Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Well Control Manual
Well Control Manual
Introduction and
How to Use
Volume 1
Procedures and Guidelines
Volume 2
Fundamentals of Well Control
BP EXPLORATION
1995 British Petroleum Company PLC
Text originated by BP Drilling Department
Manual produced by ODL Publications, Aberdeen, Tel (01224) 637171
WELCOME
Click here to zoom in on text, then click on text to scroll through
Issue the manual in an electronic version as a pilot which may lead to collecting
all of the manuals on a server or CD-ROM.
2)
Make available Excel based well control worksheets which have been
incorporated into the manual.
3)
Modify parts of Volume I Chapters 1 and 6 for high angle and horizontal well
operations.
In a separate file we have issued the HTHP Well Control Manual. Future updates
will tie this manual with the BP Well Control Manual.
Publication of the manual in electronic format should make the abundance of
information in it more accessible to you. A powerful search capability and hot button
references are part of the software package we have selected. Software used is
compatible with Macintosh, MS-DOS and DEC hardware platforms making it accessible
to BP and our contractors when needed. Electronic publishing makes modifications
easier and we solicit your suggestions for correction, clarification, change or addition
to the manual. If we have not managed to make the resource more useful and clear
to you we have failed our objective. Your views on how well we have done are
important.
To open and use the manual please read the section below. While use of the electronic
version of the manual is encouraged there is still the option of printing a hard copy
of the manual. Hard copies can still be obtained from ODL in Aberdeen at a cost for
printing and shipping.
Originally this manual was not issued as policy. In the October 1994 Drilling Managers
Meeting this and two other documents, the Drilling Policy Manual and Casing
Design Manual, were designated as the three core policy documents covering our
operations. Every effort has been made in this edition to tie to the other two documents.
March 1995
HOW TO USE
This manual has been converted into Adobe Acrobat software and is a read only version,
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Press the mouse button on the section you require to read, and you will be zoomed into the
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Excel Worksheets
Each example of a Worksheet in the manual is linked to a blank Excel Template for you to
use for your own calculations, just click on the example Worksheet and Excel will
automatically open. To return to the manual, simply Quit out of Excel.
Printing
When printing to a US Letter size printer please click on the Shrink to Fit box in the Print
dialogue box. Printing of Excel Worksheets is through Excel.
Manual
Contents
March 1995
Volume 1 Contents
Nomenclature
Abbreviations
1 PREPARATION
Section
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Page
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
MANPOWER ORGANISATION
DRILLS AND SLOW CIRCULATING RATES
USE OF THE MUD SYSTEM
KICK TOLERANCE
1-1
1-9
1-15
1-27
1-35
2-1
2-9
2-17
GENERAL
DRILLING BREAK
INCREASED RETURNS FLOWRATE
PIT GAIN
HOLE NOT TAKING CORRECT VOLUME DURING
A TRIP
6 CHANGE IN PROPERTIES OF RETURNED MUD
7 INCREASE IN HOOKLOAD
8 CHANGE IN PUMP SPEED OR PRESSURE
3-2
3-2
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-6
3-6
March 1995
Page
SHALLOW GAS PROCEDURE
SHUT-IN PROCEDURE
DURING SHUT-IN PERIOD
4-1
4-9
4-17
GENERAL
PIPE ON BOTTOM
PIPE OFF BOTTOM (Drillpipe in the Stack)
PIPE OFF BOTTOM (Drillcollar in the Stack)
NO PIPE IN THE HOLE
WHILE RUNNING CASING OR LINER
UNDERGROUND BLOWOUT
5-2
5-2
5-2
5-5
5-5
5-7
5-9
6.2
6.3
March 1995
STANDARD TECHNIQUES
Drillers Method
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
1. Volumetric Method
2. Stripping
3. Bullheading
4. Snubbing
5. Baryte Plugs
6. Emergency Procedure
COMPLICATIONS
6-1
6-2
6-3
6-31
6-33
6-47
6-67
6-75
6-84
6-93
6-97
NOMENCLATURE
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
UNIT
A
a
An
b
c
C
Cp
Ca
CL
CR
D
Dshoe
Dwp
dbit
dh
dhc
do
di
dcut
dc
F
Fsh
FPG
g
G
Gi
H
Hi
Hp
ITT
K
L
MR
M
m
MW
Influx gradient
Height
Height of influx
Height of plug
Interval Transit Time
Bulk modulus of elasticity
Length
Rotary exponent
Migration rate
Matrix stress
Threshold bit weight
Mud weight
in.2
in.2
bbl/m
bbl/m
%
m
m
m
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
lb
SG
psi/ft
psi/m
SG
psi/ft
m
m
m
sec/m
m
m/hr
psi
lb
SG
March 1995
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
UNIT
N
OPG
P
Rotary speed
Overburden Pressure Gradient
Pressure
P
Pa
Pbit
Pcl
Pdp
Pf
Pfrac
Pfc
Pi
Pic
Plo
Pmax
S
Sg
Sw
t
Adjustment pressure
Annulus pressure
Bit pressure drop
Choke line pressure loss
Drillpipe pressure
Formation pressure
Fracture pressure
Final circulating pressure
Hydrostatic pressure of influx
Initial circulating pressure
Leak off pressure
Maximum allowable pressure
at the openhole weak point
Wide open choke pressure
Pore pressure
Slow circulating rate pressure
Plastic Viscosity
Flowrate
Mud flowrate
Gas flowrate
Reynolds number
Resistivity
Resistivity of water
Rate of Penetration
Shale factor
Overburden pressure
Gas saturation
Water saturation
Time
rpm
SG
psi/SG
(The units of subsurface pressure
may be either psi or SG)
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi/SG
psi/SG
psi
psi
psi
psi/SG
TR
T
Transport Ratio
Temperature
TD
TVD
V
Total Depth
True Vertical Depth
Kick tolerance
Poc
Pp
Pscr
PV
Q
Qmud
Qgas
Re
R
Rw
ROP
March 1995
psi/SG
psi
psi/SG
psi
cP
gal/min
gal/min
gal/min
ohm-m
ohm-m
m/hr
meq/100g
psi
Fractional
Fractional
seconds
min
degrees
C, F, R
m
m
bbl
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
Volume
v
vmud
vp
vs
W
w
wb
wcut
WOB
x
YP
Z
1
t
600
UNIT
bbl
cc
ml
l
Velocity
m/min
m/s
Mud velocity
m/min
Average pipe running speed
m/min
Slip velocity
m/min
Weight
gm
kg
lb
Weight
lb/ft
lb/bbl
SG
Weight of pipe
lb/ft
Baryte required for weighting up lb/bbl
Average cuttings weight
SG
Weight on Bit
lb
Offset
()
Yield Point
lb/100ft2
Compressibility factor
Viscosity
cP
Poissonss Ratio
Density
SG
Bulk density
SG
March 1995
ABBREVIATIONS
API RP
BHA
BOP
BRT
DWT
ECD
EMW
H2S
IADC
ID
KTOL
LCM
LMRP
LO
MAASP
OBM
OD
PMS
PV
ROP
SCR
SG
SPM
YP
March 1995
1 PREPARATION
Section
Page
1-1
1-9
1-15
1-27
1-35
March 1995
Page
General
1-2
Pressure Gauges
1-2
Pump Control
1-4
Fluid Measurement
1-6
Illustrations
1.1
1-3
1.2
1-5
1.3
1-7
1-1
March 1995
1 General
It is essential that an appropriate level of control equipment is provided on every rig in order
that a well that is under pressure can be accurately monitored.
In general, during a well control incident, there is a necessity for more accurate
instrumentation than under conditions encountered during routine drilling.
The level of instrumentation on every rig therefore must be evaluated in order to assess
its s uitability for well control purposes. This evaluation should ideally be carried out
inconjunction with the pre contract rig audit and any deficiencies made good prior to
contractaward.
The purpose of this section is to highlight the important aspects of instrumentation and
control and to recommend a standard level of equipment for all rig types.
The level of instrumentation that is recommended will ensure that a suitable level of control
is afforded during unusually critical operations, and that adequate back-up is provided.
Therefore, much of this equipment would not be necessary in routine circumstances. However
equipment failure is most likely when the equipment is highly stressed. It is in these situations
that serious incidents can develop if a suitable level of back-up instrumentation and control
equipment is not to hand.
2 Pressure Gauges
When a well is under pressure it is important that accurate pressure measurements can be made.
Each rig will normally be equipped with gauges to read standpipe pressure and annulus
pressure. The gauges that are fitted to the choke panel and at the drillers console are often
the only gauges available for well control purposes.
Although the standpipe and choke manifold will generally be fitted with Cameron gauges,
these are considered to be so inaccurate as to have little application to well control.
All of these gauges will have a fullscale deflection that is at least equal to the working
pressure rating of the equipment. In all cases, this means that it will be necessary to install
gauges of lower rating in order that relatively low pressures can be accurately recorded.
This will be especially important with high pressure equipment.
It is also important that suitable pressure gauges are installed at the choke manifold in case
the well has to be controlled from this position. This will apply to land rigs which may be
equipped only with manual chokes and the majority of rigs that are equipped with both
manual and remote operated chokes.
Accurate readout of pump pressure and choke pressure is, in the majority of cases, all that is
required. However an extra pressure reading is required on a floating rig in order that the
wellhead pressure can be monitored through the kill line.
In order to be able to install additional pressure gauges it may be necessary to fabricate
manifolds and install high pressure instrument hose between the choke panel and the
standpipe/choke manifold. All this equipment must be rated to the working pressure of
theequipment.
1-2
March 1995
STANDPIPE
1
CAMERON
GAUGE
STANDPIPE
2
1/4in
NEEDLE
VALVE
TRANSDUCER
CHECK
VALVE
STANDPIPE
MANIFOLD
HYDRAULIC
FLUID INLET
CHOKE
PANEL
CAMERON
GAUGE
D
SW
K
C
AC
PUMP
OUTPUT
MONITOR
KILL
LINE
REMOTELY
OPERATED
CHOKE
CHOKE
MANIFOLD
MANUAL
CHOKES
CHOKE
LINE
BUFFER
TANK
FROM
BOP
DRAIN
OVERBOARD
LINE
D DRILL PIPE
K KILL LINE
POORBOY
DEGASSER
C CHOKE LINE
1/4in NEEDLE VALVES
FLOWLINE
WEOX02.001
1-3
March 1995
So in general:
There must be gauges available to read choke pressure, standpipe pressure and kill line
static pressure in the case of a floating rig.
The above gauges must be readable from the manifold if manual chokes are fitted to the
manifold.
It must be possible to easily install and remove low range pressure gauges at the choke
panel and at the choke manifold.
Suggested pressure recording systems for a floating rig and a fixed installation are shown in
Figures 1.1 and 1.2. The proposed systems can also be used for measuring slow circulating
rate pressures (SCRs).
The following points should be noted from the proposed systems:
A hydraulic fluid hand pump should be available to purge the lines at suitable points as
shown.
Sensitive low pressure rated gauges should be removed from the system unless required.
The piping and manifolding should be permanently installed. It would be a good idea to
fabricate a cover for the manifolding at the choke manifold and choke panel.
The gauges that are used to measure the slow circulating rate pressures should be used
to monitor well pressures in the event a kick is taken.
A stroke counter, similar to the battery operated Swaco unit, is recommended for remote
installation at the choke manifold. It should be removed when not required. A suitably
isolated terminal should be located at a convenient point at the choke manifold, in order
that the signal from the limit switches on the pumps can be transmitted to the counter.
