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m1 = m2
V2
2g
= density of fluid
u = internal energy in the fluid
q = change in heat energy of the fluid
ws = shaft work done by the fluid
For virtually all flow applications, this equation can be simplified. The first simplification is to state that there is no
heat transfer in the control volume, so the factor q is 0.0.
The next simplification is that there is no shaft work, so
ws is 0.0.
A1V1/v1 = A2V2/v2
To help make this point, imagine the flow of water through
a pipe. For this example, we will assume that the liquid is
incompressible, that is its volume (v) is constant. This is a
legitimate assumption because liquids are virtually incompressible at normally encountered pressures and temperatures. If v is constant, the continuity equation simplifies
to:
A1V1 = A2V2
If the liquid flows through an orifice, the area of the pipe
will be reduced in the orifice and the velocity will increase
as the fluid passes through the orifice.
The Bernoulli equation relates the increase in velocity to a
change in static pressure. In more general terms, Bernoulli's
equation relates the energy at one point in the control volume to the energy in a second point in the control volume.
Bernoulli's equation written on a per unit weight basis can
be represented as:
V12 + Lz1 + P1 + u1 =
2g
2g
2g
If we substitute V1 from the continuity equation, we can
rewrite Bernoulli's equation as:
V22 [1-(A2 /A1)2] = 1(P1 - P2)
2g
or
V22 =
V22 + Lz2 + P2 + u2 + q + ws
[2g(P1 - P2)]
2
2g
= kinematic energy
Reference - Flowmeters
where
[1 - (A2 /A1) ]
These are the basic orifice equations. Since it is common
to use these measure volumetric flow or mass flow, the
square root is usually taken on both sides of the equation
to solve for V2.
Differential
Pressure
Differential Pressure
Transmitter
Transmitter
()1/2V2 =
Impulse
Lines
Impulse Lines
Orifice Flange with
Orifice Flange
Flange
Taps
[2g(P1 - P2)]1/2
[1 - (A2 /A1)2]1/2
Flow
Flow
Orifice
Plate
Orifice P;ate
305
Q = A2V2 =
[2g(P1 - P2)]1/2
A2
[1 - (A2 /A1)2]1/2
()1/2
Also, since the mass flow rate W, is equal to the volumetric flowrate times the density, W can be expressed as:
W = Q =
A2
[1 - (A2 /A1)2]1/2
Reference - Flowmeters
The term 1/[1 - (A2 /A1)2]1/2 is called the Velocity of Approach factor. Contained within this term is the Beta Ratio. The Beta Ratio is the ration of the area of the orifice to
the area of the pipe, A2A1. The Beta Ratio is typically depicted by the Greek letter .
The velocity of approach factor can sometimes be combined with other coefficients. These equations are the theoretical flow equations and are based on the fluid area at
the downstream pressure tap. The area of the fluid is not
precisely known, and therefore, the bore of the orifice is
used for the area. This introduces an error into the calculation. To correct for this error, a flow coefficient is used
to produce what is referred to as the working model of the
equation.
To obtain Q actual, we multiply Q theoretical by C, which
is the discharge coefficient. By doing this, the equation
becomes:
Qact =
CA2
[2g(P1 - P2)]1/2
[1 - (A2 /A1)2]1/2
()1/2
1.7
1.6
1.5
Ratio ofRatio
Specific
Heats
of Specific Heats
K K
Air, N2 , O , CO
2
1.4
H
2
SAT. STEAM
1.3
CO
1.2
METHANE
1.1
ETHANE
BUTANE
1.0
0
100
200
300
400
500
Temperature
F
Temperature F
0
FIGURE 3
It is necessary to use the expansion factor when the density of a gas is substantially less downstream than it is upstream of the orifice. The expansion factor is determined
by the ratio of the differential pressure across the orifice
over the ratio of specific heats times the upstream static
pressure. Figures 3 and 4 show the ratio of specific heats
for selected gases and their expansion factors.
Because the expansion factor is affected by the differential
pressure across the orifice plate, it will vary throughout the
operating range of the meter. To minimize the effect of the
variation in Y, it is best to keep the maximum differential
pressure less than 2% of the upstream static pressure, P1.
306
1.00
0.98
B = 0.5
0.96
B = 0.1
B = 0.7
0.94
B = 0.6
0.92
0.90
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
kp
value other than 1.0 is used for the expansion factor, it can
be combined with K' to produce a new coefficient K', which
is equal to YK'.
K' = KA2[2g]1/2
This form is commonly encountered when metering a liquid. If the liquid has a constant density, then the density
can be combined with K' and the flowrate is only dependent on the differential pressure produced across the orifice.
For gases and steam, density is usually calculated at the
operating conditions and will be used to calculate flowrate.
