΣΙΑΣ ΤΩΝ ΕΡΓΑΖΟΜΕΝΩΝ ΑΠΟ ΗΛΕΚΤΡΟΠΛΗΞΙΑ
ΑΝΑΠΤΥΞΗ ΣΥΣΤΗΜΑΤΟΣ ΠΡΟΣΤΑΣΙΑΣ ΤΩΝ ΕΡΓΑΖΟΜΕΝΩΝ ΑΠΟ ΗΛΕΚΤΡΟΠΛΗΞΙΑ
: .
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, 2015
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, 2015
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Copyright , 2015.
. All rights reserved.
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BSTRACT
Occupational accidents still happens besides the technical development and the
progress of science. The experience of being harmed at work can be devastating, with
profound consequences for the employees, their families, friends, and work colleagues.
Although many accidents involve not considerable harm for the workers, the number of fatal
or seriously injured person cannot be ignored. In 2012, there were just under 2.5 million nonfatal accidents that resulted in at least four calendar days of absence from work and 3515
fatal accidents in EU. The consequences are unable to be measured directly such as the
amount of pain suffered. The impact of workplace accidents involves mainly the workers
family. The initial reaction to an injury, is shock and fear. For the family and friends of the
injured, one of the most considerable consequence is separation, both physical and
emotional. Family relationships are also affected, mostly negatively. The domestic and family
responsibilities are altered. The changes are temporary or permanent depending on the
severity of the injury. The family suffers also financial. More often the severally injured
victims are the only one working person in the family and males. In the same time, the
familys expenses are increased (for medical care and drugs, transportation, domestic
assistance, rehabilitation etc.). The importance of occupational health to both Ministers of
Health and Ministers of Labor is illustrated by the long tradition of collaboration between the
International Labor Organization (ILO) and World Health Organization (WHO). It is difficult,
however, to convince employers and decision-makers to improve working conditions. An
often effective way is to make financial or economic estimations. Accidents at work and
occupational injuries represent a considerable economic burden to employers, employees and
to society as a whole. Some of these costs, like lost workdays or lost income, are clearly
visible and can readily be expressed in monetary value. According to economic evaluations
carried out with the state members of the European Union, the cost of occupational diseases
and injuries that occurred at work varies from 1-3% of gross national product (GNP).
This thesis instills awareness of occupational accidents due to electricity. Hundreds of
workers have suffered injuries while installing, maintaining or servicing machinery and
equipment. Some electrical injuries are electrocution, electric shock and burns. The thesis has
3 chapters. The statistics concerning electrical accidents is presented in the first chapter. In
the same chapter the pathophysiological effects of electric current taking into consideration
the international standards are also developed. The electrical accidents are classified in
categories in the second chapter and technical measures for workers protection are proposed.
In the third chapter are presented three devices that can be used for preventing electric
shocks.
Taking into consideration accidents that happened, due to suddenly reenergization of
power lines, of step voltage hazards, and due to the discontinuities of neutral or ground
conductors, three devices for injuries prevention are proposed. Therefore, the first device can
protect in cases of suddenly reenergization of power lines. When a power supply is
reconnected inadvertently or by mistake, electricians are vulnerable to electrical hazards
including electric shock and flashover. The electricians were unaware of the electrical hazard
until an injury occurred, suggesting that these injuries could be prevented by an alarm
system. The operating principle of the proposed device is based on this idea. Alarm systems
are widely used to prevent injury and death. The device is placed on distribution board and
uses also a motion detector system to detect a possible human approach or movement near
the distribution board.
The second device can be used for protection of step voltage hazards. Uncontrolled
flow of electrical current in the earth may have a range of effects, from barely perceptible to
dangerous electrical shocks, or unintended electrical heating resulting in fires. It is briefly
describing the root causes of voltage in the ground and it is proven that the values of ground
potential may be above permissible limits even though a 220 V ac voltage is applied into the
ground. It is confirmed experimentally that the step voltage hazards depend on the distance
of the fault as well as from the step length. Ground resistivity also affects ground-potential
rise. Finally, a wearable device is proposed for avoiding such injuries. The device must be
worn on human body and its sensors should be as close as possible to the soles of the feet.
The device measures the current and alerts the user of step voltage hazards by LED segment
drivers. It is operated during the standing phase of gait only, since the step voltage hazards
exist when both humans feet are in contact with the ground. It can be used by the general
population or by workers, and its operation is independent of the mechanism creation of
ground-potential rise.
Any discontinuity in power cords of electrical devices, can lead to electric shock,
injuries, or even deaths. The third suggested device measures the electric and magnetic field
near electric hand tools. It is proved by an experiment that if the grounding conductor of
electrical tools having metal enclosure is broken, the electric field around them is increased.
In a same way, when the neutral conductor is broken, the magnetic field becomes higher. An
electric and magnetic field meter placed on the tool with display segment leds, may protect
workers in case of abnormal high electric and magnetic fields. After the warning sigh, the tool
user should not use it before its maintenance.
KYWORDS
Occupational hazards, accidents, electric shock, suddenly re- energization of power
lines, step voltage hazards, neutral and ground wire, electric and magnetic field, hand electric
tools having metal enclosure.
1.1. ..........................................................................................................................................14
1.2 ...........................................................................................................................................15
1.3 & ...............................................16
1.4 ..................................................................................................17
1.5 ............................................................................................................................18
1.5.2 ..........................................................................................................................20
1.5.3 ...........................................................................21
1.6 ...................................................................24
1.6.1 ................................................................................................................24
1.6.2 JOULE........................................................................25
1.6.3 .....................................................................................................26
1.7 15 Hz 100 Hz..........31
1.7.1 ...................................................................................................................31
1.7.2 ...................................................................................................................31
1.7.3 ............................................................................................................................31
1.7.4 .............................................................................................................32
1.7.5 ................................................................................................32
1.8 / .......................................................................................39
1.9 (F) .........................................................................39
1.10 .............................................................................................42
1.11 ..................................................................................................42
1.11.1 ................................................................................................................................43
1.11.2 .....................................45
1.11.3 .......................................................46
1.12 . ..................................................................................................................46
1.13 . .........................................................................................................................47
1.14 (locomotor system) ...........................................................................................48
1.15 ..............................................................................................................................48
1.16 ...........................................................48
1.16.1 M .................................................................................................49
1.16.2 (i)...............................................52
1.16.3 (s)....................................................................................53
1.16.4 () .................................................56
) ()
............................................................................................................57
) .......................................................................................................................................61
1.17 ...................................62
1.17.1 (Ro) ...................................65
1.18 ......................................................................................................................................65
1.18.1 .................................................................66
1.18.2 ...................................................................67
) ...............................................................................................................68
) .............................................................................................................................69
1.18.3 ................................................70
.............................................................................................................................................76
2.1. ..................................................................77
2.1.1. , ............................................................77
) ..............................................................................................................................................77
) ..........................................................................................................................77
2.1.2 .................................77
2.1.3 . .......................79
2.2 ...............................................................................................................80
2.2.1 ...............................................................................................................................80
10
2.3 . .....................81
2.3.1
. .............................................................................................................................................81
2.3.2 .........................................................................................83
2.3.3 .....................................................83
2.3.4 ..................................................................84
2.4 ..........................................................85
2.4.1 ..................................................................................................................85
2.4.2 ............................................................................................86
2.4.3 ......................................................................................................................86
2.4.4 CENELEC 50110-1 FPA 70 E................................................87
) CENELEC 50110-1. .............................................................................................87
) FPA 70 E...............................................................................................................88
) 50110 & NFPA - 70E......................................................................89
2.4.5 .........................................................90
) . 158/1975.................................................................................................................................90
2.4.6 ....................................................................92
2.4.7 .................................................93
2.4.8
.......................................................................................................................................94
2.5 .......................................................................95
a) .........................................................................................................96
) ..........................................................................................................97
2.7 ..............................................................99
2.7.1 ....................................101
2.7.2 ..............................................................................................................103
2.8 .......................104
2.8.1 ....................................................................................................104
2.8.2 ....................................................................................................104
2.8.3 .. ...........................................................................105
2.8.4 ....................................................................................................106
2.8.5 ..............................................................108
2.8.6 ................................................................................................108
2.8.7 ................................................................................................109
) .................................................................................109
) .. (shielded wires)...............................................................110
2.8.8 ..................................................110
2.8.8.1 & .................................110
2.8.8.2 &
....................................................................................................................................114
2.8.9 ........................................................116
) ............................................................................................118
2.9 .............................................................................119
2.9.1 ............................................119
2.9.2 .......................................................................120
2.9.3 ..........................................................121
2.9.4 . .................123
2.9.5 .................................123
2.10 ...................................................................................................................124
2.10.2 ................................................................................................................................125
2.10.3 ................................................................................................................126
2.11 .....................................................127
3.....................................................................................................................................134
1. ..........134
3.1. 1 .....................................................................................................................................134
3. 1. 1. 1 .................................................................................................................................134
3.1.1.2 .............................................................................................................135
11
3.1.1.3 .................................................138
1.3 ............................................................................................................140
1.2.2 ................................................................................................................141
1. ......................................................................................................................142
2......................................................................................................................................143
2..................................................................................................................................145
2.1 ..........................................................................................................................................145
2.1.1 .......................................................................................................................................145
1. M ............................................................................146
2. .........................................................................................................147
3. ..........................................................................................................148
1. ....................................................................................................................148
1. ...............................................................................................................148
2. ......................................................................................................................150
3..................................................................................................................................151
3.1 ..........................................................................................................................................151
3.1.1 .......................................................................................................................................151
1. ...........................................................................................................................152
2. .....................................................................................152
3.2 .........................................................................................................154
3.2.1 .......................................................................................................................................154
3.2.1.1 ......................................................154
3.2.1.3 (ground reference meters)..................................155
3.2.2 ................................................................159
) ....................................................................................159
) ....................................................................................160
) .........................................................................................................................160
3.3 ..................................................................................................................162
12
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( 15 Hz 100 Hz) .