3 Pump Control
It is desirable that the remote control of the pump used to kill a well that is under pressure is
located reasonably close to the choke operator.
In most cases the rig pumps will be used. Generally, the Driller will control these pumps
from a position that is close to the choke panel. Most choke panels contain a meter that
displays the cumulative output of the pump. Therefore, in the majority of cases, if the well
is controlled with a remote operated choke, the man on the pump will be able to co-ordinate
with the choke operator.
1-4
March 1995
TO
STANDPIPE
TO
STANDPIPE
STANDPIPE
MANIFOLD
D
C
CHOKE
PANEL
D
SW
AC
1/4in HYDRAULIC
FLUID FILLED
HIGH PRESSURE HOSE
TO PUMP/
CHOKE PANEL
FROM
BOP
CHOKE
CHOKE
PRESSURE
GAUGE
TO
DEGASSER
TO BURN PIT
REMOTELY
OPERATED
CHOKE
TO BURN PIT
TRANSDUCER
CHOKE
MANIFOLD
CAMERON
GAUGE
TO BURN PIT
TO
DEGASSER
C CHOKE LINE
D DRILL PIPE
1/4in NEEDLE VALVES
CHECK VALVE/HYDRAULIC FLUID INLET
WEOX02.002
1-5
March 1995
However, if the choke manifold contains manual chokes, the choke operator may be some
considerable distance from the man on the pump and a monitor of the pump output. In such
cases, it is recommended that a remote pump output meter is positioned at the choke manifold.
This will be especially important on land rigs which may be equipped only with manual
chokes and where often the choke manifold is located at some distance from the rig floor.
A further complication may arise if a kill pump or cement pump is used during a well control
operation. It may become necessary to use these pumps on any rig, but the use of a relatively
small displacement pump will be standard well control procedure on a floating rig that is drilling
in deep water. Therefore, on a floating rig, it is desirable that it is possible to control and monitor
the kill/cement pump from the rig floor.
4 Fluid Measurement
During stripping operations, as well as during a volumetric kill, it is important to beable to
accurately measure small volumes of fluid bled from, or pumped into thewell.
API RP 53 recommends that a trip tank or other method of accurately measuring the drilling
fluid bled off, leaked from, or pumped into a well within an accuracy of half a barrel
isrequired.
Most rigs will not have suitable equipment to do this.
It is usually assumed that the choke manifold lined up across a manual choke to the trip
tankis a suitable fluid measurement system. However , in most cases this will not be a
satisfactory arrangement because of the relatively large volume in the line between the
choke and the tank.
In general, there is a requirement for a line from the well, terminating at a manual choke
positioned directly above a measuring cylinder, such as the trip tank (hydraulically activated
chokes are not suitable for this application). However a bleed line from the well to the
mixing tanks on the cement/kill pump may be sufficient.
The most satisfactory arrangement is to use a strip tank as shown in Figure 1.3. This tank
would typically have a 3 to 4 bbl capacity so that very small volumes of fluid can be measured.
After bleeding into the strip tank, the tank contents can be emptied into the trip tank where
the total volume of mud bled from the well, together with the mud leaked past the preventers,
can be measured.
Although it is not ideal, it may be sufficient to use a Lo-Torq valve instead of amanual
choke to bleed fluid to the tank. However, during a long operation this is likely to wash out
and so provision should be made to easily and quickly replace the valve.
It is not recommended to bleed mud into a measuring tank that is situated in a confined area
when there is a possibility that gas is entrained in the mud.
1-6
March 1995
PRESSURE
GAUGE
FROM CHOKE
MANIFOLD/BOP
MANUAL
CHOKE
3in PIPE
LEVEL
INDICATOR
STRIP TANK
(3 4bbl
capacity)
LARGE ID
DRAIN
WORKING PLATFORM
FLOWLINE
RETURNS
TRIP
TANK
WEOX02.003
1-7/8
1-7
March 1995
Page
General
1-10
Individual Responsibilities
1-10
Communication
1-12
Illustrations
1.4
1-13
1-9
March 1995
1 General
This section is intended to provide a guideline for the allocation of individual responsibilities
during a well control incident. It is Company policy that a well control contingency plan
should include the allocation of individual responsibilities.
The contingency plan should be drawn up in conjunction with the drilling contractor and
should be regularly reassessed. Well control drills provide an opportunity to assess the
effectiveness of the contingency plan and to identify and make good any inadequacies.
2 Individual Responsibilities
The well control contingency plan must allocate the responsibilities of all those concerned
in the operation. Circumstances at the rigsite may dictate that these responsibilities be
modified in the event of an incident; however, the following can be used as guidelines for
the allocation of responsibilities in the event of a well control incident:
Once the well has been shut-in and is being correctly monitored, to organise a pre-kill
meeting for all those involved in the supervision of the well control operation.
To be present on the rig floor at the start of the kill operation. Either the Toolpusher
or the Company Representative should be present at all times on the rig floor during
the operation.
The Company Representative has the right to assume complete control of the work
required to regain control of the well.
Has the overall responsibility for all actions taken on the rig.
Has the responsibility for supervising the contractor staff that are not directly
involved in the well control operation.
1-10
March 1995
However, in the event that the well gets out of control, the Company Representative
has the right to assume complete control and supervise the work required to regain
full control of the well. (This entitlement is a standard condition of Company drilling
contracts.)
Has overall responsibility for the implementation of the well control operation.
Has the responsibility for ensuring that the driller and the drill crew are correctly
deployed during the well control operation.
Must be present at the rig floor during the start of the kill operation. Either the
Toolpusher or the Company Representative should be present at all times on the rig
floor during the operation.
Has the responsibility for briefing the off duty drill crew prior to starting a newshift.
Has the responsibility for the initial detection of the kick and closing in the well.
Has the responsibility for supervising the drill crew during the well control operation.
Has continuous responsibility for monitoring the mud system and the conditioning
of the mud.
It may be prudent to send an extra Mud Engineer to the rig in the event of a well control
incident to ensure constant supervision of the mud system.
Will ensure that the cement unit is ready for operation at any time.
Will operate the cement unit at the discretion of the Company Representative.
Should be available for consultation at all times during the well control operation.
Has the responsibility for checking all the BOP equipment during the operation.
Have the responsibility for continuously monitoring the circulating system during
the well control operation.
1-11
March 1995
3 Communication
One of the Company Representatives responsibilities is to organise a pre-kill meeting once
the well has been shut-in. The purpose of this meeting is to ensure that all those involved in
the supervision and implementation of the well control operation are familiar with the
procedures that will be used to kill the well. This meeting is also the first stage in the
process of communication during the well control operation.
Experience has shown that even the most well conceived well control procedures can go
badly wrong if communication before and during the operation is not properly organised
and effective.
It is therefore most important that the well control contingency plan details the method and
line of communication for each individual involved in the operation.
The objectives of a suitable system of communication are:
To ensure that all information relevant to the well control operation is communicated to
the Company Representative.
To ensure that those involved in the supervision of the operation are at all times in
communication with the Company Representative.
To ensure that all those involved in the operation are aware of the line and method of
communication that they should use.
To ensure that communication equipment on the rig is adequate, and is used during the
well control operation in the most effective manner possible.
After the kick is taken, the well is shut-in and closely monitored.
The Company Representative calls a pre-kill meeting of those involved in the supervision
of the operation.
Responsibilities are allocated to those involved in the operation by the supervisors who
attended the meeting.
The most important lines of communication to and from the Company Representative
(denoted by those inside the broken line) are best maintained with the use of hand
held radios.
The use of intrinsically safe hand held radios ensures that all those inside the broken
line can listen in on each others communication.
Depending on the type of operation it may be necessary to include others within the
broken line.
1-12
March 1995
COMPANY REPRESENTATIVE
COMPANY DRILLING ENGINEER
SENIOR CONTRACTOR REPRESENTATIVE
TOOLPUSHER
MUD ENGINEER
MUD LOGGING ENGINEER
OFF DUTY
DRILL CREW
SENIOR
CONTRACTOR
REPRESENTATIVE
MUD
ENGINEER
TOOLPUSHER
SUBSEA
ENGINEER
CONTRACTOR
STAFF
MATES
CONTRACTOR
SHOREBASE
DRILLER
DRILL CREW
PUMPMAN/
DERRICKMAN
CONTRACTOR
SHOREBASE
DRILLER
MARINE
STAFF
PUMPMAN/
DERRICKMAN
RT
RT
RT
SENIOR
CONTRACTOR
REPRESENTATIVE
TOOLPUSHER
S/S
MUD
ENGINEER
H/H
H/H
S/S
H/H
COMPANY
REPRESENTATIVE
RT
RT
SUBSEA
ENGINEER
COMPANY
SHOREBASE
SERVICE COMPANY
ENGINEERS
MUD LOGGING
ENGINEER
WEOX02.004
1-13/14
1-13
March 1995
Page
General
1-16
BOP Drills
1-16
1-17
1-17
1-19
1-19
1-21
1-22
1-23
Illustrations
1.5
1-23
1.6
1-25
1.7
1-26
1-15
March 1995
1 General
Both BOP Drills and the recording of slow circulating rate pressures will be carried out on
a routine basis on all rigs.
This section covers the reasons why it is necessary to carry out BOP Drills, to regularly
record SCRs, as well as recommended procedures.
2 BOP Drills
The purpose of BOP Drills is to familiarise the drillcrews with techniques that will be
implemented in the event of a kick.
One of the major factors that influences the wellbore pressures after a kick is taken is the
volume of the influx. The smaller the influx, the less severe will be the pressures during the
well kill operation. In this respect, it is important that the drillcrew react quickly to any sign
that an influx may have occurred and promptly execute the prescribed control procedure.
Drills should be designed to reduce the time that the crew take to implement these procedures.
The relevant Drills should be carried out as often as is necessary, and as hole conditions
permit, until the Company Representative and the Contractor Toolpusher are satisfied that
every member of the drillcrew is familiar with the entire operation.
Every effort must be made to ensure that the Drill is carried out in the most realistic manner
possible. Where practical, there should be no difference between the Drill and actual control
procedures.
Once satisfactory standards have been achieved, the Drills (D1, D2 and D3, as appropriate)
should be held at least once per week. If standards fall unacceptably, the Company
Representative should stipulate that the Drills are conducted more frequently.
It is important that returning drillcrews have frequent Drills.
The following Drills should be practised where applicable:
D1 Tripping
D2 Drilling
D3 Diverter
D4 Accumulator
D5 Well Kill
(Suffix R to be included if the remote panel was used)
These codes should be used to record the results of the Drill on the BOP Drill Record
Proforma. This form should be sent to the Drilling Superintendent fortnightly. The results
of each Drill must also be recorded on the IADC Drilling Report.
1-16
March 1995
Without prior notice, the Company Representative will start the Drill by manually raising
the trip tank float to indicate a rapid pit gain.
The Driller is expected to take the following steps to shut in the well:
1. Stop other operations.
2. Install the drillpipe safety valve.
3. Open the choke line valve.
4. Close the annular preventer.
5. Record the casing and drillpipe pressure.
6. Notify the Company Representative that the well is shut-in.
7. Record the time for the Drill on the IADC Drilling Report.
The Contractor Toolpusher must ensure that the crew are correctly deployed and that each
individual completely understands his responsibilities.