In many applications, the expansion factor will be assumed
to be unity, so it will have no effect on the equation. If a
The most common type of plate is the square-edged concentric bore orifice plate. As its name implies, this plate
has the opening centered on the plate. This is the plate
with the most readily available flow coefficients and is suitable for the majority of applications.
Reference - Flowmeters
ACOUSTIC RATIO
The eccentric bore plate also has a circular hole in it. For
this type of plate, the hole is located near the top for liquids near the bottom of the pipe for gases. The purpose for
the eccentric bore is to allow entrained gas to pass through
Weep Hole
Pipe ID
Pipe ID
Pipe ID
Concentric Orifice
Eccentric Orifice
FIGURE 5
Segmental Orifice
307
DRAWDOWN
NAPPE
AERATION
UNDER NAPPE
Reference - Flowmeters
L
CREST
PROCESS
CONNECTION
BLOCKS (2)
FURNISHED
WITH
TRANSMITTER
PRESSURE
SEALS (2)
PRY
SLOT
FLOW ARROW
HOLDER
PRESSURE
SEALS (2)
FIGURE 8
INTEGRAL
ORIFICE OR
CAPILLARY
PUSHES
INTO
HOLDER
MANIFOLD
Rectangular Weir
I
4
CREST
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 9
WEIRS
Weirs are apertures in the top of a dam across a channel
through which flows the liquid to be measured (Figure 7).
The aperture may be rectangular (Figure 8), trapazoidal
(Figure 9), or a V-notch (Figure 10). The special case of a
trapazoidal weir with wide slopes of 1:4 (Figure 9) is known
as a Cippoletti weir, this form leads to a simplified flow
equation. V-notch weirs have an angle of 30 to 90, depending on the required flow capacity.
As shown in Figure 7, the head, H, is measured as the difference in the level of the pool at an adequate distance
upstream from the weir compared to the horizontal crest
of the rectangular or trapazoidal weir or the bottom of the
V in the V-notch weir. The head is usually between 1" and
12".
308
FIGURE 7
NO CREST
WATER
SURFACE
SUBMERGED
OPERATION
Q = 1511.21*L*H1.5
V-notch weir
NORMAL OPERATION
LEVEL
FLOOR
Q = 1113.1*tan( /2)*H2.5
Q in GPM; L & H in Ft.
O
CONVERGING
SECTION
THROAT
SECTION
DIVERGING
SECTION
Reference - Flowmeters
For L=0.25 ft
Q= 1781.86* L*H1.547
For L=0.5 ft
Q= 1849.18*L*H1.58
For L=0.75 ft
Q= 1840.21*L*H1.53
For L=1 to 8 ft
Q= 1795.32*L*H^(1.522*(L).026 )
Q in GPM; L & H in Ft
309
Throat Size
3"
6"
9"
12"
24"
Min Flow
13.5 Gpm
22.4 Gpm
40.4 Gpm
157 Gpm
296.2 Gpm
Min Head
1.25" H2O
1.14" H2O
1.19" H2O
2.42" H2O
2.26" H2O
Max Flow
494 Gpm
1750 Gpm
3950 Gpm
7225 Gpm
14855 Gpm
Max Head
12.83" H2O
17.97" H2O
23.86" H2O
29.96" H2O
31.03" H2O
As you can see, the above equations are beyond the capability of most pressure transmitter. However, if the transmitter had a characterized output function, one could solve
for the head generated over the flow range of interest by
using the formulas above. The XTC can measure the level
and the equations would be solved in a secondary device,
such as a controller.
Pipe Tabs
Flange Tabs
Reference - Flowmeters
PRESSURE TAPS
Pressure taps are located upstream and downstream of the
orifice plate. They provide the measuring points for the
differential pressure transmitter. Common types of taps include corner taps, flange taps, full flow (or pipe) taps, radius tapes, and contracta taps.
Corner taps are located within the orifice flanges and sense
the pressure on the upstream and downstream faces of the
orifice plate.
Flange taps are also located in the orifice plates and sense
the pressure 1 inch upstream and 1 inch downstream of
the orifice plate. Both corner and flange taps have the benefit of being integral to the flanges. As such, they don't
neccessitate any additional penetrations to the pipe.
Full flow taps are located 2.5 diameters upstream of the
orifice plate and 8 diameters downstream of the orifice
plate.
Tap Type
Upstream
Downstream
Application
Flange
1"
1"
Vena Cont
1D
Vena Cont.
Steam Application
Full Flow
2 1/2 D
8D
Radius
1D
0.5 D
Similar to Vena
Contracta
Corner
0D
0D
Radius taps are located 1 diameter upstream and 0.5 diameters downstream of the orifice plate.