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[1].
[2].
[3].
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[4].
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1: (L3).
2: (L3) (N)
3: (L2 L3)
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.
14
1.2
D 384
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1.3 &
(International Labour rganization - ILO)
. 183 ( )
. () [6].
(European Agency for
Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA)
( Bilbao)
. ILO
(.. ILO
encyclopedia) , ,
[7].
16
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:
( ,
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,
.
17
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.
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[10].
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4 .
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:
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25% 35 40
23,1% 41 45 .
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15,18% 5 .
73,21 % 15
(SD= 13,75).
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[11].
[11]
1.1. [11].
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
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25.
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10,03% ,
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8,21% .
1.5.2
(...)
1992 2002 16 ,
6 ( 3378 , 4,7%).
42% ,
, ,
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26% ().
16%
, , .
20
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. ( 47%)
12% 10%
[13].
[13]
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4%
(, 42% ). ,
, 34%
, ,
36% .
( )
[13].
[14],
( 45%) 18%
13% . (lineman)
.
(
). 3
(, , )
[14].
1.5.3
2002 2004,
[15],
, 1493
77 . , 162 7
. ( 35%)
20% . ,
( ) .
, ( 24 )
. 25 -65
21
(29%, 24%
5% ).
(25-65 )
.
( 65 )
65% .
,
().
2,94 . 2000 2004 162 ,
:
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16% 15-24 ,
15%
65
4% 0-14 .
1.3
2002-03 2003-04 [15].
22
1.4 ,
2002-03 2003-04 [15].
[16],
1557 59,
1000 V.
.
.
, .
. 7%
.
. 6%
.
, ( , (seizures),
, , .) (,
, ). 34%
. 30%
15% .
88%
6 .
40% 11%
, . 12%
, , 90%
[16].
23
(seizure)
(brain), (neuronal).
, , .
.
(epilepsy)
.
,
. ,
.
[4].
1.6 .
.
( Joule).
.
, , .
.
.
1.6.1
Ohm (I=V/)
. ,
,
. , ,
.
.
,
(
)
[17].
, ,
. ,
. . .
24
. 1000hms
[18].
( . , ).
, .
( ).
1000 V
[2.
.
.
,
[4].
[19].
, . ,
.
.
> 25 V/cm 20 40 ms ( 3.9)[20].
,
0,5 1
[4].
1.6.2 JOULE.
,
[4].
Joule.
.
.
430 C
[4]
[10.
[4].
Tropea Lee, ,
(Bioheat equation).
, ( b
25
cb b (b (t)), (
qm ), Joule
[4].
Joule, ()
(2 ).[4].
dT(t)/ dt = 2 T(t) + b cb b (b (t)) + qm + J2 .
= ,
c =
= ,
b = ,
b = ,
cb = ,
b =
qm = .
= [4].
1.6.3
,
.
. ,
, .
(electroporation) [21].
,
. .
.
(electroporation)
( ).
.
(0 - 150) mV (200
300) mV
[4].
A ,
[2.
, ,
.
electroporation
[4].
26
,
, .
,
.
,
.
.
[20].
,
. ,
.
,
.
, ,
,
.
[4].
. 2
[20].
)
,
cable model
(
1.5).
1.5 .
[4].
,
.
27
,
. ,
.
. ,
(resting potential) .
(ELF ) [4]:
Vm (z) =
cosh(L/)
sinh(z/)
1+ri Ge tanh(L/)
(2)
:
=
= =
1
( )
(ri ro)gm
ri , ro = (/cm)
cm, gm = (F/cm) (S/cm).
2L =
Ge = .
z = z .
,
. ,
.
10 m (8
cm) (2 m). ,
,
.
5 .
L .
.
.
b (
).
, ro ri (
)
[4].
28
1.6 .
b b [4].
,
Vm (z) =
Vc
2L
[4]:
(ro + ri )/ri
cosh(L/)
sinh(z/)
1+[(ri + ro) Ge + ro/(Lri)] tanh(L/)
. (3)
/2
2R
3/
2
1.7 R
2R. To
= 0
=.
(2) (3)
,
29
[4].
)
( )
Vm (z) L sinh(z/) [ 1 + (f/fs)2]
-1/2
[20]
Eo
(4)
f fs =
.
) R ( -
steady state
(5)
-1/2
Eo
):
[20].
(5)
[22]
Vm
) , Vm
( = /2, 3/2)
Vm ( = 0, ).
,
(
). ,
, , ,
,
[22].
.
dc ( 30 120 V/cm,
0,5 10 ms, 10 s,
Joule), electroporation
Ca+2
(sarcoplasma) [20].
(Sarcoplasma) .
(
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcoplasma)
,
. 30%
. ,
30
.
.
. ,
+
. .
+
[4].
(Vm)
Vm
[20].
1.7 15 Hz
100 Hz.
ac (15 100) Hz .
rms [23].
1.7.1
(threshold of perception)
[23, 3].
, ( , ,
)
[23, 5.1].
1.7.2
(threshold of reaction)
[23, 3].
, ( , ,
) .
0,5 mA IEC/TS 60479 1 ,
[23 5.2].
1.7.3
(immobilization)
( )
[23, 3].
31
.
, ,
[23 5.4].
1.7.4
(threshold of let-go)
[23, 3].
,
. IEC/TC 60479 1 10 mA 5 mA
[23].
1.7.5
,
[23 3].
( ,
)
( , .)
1.8 1.9
[23, 17 18].
. .
1.8
[23, 17].
32
1.9 -
[23, 18].
(50 Hz 60 Hz),
.
.
0,1 s, 500 mA,
( )
(vulnerable
period - -
.
, 10% ) .
,
5.5].
1.10
[23, 19 ]
[23,
,
.
33
1.10 , ,
,
, , UT = 220V 380 V ac
5% [23, 19].
1 (UT = 220V,
1,6%, UT = 380V, 58%)
2 5 s
3 , t> 1,5 *
4 , 3 s
UT = 220V, 1,6%, UT = 380V, 58%, = 110 m
220 mA
( ( 5% ) = 120 mA I (
50% ) = 180 mA)
(1) F = 0,4.
c1 ( 1.11)
, ,
. c1 &
.
( 10 ms 100 ms)
500 mA 400 mA. ,
1 s
(50 mA, 1 s) (40 mA, 3 s).
5.5].
[23,
c2, c3
. 5% 50%
34
. c1, c2, c3
[23, 5.5].
1.12 / dc
[24, 22].
35
ac
dc
ac
dc
(3)
ac
dc
(mA)
0,5
0,5
0,5
(1)
10
25
25
25
100
40
57
350
(2)
140
(2)
200
1. .
,
. ,
.
2. ,
. dc
.
3.
.
1.2 [25].
36
,
, , .
, ,
.
.
, QT,
ST. CK-MB
.
. ,
.
[17].
CK MB 3 (creatine kinase (CK)).
(heart attack). CK-MB CKMB CK 2.5 - 3, .
CK ,
.
CK- MB .
CK - MB . , ,
CK - MB .
, 90% ,
( , ,
CO) 64%
, 19%
CO .
, .
.
/ . ,
, ,
, , ,
(vasospasm)
[26].
37
. ,
.
1000 V,
, . ,
1000V ,
. ,
, ,
. , 50%
, 7% .
.
.
.
.
[27].
.
.
.
, . ,
. ,
, .
Fourier.
bandwidth 9 12 Hz, .
,
.
.
(threshold potential). (cellular
depolarisation) +,
+, +
+ [28].
38
1.8 /
1.3 / ac 15 Hz 100 Hz
( 1.18 ) [23, 11].
AC 1
0,5 mA
AC 2
a
0,5 mA
AC 3
b
b
.
.
. .
.
AC - 4
c1
.
,
, .
.
c1 c2
AC-4.1 5%.
c2 c3
AC-4.2 50%.
AC-4.3 50%.
c3
, 200 ms,
. 1.11
.
.
1.9 (F)
. 1.11 [23, 20].
(F),
.
.
h = Iref
F
:
Iref
( 1.11 ).
(.. , 2 , 2
2 ).
39
F - .
: -
[23, 5.9].
1.4 F [23,
12].
F
1,0
1,0
0,4
0,8
0,3
0,7
1,3
1,5
0,7
0,04
: 225 mA
90 mA
.
40
ac ( 1..2
1,
1.11 1.12)
- ac dc, 2 dc
.
41
1.10
, ,
(
, ).
.
, 1 ,
.
, .
.
.
H
.
. , .
.
, .
[23, 5.6].
1.11
7.8
iT (mA/mm2) .
,
.
. 10 mA/mm2 :
. ( )
( 0).
42
. 10 mA/mm2 20 mA/mm2 :
(
1).
. 20 mA/mm2 50 mA/mm2 :
.
( )
( 2).
. 50 mA/mm2 ( 3).