The time taken for the crew to shut in the well should be recorded.
Having shut-in the well, preparations should be made to strip pipe. These preparations should
include lining up the equipment as required, assigning individual responsibilities and
preparing the Stripping Worksheet.
1-17
March 1995
When the pipe is on bottom, the following procedure can be used as a guideline for the drill:
Without prior notice, the Company Representative gradually increases the apparent pit
level by manually raising the float.
The Driller is expected to detect the pit gain and take the following steps:
1. Pick up the kelly (or topdrive) until the tool joint clears the BOPs and
the kelly cock is just above the rotary table.
2. Shut down the pumps.
3. Check the well for flow.
4. Report to the Company Representative.
5. Record the time required for the crew to react and conduct the Drill on
the IADC drilling report.
When the bit has been tripped to the previous casing shoe, a further Drill may be conducted
that will result in the well being shut-in.
Therefore after tripping the bit to the shoe, the following procedure may be used as a guideline
for this Drill:
Stop tripping operations and install the kelly (or topdrive) and start circulating.
6. Double check spaceout, close and lock hang-off rams and hang-off pipe
and check that the kelly cock is just above the rotary table.
7. Notify the Company Representative that the well has been shut-in.
8. Record the time taken for the crew to shut-in the well on the IADC drilling
report.
* If on a floating rig
The procedures adopted during these Drills should be in line with the shut-in procedures as
outlined in the Standing Orders. These procedures are outlined in Chapter 4.
1-18
March 1995
1-19
March 1995
Accumulator
Working Pressure
Rating
Desired
Precharge
Pressure
Min. Acceptable
Precharge
Pressure
Max. Acceptable
Precharge
Pressure
1500 psi
2000 psi
3000 psi
750 psi
1000 psi
1000 psi
750 psi
950 psi
950 psi
850 psi
1100 psi
1100 psi
1-20
March 1995
3. If the accumulator pumps are powered by air, isolate the rig air system
from the pumps.
A separate closing unit air storage tank should be used to power the pumps during
this test. When a dual power (air and electric) source system is used, both power
supplies should be tested separately.
4. Close the annular preventer and open one choke line failsafe valve
(orHCR valve).
Record the time (in seconds) required for the closing unit pumps to close the annular
preventer plus open the choke line valve and obtain 200 psi above the accumulator
precharge pressure on the closing unit manifold. It is recommended that the time
required for the closing unit pumps to accomplish these operations does not exceed
two minutes.
5. Close the choke line failsafe (or HCR valve) and open the annular
preventer.
Open the accumulator system to the closing unit and charge the accumulator system
to its designed operating pressure using the pumps.
1-21
March 1995
All these factors must be taken into account when deciding at what rate to displace the kick.
However the absolute upper limit for the displacement rate may be restricted by the pressure
rating of the surface equipment, in particular the setting of the pump relief valve. It should
be noted that it is potentially hazardous to displace a kick from the hole when the surface
pressure is close to the relief valve setting.
In order to estimate the circulating pressures during the displacement of a kick, it is necessary
to know the friction pressure in the circulating system at low rates. For this reason, it is
useful to have determined the SCR pressure before a kick is taken.
At a given rate of circulation, the initial circulating pressure can be estimated from the sum
of the shut-in drillpipe pressure and the SCR pressure.
Company policy states that SCRs should be conducted regularly and at least:
The range of circulation rates used will be dependent upon many factors, but should fall
within the limits of 1/2 and 4 barrels per minute. If oil base mud is in the hole, when back on
bottom after a trip, circulate bottoms up before measuring SCRs.
At these relatively low pump speeds the volumetric efficiency of the rig pumps may be
significantly less than at normal speeds used during drilling. It is therefore recommended
that the volumetric efficiency of the rig pumps is checked at low pump speed, such as when
pumping a slug prior to a trip.
It is useful to plot the SCRs on a graph as shown in Figure 1.5. The drillstring internal
friction should be calculated at the SCRs and used to determine the annulus frictional pressure
as shown. The annulus frictional pressure is a major factor that will influence the rate at
which the kick will be displaced from the hole (using standard well control procedure the
annulus frictional pressure will be added to wellbore pressure as the pump is brought up to
speed to kill the well).
1-22
March 1995
PSCR3
Drillstring internal
pressure drop
PSCR2
Annulus pressure
drop
PSCR1
SCR1
SCR2
SCR3
PUMP OUTPUT
(bbls/min) (stks/min)
WEOX02.005
1-23
March 1995
It is important that the choke line frictional pressure is accurately known at a wide range of
circulating rates. From this information the additional load on the wellbore can be assessed
at a range of displacement rates and subsequently the most suitable rate can be selected.
The following procedure should be implemented in order to properly assess the choke line
frictional pressures at slow circulating rates. This procedure should be carried out initially
when the BOP and riser are installed and before drilling out of each subsequent casing shoe.
1. Install suitable pressure gauges to record standpipe and choke pressures
during circulation.
2. Record SCR pressure at a range of rates from 1/2 to 4 bbl/min down drillpipe
and up the riser.
3. Open choke line valves.
4. Line up choke manifold to route flow across a fully opened remote operated
choke. Route returned flow through the poorboy gas separator to the
shakers.
5. Space out to ensure no tool joint is opposite annular preventer.
6. Close annular preventer.
7. Circulate down the drillpipe and up through the choke line until returns are
uniform.
8. Record SCR pressure at same rates as before. Record the choke pressure
at each rate.
9. Calculate the choke line frictional pressure at each rate.
Figure 1.6 shows a form that can be used to record the data. The form also shows how to
determine the choke line friction pressure from the recorded data. Figure 1.7 shows an
example determination of choke line losses.
The choke line losses should be adjusted for changes in mud weight as shown on the form.
The accuracy of this adjustment is however questionable over a wide range of mud weights.
In order to verify choke line losses after drilling out of the casing shoe, it is acceptable to
isolate the well and pump down the choke line at the range of slow circulating rates.
1-24
March 1995
WELL No
25
RIG 19
RIG
DATE
25/7/87
133/8in CASING RUN AND TESTED / 135/8in STACK INSTALLED AND TESTED
RECORDED BY
CORRECTED
CHOKE LINE
LOSS
CORRECTED
CHOKE LINE
LOSS
1.4 SG
AT
MUD WEIGHT
(psi)
AT
MUD WEIGHT
(psi)
AT
MUD WEIGHT
(psi)
AT
MUD WEIGHT
(psi)
1-25
6.5
in
LINER
PUMP RATE
in
LINER
PUMP RATE
SCR
PRESSURE
UP RISER
(bbl/min)
(SPM)
(SPM)
(psi)
4.78
40
370
3.58
30
680
985
250
2.39
20
400
590
CHOKE
PRESSURE
AT SCR
(psi)
55
40
150
120
190
25
45
0.5
0.25
50
65
10
0
0
(1)
(2)
(3)
(2)-(1)-(3)
March 1995
WEOX02.006
CORRECTED
CHOKE LINE
LOSS
CIRCULATION
RATE
SCR
PRESSURE
UP
CHOKE LINE
(psi)
J. P.
MEASURED
CHOKE LINE
LOSS
CIRCULATING @ 20SPM UP
CHOKE LINE (CHOKE WIDE OPEN)
400
600
POC = 50psi
50
where
WEOX02.007
1-26
March 1995
Page
General
1-28
Pit Management
1-28
1-29
1-31
Chemical Stocks
1-34
Illustrations
1.8
1-32
1-27
March 1995
1 General
Well control contingency plans should outline the manner in which the mud system will be
utilised during standard well control operations.
This section is intended to highlight the major factors that will determine the most satisfactory
arrangement of the mud system in such circumstances.
2 Pit Management
The following guidelines should be considered when specifying pit arrangements:
Keep the active mud system surface area as small as is practical to ease kick detection.
Any reserve mud stocks in the tanks should be positively isolated from the active
system. Ensure that the gates on the trough are sealing properly.
Adequate reserve stocks of mud should be held; the volume and weight of which
will be determined by the nature of the next hole section.
Ensure all pit level systems and tank isolating valves are working correctly before
drilling into possible gas-bearing zones.
Keep all mud treatments and pit transfers to the absolute minimum at critical sections
of the well. Ensure that the Driller and the Mud Logging Engineer are aware in
advance of any changes to the system.
Crew safety meetings should discuss the problem of gas kicks, especially if oil
based mud is in use, and emphasise the importance of early detection. Mud
engineering and mud logging personnel should attend these meetings.
How to deal with the pit gain caused by influx expansion during displacement.
1-28
March 1995
The kick can be displaced from the hole using either the Wait and Weight Method or the
Drillers Method. The most satisfactory arrangement of the pits will be different for each
technique and clearly will be rig-specific. There are three different stages at which the mud
can be weighted up for these two techniques:
In the unusual situation when there is adequate surface volume, a complete hole
volume of kill mud can be prepared before displacement of the kick.
In this case the mud is weighted either while the kick is displaced with original
weight mud or after the first circulation depending on the availability of baryte and
tank space.
Determine the time required to weight the hole volume of mud before the kick is
displaced.
Or it may limit the rate at which the kick can be displaced, if the mud is weighted as
the kick is displaced.
The maximum rate at which the mud can be weighted can be determined for a given
required mud weight increase from the following formula:
Maximum possible rate =
at which the mud can
be weighted (bbl/min)
1-29
March 1995
If the required volume of kill weight mud is greater than the surface stocks of active
and reserve weighted mud.
The limiting factor for an oil base mud may be the rate at which viscosity can be built
into the base oil. Building viscosity is usually a less important factor when water base
muds are used.
Shear equipment is required for building viscosity using clay viscosifiers in new base
oil. Some offshore rigs have jet line mixers to help build viscosity.
In circumstances in which large volumes of new oil mud must be built, it would be
useful to know the rate at which new mud can be sheared to a level at which barytes can
be suspended.
This rate is determined by shearing a known volume of new mud until the minimum
viscosity is reached. As a guideline, the minimum viscosity would be represented by a
yield point of 10, and a 10 second gel reading of 3.
In emergency situations, viscosity can be built quickly using an oil mud polymer (Baroids
LFR 2000 as an example) at 4 lb/bbl in conjunction with organophilic clays. However,
it is recognised that these polymers can cause high temperature gelation of the mud, and
as such, they are not recommended for use in high temperature wells.
1-30
March 1995
1-31
March 1995
The back pressure due to the flow of gas should be monitored with a pressure gauge as
shown in Figure 1.8. Some warning of the possibility of a gas blow-through will be
given when the registered pressure approaches the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the
discharge line. It should be noted that the maximum hydrostatic head available may not
be that of the mud in the event that large volumes of oil or condensate are displaced
tosurface.
If the safe operating limit of the separator is approached, the choke can be closed in
(while ensuring that the well is not overpressured) or the flow switched to the overboard
line or the burn pit.
