Carbohydrates: Structure and Metabolism

Structure of simple carbohydrates

Structure of complex carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates as energy stores and structural molecules
Metabolism of carbohydrates: Anabolic and Catabolic pathways
Anabolic pathways: Glycogenesis, Gluconeogenesis
Catabolic pathways: Glycolysis, TCA cycle

Functions of Carbohydrates

Source of energy: glucose, fructose, starch, dextrin, glycogen, trehalose

Structural elements: cellulose, hemicellulose, chondroitin sulphate, hyaluronic acid
Recognition molecules: glycoproteins, glycolipids

Simple Sugars or Monosaccharides

CnH2nOn
Glucose, Fructose, Galactose and Mannose

Condensation of Monosaccharides into Disaccharides

Disaccharides

Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose

Lactose: Glucose + Galactose
Maltose: Glucose + Glucose

Storage Polysaccharides: Starch and Glycogen

Synthesis of Polysaccharides

Modified Monosaccharides

2- Deoxyribose

Storage and Structural Polysaccharides

Starch plant polysaccharide
Dextrins present in honey, toasted bread and plant leaves
Cellulose plant and fungal cell walls
Pectins plant cell walls
Glycogen animal tissues, mainly liver and muscles
Hyaluronic acid connective tissues, synovial fluid
Heparin anticoagulant
Chondoritin sulfate cartilage
Keratan sulfate skin, cornea of eye
Chitin insect wings and exoskeleton, crab shells

Metabolic Pathways in
Cells

The Three Stages

of Glycolysis

Stage 1 of Glycolysis: Energy Investment

Stage 2 of Glycolysis: Cleavage of 6-C Sugar to Produce

2 3-C Sugars

Stage 3 of Glycolysis: Energy Generation

Transfer of P group

Energetics of Phosphate Bonds

Fate of Pyruvate: Aerobic oxidation to Form CO2 and Energy

Pyruvate

Citric Acid
Cycle

CO2

Anaerobic Oxidation: Formation of Lactate

Anaerobic Oxidation: Formation of Alcohol

Energetics of Glycolysis

Reaction

Enzyme

~P formed (mol)
Anaerobic

Aerobic

1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate 3-Phosphoglycerate

Phosphoglycerate kinase

Phosphoenol pyruvate - enolpyruvate

Pyruvate kinase

NADH - NAD+

Mitochondrial electron transport chain

Total

6
4

10

Less moles of ~P spent for hexokinase and PFK reactions

Net gain per mole of glucose

The Citric Acid Cycle