1.16
[23, 14].
3:
2:
1:
0:
,
,
,
.
1.11.1
3 7 %
.
.
.
, ,
4 :
. ,
. ,
. ,
. .
43
[17].
[29].
[30].
[27].
[18].
.
. 1000 hms
[17].
[18].
.
. ,
[31]. (
gel
.
[32] ).
10 20 m
[32].
H (epidermis :
(skin). .
.
1300 /cm2/hr .
,
.
,
.
3 4
.
. 3 ,
50%.
44
100,
[33].
1.17
1991 1993 [33] .
1.11.2
[31]
100 400 ms
60 300 V. ,
20 100 V.
, , .
.
,
( ). 45 C
60 C. (
10 m) . 120 ms
200 ms/200V. ,
60 m . ,
.
,
45
[31]:
= + a exp (-r/b)2
(
, -
)
:
,
r
a b .
. .
, 65 70 C.
(80 ms, 100 V)
60 C, 5%. 320 ms, .
200V, 60 C, 90%.
,
[31].
1.11.3 .
,
. 65 70 C
.
2 s
[31].
1.12
.
.
.
[17].
46
1.13 .
70%
.
.
10
.
( )
[34].
, , .
, ,
, .
.
,
. ,
libido, ,
(median nerve)
(ulnar nerve).
[17].
[34].
,
.
[18].
29
. ,
,
( Q, ,
, , ). , 49%
, 46%
44%
(, ,
).
.
,
,
(electroporation)
47
[35].
( )
[36].
,
,
[37].
[17].
To ,
. ,
.
1.15
(myoglobinuria)
(rhabdomyolysis)
3 ml/kg/h pH 6.5
[17].
Myoglobinuria (myoglobin)
.
. Rhabdomyolysis .
, creatine kinase (CK)
.
1.16
.
()
(s1) (Zi)
(Zs2).
48
[23]
1.16.1 M
EC/TS 60479 1 IEC/TR 60479-5
. , 5
3 . EC/TS 60479 1,
( 6.1) [23].
.
2 ,
:
. ,
, .
.
(
)
.
.
5
, ,
[24, .2].
49
, IEC/TR 60479-5
[25]
5
2 2 , 1 .
1.19
.
[25].
,
.
, a b
. 3
2 .
2 .
.
(Ri) (
[24, .2].
1.19 [24,
.1].
1.20, ( 2 2 )
. ,
a b
.
.
(
).
50
.
( )
1.22
(C/TS 60479-1 3)
2 2
[24, .2].
1.20 2 2
[24, .2].
1.21,
. ,
( ) .
.
( ).
( ). ,
1.22
[23 3],
.
CEI 60479-1
[23].
.
51
1.22
[23 3]
[24 .2].
1.21
[24 .3].
1.16.2 ( i).
H .
:
( ).
: ,
1.18 [23, 1].
, ,
.
,
(
). (
) .
. ,
2 (
)
[24, .1].
52
1.22
[23, 2]
.
,
(
)
[ 39, 3].
1.22
ip
[23].
1 1 .
,
.
.
: ,
.
1.16.3 (s)
S
.
().
.
[23 4.2]
,
53
( ).
,
. ,
ms.
,
[24, A, A.1].
. ,
.
.
[24 4.3].
,
(, , ) .
,
. ,
[23 4.2].
[24 4.3].
:
- .
1 min ( =
35 m, pH = 7,7 9 [24, 4.5] [23, 3.1] pH = 7
9).
T 1 min NaCl 3%, (
= 0,25m, pH = 7,5 8,5 [ 45] = 30 cm pH = 7 9 [23].) O
[25].
[23].
[23].
o [24 4.5].
C 60479 -5 (L)
82 cm2 . (),
12,5 cm2 .
(S) 1 cm2
54
. , ,
.
[24
4.5].
)
[24, .2.3.1].
.
0,01 F/cm2 0,05 F/cm2.
[24, .2.3.1]
3 :
- : 0,01 F/cm2
-
: 0,03 F/cm2
: 0,05 F/cm2
,
.
. ,
[23]
.
II)
[24, .2.3.2].
,
( )
.
s.
(
).
[25],
50 ms (
1.23).
1.23
[24, .1].
t/0,05
Rs (0) : ,
Rv
: ,
: .
Rs
. Rs (t) :
Rs (t) = Rs + (Rs (0) Rs ) e
t/0,05
,
. ,
.
.
3
[24, .2.3.2].
1.16.4 ( )
.
s
.
[23, 4.3].
[24 4.3] :
(ac dc),
(.. ,
, )
( , , -
),
,
25 V.
0 V,
25 V 50 V ( ). ,
( )
200 V
56
( ).
1 000 V
[24 .2.3.4].
) ()
.
1.24.
, 50% ,
( , 10 000 mm2, 1
000 mm2 100 mm2 . 1.24. 1.24.
-
, UT = 25 200 V ac
()
()
[23 4.5].
()
1.24 50%
, (10 000 mm2, 1 000 mm2 100 mm2 ) UT = 25 200
V ac, 50/60 Hz [23 7].
() : ,
1 : , ( 10 000 mm2) 6.3.
2 : , ( 1 000 mm2 ) 6.7.
3 : , C ( 100 mm2 ) 6.10.
() : ,
1 : , ( 10 000 mm2) 6.4.
2 : , ( 1 000 mm2 ) 6.8.
3 : , C ( 100 mm2 ) 6.11.
() : .
1 : , ( 10 000 mm2) 6.5.
2 : , ( 1 000 mm2 ) 6.9.
3 : , C ( 100 mm2 ) 6.12.
:
1.5 1.13 .
57
5%
1 750
1 375
1 125
990
900
850
825
800
775
700
625
575
575
T ()
50%
95 %
3 250
6 100
4 600
500
3 600
2 000
3 125
1 750
2 675
1 550
2 350
1 400
2 175
1 325
2 050
1 275
1 900
1 225
1 275
950
1 150
850
1 050
775
1 050
775
775
1 050
=
575
1.
10% - 30%, , .
2. , 0,1 s.
( 10% - 20%) = I
3. 230 V ( 3N 230/400V)
225 V.
4. 25 ( 25 ).
5%
T ()
50%
95 %
1 175
1 100
1 025
975
900
850
825
800
775
700
625
575
575
2 175
2 000
1 825
1 675
1 550
1 400
1 325
1 275
1 225
950
850
775
775
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
100
675
275
950
675
350
175
050
900
275
150
050
050
575
775
1 050
1.
10% - 30%, , .
2. , 0,1 s.
( 10% - 20%) = i
3. 230 V ( 3N 230/400V)
225 V.
4. 25 ( 25 ).
T ()
5%
50%
95 %
(V)
25
960
1 300
1 755
50
940
1 275
1 720
75
920
1 250
1 685
100
880
1 225
1 655
125
850
1 200
1 620
150
830
1 180
1 590
175
810
1 155
1 560
200
790
1 135
1 530
225
770
1 115
1 505
400
700
950
1 275
500
625
850
1 150
700
575
775
1 050
1000
575
775
1 050
=
575
775
1 050
1.
10% - 30%, , .
2. , 0,1 s.
( 10% - 20%) = i
3. 230 V ( 3N 230/400V)
225 V.
4. 25 ( 25 ).
58
1.11 ,
, U = 25V 200 V ac, 50/60 Hz ( 25 ) [23, 4].
(V)
25
5%
T ()
50%
95 %
11 125
20 600
38 725
50
7 150
13 000
23 925
75
4 625
8 200
1 4750
100
3 000
5 200
9 150
125
2 350
4 000
6 875
150
1 800
3 000
5 050
175
1 550
2 500
4 125
200
1 375
2 200
3 525
1.9 , ,
5%
T ()
50%
95 %
5050
9350
17575
50
4100
7450
13700
75
3400
6000
10800
100
2800
4850
8525
125
2350
4000
6875
150
1800
3000
5050
175
1550
2500
4125
200
1375
2200
3525
1.10 , ,
5%
T ()
50%
95 %
1795
2425
3275
50
1765
2390
3225
75
1740
2350
3175
100
1715
2315
3125
125
1685
2280
3075
150
1660
2245
3030
175
1525
2210
2985
200
1350
2175
2935
1.11 , ,
5%
T ()
50%
95 %
91250
169000
317725
50
74800
136000
250250
75
42550
74000
133200
100
23000
40000
70400
125
12875
22000
37850
150
7200
12000
20225
175
4000
6500
10725
200
3500
5400
8650
1.12 , ,
5%
T ()
50%
95 %
39700
73500
138175
50
29800
54200
99725
75
22600
40000
72000
100
17250
30000
52800
125
12875
22000
37850
150
7200
12000
20225
175
4000
6500
10725
200
3500
5400
8650
59
1.13 , ,
, U = 25V 200 V ac, 50/60 Hz ( 25 ) [23].
(V)
25
5%
T ()
50%
95 %
5400
7300
9855
50
5105
6900
9315
75
4845
6550
8840
100
4590
6200
8370
125
4330
5850
7900
150
4000
5550
7490
175
3700
5250
7085
200
3400
5000
6750
1.25
( 1 mm2 8000 mm2 )
, 25 V - 200 V ac 50 Hz (
) [23, 5].
1 : 8200 mm2
2 : 1250 mm2
3 : 100 mm2
4 : 10 mm2
5 :
1 mm2
220 V
60
1.26 UT.
2
. 1
,
.