GAS OUTLET
8in ID MINIMUM
GAS BACK PRESSURE
REGISTERED AT
THIS GAUGE
(Typically 0 to 20psi)
STEEL TARGET
PLATE
INLET
INSPECTION
COVER
APPROX
HEIGHT
1/2 OF
SECTION A-A
TANGENTIAL INLET
30in OD
A
4in ID INLET-TANGENTIAL TO SHELL
FROM CHOKE MANIFOLD
BRACE
10ft MINIMUM
HEIGHT
INSPECTION
COVER
HALF CIRCLE
BAFFLES ARRANGED
IN A SPIRAL
CONFIGURATION
TO SHAKER HEADER
TANK
MAXIMUM HEAD AVAILABLE
DEVELOPED BY THIS
HEIGHT OF FLUID
eg: 10ft HEAD AT 1.75 SG
GIVES 7.6psi MAXIMUM CAPACITY
10ft APPROX
8in NOMINAL
U TUBE
4in CLEAN-OUT
PLUG
2in DRAIN
OR FLUSH LINE
1-32
March 1995
WEOX02.008
The gas flowrate is too high for the mud gas separator.
Hydrates are forming in the gas vent line from the mud gas separator.
Lines that are required to handle high velocity gas must be as straight as possible to
minimise erosion. Significant erosion is likely to occur in the path of high velocity gas
and solids, therefore the redundancy in flowlines and manifolds downstream of the choke
must be analysed on all rigs.
1-33
March 1995
5 Chemical Stocks
(a) Baryte and mud chemical stocks
Company policy details the minimum stocks of baryte and mud chemicals that should
be held at the rigsite. The policy states that:
Sufficient weighting material stocks must be maintained on site such that the entire
mud circulating volume can be raised by a minimum of 0.25 SG (See formula in
Paragraph 3). Reserve stocks of bentonite or viscosifier must also be on site to
enable this increase in mud weight to be effected.
Where transport and logistics are not assured (offshore and remote locations) the
minimum onsite weighting material stock must be 100 tonnes.
This is a minimum standard, and as such, the Company Representative may wish to
stock a greater quantity of baryte and chemicals.
1-34
March 1995
Page
General
1-36
1-36
1-37
1-40
1-41
1-42
Illustrations
1.9
1-43
1-44
1-35
Rev 1 March 1995
1 General
Many definitions of kick tolerance have been used in the drilling industry. Within BP, Kick
Tolerance is defined as the maximum volume of kick influx that can be safely
shut-in and circulated out of the well without breaking down the formation at
the openhole weak point.
It is now an accepted part of the Company Casing Design policy to determine the casing
setting depth by the Limited Kick Method. It is therefore particularly important that the
kick tolerance in critical hole sections be accurately monitored.
This section explains how to calculate kick tolerance and when to calculate kick tolerance.
In critical hole sections, it is important to calculate kick tolerance on a regular basis. This is
because kick tolerance changes as a function of hole depth, BHA geometry, mud weight,
formation pressure and influx type, etc.
Simple Methods
In these methods kick tolerance calculations are simplified based on several assumptions:
At the initial shut-in condition, the influx is at the bottom of the openhole.
The effects of the gas migration, gas dispersion, gas solubility, downhole temperature
and the gas compressibility are ignored.
Although these assumptions may seem unrealistic, the simple methods have gained wide
acceptance in the drilling industry because they are simple and generally yield
conservative (safer) kick tolerance. However these methods have an inherent
shortcoming: they do not measure how quickly an influx will grow. This is to say that in
some cases formation deliverability may be such that the well could not be shut in
before the kick tolerance volume was exceeded. Therefore the same kick tolerance
between two wells may not mean that they share the same level of risk !
2
1-36
March
Rev 1 1995
March 1995
However, due to complexity, kick simulators are recommended only in the situations
where kick tolerance is considered critical based on the simple methods.
Some computer kick simulators are available from the Drilling & Completions Branch,
BP Exploration, Sunbury.
When the influx is at the bottom of the hole at the initial shut in condition
When the top of the influx has been displaced to the openhole weak point (with the
original mud weight)
Annular friction pressure (depending on the hole size, mud properties, etc.)
The safety factor (SF) to be applied to the MAASP will be the sum of these additional
pressures. The drilling engineer must use his/her judgement to determine the most
appropriate safety factor.
2
It should be seen that MAASP is determined based on the consideration of the formation
fracturing pressure at the openhole weak point. So it is considered only when there is a
full mud column from the weak point to the surface (i.e. the influx is still below the
weak point). If lighter fluids (such as a gas influx) occupy the annulus above the weak
point, the surface pressure in excess of MAASP may not cause downhole failure.
Therefore from the moment the top of an influx has been displaced past the openhole
1-37
Rev 1 March 1995
H max =
where:
Hmax
Gi
Pf
TVD h
4
(m)
(MW Gi)
C1 / cos( bh)
(bbl)
If the bottom hole section is horizontal (or above 90 degree), the hole angle used in the
calculation should be the openhole angle immediately above the horizontal section. The
kick tolerance should be the sum of the calculated volume (Vbh ) plus the annular volume
of the horizontal section.
In cases where Hmax /cos(bh ) is greater than the length of BHA, the maximum allowable
volume (Vbh) should be calculated partly based on the annular capacity around BHA
and partly around drillpipe.
5
C2 / cos( wp)
(bbl)
Maximum allowable influx volume when top of the influx is at the openhole
weak point (bbl)
Annular openhole capacity around drillpipe (bbl/m)
Hole angle in the openhole section below the weak point (degree)
In cases where Hmax /cos(wp ) is greater than the openhole drillpipe length below the
weak point, the maximum allowable influx volume (Vwp) should be calculated partly
based on the annular openhole capacity around drillpipe and partly around BHA.
1-38
March
1995 1995
Rev
1 March
Convert the maximum allowable influx volume at the weak point (Vwp ) to
what would be at the initial shut in condition
Based on Boyles law, the maximum allowable influx volume at initial shut-in
corresponding to Vwp will be:
V bh' = V wp X Pleak
Pf
7
(bbl)
The actual kick tolerance should be the smaller of Vbh (Step 4) and Vbh'
(Step 6)
Example:
Bit depth:
Current hole size:
Hole angle:
Mud weight in hole:
BHA length / OD:
Drillpipe OD:
Estimated pore pressure at 4000 m:
Last casing shoe:
Leak-off test EMW:
Annular back pressure at SCR:
Safety margin for choke operator error:
4000 m
12-1/4"
Vertical
1.60 SG
182 m / 8"
5"
1.58 SG
2695 m
1.72 SG
70 psi
150 psi
H max =
= 178m
4. Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume at the initial shut-in condition:
Annular capacity around BHA, C1= (12.252 - 8 2) / 313.8 = 0.2743 (bbl/m)
As the BHA length (182 m) is longer than Hmax (178 m), so the influx is around BHA
only when it is at the bottom of the hole. Therefore:
Vbh = 178 x 0.2743 = 49 bbl
5. Calculate the maximum allowable influx volume when the top of influx is at the
casing shoe:
Annular capacity around openhole DP, C2= (12.252 - 5 2) / 313.8 = 0.3985 (bbl/m)
Openhole DP length = 4000 - 2695 - 182 = 1123 m ( > H max of 178 m)
1-39
Rev 1 March 1995
H max =
where:
Gi
Pf
SF
TVD h
1-40
March
1995 1995
Rev
1 March
d Calculate the influx volume that Hmax corresponds to when the gas influx
top has reached the surface:
Vsurf = Hmax x Ccsn
(bbl)
where:
Vsurf
Ccsn
Maximum allowable influx volume when the influx top reaches surface (bbl)
Annular capacity in the casing near surface (bbl/m)
V 2 = V surf X
f
Psurf
(bbl)
Pf
After LO test, evaluate the kick tolerance at suitable intervals throughout the next hole
section with a number of mud weights that are likely to be used.
If the hole section contains a zone of rapid pore pressure increase, the kick tolerance
should be evaluated frequently based on the anticipated pore pressure.
If any factors that affect the kick tolerance (such as mud weight, BHA) change as the
section is drilled, the kick tolerance below that point in the section should be re-evaluated.
At each stage in the hole section, the Company Representative and the Drilling Engineer
must assess the possibility of the pore pressure developing in a manner different to that
predicted and hence its effect on the kick tolerance.
1-41
Rev 1 March 1995
Figure 1.9 shows an example of the type of calculations that should be worked. The kick
tolerance figures shown are those that would typically be calculated before a transition
zone. As shown, the current bit depth is 3500 m and the kick tolerance has been calculated
at various intervals across the zone of increasing pore pressure. The kick tolerance has been
calculated for the mud weight currently in use, for the maximum mud weight anticipated for
the section, and intermediate weight.
From these figures, it is clear that a serious situation would develop if a kick was taken
from the high pressure zone with the mud weight currently in the hole. This might occur if
either the pore pressure developed more rapidly than predicted, or if the steady increase in
pore pressure was undetected at the surface.
The kick tolerance figures for the intermediate mud weight show that even at this weight,
the kick tolerance would be small if the high pressure zone was unexpectedly encountered.
The kick tolerance is finally calculated at the maximum mud weight. These figures show a
final minimum kick tolerance of 50 bbl at that mud weight. The table also shows the kick
tolerance if the pore pressure developed higher than predicted of 1.6 SG. In general these
figures indicate that drilling should proceed cautiously through the zone of increasing pore
pressure. On the basis of these figures, it may be decided to weight up the mud a certain
amount before the predicted increase in pressure occurs.
The decisions that are made on the basis of kick tolerance figures such as these will be
largely dependent upon the particulars of each situation, including the level of confidence
placed in the pore pressure prediction.
1-42
Rev 1 1995
March 1995
March
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
CASING SHOE
Maximum Allowable Pressure
13.8ppg EMW
9000
9.2ppg
10,000
DEPTH
(ft)
11,000
9.2ppg
11.3ppg
13.2ppg
13,000
MW
(ppg)
11,480
12,470
12,630
12,795
12,960
12,990
13,123
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.2
9.2
10.2
11.3
12.3
12.4
13.2
12,960
9.6
13.2
MW
(ppg)
600
600
460
215
30
7
(0)
11,480
12,470
12,630
12,795
12,960
12
12
12
12
12
9.2
9.2
10.2
11.3
12.3
13,123
12
(0)
12,960
13,123
12
12
PORE
KTOL
PRESSURE (bbl)
(ppg)
MW
(ppg)
600
600
450
246
112
11,480
12,470
12,630
12,795
12,960
13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3
13.3
9.2
9.2
10.2
11.3
12.3
600
600
450
280
153
13.2
10
13,123
13.3
13.2
50
13.2
13.3
10
(0)
13,123
13,123
13.3
13.5
13.3
13.2
35
40
PORE
KTOL
PRESSURE (bbl)
(ppg)
PORE
KTOL
PRESSURE (bbl)
(ppg)
WEOX02.009
1-43
Rev 1 March 1995
Example Calculation
Well:
UK
Units: (UK/US):
Input Messages:
Openhole Size ?
Measured Depth ?
Vertical Depth (m) ?
Horizontal Length (Angle>87 deg) ?
Tangent Angle Above Horizontal ?
Min Pore Pressure Gradient ?
Max Pore Pressure Gradient ?
(inch)
(m)
(m)
(m)
(deg)
(sg)
(sg)
12.25
4000
4000
0
0
1.580
1.600
(m)
(m)
(deg)
(sg)
2695
2695
0
1.720
(inch)
(m)
(inch)
(sg)
(psi)
(sg)
8
182
5
0.2
220
1.600
(bbl/m)
(bbl/m)
(psi)
(psi)
(psi)
(m)
(bbl)
8981
178
48.7
(psi)
(m)
(bbl)
9094
120
33.0
Non-Horizontal
Measured Depth ?
Vertical Depth ?
Section Angle (<87 deg) ?
Fracture Gradient / EMW ?