PITOT TUBES
The pitot tube was invented in 1732 to measure the flowing velocities of fluids. Pitot tubes detect the flowing velocity either at one point (standard), at several inlet points
into an averaging probe (mutliple-ported), or at many points
across the cross section of a pipe or duct (area averaging).
Their advantages are low cost, low permanent head loss
and the ability to insert the probe-type sensors (wet or hot
tapped) into existing or operating pipes. Their disadvantages are low accuracy, low rangeability, and limitation to
clean gas or liquid service, unless purged.
The discharge coefficient is dependent on the type of orifice and the tap location.
When dealing with flowmeters, this constant is most often
referred to as the K factor. The K factor is typically given
in units of pulses/gallons. The constancy of the K factor is
what determines the accuracy of the flowmeter.
310
TOTAL
PRESSURE
FIGURE 14
Reference - Flowmeters
STATIC
PRESSURE
FIGURE 15
311
Reference - Flowmeters
h = Differential pressure
= Density of fluid
ANNULAR CHAMBERS
FIGURE 16
312
flowing fluid is known at the point of pressure measurement. The design of these original annular chambers limited the use of the venturi to clean, noncorrosive liquids or
gases because it is impossible to clean out or flush out the
pressure taps if they become clogged with dirt or debris.
The flow coefficient of the original venturi was 0.984 with
an uncertainty of 0.75% of rate.
THROAT
INLET
INLET
CONE
OUTLET
CONE
DALL TUBE
FIGURE 18
REYNOLDS NUMBER
The Reynolds number (Rd) is the ratio of the inertia forces
of a flowing medium to the shear or frictional forces, and
is used to describe the operating range of many flowmeters.
It may be calculated using the following formulas:
For liquid flow:
Rd = 50.6*Qp/D*
Rd =3157*Q/D
Q = GPM
= density in lb/ft3
10
70
30
ASME FLOW
NOZZLE
60
40
50
50
60
40
30
20 LONG FORM
VENTURI
70
STANDARD
VENTURI
80
10
= Viscosity in centipoise
For gas flow:
Rd = 6.32*Q*p/D*
Q = flow rate in scfh, (std cu. ft. per hr)
= Viscosity in centipoise
90
LOW LOSS
VENTURI
0.1
20
ORIFICE PLATE
RECOVERY-PERCENT OF DIFFERENTIAL
80
Reference - Flowmeters
= 345*(73/100)1/2
0.2
0.3
0.9
FIGURE 19
313
OSCILLATORY FLOWMETERS
COANDA FLOWMETERS
Oscillatory Flowmeters utilize specially designed geometric shapes to create an environment where self induced,
sustained oscillations will occur. Oscillating flowmeters
are inherently digital devices, that is, the basic measurement they read is a frequency. In a properly executed flowmeter, the frequency of its oscillations is proportional to
volumetric flowrate. There are several categories of oscillatory flowmeters, each with a unique shape.
Coanda flowmeters are based on a phenomenon first observed in 1910 by Henri Coanda. Later in 1932, Coanda
did further research and quantitized the phenomenon.
Coanda discovered that as a free jet emerges from a nozzle
or a conduit, it will tend to follow a nearby surface and
will, in fact, attach to it.
Reference - Flowmeters
K FACTOR
It has been found that the K factor of oscillatory meters
vary with Reynolds number. Because of this, it is convenient to plot the K factor versus the Reynolds number. If
the meter were perfect, it would have a constant K factor
at the Reynolds numbers, but this is not the case. All oscillatory meters exhibit a K factor curve that look similar to
Figure 20.
How well the actual meter performs is a function of the
design of the meter as well as the influence of the fluid
flowing through it. There is a region on the curve where
the K factor is essentially constant. This is the normal operating region for oscillating flowmeters. In this region,
the accuracy is good enough to be stated as a percent of
instantaneous flowrate.
110
108
PUL/GAL
106
104
102
100
98
96
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
GPM/CKS
FIGURE 20
314
The fluid oscillations are developed by the fluidic phenomenon of Momentum Exchange (MX). The geometric
shape of the meter body creates a main flow of fluid, which
passes through the nozzle, and is directed toward one side
of the meter body or the other. The force of the jet of fluid
will create a flow pulse in a feedback passage. This flow
pulse will travel through the feedback passage and exert a
force on the main jet. The momentum of the feedback fluid
will deflect the main flow in such a manner that it will
exert a force on the fluid in the other feedback passage,
while the feedback action is repeated and results in a sustained oscillation. The sensor located in the feedback pas-
sage detects the fluid pulses, and the sensor signal is conditioned by a signal conditioner. Figure 22 shows the crosssection of a momentum exchange flowmeter.