UT = 25 V 200 V, ac , 50 Hz,
25 s [23 6].
1: ( 8 000 mm2), .
2: ( 250 mm2),
.
1.26
[ 6 39],
( 250 mm2 ) (
50/60 Hz ac 25 V 200 V). ,
200 V 1 000 .
1.26
[23].
)
i
Ro, .
, ,
i Ro . (
100 V )
i
.
IEC 60479-1
, 50 z ac
, , U
= 25V 200 V.
61
:
200V.
( 1 mm2 8000
mm2 ) , 25 V - 200 V ac 50 Hz,
1.25
[ 5 39].
100 V, ( mm2 )
+ 50% .
, ,
.
5%, 50%, 95% ,
, ,
( 10 000 mm2, 1 000 mm2 100 mm2 ) ,
- :
, 1.5-1.7 [ 1, 2,
3 39]
, U = 25V 1 000 V
ac, 50 Hz,
, U = 25V
, U = 25V
[23 4.5.3]
( 20 kHz)
50/60 Hz,
. 5 kHz,
i.
[23]
20 kHz 10 V 25 V [23].
1.27
[ 10 39]
,
, 10 V 25 z 20 kHz.
62
()
()
1.27 .
,
[23, 10 11].
1.27
[ 11 39],
,
, 25 V, 25 Hz 2 kHz.
1.28
[ 12 39]
10 V 1000
V 50 z 2 kHz, ,
( 50%
).
63
1.28
. 50% ,
10 V 1000 V, ac 50 z 2 kHz
, ,
[23].
1.29 , .
ac 50/60 z, 50% ,
, U =25V 700V, [23, 4].
:
1 : ( 1.5) [ 1 39],
2 : ( 1.6) [ 2 39],
3 : ( 1.7) [ 3 39].
ac dc
100 V. ,
, .
: C 40579-1.
64
1.14 R ,
[23, 10].
5%
(V)
25
RT ()
50%
95 %
2100
3875
7275
50
1600
2900
5325
75
1275
2275
4100
100
1100
1900
3350
125
975
1675
2875
150
875
1475
2475
175
825
1350
2225
200
800
1275
2050
225
775
1225
1900
400
700
950
1275
500
625
850
1150
700
575
775
1050
1000
575
775
1050
=
575
775
1 050
1. RT 10% - 30%,
.
2. RT 0,1 s. RT
( 10% - 20%) RT R .
3. RT 25 .
1.17.1 (Ro)
Ro
5% 500 ac dc .
50% 95% 750 1000 (
1.5)
[ 1 39].
.
: Ro
ac 50/60 Hz, R dc
, ,
.
1.18
Ohm. :
50/60 z ac dc dc
ac ,
, ,
, 2 2 , 1
,
10 ms 10 s.
65
, , .
: ac ,
,
[24,
4.5].
1.18.1
IEC 60479 -1
.
( )
IEC 60479 -5
, ,
. ( 1.30)
[24, 4.6].
66
a.c.
d.c.
1.30
[24, 4].
1.18.2
[24, 4.7].
67
)
1.15 ( V)
, ac 50/60 Hz [24, 2a].
(0,5 mA)
(0,5 mA)
(0,5 mA)
1
1
3
4
21
9
40
0,3
0,4
13
23
0,3
0,5
0,4
11
20
1.16 ( V)
, ac 50/60 Hz [24,
2b].
(5
mA)
(10 mA)
(5
mA)
5
9
27
25
93
11
40
104
27
25
93
11
40
104
13
13
46
20
52
1.17 ( V)
, ac 50/60 Hz [24,
2c].
(100 mA)
(40
mA)
(57
mA)
90
160
257
98
165
260
99
99
260
20
36
94
24
71
149
33
82
149
27
49
99
31
65
100
34
65
100
68
)
1.18 ( V)
, dc [24 , 2d ].
(2 mA)
(2
mA)
(2
mA)
2
4
12
12
58
23
78
35
15
59
28
12
39
1.19 ( V)
, dc [24, 2e].
(25 mA)
(25
mA)
(25
mA)
24
44
112
29
81
156
43
89
156
13
23
63
16
51
133
26
67
133
12
22
56
15
41
78
21
45
78
1.20 ( V)
, dc [24, 2f].
(350 mA)
(140 mA)
(200
mA)
263
351
467
264
353
470
264
264
470
68
121
220
75
143
223
87
143
223
83
126
201
85
127
203
85
127
203
69
1.18.3
[24, 5].
EC 60479 1, IEC 60479-5
.
( ) 9
:
(, , )
(, , )
9 :
( , 2 2 ,
)
( , ,
).
IEC
.
.
IEC 60479 1
[25]
IEC 60479 -5
- .
(
).
- ( 3 ).
.
- 3 ( ,
).
70
1
[1] 1800 :2003, .
[2] 1801:2008, .
[3] HD 384: 2004, .
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74
75
76
[1].
1. [1].
[2]
1.
().
2.
3.
4.
(. ).
5.
6.
, , , .
7.
.. .
8.
dc ac.
9.
ac dc .
10. 3
.
11. .
12.
.
13. , .
76
2.1.
2.1.1. ,
)
,
. .
) .
1. ,
.
( 543.3.4 HD 384).
[3]
std 80-2000.
2. . .
3. ANSI/IEEE Std 80-2000,
,
,
. ,
,
.
,
.
,
.
IEC 60050-195-am1 ed1.0
. 54 D 384 [4]
.
2.1.2
,
, .
.
77
,
.
,
.
( ,
(touch current)
IEC 60990 (annex E).
.
IEC 61201.
2.1 [5].
0,5 mA r.m.s.
1,0 mA r.m.s.
(Class I) (
0,5 mA r.m.s.
0,75 mA r.m.s.
)
(Class
0,5 mA r.m.s.
3,5 mA r.m.s.
(class )
I)
.
-
)
: , , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
, ,
( .. ,
, , ,
, (, )).
( , , (
) [55 32].
-
.
-
.
-
.
-
.
78
- . N
230 V / 400 V 0.4 s
EOT HD 384).
( 531.3 D 384).
-
.
(. 3850/10,
43, 9).
2.1.3
.
[6] :
- 25 V ac 50 V dc,
.
-
. N o
.
- .
. ,
.
- .
:
) O [6] :
i) .
ii) , ,
.
iii) .
, .
.
.
iv) .
v) .
)
10 . ,
[6]. ,
( ) .. 395/94 (
79
2.2
HD 384
[4, 704.1.1],
, , ,
,
,
.
, ,
,
[3].
125 V ( 1 kV),
30 mA.
. 125 V,
.
2.2.1
.
.
.
,
80
[3].
2. [7].
2.3
, HD 384
[4]
:
i)
ii)
iii) ,
.
, ,
.
2.3.1
.
, ,
Volt.
81
. .
,
. .
( 38).
:
- . (
0,90m
1,25 m) .. (
1980- 15kV, 2 m) .
-
(*).
[8].
(, , ).
(
).
, ()
( 75 84 .. 1073/81).
.
-
. .
, . .
, .
[9].
(ordinary person).
, , ,
. , .
.
(*) , , .
[10]. -
.
82
2.3.2
,
, , ,
, .
, , , (
), , ,
.
2.3.3
.
, .. ,
,
. .
,
.
:
-
,
, .
.
(. 1073/81).
1:1.
SELV PELV.
,
.
,
, .
.
.
83
500V
0,5
500V 1,0
( 61- E D 384).
1. .
, .
.
1 mA
[55, 612.3]
(V)
SELV PELV
500V,
(V)
250
500
()
0.25
0.5
500 V
1000
1.0
2.3.4
. ,
, , , .
. ,
. , ,
.
:
-
- . .
- .. .
- .
-
.
3. .
.
84
2.4
[12]:
, ,
2.4.1
(dead working), :
- ,
- ,
- ,
- ,
- (
[13]).
- ,
- ,
- ,
(), , ,
.
- ,
- ,
- .
: (portable/temporary grounding).
.
, [1].
(temporary grounding equipment) [14].
IEC 61230 [15].
, ,
.
[16].
. ,
. , ,
.
,
.
. ,
[12].
(equipotential grounding) [17] :
-
(personal grounding),
85
2.4.2
50 V ac
120 V dc, CENELEC 50110-1,
.
, , , ,
.
. ,
[12].
2.4.3
,
.
[12].
(at voltage)
(at contact)
[18]:
(at distance)
(at distance)
. ,
.
, 220 380 kV.
. ,
, .
.
, 220 kV.
, 30 kV. O
( )
(insulating glove working).
( ).
86
4. .
(live working).
.
5 DL.
. .
, . 5,
Dv.
C 61472 ed2.0 ac 72,5 kV
800 kV.
5. CENELEC
50110-1 [12].
87
2. DL DV ( Cenelec
50110 -1) [12].
UN kV
1
3
6
10
15
20
30
36
45
60
70
110
132
150
220
275
380
480
700
.
.
DL mm
60
90
120
160
220
320
380
480
630
750
1000
1100
1200
1600
1900
2500
3200
5300
.
.
DV mm
300
1120
1120
1150
1160
1220
1320
1380
1480
1630
1750
2000
3000
3000
3000
4000
4000
6100
8400
) FPA 70 E.
FPA 70E.
,
. 3
.
6. NFPA
70E [19].
88
2.
NFPA 70E [19].