Other Parameters:
12
13
14
15
16
17
0.27426
0.39854
6587
240
Comments:
1.60
1.60
1.59
33
41
49
1.59
1.58
1.60
1.59
1.58
1.58
1.57
33
41
Kick Tolerance (bbl)
For more infor or help, please contact YUEJIN LUO, BP Exploration, Sunbury, Tel: 853-2424, Fax: 853-4183
1-44
March
1995 1995
Rev
1 March
49
APPENDIX:
(psi)
(inch)
5000
12.515
Annular Capacity:
(bbl/m)
0.419456
Comments:
(m)
(bbl)
2460
613
(m)
(bbl)
2403
547
1.60
1.60
547
580
613
1.59
1.60
1.59
1.58
1.59
1.58
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
1-45
Rev 1 March 1995
Page
2-1
2-9
2-17
Industry wide experience has shown that the most common causes of loss of
primary control and hance the well kicks are:
Lost circulation.
The evidence also shows that the majority of kicks have occurred during trips.
This chapter outlines the measures that are required to eliminate or minimise the risk
of a kick due to the above causes, and to minimise influx volumes if a kick occurs.
March 1995
2.1
Paragraph
Page
General
2-2
Prior to Tripping
2-2
Tripping Procedure
2-5
2-8
Illustrations
2.1
2-3
2.2
2-4
2.3
2-6
2-1
March 1995
1 General
Industry wide experience has shown that the majority of well control problems have occurred
during trips. It is therefore particularly important that special attention is paid to ensuring
correct tripping procedure.
During tripping the potential exists for a significant reduction in bottomhole pressure due to
the following effects:
Reduction in height of the mud column as pipe is removed from the well.
The procedures required to deal with an influx when the pipe is off bottom are not so
straightforward as when the pipe is on bottom. Every effort must therefore be made to ensure
both that the well is stable prior to initiating a trip out of the hole, and that correct tripping
procedure is strictly adhered to.
2 Prior to Tripping
Considerable preparation is required before the trip is commenced. The following are among
the most important actions that should be carried out prior to tripping:
2-2
March 1995
TRIP TANK
LEVEL
INDICATOR
REMOTE
CONTROL VALVE
RIG FLOOR
OVERBOARD
ROTARY TABLE
DIVERTER
RETURNS TO
SHAKERS
HOLE FILL
UP LINE
FLOWLINE
TELESCOPIC
JOINT
FROM
MISSION PUMPS
RISER
CHECK
VALVE
DRAIN
TRIP TANK PUMP
WEOX02.010
2-3
March 1995
TRIP SHEET
WELL No
26
RIG
HOLE DEPTH
RIG 20
CHANGE BIT No 20
15.30 27/8/87
A.C.E.
3250m
5
in
DRILLPIPE
0.0246
bbl/m
0.697
bbl/stand
DISPLACEMENT OF
in
bbl/m
1.60
7.35
bbl/stand
91/2 in
0.0564
0.2624
bbl/m
DISPLACEMENT OF
HEAVYWEIGHT
DRILL COLLARS
DISPLACEMENT OF
in
bbl/
DISPLACEMENT OF
in
bbl/
Trip On:
Doubles
Stands
STAND
STAND
No
Increment
1
2
3
5
7
10
15
20
25
1
1
1
2
2
3
5
5
5
Single
Double
Stands
Single
Double
Stands
Measured Hole
Fill/Disp
Trip Tank
Volume
increment
(bbl)
(bbl)
30.5
30.0
29.4
28.6
27.2
25.9
23.8
20.1
16.6
13.2
3250m
DISPLACEMENT OF
Singles
SHEET No
DRILLER
bbl/stand
bbl/stand
bbl/stand
53 STANDS
Discrepancy
Remarks
accum
(bbl)
increment
(bbl)
accum
(bbl)
increment
(bbl)
accum
(bbl)
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.4
1.3
2.1
3.7
3.5
3.4
0.5
1.1
1.9
3.3
4.6
6.7
10.4
13.9
17.3
0.7
0.7
0.7
1.4
1.4
2.1
3.5
3.5
3.5
0.7
1.4
2.1
3.5
4.9
7.0
10.5
14.0
17.5
-0.2
-0.1
+0.1
0
-0.1
0
+0.2
0
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(1)-(3)
(2)-(4)
WEOX02.011
2-4
March 1995
Figure 2.2 shows a completed example of the BP trip sheet. This trip sheet should be
used if the contractor cannot provide a similar sheet. The basic requirement for a
trip sheet is that a clear method of comparing calculated with actual hole fill volumes
is provided. The cumulative discrepancy between the two values should also be
recorded.
The trip sheet for the last trip out of the hole should be available for comparison.
3 Tripping Procedure
Having completed the preparations as outlined in the previous section, the trip out of the
hole can be started. The following procedure is proposed as a guideline:
1. Flow check the well with the pumps off to ensure that the well is stable
with the ECD (equivalent circulating density) effect removed.
2. Pump a slug.
This enables the pipe to be pulled dry and the hole to be accurately monitored during a trip.
2-5
March 1995
WELL NO
15
ORDERS EFFECTIVE
DATE
15/6/87
RIG
RIG 12
ON ALL TRIPS
COMPANY REP
K.D.
SMB
TOOLPUSHER
YES
IS THE
WELL
FLOWING?
NO
2. PROCEED AS DIRECTED
8. INSTALL KELLY
10.
OPEN DP SAFETY VALVE
12.
IF IN OPENHOLE: ENGAGE
13.
PROCEED AS DIRECTED
WEOX02.012
2-6
March 1995
The following formula can be used to calculate the volume of slug to ensure a length, L, of
dry pipe:
Vsl = MW X L X Cp (bbl)
(MWsl MW)
where
Vsl
L
Cp
MWsl
MW
=
=
=
=
=
As a general rule, the slug should be mixed to maintain a minimum of 2 stands of dry pipe.
It is important to accurately displace the slug to the pipe. In this manner, the Driller will
know the weight, depth and height of the slug at all times during the trip.
3. For the first 5 10 stands off bottom, monitor the hole through the rotary.
This is to check that the annulus is falling as pipe is removed from the hole. The pipe
wiper should therefore be installed only after the first stands have been pulled. The trip
tank should not be overfilled at this stage to ensure that swabbing is clearly indicated,
should it occur. The circulating pump should be switched off at this stage and the hole
filled from the trip tank, after each stand.
4. Circulate the hole across the trip tank and continue to trip out, monitoring
hole volumes with the aid of the trip sheet.
5. Conduct a flowcheck when the BHA is into the casing shoe.
6. Conduct a flowcheck prior to pulling the BHA through the stack.
Be aware that the required hole fill volume per stand of heavy weight and drill collars will
be greater than for drillpipe as the BHA is being removed from the hole.
If unsure of the overbalance, consideration should be given to conducting a short round trip.
Once back on bottom, the overbalance can be assessed from the level of the trip gas at
bottoms up.
If the hole does not take the correct amount of fluid at any stage in the trip, a flowcheck
should be carried out.
If the flowcheck indicates no flow and the cause of the discrepancy cannot be accounted for
at surface, the string should be returned to bottom while paying particular attention to
displacement volumes. After circulating bottoms up, it may be necessary to increase the
mud weight before restarting the trip out of the hole.
If the flowcheck is positive, the well should be shut-in according to the procedure indicated
in the standing orders. Subsequent action will be dependent upon the conditions at the rigsite
(See Chapter 5).
2-7
March 1995
In these circumstances the following procedure is recommended prior to pulling out of the
hole:
1. Flow check the well.
2. Circulate bottoms up.
3. Check trip to the shoe monitoring hole volumes.
4. Flow check at the shoe and run back to bottom.
5. Circulate bottoms up. Close in the BOP and circulate through the choke when
the potential influx is at 500m below the stack, watching for any pit gain.
6. If necessary increase the mud weight and perform a further check trip.
This procedure can be relaxed if, after several trips under the same conditions, the well
remains stable.
The following procedure is recommended in these circumstances after a round trip.
1. When back on bottom prior to any further drilling or coring, circulate
bottoms up to check for trip gas.
2. Circulate until potential influx is at 500m below the stack, watching for any
pit gain.
3. Close in the well and circulate the potential influx through the choke.
2-8
March 1995
2.2
Paragraph
Page
General
2-10
Gas Cutting
2-10
Cuttings Contamination
2-14
Illustrations
2.4
2-12
2-9
March 1995
1 General
Primary well control is achieved by controlling formation pressures with the hydrostatic
pressure of the drilling fluid. The drilling fluid may be contaminated with cuttings and
formation fluids during drilling. These contaminants can significantly alter the effective
hydrostatic pressure exerted by the drilling fluid, and in certain circumstances, this can
cause loss of primary control.
Hydrostatic pressure will be reduced once drilling stops as a result of the loss of annulus
frictional pressure and the removal of cuttings from the annulus. The settling of cuttings to
the bottom of the hole may significantly reduce the hydrostatic pressure further up the hole.
This section outlines the techniques that can be used to predict the effect of drilling fluid
contamination on the hydrostatic pressure.
2 Gas Cutting
When drilling through a formation that contains gas, it is inevitable that the mud will become
contaminated with gas from the drilled formation even if the formation is penetrated
overbalance.
Drilled gas will enter the mud system at a rate determined by the following factors:
The rate of gas entering the mud at bottomhole conditions, Qgas (gal/min), is given by the
following formula:
Qgas =
dh
24
(gal/min)
1.285 X ROP X X Sg
Sg
Bottomhole pressure
Hole depth and depth at which
gas enters the mud, D
Qgas = 12.25
24
=
=
=
=
=
= 3020m
2-10
March 1995
25 m/hr
12 1/4 in.
0.2
0.75
6000psi
where MWact
MW
Qmud
Qgas
=
=
=
=
Qmud
Qmud + Qgas
Therefore in this case the actual (or gas cut) mud weight at surface is given by:
MW act = 1.4
700
= 0.81 SG
700 + 514
It should be stressed that this figure is an estimation of the actual mud weight at the flowline
and as such will not reflect the actual density of the mud in the hole.
The percentage gas cutting is given by:
Percentage cut = MW MWact X 100
MW
Which in this case gives a figure of:
Percentage cut = 1.4 0.81
1.4
The following formula can be used to estimate the bottomhole pressure reduction due to gas
cut mud:
P = 14.7 (MW MW act) ln (96.46 X MW X D)
MW act
1000
(psi)
(psi)
P = 64psi
2-11
March 1995
20
40
60
80
100
-1000
-2000
2.1
SG
1.05
SG
-3000
2.1
SG
1.05
SG
2.1
SG
-4000
1.05
SG
2.1
SG
1.05
SG
-5000
2.1
SG
1.05
SG
-6000
2.1
SG
1.05
SG
5%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
20
40
60
80
100
WEOX02.013
2-12
March 1995
=
=
=
=
24 in.
80 m/hr
300m
1.13 SG
Sg
Pump output
Formation pressure
=
=
=
=
0.3
0.7
750 gal/min
1.03 SG
1.285
80
0.3
0.7
1.03
1.13 = 0.61 SG
2-13
March 1995
Industry experience has shown that excessive gas cutting in shallow hole has in many cases
been the cause of shallow gas blowouts in offshore environments. The previous example
shows the possible effect of gas cutting in shallow hole. However it should also be noted
that in shallow hole the annulus pressure loss during circulation will be negligible, and the
expansion of the gas may cause mud to be unloaded at surface, thereby further reducing the
hydrostatic head of the mud column.