Sensor
Main Flow
Side Wall
Control Port
Main Flow
Feedback Flow
Main Flow
Sensor
Nozzle
Reference - Flowmeters
Feedback Passage
Feedback
Passage
Main Flow
Feedback Pulse
315
MAGNETIC FLOWMETER
Magnetic flowmeters are one of the most versatile
flowmeters available today. They can measure the flowrate
of any conductive liquid and provide no obstructions to
the flow path. Magnetic flowmeters are available in a wide
variety of materials that are corrosion resistant. Their corrosion resistance and obstructionless path make them ideal
solutions for harsh liquids containing solids, such as pulps
and slurries.
Reference - Flowmeters
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Magnetic flowmeters are based on Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction. Faradays law states that when a
conductor is moved through a magnetic field, a voltage
will be produced that is proportional to the velocity of the
conductor, the length of the conductor, and the strength of
the magnetic field. Moreover, this voltage will be produced
in a plane that is perpendicular to both the velocity vector
and the magnetic field.
Faradays law can be applied to a flowmeter. When used
in a magnetic flowmeter, the velocity of the conductor (V)
is the velocity of the fluid flowing through the flowtube.
The length of the conductor (D) is the distance between
the electrodes, (B) is the strength of the magnetic field
generated by the coils, and (E) is the voltage produced
between the electrodes. Figure 23 shows a schematic diagram of a magnetic flowmeter. Faradays law, as it is applied to a magnetic flowmeter, reduces to:
E = k1BDV
where
Q is volumetric flowrate
V is the velocity of the fluid
A is the area of the flowtube
316
MAGNETIC FLOWMETER
CONSTRUCTION
There are two basic components to a magnetic flowmeter;
the primary and the secondary. The primary is the actual
flowtube, which includes the pipe section with the coils
and the electrodes. This is the portion of the meter subjected to the process conditions. The secondary is the transmitter. The transmitter can be integrally mounted on the
primary or it can be remotely mounted away from the primary and the process.
FLOWTUBE
As mentioned before, the flowtube is the part of the magnetic flowmeter that is actually installed in the pipe. It contains the coils and the electrodes and its main function is
to produce the voltage that is proportional to flowrate. Current is passed through the coils to produce the magnetic
field. The flowtube must be made of nonconductive materials so as not to distort the magnetic fields.
The liner and electrode portions of the flowtube come into
direct contact with the process fluid. Figure 24 shows the
cross-section of a flowtube. Liners and electrodes are available in a variety of materials. The materials should be selected based on the application to provide the proper
protection. Liners are usually selected based on the corrosion resistance, temperature, and pressure limits.
TRANSMITTER
Signal conditioning, data processing, and transmission are
the principle operations of the transmitter. The transmitter
provides the current to drive the coils in the flowtube and
reads the voltage across the electrodes, then processes the
TERMINATION BOX
COILS
LINER
HOUSING
ELECTRODES
Cross-Section of Flowtube
Reference - Flowmeters
FIGURE 24
317
OPERATION OF DC MAGNETIC
FLOWMETERS
GROUNDING RINGS
Reference - Flowmeters
APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
While magnetic flowmeters are one of the easiest
flowmeters to use, there are still application considerations
that must be considered.
AC or DC TYPE FLOWMETER
GROUNDING
Accurate flow measurement depends on proper grounding of the flowtube. With magnetic flowmeters, the fluid
being measured acts as the electrical conductor. Consequently, the ground connection must ensure that measurements are not affected by any additional potential. The
grounding conductor used must not transmit any interference voltages. The grounding wires supplied must be
conductively connected to the primary head, the pipe
flanges, and if applicable, the grounding rings.
Coil Current
Electrode Signal
FIGURE 26
318
CONDUCTIVITY
For magnetic flowmeters to work accurately, it is important
that the fluid being measured has a minimum conductivity.
Conductivity is inversely proportional to resistance, so a high
conductivity is equivalent to a low resistance. Conductivity
is typically expressed in microMHOS (umhos) or microsiemen (S). There is a 1 to 1 relationship between umhos
and S.
CORROSION
TABLE 2
FIGURE 27
LINER
Corrosion
Resistance
Abrasion
Resistance
Temp.
Limit
Pressure
Limit
Vacuum
Limit
Al2O3
Highest
Highest
High
Low
Highest
PTFE
High
Low
Highest
Low
High
PFA
High
Medium
Highest
Low
Highest
Neoprene
Medium
Medium
Low
Medium
Lowest
H. Rubber
Low
Medium
Medium
High
Medium
Polyureth.
Lowest
High
Low
High
Low
Reference - Flowmeters
The choice of liner material is dependent upon several application related parameters. The most important parameters include corrosion resistance, abrasion resistance,
maximum temperature, maximum pressure, and maximum
vacuum. Table 2 shows the comparative performance of
different liner materials.
319