0 -50 V
51-300 V
301 750 V
751V- 15kV
15.1kV 36kV
36.1kV -46kV
46.1kV 72.5kV
72.6-121 kV
138 145 kV
161-169 kV
230-242 kV
345 -362 kV
500 550 kV
765 800 kV
10ft 0in
3ft 6in
10ft 0in
3ft 6in
10ft 0in
5ft 0in
10ft 0in
6ft 0in
10ft 0in
8ft 0in
10ft 0in
8ft 0in
10ft 8in
8ft 0in
11ft 0in
10t 0in
11ft 8in
11ft 8in
13ft 0in
13ft 0in
15ft 4in
15ft 4in
19ft 0in
19ft 0in
23ft 9in
23ft 9in
1ft 0in
2ft 2in
2ft 7in
2ft 9in
3ft 3in
3ft 3n
3ft 7in
4ft 0in
5ft 3in
8ft 6in
11ft 3in
14ft 11in
0ft 1in
0ft 7in
0ft 10in
1ft 5in
2ft 1in
2ft 8in
3ft 1in
3ft 6in
4ft 9in
8ft 0in
10ft 9in
14ft 5in
FPA-70E
[19]:
- ,
- ,
- ,
- 600 V,
-
(switchgear buses).
[21] 49] :
FPA
.
. CENELEC 50110,
.
2.
. FPA 70E
.
3.
4.
CENELEC
. ,
, , , IPXXB (
89
). ,
( ). ( )
.
5.
2 .
FPA 70 :
(qualified persons)
(not qualified).
,
.
,
. , 3
: , .
6.
,
.
FPA-70E ,
.
7.
.
.
2.4.5
) . 158/1975
. 158/1975 ( 189//1975).
( . 2702/1999)
3 ( ).
i)
, 0-750V,
ii)
, 751-35 000V,
iii) T 35 000 V .
( 2.1) (0-750V)
:
) 0-50V ,
) 50-750V o
,
, (, )
(
90
)
.
( 3.1) (75
35000V) :
)
.
)
,
.
)
.
)
.
( 4)
:
(V)
1500
(m)
0,15
6600
0,36
15000
0,70
20000
0,76
22000
0,78
35000
0,93
( 5) 35000V .
( 6)
.
) . 395/94
(. .. 89/99, . 304/00)
.. 395/94 ,
( , 2.26).
.
, ,
( , 2.19).
91
, .
.
,
[22].
,
( ).
[35]
]:
-
( 7, .. 395/1994),
( 48, . 1850/10),
-
( 43, 1 . 3850/10),
( 39 . 3850/10).
2.4.6 .
:
- (. ....
130329/03.07.1995),
- 6 . 158/75,
.
( .158/75
168//1994, . 2702/1999).
7933 .
92
50110,
(, , )
.
Enel ( nel
), [18] :
-
, , .
, (
).
, , 12-15 km).
( 35 km/h 22 miles/h).
80%.
2.4.7
1. ,
[23]
2. ,
.
3. ,
.
4. .
5. ,
.
6. ,
( C
7.
[25].
8.
[25].
9. , , ,
.
10. H Live Work Association (...)
. ,
[26].
93
11. .
[16].
12.
13.
[16].
, EC, CENELEC
CE. ,
[18].
14. ,
.
2.4.8
.
1.
[25], [27]:
.
.
. ,
.
2.
3.
.
4.
5.
6.
.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
94
,
.
()
.
, :
1. ,
,
.
2. ,
,
( ).
, , .
,
.
,
.
.
.
.
2.5
.
. .
. ,
.
, .. 22-12/1933
( 5).
(
).
95
.
. :
.
.
.
:
CENELEC : FINAL DRAFT, EUROPEAN STANDARD FprEN
50528 Insulating ladders for use on or near low voltage electrical installations [28].
a)
1. .
:
) .
)
.
,
( .. ),
)
.
2.
.
3.
[2.
4. ,
, -
[2.
5.
6. ,
,
[2.
, ,
[2.
7.
8.
9. .
96
[2.
7. .
[13].
.
-
)
(.. )
, .
(.. ,
)
(
).
, .
(
).
. .
(, ).
.
.
(, , )
.
)
- , .
, ,
.
[2. ,
[29], [30].
97
[31] [32].
2.6
.
,
.
2 - 17 .. 1073/81.
75-84 1073/81. 225/1989
.
,
. ,
.
. ,
.
.
- , ,
.
- .
-
.
-
.
- , .
- . .
- .
- , , .
- .
.. ,
. .
.
- .
.
- .
- .
- , . .
98
- , .
2.7
, , , ,
, , ,
.
( )
..
[2.
(IEC),
(maintenance)
,
[31].
[12].
[33] :
i) .
.
ii) .
HD 384
[4, 61.1.1]
iii) . ,
. .
8. ,
[34].
[35]
, ,
99
.
.
(. 6422/34).
- .
, .
(.. 305/96, 3,
).
(..
1073/81 111).
( D 384).
- .
, ,
.
( .. 105/1995).
- , ( ).
- . .
- / .
[35].
- ..
.
-
.
[25].
-
.
,
.
.
-
,
.
( 462.3 D 384).
100
- 600 V,
,
( 110.26
) 600 V ( ).
1
0 150 V
d
3 ft
0 150 V
d
3 ft
0 150 V
d
3 ft
151-600 V
3 ft
151-600 V
3.5 ft
151-600 V
4 ft
) 600 V ( ).
1
(V)
601 2.500
(ft)
3 ft.
601 2.500
(ft)
4 ft.
2.501 9.000
4 ft.
601 2.500
5 ft.
2.501 9.000
5 ft.
2.501 9.000
6 ft.
9.001-25.000
5 ft.
9.001-25.000
6 ft.
9.001-25.000
9 ft.
25.00- 75.000
6 ft.
25.00- 75.000
8 ft.
25.00- 75.000
10 ft.
75.000
8 ft.
75.000
10 ft
75.000
12 ft.
3
d
d (ft)
,
90
.
9.
( NFPA 50E).
2.7.1
.
, .
101
. O .
,
.
O EH :
: 10 cm.
15 cm
-: 15 .
19 cm. ( .)
EH 3 m.
-: H 1 mm.
, .
( 30, 2)
1 mm. ().
.
40 cm. O .
,
.
. T
10% 50%
. 90% .
,
,
.
.
.
(
, , .).
(.. , ,
.) ( ,
, ).
102
2.7.2
1. ,
. ,
,
[36].
2. .
3. ,
, .
4.
.
. .
on off.
6. ,
.
.
7. .
8.
.
9.
. .
10. .
.
11. /
/ (circuit analyzer), ,
,
[34].
12. .
13. , , ,
.
14. , ,
. 6 12
. .
15.
.
16. .
:
1.
2.
103
3.
4.
5.
6.
, , .
7.
8.
, .
2.8
2.8.1
,
.
.
.
.
.
[33].
10. .
[33].
2.8.2
, , .
.
.
(solenoid testers)
(proximity testers)
.
, .
)
(solenoid testers)
11 .
104
11. .
,
/. ,
,
. . (
, /
/) [33].
(proximity testers)
,
, 12 .
12. ,
(). , () [33].
ac .
, .
,
.
2.8.3 ..
(..), :
) .
. .
) ( ).
) .
(a-b, b-c, c-a).
,
.
105
2.8.4
:
1) .
2) .
3) , ,
,
( ).
4) . .
5) .
6) .
7) .
.
.
13. [33].
8) (
). .
(ac dc)
.
9)
.
. ,
.
14. [33].
106
10) .
.
,
.
11) , .
15.
[33]
12) .
.
16. .
[33].
17.
[33].
13) .
. ,
( ).
107
(proximity sensor)
18. , C
. ( 1)
. ( 2) [33].
2.8.5 ..
,
,
, 10 .
.
, ,
,
.
.
19. .
, 95 V. , 80 V.
, 0 V [33].
2.8.6
,
(proximity sensor).
,
108
.
, ( on
ff). , ,
.
,
.
20. [33].
21. . [33].
22. . ( 1)
( 2) [33].
2.8.7
) .
sensors).
(proximity
.
stick)
(probing
23. .
[33]
109
) .. (shielded wires).
.
24. .. O
(proximity sensor)
[33].
25. .
[33].
2.8.8
2.8.8.1 &
O , .
2.000 100
. 400
kA. ,
.
.
, .
.
.
.
, ,
110
[37].
26. [37].
i) .
O 4 IV (CAT I, CAT II, CAT III, CAT IV)
[37].
CAT IV :
.
CAT III : , ,
, , .
CAT II : CAT III, , ,
CAT I : [37].
.. ( 1000 V ac).
IEC 61010 ( EC 1010 - IEC 61010 IEC 10101 ).
CAT II CAT III,
CAT III.
. .
, [37].
111
CAT III-1000 V
CAT IV-600 V
28.
CAT III 1000V, CAT IV 600V [37].
[37].
,
,
, .
1. .,
. .
.
.
29. .. ,
.
( ) [37].
2. ,
, (..
) ( 30).
. 480 V
550 p, 264 , 6
7 ( 1564 1850 ).
Ampere.
.
.
112
. , 6 kA
ms.
30. .. ,
.
[37].
3.
,
. ,
. 6000 C,
.
31. .. ,
.
[37].
32.
[37].
113
2.8.8.2 &
.
. ,
, .
.
: ,
.
, .
,
. .
, ,
. , CAT III
1000 V .
/ . ,
.