It is therefore important that the ROP is restricted in shallow hole. High pump output should
also be maintained to disperse the gas within the mud to minimise variations in SG.
3 Cuttings Contamination
One of the most important functions of the drilling fluid is to transport cuttings from the bit
to the surface. The presence of cuttings in the annulus will increase the effective hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid column. If this increase is excessive, it can cause losses which may
possibly lead to the loss of primary control.
It is therefore useful to be able to estimate the additional pressure caused by the cuttings in
the annulus. In order to be able to estimate this additional pressure, a measure of the ability
of the drilling fluid to remove the cuttings from the well is required.
The cuttings slip velocity is defined as the velocity of the cuttings relative to the velocity of
the mud. There are many factors that influence the cuttings slip velocity, however the
following relationship can be used to estimate its value:
Slip Velocity, v s = 108
where vs
MW
wcut
dcut
=
=
=
=
=
0.667
However, if the particle Reynolds number is greater than 2000, the following formula should
be used to calculate the slip velocity:
vs = 34.56
1
2
MW
d cut
2-14
March 1995
The transport ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual cuttings velocity to the mud velocity;
it is therefore determined as follows:
Transport ratio, TR = v m vs
vm
where vm =
Q
0.134(d hc 2 do 2)
(m/min)
= porosity
The extra pressure caused by the cuttings in the annulus is given by the formula:
P = (w cut MW) X 1.421
sum (L
Ca)
Average viscosity
Pump output
ROP
Openhole length
Cuttings density
Cuttings diameter
= 50 cP
= 700 gal/min
= 50 m/hr
= 180 m
= 2.5 SG
= 0.3 in.
700
(17.5 2 82)
= 21.6 m/min
700
(22 2 52)
= 11.4 m/min
2-15
March 1995
This gives a transport ratio of 64% in 17 1/2 in. hole and of 32% in 22 in. hole.
The cuttings concentration, Ca, in the 17 1/2 in. hole is given by:
Ca =
50 X 17.5 2
448.4 X 700 X 0.64
= 0.076 (= 7.6%)
50 X 17.5 2
448.4 X 700 X 0.32
= 0.152 (= 15.2%)
= 1.64 SG
2-16
March 1995
2.3
Paragraph
Page
General
2-18
2-18
2-19
2-19
2-20
2-23
Drilling Blind
2-27
Illustrations
2.5
2-22
2.6
2-24
2-17
March 1995
1 General
Lost circulation can occur as a result of the following:
Natural fractures.
Induced fractures.
Cavernous formations.
Lost circulation is undesirable primarily for three reasons. Firstly, that a loss of hydrostatic
head may lead to the well kicking and secondly, that the cost of the replacement mud required
may be considerable. Thirdly, it precludes accurate monitoring of the hole.
This section is intended to outline how to identify the different types of loss zone and, in
each case, to determine the most appropriate remedy.
2-18
March 1995
Unconsolidated formations
Occur mainly at shallow depth. For whole mud to be lost to a formation, in the absence
of fractures, requires permeability of the order of 10 Darcies.
Will cause a gradual loss of mud to the hole, however, may worsen if no remedial action
is taken.
2-19
March 1995
Natural fractures
Can occur in many rock types.
May cause a gradual loss of mud to the hole, however if drilling proceeds and more
fractures are exposed, complete losses may be experienced.
Induced fractures
Horizontal fractures may be induced at relatively shallow depths after the formation of
mud rings and by overloading the annulus. The formation of a mud ring will be indicated
by an increase in pump pressure and the drillstring becoming tight.
Vertical fractures may occur at greater depth and may be caused by any pressure surge
on the formation. Usually indicated by sudden and complete losses.
Cavernous formations
Normally only experienced in limestone formations.
Loss of returns may be sudden and complete. May be accompanied by the bit dropping
up to several feet depending on the height of the cavern.
Underground blowout
Condition where the act of shutting in on a kick induces a fracture in the openhole
above the point of influx. Kick fluids flow, usually from the lower active zone to the
zone which has been fractured. Generally indicated by unstable pressure readings at
surface.
The depth of the loss zone must be established in order to calculate the hydrostatics
involved and to determine the remedial action required.
The loss zone can be located using a Temperature Survey, which operates by identifying
a discontinuity in the temperature gradient within the wellbore. A noise log may also be
used. Correlation with the known lithology at the confirmed loss zone is very important
to identify the type of formation that has been fractured.
2-20
March 1995
The best displacement method for placing plugs is to use the balanced plug technique. This
is however not always possible to achieve or desirable, depending on the rate of loss or the
type of slurry to be pumped.
In general, placement techniques will be as follows (refer to Paragraph 6 for recipes):
Calculate the volume of cement plug for the required height of plug
Volume (bbl) = height (m) X hole capacity (bbl/m) X factor for excess
No of sacks required =
volume (bbl)
slurry yield (bbl/sk)
2-21
March 1995
TUBING
MUD
SPACER
PLUG
WEOX02.014
With the volume of spacer ahead known calculate the height and volume of spacer behind
(See Figure 2.5)
If the same fluid is used before and after the plug:
h = Spacer vol ahead (bbl)
annulus capacity (bbl/m)
Spacer vol behind (bbl) = h X pipe capacity (bbl/m)
where h = height of spacer (m)
2-22
March 1995
Calculate the height of the cement plug before the pipe is pulled out
H(m) =
Volume of slurry(bbl)
annulus cap (bbl/m) + pipe cap (bbl/m)
Technique 1
Pull up and wait
The bit should be pulled up to safety inside casing and the hole left static for 4 to
8/hours without circulation. (While waiting, a lost circulation pill can be mixed (eg/2A
or 2B), at comparatively low cost, for use in case the zone does not self heal.)
This technique is only likely to succeed in zones of induced fractures. It is therefore not
applicable to naturally occurring horizontal loss zones eg/gravels, natural fractures, vugs
and caverns where the overburden is self-supporting.
Technique 2A
LCM pill
Mix a 100 500 bbl pill as follows:
100 500 bbl mud
15 lb/bbl fine walnut/sawdust/etc
10 lb/bbl fine fibres (wood, mica or cane)
5 lb/bbl medium to fine fibres (wood, cane, mica or similar)
5 lb/bbl large cellophane flakes (1.0 in. diameter)
Pump the pill as recommended in Paragraph 5. Repeat if the hole still takes fluid. If the
hole is still not filling go on to use a High filter loss slurry squeeze.
2-23
March 1995
TYPE OF LOSS
SEVERITY OF
LOSS, bbl/hr
Seeping
1 10
Partial
10 500
Complete
500 complete
Long
honeycomb or
caverns (only
in limestones)
Complete
Deep induced
fractures
Complete
in OBM
in OBM
in OBM
EFFECTIVE IN
LOST CIRCULATION REMEDIAL TECHNIQUE
Technique 2A Plug of fine bridging agents in mud
Technique 3A High-filter-loss slurry squeeze with
fine bridging agents
Technique 1 Pull up and wait (primarily for induced
vertical fracture)
Technique 2B Plug of medium bridging agents in
mud
Technique 3A High-filter-loss slurry squeeze with
coarse bridging agents
Technique 3B or 3C High-filter-loss slurry squeeze
with coarse bridging agents
Technique 4B Thixotropic cement or other cements
(4A, 4C, 4D)
Technique 5B Mud + diesel-oil-bentonite plus
cement
Technique 5A Downhole-mixed soft plug
(mud-diesel oil-bentonite)
Technique 7B Downhole-mixed hard plug (sodium
silicate, calcium chloride, cement squeeze
Flo-Check)
Technique 3A, 3B or 3C High-filter-loss slurry
squeeze with 25 35 lb/bbl or coarse bridging agents
Technique 5B Downhole-mixed soft/hard plug
continuously mixed in large amounts
WBM
OBM*
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
partial
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
partial
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Technique 2B
LCM pill
As above but using larger concentrations of coarse materials eg coarse mica, wood,
walnut or cellophane.
Technique 3A
High filter loss slurry squeeze (Diearth, Diaseal M etc)
100 bbl water
15 lb/bbl bentonite or 1.0 lb/bbl Drispac (or 1.0 lb/bbl XC Polymer)
0.5 lb/bbl lime
50 lb/bbl Diearth, Diaseal M
15 20 lb/bbl fine mica, walnut, cellophane or similar material as can be mixed and
remain pumpable.
2-24
March 1995
Technique 3B
High filter loss slurry squeeze
As Technique 3A but include the following:
15 30 lb/bbl medium and coarse LCM
Technique 3C
High filter loss slurry squeeze
As Technique 3A but include the following:
Reduce Diearth concentration to 10 25 lb/bbl
Use barytes as inert filler at 300 lb/bbl
Add cement at 70 lb/bbl
Place in 30 bbl slugs into loss zone with 200 psi squeeze pressure.
Note:
Technique 4A
Neat cement slurry
Neat cement slurries give high compressive strength plugs.
Mix Class G cement at 1.90 SG in water
Technique 4B
Extended cement slurry (using bentonite)
Prehydrated bentonite slurry gives a degree of fluid loss control and plating effect to
help stop lost circulation. Coupled with this, a lightweight slurry can be formulated
(1.58 SG) which helps in areas of serious lost circulation. A further benefit is that
reasonable compressive strength characteristics are found with slurries of this type.
Add 10 lb/bbl bentonite to pre-treated fresh water (with 0.25 lb/bbl caustic and 0.25/lb/
bbl soda ash). Mix cement up to 1.58 SG.
Technique 4C
Aggregated cement slurry (with sand or ground coal)
Add aggregrate to the neat cement slurry at 1.90 SG up to a maximum weight of 20 35
lb/sack of cement in the mix.
2-25
March 1995
Technique 4D
Thixotropic cements
Cement of this type exhibits good flow characteristics when being pumped and a quickly
developing gel strength when stationary. This thixotropic behaviour is beneficial for
the following reasons:
A plug of cement displaced past the loss zone is self supporting and does not fall
back under its own weight.
The cement will tend to remain next to the wellbore when squeezed into fractures
due to their rapidly developing gel strength.
Due to the temperature and chemical formulation sensitivity of this type of slurry, it is
not recommended to use this cement without rigorous quality control and testing prior
to each job. Halliburton Thixset 1 or 2 are examples of this type of cement.
Technique 5A
Downhole mixed soft plug
This type of lost circulation pill is designed to mix with a water base mud or formation
water in the downhole environment and subsequently be squeezed into the formation.
Mix 10.5 gal of diesel or base oil to 100 lb of bentonite.
Granular or fibrous LCM may be added to this mix if required, ie mica at 10 ppb plus
walnut at 10 ppb.
This mixture must be kept away from contact with water until it is placed out of the
drillpipe. To do this, a 10 bbl oil spacer is pumped ahead of a plug, followed by 10 bbl
after the plug.
The principle of this plug is to form a rubbery plug whenever the mixture contacts the
water base mud. Formation water will assist the hydration of the bentonite.
Technique 5B
Downhole mixed soft/hard plug
This type of lost circulation pill is designed to mix with a water base mud or formation
water in the downhole environment. It can be designed to form an initially fluid mixture
of a soft or semi-hard nature depending on its composition, and can be squeezed into
the formation where it will harden and develop compressive strength.