33. .
. 480 V
, [37].
1. , 13.8 kV.
. 4 6
.
. .
34. . [37].
2.
. 250 V 480V.
.
,
114
. ,
. 30
.
.
35. .
. .
[37].
3. .
. 0 V,
. ,
, .
.
36.
. 0 V, [37].
37. ) .
. ,
.
) o [37].
115
,
.
) :
- .
- V/Ohm,
10 , mA.
0.1 Ohm 10 Ohm , .
L .
:
.
.
) .
V/ COM.
() . 0,1
0,3 .
, ,
, .
CAT.
.
.
38. [37].
2.8.9
,
/. 100 V (
50 V) -
200 400V .
.
, .
,
,
116
[38]:
/ ,
/
.
,
, .. .
,
.
39. [38]
) E
.
. , ,
.. .
.
.
.
.
H .
.
[38].
40. [38].
117
)
,
,
.
,
. ,
[38].
41. [38].
)
.
[38].
.
.
42. [38].
.
.
. T
. .
43. . [38].
118
) .
.. 95/1978 .
2.9
2.9.1
50 V
10 Joules. H
.
[7].
- .
.
.
- , ,
.
-
.
- (
)
.
5 Gauss.
600 Gauss.
- ,
.
- ,
. ,
.
119
, , . ( )
kV.
2.9.2
,
.
. ,
[7].
, ,
, , .
[3.
, . ,
[7].
1.
[3].
.
2.
10 J,
.
3.
.
4.
(bleeder resistors).
5.
.
6.
.
7. 600 V,
, 50 V 10 J
5 min.
600V, o
1 min.
8. ,
(
dump resistors,
50 V 10 J
1 min.
.
120
9. , ,
.
,
[7].
, .
.
,
.
10. ,
.
. ,
.
[3].
11.
( -
,
.
12.
10
kJ.
2.9.3 .
,
-. ,
, .
.
, ()
.
.
G1. ,
, [3].
1.
, .
.
121
2.
. ( ).
3.
4.
,
.
,
.
5.
,
(, , ) .
,
100 ft 10 min
.
6.
,
.
7.
8.
9.
[39].
10.
[39].
To 55 HD 384, .
44. .
. .
.
. .
[29].
122
2.9.4
.
(research and development systems).
, Laser, /, , ,
.
.
.
2009, Cenelec : Draft
prEN
5019,
[3].
equipment, [40].
.
:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
.
.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
.
.
.
2.9.5 .
10 Joule
50 V, .
123
.
(turn off)
. 55 EOT HD 384,
.
50
V. , ,
.
. ,
. ,
,
.
.
, 5 mA .
.
.
. , ,
.
, .
: .
CO
.
2.10
2.10.1 .
.
[41].
.
35000 oF.
[42]
1. , . ,
, ,
.
124
2. .
3. .
4. , .
5.
.
7. / ,
.
3.3.1 IEEE Std 1584-2002
. ( NFPA -70E).
.
1. .
2. ,
.
3.
( ).
. .
[3].
4. .
5.
(risk assessment).
6. .
7.
8. , , -
( ).
2.10.2
[41]:
- .
- .
- .
-
.
125
45. [39].
(
), ,
(CO2 ),
CO
.
2.10.3
. ,
.
[43].
,
0,60 m
(.. 305/96, ..
1073/81, .. 778/80).
46. .
. () [43].
6.0 - .
1.
[44] :
2.
[17]
, ,
126
3.
[17]:
4.
[17]:
5.
[44] :
- ,
- ,
- ,
- ,
2.11
.
,
.
:
- .
- .
- .
- .
- .
-
.
- .
- . .
- .
- . .
127
- (, , ,
).
- .
- , .
- .
,
. [45] :
1)
.
2) .
3) .
4) .
5) , .
.
6)
7) .
.
8) .
9) , , .
10) .
11) .
12) .
13)
.
14) .
15) ,
16) . .
17) .
.
18) .
.
19) . .
20) .
21) .
22) .
23) . .
128
. ,
[46].
24)
[46].
25) [46].
26) (, ).
27) ,
. ,
.
OSHAS 18001
.
.
1.
.
.
2.
. , .
.
3.
4.
, .
5.
6.
.
.
7.
8.
129
2
[1] Guide to the Management of Heat & Cold Stress During Live Work, March 2005, Electricity Engineers
Association of NZ :
http://www.eea.co.nz/images/Publications/Guide%20to%20the%20Management%20of%20Heat
%20and%20Cold%20Stress%20During%20Live%20Work%20(Mar%2005).pdf
[2] Code of practice, Electrical work, Electrical Safety Act 2002, Queensland Government:
http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/pdf/eso/electricalwork_code2002.pdf
[3] ES and H manual, Environment, Safety and Health, Volume II, Part 16.1, Electrical Safety Program,
Editorial Update : July 31, 2007: https://esh.llnl.gov/esh-manual/volume2.html
[4] E D 384,
[5] Safety of electronic equipment, ECMA-287 :
http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST-WITHDRAWN/ECMA-287,%201st
%20edition,%20June%201999.pdf
[6] Guide to the maintenance, Inspection and Testing of Portable Equipment (Electrical Appliances and
Tools in the Workplace), ET 215:2008, Electro - Technical Council of Ireland:
http://www.etci.ie/docs/ET215(2008).pdf
[7] Chapter 8, Electrical Safety, 8 July 2005, SLAC Environment, Safety and Health Manual: http://wwwgroup.slac.stanford.edu/essg/pdf/ESHch08.pdf
[8] Preventing Electrocutions During Work with Scaffolds Near Overhead Power Lines,NIOSH ALERT:
August 1991, DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 91-110, http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/91-110.html
[9] European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, Overhead power lines:
http://osha.europa.eu/en/sector/agriculture/overhead
[10] :
http://www.hireshops.gr/index.php?
option=com_virtuemart&Itemid=73&category_id=1&page=shop.browse&limitstart=0&limit=50
[11] IEEE std 80-2000, Guide for Safety in ac grounding
[12] European Standard, Cenelec EN 50110 1:2004 E; Operation of electrical Installations
[13] Hubbell Power Systems INC, Chance, Tips of the trade Grounding, 2004 Hubbell:
http://www.hubbellpowersystems.com/POWERTEST/tips_news/pdfs_best/09-9001.pdf
[14] Hubbell Power Systems INC, Chance, Grounding Equipment, June 2009:
http://www.hubbellpowersystems.com/powertest/catalog_sections/PDF_hotline/3000_Ground
ing.pdf
......................................................................................................................................................................
[15] Revision of IEC 61230 Standard, Live working Portable equipment for earthing or earthing and
short-circuiting:
http://www1.vde.com/NR/rdonlyres/929A2FA7-18E3-4843-979C-DF458728FFE7/20918/etg_3_29.pdf
[16] Inspection of the electrical system, Rosanne Minne, City of st. Claire shores:
http://www.mcdda.org/ppt/Inspection-of-the-Electrical-System.ppt#275,26,Wiring
[17] Electrical Safety, the Arc Flash hazard and A preview of the Coming Revision of NFPA 70 E
2000, Paul S. Hamer, P.E. Chevron Texaco Energy Research & Technology Company, May 15, 2003 :
http://ewh.ieee.org/r6/oeb/IASelecSafety.pdf
[18] Impact of New Technologies at ENEL on Electrical Injury, Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences, Volume 720, Issue 1, Pages 11-20, May 1994, R. COMINI:
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/119269930/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0
130
[19] NFPA 70E, Electrical Safety in the Work Place, R. Casey, 2/1/05 :
http://www.nsls.bnl.gov/esh/highlights/pdf/nfpa_presentation.pdf
[20] IEEE 1584 Based Arc Flash Calculator and Warning Label Creator :
http://www.arcadvisor.com/arcflash/ieee1584.html
[21] Combing the best of both words, F.G Marx, 2008 IEEE, IAS Electrical Safety :
http://www.qts.nl/Brochures/Presentaties/ppt_ieee.pdf
[22] Welcome to Electrical Safety Presentation By Wm Bruce Bowman, P.E :
http://www.ieci.org/uploads/SafetyPresentation12.15.06.pdf
[23] Guide to Live LV Electrical Work, March 2005, Electricity Engineers Association of NZ :
http://www.eea.co.nz/images/Publications/Guide%20to%20Live%20LV%20Electrical%20Work
%20(March%202005).pdf
[24] Guide to Portable Equipment for Work On or Near Conductors, December 2004, Electricity
Engineers Association of NZ :
http://www.eea.co.nz/images/Publications/Guide%20to%20Portable%20Equipment%20for%20Work
%20On%20or%20Near%20Conductors%20(Dec%2004).pdf
[25] Guidance Notes for The Safe Isolation of Electricity Source at Work, Occupation Safety and Health
Branch, Labour Department, Occupation safety and health council :
http://www.labour.gov.hk/eng/public/os/isolation.pdf
[26] General guidelines for safe live working Author : Jens Juhling ISSA Elactricity Section :
http://www1.vde.com/NR/rdonlyres/92CD1451-ACA8-4D17-AE2A-E300B3B77EF9/20888/etg_2_04.pdf
[27] Electrical Hazard Analysis , Dennis K. Neitzel CPE, IEEE, Conference Record of 2006 Annual Pulp
and Paper Industry Technical Conference, June 18-23, 2006 :
http://www.avotraining.com/common/documents/avotraining/Electrical%20Hazards%20Analysis.pdf
[28] Final draft European standard FprEN 50528 Insulating ladders for use on or near low voltage
electrical installations: ftp://ftp.cenelec.org/procedures_voting/TC78_21458_vot1E.pdf
[29] Minimum flashover voltage of iced insulators, Phan L.C., Matsuo, H, Electrical Insulation, IEEE,
Transaction on, Dec 1983, Volume El 18, Issue :6, pages 605- 618 :
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4081167
[30] Research of effect of rain, wind and wind blown rain on power frequency flashover characteristic
of air gap, HU Yi, WANG Li-nong SHAO Gui-wei, Wuhan High Voltage Research Institute of SGCC :
http://www.cepsi2008.org/CEPSI2008/files/poster/597/full_paper_hu_yi.pdf
[31] IEC encyclopaedia maintenance:
http://www.electropedia.org/iev/iev.nsf/display?openform&ievref=191-07-01
[32] Wikipedia, Insulator (electrical):
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electrical)
[33] Crawford, K. DuPont Co. in Washington, Washington ; Haggerty, N.K, Test before touch, Industry
Applications Magazine, IEEE, Volume 14 Issue 3, Date May-June 2008 :
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=4489924&url=http%3A%2F
%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fiel5%2F2943%2F4489909%2F04489924.pdf%3Farnumber
%3D4489924
[34] Electrical Safety Foundation International : http://esfi.org/node/97
[35] ,.:
http://www.sptmte-dei.gr/?p=344
131
http://www.efcog.org/wg/esh_es/Electrical_Safety_Training/Electrical%20Measurement
%20Safety.ppt#325
[38] Electrical Hazards Awareness Briefing :
http://www.efcog.org/wg/esh_es/Electrical_Safety_Training/Welder%20Electrical%20Safety
%20%20%20Module%203.ppt
[39] Electrical Hygiene and good engineering practices :
http://www.insvalsura.gov.in/image/vtb/pdfs/Elecrtical_Hygiene.ppt
[40] CENELEC, Draft prEN 5019, Erection and operation of electrical test equipment :
ftp://ftp.cenelec.org/procedures_enquiry/BTTF128-2_21474_enq1E.pdf
[41] Electrical Safety, Jameskutty Thomas, Assistant Electrical Inspector :
http://www.jameskutty.info/esafety.pdf
[42] Electrical safety for employee workplaces in Europe and in USA, Giuseppe Parise, Peter E.
Sutherland, William Moylan : http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=01043840
[43] Electrical Safety, Safety and Health for Electrical Trades, Student Manual, NIOSH :
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2009-113/pdfs/2009-113.pdf
[44] Common Sense and Knowledge Approach to Electrical Safety L. Bruce McClung :
http://www.ieee.org.br/eswbrasil/2003/Documentos/13%20-%20Common%20Sense.pdf
[45] What causes accidents?
http://concreteproducts.com/mag/concrete_causes_accidents/
[46] Dominant underlying factors of work related accidents, Chris Pietersen, TNO Safety Solutions
Consultants BV, General manager : http://osha.europa.eu/fr/conferences-fr/eemhof_2006-fr/filesfr/session%2008%20pietersen%20dominant%20factors.ppt#563,20,Conclusions
132
K 3
,
.
133
3
1.
.
3.1. 1
3. 1. 1. 1
.
,
, ,
, .
,
.
,
.
. ,
1 m
,
.
1. , , ,
[1].
To , .
,
134
= x /(2 x )
(1)
(Volt), (.m),
() (m).
H :
- .
- .
- .
,
. std 80-2000 ( 8)
[1].
( ).
3.1.1.2
, std 80-2000 [1]:
0.116
0.157
ts
ts
50 kg ()
(2)
70 kg ()
(3)
Estep (V),
Cs
s (.m),
ts (s),
:
)
s
Cs 1
2hs 0.09
0.09(1
(4)
hs
. = s.
135
2. [2].
,
..
.
IEC/TS 60479,
Ohm. IEC/TS 60479-5 Std [3] -
3 , ac (50/60 Hz) dc
, , , , , .
set 9 , 3
, ( ,
, ) 3 (,
, ). ,
.
,
.
:
26.4% + 10.9% + 6.9% + 6.1% + 6.9% + 10.9% + 26.4% = 94.5%
(5)
:
32.3% + 14.1% + 8.7% + 14.1% + 32.3% = 101.5%
(6)
:
Zi_foot-foot = Zi_hand-hand 1.074
(7)
136
1.074
101.5%
94.5%
(8)
1 S/TS 60479-1
1,074
, ,
(ac 50/60 Hz).
) 1 ( V)
, ,
, 1.
50%
.
, 95% .
[4]: (I) ,
.
(T)
(T1) .
(T2) .
[4].
1.
Location
area
(I,
a)
b)
T)
I, T1
T2
I, T1
T2
)
0.2 0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8-
1.2-
1.2
>3
s
V
125
250
100
200
85
165
80
150
75
140
70
130
65
125
65
65
50
50
250
500
200
400
165
330
150
300
140
280
130
260
125
250
65
125
50
125
137
3.1.1.3
.
:
.
, .
, , .,
.
.
, , ,
. : )
. )
.
(transferred voltage)
.. ,
.
.
(circulating currents)
. 35
2300V.
,
.
.
, , .
5kV
.
40 m .
.
.
138
,
[5].
.. , , .
, , , ,
, .
. ,
,
, , .
3.
, (touch voltage).
, ( ). ,
(.) ,
(step voltage). .
4. .
, [6].
5. ) [7]. )
[8]. )
. ,
.
( ).
, .
139
6. [9].
7.
() [6].
.
(
) [7].
1.3
1.2.1
transducers- AgCl,
(pressure switches), buffers, ,
, , ,
, 10 LED segment drivers, 10-segment-bar LED graphs
RF FM.
transducers (AgCl electrodes),
.
.
,
(
, ).
(buffer), .
, .
, , low-pass
high-pass . ac ,
50 Hz. ,
, (G)
.
140
. . To
.
3 V. LM3914 LED (segment drivers) 10
LED (10 segment bar Led).
. 2x9V .
8.
1.2.2
5 ,
10 .
. , 50 .
, ()
(45 5 ) 5 .
4 ( ). :
(
)
. 16 (32%)
. (88%)
(96%).
.
. .
, ,
, .
.
,
,
141
[10].
[11].
1.
. , , ,
.
.
.
gCl, ,
. .
80 x 150 x 10 mm 2,211 kg 80 x
149 x 10 mm 2,324 kg .
. , 49 x 79 x 8 mm 0,732 kg
48 x 79 x 8 mm 0,679 kg
.
. 220 V
, 50 z ( ).
.
1 m , .
, .
.
Mastech, MS2302 digital earth-resistance meter.
Mastech, MS8268 Digital AC/DC Auto/Manual Range
multimeter.
:
) .
200 C 1 .
:
Pwater = (G
wet
-G
dry
)x 100/ G
wet
Pwater , G
G
dry
wet
)
.
)
( ),
. )
142
.
,
, .
. .
,
(Fluke 1625 Geo Earth Ground
Testers). , .
.
2.
,
,
10 20 cm ( 9 9).
98,2 V ( 9).
80 cm, 10 cm
220V 297,33
28,68%. 220 V,
.
2 3
,
. 50 V
75 V.
()
()
9. , ,
,
10 cm 20 cm .
143
( 9 9)
. ,
, , .
()
()
10. , (
) ,
34,54%.
,
10 10. 9, 9 10 10,
.
, . ,
LED
. , ,
.
. .
11.
.
144
,
.
22,4% ( 11).
12.
10, 20 cm .
12,
, 10 20 cm .
22,14%.
, .
2
2.1
2.1.1
.
.
( ).
, ,
. ,
.
n, .
.
.
/.
,
.
145
, ( )
.
[12].
test before touch
[13].
, .
.
(.. ) .
.
. 1/5
,
1999, 2001 2003
[14].
, .
.
(standards) ,
.
.
.
1.
. ,
.
, ,
.
, .
,
[15].
,
.
,
,
146
. ,
.
.
,
.
,
.
.
, ,
. ,
. ,
. ,
,
.
2.
) 58
. ,
. pillars (
) .
pillar
pillar.
. .
, .
.
.
) .
.
. .
.
20kV .
.
.
.
42 48 .
( ).
147
3.
.
.
,
. ,
.
.
.
,
.
1.
1.
. , .
.
.
,
.
.
,
, .
.
.
,
.
.
/
. ,
.
148
,
.
.
.
.
,
, .
9 - 12 V
, .
,
. (40 kHz)
(40 kHz).
,
( Doppler).
. ,
alarm. 10 80 cm 0.01
0.5 m ( ).
250 500 Hz 46 kHz
40 kHz. ,
0.1 1.0 MHz
.
.
13. .
149
2.
, 5 ,
10 1 .
5
. 50 .
45 5 , ,
5 . :
1) ,
2)
3) ,
4) ,
5) .
2 3
3 , , , ( ) 1
4 (, , , ) 5
.
58%
32% 20%
.
.
(21 30 ).
(96%).
.
/
.
.
.
.
150
3
3.1
3.1.1
,
.
, , .
. ,
.
. ,
. ,
. ,
. ,
.
,
.
. , .
, , ., .
, ,
.
.
(.. , )
(
).
.
, . ,
(, ,
) .
NaCl, .