The proportion of mud to the pill in the final mix downhole will determine the strength
of the plug. For example, a 1:1 mix with fresh water will result in a soft plug, whereas
a 1:3 (water/mix ratio) mix will result in a hard plug. In every case however, pilot tests
should be carried out at surface for various mixes, prior to spotting the pill.
Mix on surface 300 lb of G neat cement and 158 lb of bentonite to 1 bbl of diesel or base
oil. All water should be excluded from the mix on surface.
2-26
March 1995
Technique 6
Downhole mixed soft plug
Oleophilic clay and water
This type of plug formulation is designed for use in an oil base mud. It works by the
same principle as 5A, except that the clay disperses in water and hydrates in oil (the
opposite of a bentonite squeeze).
Mix on surface 280 lb of oleophilic clay to 1 bbl of water. Add lignosulphonate at 4/lb/
bbl water.
An example of oleophilic clay is Baroid Geltone.
The spacers ahead and behind this plug must be water based.
Technique 7A
Surface mixed soft plug (polymer type)
These formulations are mixed on surface, where polymers are blended with activators
and extenders, to give a delayed thickening reaction. This allows enough time to place
the plug in the loss zone before the chemical reaction takes place.
Haliburton Temblok is an example of this type of material.
This treatment is only temporary and the yield strength breaks down fairly quickly. It
should be followed by a cement slurry to effect a permanent seal.
Technique 7B
Downhole mixed hard plug
Haliburton Flocheck can be used for this.
This is a Sodium Silicate material which on contact with calcium ions forms insoluble
Calcium Silicate. By pumping a CaCl 2 brine to the formation, followed by the Flocheck
material, plugging of the formation occurs when the two chemicals mix in the formation
matrix.
Placement as follows:
Pump 50 bbl 10% (by weight) CaC12 followed by 10 bbl fresh water. Then pump 35/bblof
Flocheck followed by a further 10 bbl fresh water. Care must be taken to ensure that
CaC1 2 does not come into contact with Flocheck on surface as it will go hard in the pits.
This treatment, whilst permanent, may be reinforced by a cement slurry.
7 Drilling Blind
In certain circumstances it may become necessary to drill ahead without any returns at surface,
ie drilling ahead blind. This may be required if all attempts as laid out in Paragraph 6 have
failed. Once the decision to drill blind has been made, the main objective will be to set
casing in the first competent formation penetrated.
2-27
March 1995
Although no cuttings will be obtained while drilling blind, casing seat can be located by
logging and by keeping up a penetration log whilst drilling ahead. The hole has to be logged
frequently, for example every 100m or whenever the penetration rate suggests a formation
change. Once a competent formation has been identified, the new formation has to be
penetrated by at least 20m to successfully set and cement the next casing string.
Whilst drilling blind the following precautions must be taken:
Use one pump for drilling as normal with the other continuously filling the annulus
with water.
Pick the drillstring up off bottom every 2m drilled to ensure that the hole is not packing
off above the bit.
Keep one pit full of viscous mud at all times ready to pump to the hole.
If one pump requires repair, use the cement unit to fill the annulus continuously.
After drilling each single, wipe the hole over a full single and kelly length prior to
drilling ahead. Wipe the hole over the length of a stand if using a topdrive.
If overpull is experienced wipe the hole 3 or 4 times.
Spot a viscous pill around the bit prior to making each connection. This pill should be
balanced in and outside the pipe.
If, during drilling, the fluid in the annulus reaches surface, stop drilling immediately.
Pick up the drillstring so that the BOPs can be closed if required. Stop the pump on the
drillpipe and the annulus. Close in and observe for any pressure build up.
If there is no pressure on the annulus, start up the pump on the drillpipe and circulate
bottoms up through a fully opened choke (if this is possible). The loss zone may be
plugged with drill cuttings. Drill ahead if everything is normal to a predetermined
depth, if the area is well known. Stop and log if the area is not well known to determine
if a suitable casing seat has been found and has been sufficiently penetrated.
If there is pressure on the annulus be prepared to adopt procedures for an
undergroundblowout.
Before tripping, stop the pumps on drillpipe and annulus and observe the well for
30minutes. Keep the string moving and be prepared to close in the well if necessary .
2-28
March 1995
Stop the pumps and monitor the well whenever the bit is pulled into the previous casing
shoe.
If wireline logging is required when complete loss of returns exists then the following
precautions must be taken.
When logging, the pump should be kept continuously on the hole. The only exception is
when static fluid level has to be established.
Logging is best conducted using through drillpipe logging tools, with open ended drillpipe
run to the casing shoe.
2-29/30
2-29
March 1995
Page
General
3-2
Drilling Break
3-2
3-2
Pit Gain
3-3
3-4
3-4
Increase in Hookload
3-6
3-6
3-1
March 1995
1 General
When drilling with returns to surface, a kick cannot occur without any warning sign. This
Chapter outlines and explains the signs that indicate either that a kick has occurred or that a
kick may soon develop.
2 Drilling Break
One of the first indications that a kick may occur is an increase in penetration rate, or a
drilling break.
Many factors influence the rate of penetration, but an increase in penetration rate can be
caused by an increase in formation porosity, permeability or pore pressure. A change in all
or one of these formation parameters may create the conditions in which a kick could occur.
For this reason any drilling break should be checked for flow.
Even if the flowcheck indicates no flow, the reason for each drilling break should be
determined.
As an example, a drilling break could be caused by drilling into an impermeable transition
zone above a permeable reservoir. Because the formation is impermeable, it is unlikely that
any significant flow would be noticed during a flowcheck. However, the formation may be
considerably underbalanced by the mud column. If drilling continued and the reservoir was
penetrated, a kick would be taken.
Consideration must therefore be given to circulating bottoms up before drilling ahead after
a negative flowcheck, especially in critical sections of the well.
3-2
March 1995
4 Pit Gain
(a) While Drilling
A gain in pit volume, that was not caused by the movement of mud stocks at surface, is
confirmation that a kick is occurring or has occurred.
This is the most reliable indicator of a kick. Consequently, every effort must be made to
ensure that pit levels are accurately monitored at all times.
Very small influx volumes may not be detected at surface as they occur. This may be
due to the fact that, either the initial influx was particularly small, or the influx flowrate
was very slow. This could be the case if the formation has low permeability or if a more
permeable formation was only very slightly underbalanced. In such cases, the influx
may be detected before it is circulated to the surface if it expands significantly as it
rises up the hole. In general, the greater the amount of gas that is contained in the
influx, the greater the expansion of the influx will be as it rises up the hole.
As a result, the greater the proportion of gas in the influx, the more likely it is that the
influx will be detected as it is circulated up the hole.
Consequently, a low volume influx heavy oil or brine that does not contain any
appreciable quantity of gas, will be relatively difficult to detect at surface.
However, if the active system is accurately monitored, pit gains of less than 10 bbl
should be detected reliably, even on floating rigs.
3-3
March 1995
3-4
March 1995
Gas can enter the mud for one or more of the following reasons:
As a result of drilling a formation that contains gas even with a suitable overbalance.
Due to the pore pressure in a formation being greater than the hydrostatic pressure of
the mud column.
3-5
March 1995
A permeable formation that is only slightly underbalanced may only cause a small flow
into the well. The first evidence of this at surface is likely to be gas cut mud, accompanied
by a small pit gain. The initial pit gain may be so small that it is only detected as it
expands as it is circulated up the hole.
In the case a tight formation is underbalanced, there may be little or no actual flow of
gas into the wellbore. Therefore, drilling such a formation may show only gas cut mud,
even if the underbalance is relatively high. This is a relatively difficult situation to
detect and is also potentially dangerous.
7 Increase in Hookload
If an influx occurs while drilling, an increase in hookload may be noticed at surface.
Influx fluids will generally be lighter than the drilling fluid, especially so if the influx is
gas. Displacement of the drilling fluid by the influx will reduce the buoyancy of the
bottomhole assembly. This will increase the effective weight of the drillstring, a change that
is likely to be registered as an increase in hookload.
An increase in hookload may only be noticed after a considerable volume of influx has
occurred. It is not therefore a reliable method of detecting a kick at an early stage.
3-6
March 1995
Page
4-1
4-9
4-15
March 1995
4.1
Paragraph
Page
General
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-6
4-7
3
4
5
4-1
March 1995
1 General
Offshore shallow gas accumulations are normally associated with recently laid down
sand l enses that are totally enveloped by mudstones. When encountered at shallow
depths,lenses tend to be highly porous, permeable and relatively unconsolidated. They
arecommonly thin, flat and normally pressured. However , overpressured lenses have been
encountered. Overpressure at this depth is generally caused by inclination of the lens which
has the effect of increasing the height of the lens and hence the pore pressure gradient at the
top of the lens.
In some areas, shallow gas has been associated with buried reefs or vuggy limestone which
can be extremely porous and almost infinitely permeable.
Shallow gas kicks are generally caused by loss of hydrostatic head due to one or a combination
of the following:
Drill riserless
Restrict ROPs
Shallow gas flows are often extremely prolific, producing very high flow rates of gas and
considerable quantities of rock from the formation; particularly so when a long section of
sand has been exposed.
In the event of a shallow gas flow, the Company Representative must immediately liaise
with the Senior Contractor Representative to make preparations to evacuate initially
non-essential personnel from the rig. The eventuality of having to completely evacuate the
rig must also be addressed (the contractors emergency evacuation procedures will be
implemented).
A well should not be drilled through a shallow seismic anomally (bright spot), which may
indicate the presence of shallow gas. If a bright spot is present at the proposed drilling
location it is good practice to move the rig to avoid the hazard. The new drilling location
should, if possible, be located on a shallow seismic shot point.
It should be noted that the absence of bright spots does not rule out the possibility of the
existence of shallow gas. Further to this, the absence of shallow gas in one well of a series
drilled from a surface location does not guarantee the absence of shallow gas in subsequent
directional wells drilled from the same surface location.
4-2
March 1995
The rig should be moored with length of moorings remaining in the locker to allow the
rig to be winched 400 ft away from the plume. If practical, the windlasses should be
held on their brakes and the chain stoppers only applied after surface casing is set.
Facilities and personnel should be continuously available at short notice to slack off the
moorings closest to the plume and heave in those up current (but not down wind). Before
spudding, a contingency plan should be prepared detailing individual responsibilities
and duties.
Drill pilot hole, limiting the ROP and circulate at a high rate to distribute the cuttings
and drilled gas.
Sufficient mud should be kept on site to fill the hole volume twice. (Typically at 1.15/SG.)
4-3
March 1995
Weather conditions and current should be continuously monitored and the sea surface
should be checked for evidence of gas.
The procedure to be adopted in the event of failure of any of the major components of
the BOP/riser/diverter system.
4-4
March 1995
The following precautions, in line with those listed in Paragraph 2, should be taken routinely
whilst the surface hole is open:
The rig should be moored with length of moorings remaining in the locker to allow the
rig to be winched 400 ft away from the plume. If practical, the windlasses should be
held on their brakes and the chain stoppers only applied after surface casing is set.
Facilities and personnel should be continuously available at short notice to slack off the
moorings closest to the plume and heave in those up current (but not down wind). Before
spudding, a contingency plan should be prepared detailing individual responsibilities
and duties.
Care should be taken to ensure that the annulus does not become overloaded with cuttings,
causing losses or cuttings liberated gas, and hence the possibility of unloading the
annulus. This is achieved by drilling a pilot hole, limiting the ROP and circulating at a
high rate to distribute the cuttings and drilled gas.