.
.
151
,
.
, . ,
, , , , , -, ,
, , ,
. -
,
[16].
1.
... 1984-1986
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) - - Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA) - 102
110 V 33
220 V .
102 , 51 , 13
, 13 25 .
.
58 ,
(23) (13)
[15].
OSHA, ,
[17] .
2.
. ,
.
.
() .
,
,
[18].
.
.
152
()
()
14. ) , )
[19].
, . ,
( )
[16].
,
( common neutral multi wire branch Edison
circuits) :
) 15, , ,
. 1 120 V,
200V. 2 40 V. ,
.
[20].
) , ,
, 15. (
)
[16].
15.
. ,
[16].
153
3.2
3.2.1
.
, .
, ,
. , ,
. ,
:
( ).
3.2.1.1
.
..., ,
7 20 cm. T r.m.s.
[5, . 10].
50 60 Hz.
[21]:
. ,
.
,
, Q ,
:
Q = 3 o r2 E
(9)
o: , r : , :
(r.m.s. ). ,
, (2f).
= 3 o r2 E
(10)
154
, (box type),
. (9 10)
:
Q=kE
(11)
I=k
(12)
k
. ,
.
.
RF,
.
3.2.1.3 (ground reference meters).
,
. .
. .
o . Q
:
Q = S
(13)
S . ,
:
= S o
(14)
, ,
.
155
IEC 60833
[21, . 41],
17. , 2
.
Ecma 172
[22, . 3]
, 18.
Cu , (), 300 mm.
50 mm 52 mm. ,
100 mm.
.
. H
.
(
) . V ,
:
V o x E x
A
C
(15)
C
. o
(dc) .
, ,
, r.m.s.
5 z - 2 kHz 2 kHz - 400 kHz.
50/60 z.
156
3.2.1.4
,
, :
rms .
( )
( ).
, rms 3
, .
Hall (Hall effect),
dc Hertz.
, .
,
Std 644-1994
[23].
,
.
.
.
,
0,01 m2.
. 110 mm
116 mm. (
).
, 12 kHz,
5 z 2 kHz 2,5 z 2
-400 kHz.
.
.
[25],
[24].
30 .
Faraday.
(16)
Strokes :
(17)
157
, .
19.
V
, . :
(18)
(19)
,
. (19)
.
. V Bo
(
). ,
.
(20)
19.
() [10, . 14].
,
, ,
,
, , ,
, ac
( crosstalk), ..
(
)
[26].
158
3.2.2
)
3 350 .
90 ( 20).
20.
.
d/dt
d/dt .
x , , ,
(=) (=410 7
henries / meter).
. 1 mGuass.
low pass . H
() ,
20 LED.
0,5 Guass (dc) .
,
, .
dc .
25-30% .
4 - 5 z.
(TL084), (display
driver) (LM3914) 3
x, y, z,
.
: L084
. 350
. ,
x, y, z.
159
(
). ,
. ,
. , .
100%, 10%, 1% (
). .
50 Hz 60 Hz
C3, 0,0033 mF IC1a, IC1b
.
IC1b R7 C3
+40 dB 60 Hz.
10 100 kHz.
) .
To FET
20 led.
.
IEC Std 60833 Ecma 172 ,
.
IC1c .
(5 cm) .
(1000 V/m) ,
. R12, D1, D2
IC1c. R9, R10, R11, . C9,
7000 Hz .
100 kHz
.
)
. 2
(segment drivers) 10 LED (10 segment bar Led).
C1d, (gain) 34 dB R14,
. IC1d C5, R13.
R16, R15 R14
(pot). o IC1d /
(doubler/rectifier) C6, D5, D6, C7.
160
21. .
161
R1
91 K
C1,
R2
9.1 K
C2, C4
1 K
C3
0.0027 mF Mylar
1 M
C5
10 K
C6,
C7,
1 mF 50V
C8
R7, R16
10 M
C9
220 pF npo
R9, R15
100 K
C10
10 F 16V
100 K
R11, R18
22 K
R19
330 K
S1 S4
2P 3T
S5
(slide switch)
DPDT Toggle
)
R22
1.2 K
R24
33
J1
D1 D6
1N914B
L1 L3
350
4 in #22
IC1
TL084N
LED 1-LED20
LEDs
IC2, IC3
LM3914N
3.3
.
.
:
1) Multi-Detector II Profi, Wetekom [16],
2) soeks Impulse electromagnetic field (EMF)
meter,
3) ,
4) ,
5) (1400W,
900Rpm/min, 220V, 50 Hz),
6) 21.
1m .
,
, .
162
x -
, y z . ,
x y
.
, ,
[27].
.
Soeks 2 s. o
.
.
,
.
( LEDs
).
.
22.
.
Soek
. (
).
, ,
. 23,
.
163
23.
.
10%
( ).
, ,
, ,
.
, .
.
.
.
6 feet
, .
0,1 .
, &
soeks emf meter, .
. ,
multi-detector II
.
1 m .
. x
,
x , y
z
[27].
). (
).
164
3
[1] IEEE Std 80-2000, Guide for Safety in ac grounding.
[2] , , ,
, , , 2011, .
[3] IEC/TS 60479-5 Std, Effects of current on human beings and livestock. Part 5: Touch voltage
threshold values for physiological effects.
[4] Dina A., Zaharescu, V., Guzun, B., et al. Maximum permissible touch and step voltage assessment
in high voltage systems (>1 kV), U.P.B. Scientific Bulletin, Series C, Vol. 74, Iss.3, 2012. Available online
at http://www.scientificbulletin.upb.ro/rev_docs_arhiva/rezac7_475479.pdf
[5] Electrical Safety, the Arc Flash hazard and A preview of the Coming Revision of NFPA 70 E
2000, Paul S. Hamer, P.E. Chevron Texaco Energy Research & Technology Company, May 15, 2003
http://ewh.ieee.org/r6/oeb/IASelecSafety.pdf
on,
Dec
1983,
Volume
El
18,
Issue
:6,
pages
605-
618,
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=4081167
[9] Avoidance of electrical hazards when digging, June 2005, ESB Networks, Document reference :
DOC-190505-AJV
http://www.esb.ie/esbnetworks/downloads/esb_networks_avoidances_of_electrical_hazards_when_digg
ing.pdf
[10] Selection and use of work practices, OSHA Regulations Standards 29 CFR 1910.333(a)(1):
https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=9910
[11] J. Takala J, Global estimates of fatal occupational accidents NCBI [Online], Epidemiology, vol. 10,
no. 5, pp. 640-646, 1999, Sept. : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10468444
[12] . 3850/2010
[13] Test before touch, IEEE Industry application magazine MAR/APR 2002,
http://standards.ieee.org/esrc/ESMARAPR02.pdf
165
[14] P. M. Smith, A. M. Cameron, How many employees receive safety training during their first year of
a new job? [Online], Inj Prev, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 37-41, doi:10.1136/ip.2006.013839.:
http://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/13/1/37.abstract
[15] T. Tulonen, Electrical accident risks in electrical work [Online], M.S. thesis, Tampere Univ. of
Technology, Finland, 2010.:
http://tukes.fi/Tiedostot/julkaisut/Electrical_Accident_Risks_in_Electrical_Work.pdf
[16] McGraw-Hill's National Electrical Code 2008 Handbook
http://books.google.gr/books?id=ZlsHKuq4eBoC&pg=PA568&lpg=PA568&dq=%22open+neutral
%22+hazards+patents&source=bl&ots=aZlF6eWyWu&sig=bYr3h_7f1hY7PLURR4iaRxt0hrg&hl=el&ei=kunZSpq9FpaKm
wOT4sncDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBYQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=
%22open%20neutral%22%20hazards%20-patents&f=false
[17] Myers JR, Trent RB. Hand tool injuries at work: a surveillance perspective, J Safety Res 19
(1988):165176.
[18] Potential Hazards with Neutral Contactors, Fluor Hanford
http://www.efcog.org/wg/esh_es/Electrical_Safety_Training/Neutral%20Hazards.ppt
[19] Bernstein T, Electric Shock Hazards and Safety Standards, IEEE Transactions on Education, Vol. 34,
No. 3, 1991.
[20]
Course
summary
electrical
panel
inspection
course
summary
http://www.inspect-
ny.com/electric/ElecPanelInsp.htm
[21] IEC 60833 Measurement of power frequency electric fields.
[22] Standard Ecma 172 Procedure for measurement of emissions of electric and magnetic fields from
VDUs from 5 Hz to 400 kHz.
[23] IEEE Std 644-1994, IEEE Standard procedures for measurement of power frequency electric and
magnetic fields from ac power lines. http://catedracoitt.euitt.upm.es/web_salud_medioamb/normativas/ieee/644-1994.pdf
[24] IEEE Std 1140-1994, IEEE Standard procedures for the measurement of electric and magnetic
fields from Video display terminals (VDTs) from 5 Hz to 400 kHz.
[25] A. V. Mamishev, B.D. Russel, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.10, No.3, July 1995,
Measurement of Magnetic Fields in the Direct Proximity of Power Line Conductors.
[26] 1308-1994, Magnetic flux density and electric field strength meters 10 Hz to 3 kHz.
http://manganow.org/standards/ieee/ieee-1308-1994.pdf
166
[27] NIOSH Manual for measuring occupational electric and magnetic field exposures, U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers of Disease Control and Prevention,
National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/98-154.pdf
167
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