Facilities should be continuously available to fill the annulus rapidly from surface in
the event of sudden losses.
Care should be taken to monitor the hole and ensure that it remains full whilst tripping.
Sufficient mud should be kept onsite to fill the hole volume twice. (Typically 1.15/SG.)
Should the well start to flow, the following procedure can be used as a guideline:
1. Open the subsea dump valves.
2. Close the annular preventer and allow the gas to vent at the seabed.
If there is no immediate danger to personnel or the rig:
3. Attempt to control the well by pumping sea water/mud at a maximum rate.
If the gas flow is endangering personnel or the rig:
4. Consider dropping the drillstring or shearing prior to (5) (See Section 6.2).
5. Unlatch the LMRP or pin connector and winch the rig to a safe position
outside the gas plume.
In the event of failure of the subsea diverter system there remains the option to divert at
surface or to unlatch the LMRP or pin connector, thereby venting the gas at the wellhead.
Diverting at surface is not recommended, however if it becomes absolutely necessary to
divert at surface, proceed as follows:
1. Maintain maximum pump rate.
2. Space out so that the lower kelly cock is just above the rotary table.
3. Open the diverter lines, close the shaker valve and diverter element thereby
diverting returns overboard.
4-5
March 1995
Care should be taken to ensure the annulus does not become overloaded with cuttings,
thus causing losses or gas to be liberated from the cuttings to such an extent that the
annulus unloads. This is achieved by drilling pilot hole, limiting the ROP, and circulating
at a high rate to distribute the cuttings and drilled gas.
Facilities should be continuously available to rapidly fill the annulus from surface in
the event of sudden losses.
Facilities should be available and care taken to monitor the hole and ensure that it remains
full whilst tripping.
A means of diverting the flow away from hazardous zones, without restricting flow or
imposing backpressure on the well, should be available for immediate activation.
Sufficient mud should be kept onsite to fill the hole volume twice.
4-6
March 1995
Should the well start to flow, the following procedure may be used as a guideline:
1. Maintain maximum pump rate.
2. Space out such that the lower kelly cock is just above the rotary table.
3. Ensure that diverter lines are open, close shaker valve and diverter element
thereby diverting returns overboard.
4. Shut down all non-essential equipment and machinery to minimise potential
sources of ignition. Deploy fire hoses beneath the rig floor.
5. Evacuate all non-essential personnel.
6. Monitor the sea for evidence of gas breaking through outside the conductor.
(Evacuate all personnel if any evidence is detected.)
4-7/8
4-7
March 1995
4.2
SHUT-IN PROCEDURES
Paragraph
Page
General
4-10
Fast Shut-in
4-10
Shut-in Procedure
4-11
Illustrations
4.1
4-12
4.2
4-13
4.3
4-14
4-9
March 1995
1 General
It is Company policy that a well kick will be shut in and controlled at the BOP stack on hole
sections below the surface casing.
The procedures to be adopted in the event of a kick while drilling ahead from the surface
casing shoe are drawn up at the discretion of the Company Representative and the Company
Drilling Superintendent.
There are various methods of shutting in a well that is flowing. In general, the best method
is that which ensures that the well is safely shut in and the influx volume is minimised. The
smaller the volume of influx, the lower will be the pressures in the wellbore and at surface
throughout the kick control process.
It is the responsibility of the Company Representative to ensure that the Contractor is made
aware of the procedures that should be initiated in the event of a well kick.
The speed with which the Drillcrew carry out these procedures is a critical
factor. In this respect, if a primary indicator of a kick, such as either a pit gain
or an increase in returns flowrate is detected, no time should be spent
flowchecking the well. In such circumstances, the kelly (or topdrive) should
be picked up, the pumps stopped and the BOP closed immediately.
Speed and proficiency are achieved by regular drills. It is a further responsibility of the
Company Representative that he ensures these drills are carried out at suitable intervals to
ensure the drillcrews are proficient at implementing the shut-in procedures.
The forms illustrated in Figures 4.1 to 4.3 should be used to make absolutely clear the
shut-in procedures that will be used on each rig. These forms are intended primarily for the
Driller, however copies should be distributed to other relevant personnel including the
Toolpusher and, where appropriate, the Subsea Engineer.
When a standard shut-in procedure is finalised, this procedure should be written on a large
notice board that will be positioned prominently on the rig floor.
2 Fast Shut-in
Drilling management have issued the following guideline:
The remote operated choke closed and isolated by a high pressure valve immediately
upstream.
(Ensure that the choke pressure can be monitored in this position.)
In the event that a kick is detected, or suspected, the choke line valve(s) are opened and the
BOP closed.
4-10
March 1995
On a floating rig, the annular BOP will be used to initially shut-in the well. On a fixed rig,
the pipe rams may be used to initially shut-in the well, in order to speed up the procedure, if
the position of the tooljoint in relation to the pipe ram is known with confidence.
The advantage of this method is quite clear, namely that the operation is relatively simple in
comparison with the soft shut-in. Consequently, mistakes are unlikely and the time taken to
close in the well will be minimised.
At all times, be aware that the pressure rating of the standpipe equipment is generally less
than that of the BOP stack and the choke manifold.
3 Shut-in Procedure
It is the responsibility of the Company Representative and the Company Drilling
Superintendent to define the shut-in procedure that will be implemented in the event of
akick.
The following forms are examples of the information that should be provided to the Driller:
Figure 4.1: Kick while Drilling, Floating Rig, Fast Shut-in.
Figure 4.2: Kick while Drilling, Fixed Rig, Fast Shut-in.
Figure 4.3: Kick while Tripping, Fast Shut-in.
4-11
March 1995
WELL NO
24
RIG
ORDERS EFFECTIVE
DATE
RIG 20
10/3/87
COMPANY REP
S.M.B.
K.D.
TOOLPUSHER
YES
IS THE
WELL
FLOWING?
NO
FAILSAFE (S)
2. PROCEED AS DIRECTED
5. CHECK SPACEOUT
PRESSURE
9. CLOSE RAMLOCKS
10.
PROCEED AS DIRECTED
WEOX02.015
4-12
March 1995
WELL NO
28
RIG
ORDERS EFFECTIVE
DATE
RIG 15
FOR WELL No 28
15/9/87
COMPANY REP
J.B.H.
J.P.
TOOLPUSHER
DRILLING BREAK
INCREASED RETURNS FLOWRATE
PIT GAIN
CHANGE IN PUMP SPEED OR PRESSURE
SUDDEN CHANGE IN PROPERTIES OF RETURNED MUD
YES
IS THE
WELL
FLOWING?
NO
2. PROCEED AS DIRECTED
6. PROCEED AS DIRECTED
WEOX02.016
4-13
March 1995
WELL NO
28
ORDERS EFFECTIVE
DATE
RIG
RIG 10
ON ALL TRIPS
23/7/87
COMPANY REP
A.J.N.
H.H.
TOOLPUSHER
5.
6.
7.
8.
Or if there is any other possible indication of a kick.
1.
2.
3.
4.
YES
IS THE
WELL
FLOWING?
NO
2. PROCEED AS DIRECTED
8. INSTALL KELLY
10.
OPEN DP SAFETY VALVE
12.
IF IN OPENHOLE: ENGAGE
13.
PROCEED AS DIRECTED
WEOX02.017
4-14
March 1995
4.3
Paragraph
Page
General
4-16
4-16
4-17
Trapped Pressure
4-19
4-20
Influx Migration
4-21
4-24
Illustrations
4.4
4-17
4.5
4-18
4.6
An Example Calculation
showing how to evaluate the type of influx fluid
4-22
4-23
4.7
4-15
March 1995
1 General
When a flowing well is shut in by closing the BOPs, the flow will continue until shut-in
pressures have built up to balance the static reservoir pressure. In most cases, this will mean
that the flow will stop almost immediately the BOPs are closed and that the shut-in pressure
will stabilise within a few minutes.
In general, only if the well has been flowing for some time will the kick zone pressure take
time to build up to a maximum after the well has been shut in. In most cases, when a kick is
taken, the inflow into the wellbore occurs for only a short time and the drawdown is relatively
small. As a result, pressure in the wellbore will stabilise quickly after the well is shut in.
However, there have been many cases of surface pressures taking several hours to stabilise.
The reasons for this can be one, or all, of the following:
The influx created instability in the wellbore, leading to the hole sloughing and
packingof f.
This section covers the procedures that may be required during the time the well is shut in
prior to circulation.
4-16
March 1995
INITIAL
PRESSURE
BUILDUP
STABILISED
PERIOD
INFLUX
MIGRATION
OCCURRING
ANNULUS
PRESSURE
DRILLPIPE
PRESSURE
4-17
March 1995
WELL NO
28
FIRST READING AT
TIME
(hr min)
RIG
RIG 9
DRILLPIPE
CHOKE PIT LEVEL/
PRESSURE PRESSURE VOLUME
(psi)
(psi)
(bbl )
03.00
03.01
03.02
03.03
03.04
03.05
03.06
03.07
03.08
03.09
03.10
03.11
03.12
03.13
03.14
03.15
03.16
03.17
03.20
03.25
03.30
03.45
04.00
04.30
05.00
05.10
05.15
300
360
420
460
520
590
630
700
720
740
760
770
775
775
780
780
780
780
780
780
780
780
780
782
782
782
782
450
500
560
600
660
730
770
840
860
880
900
910
920
920
925
925
925
925
925
925
925
925
925
925
925
925
925
120
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
''
05.20
05.24
05.30
05.40
05.50
06.00
06.10
782
1085
1010
880
755
630
450
925
925
910
903
930
945
950
''
120
SHEET NO 1
3/7/87 03.00
1 MINUTE UNTIL PRESSURES STABILISE
REMARKS
WEOX02.019
4-18
March 1995
2. Carefully monitoring both the pump and casing pressure, pump to the hole
at a controlled rate (very slow).
3. Record the increase in pump pressure and the volume of mud pumped.
The relationship between the pump pressure and the volume of mud pumped will be
linear as the mud in the drillpipe is compressed. If pumping is continued after the pressure
equalises across the float valve, the valve will open. As the valve opens, the pump
pressure will increase slower than before; this change should be easily recognisable at
slow pump rates. Stop the pump when this change is noticed. The casing pressure is
also likely to show an indication of the valve opening.
4. Isolate the pump at the standpipe.
5. Record the shut-in drillpipe pressure as the pump pressure recorded
immediately before the float valve opened.
6. If the casing pressure rises at any stage, immediately stop the pump.
Isolate the pump. Bleed off the excess pressure from the casing. As an example, if the
casing pressure rose 50 psi and this extra pressure was considered undesirable, bleed
50psi from the casing and record the shut-in drillpipe pressure as 50 psi less than the
final pump pressure.
The utmost care must be taken in carrying out this procedure. As outlined, this procedure
involves pumping into a closed well. The well is pressurised at the start of the operation,
and so any excessive additional pressurisation caused by pumping into the well may
overpressure the openhole section.
4 Trapped Pressure
In some circumstances it is possible that pressure, in excess of that caused by the kick zone,
can be trapped in the well. There are three possible causes of this phenomenon:
The pumps were left running after the well was shut-in.
Pipe has been stripped into the well without bleeding the correct volume of mud.
Trapped pressure of this kind will result in surface pressures that do not reflect the actual
kick zone pressure. However if the surface pressure built up at any point after the well
wasshut-in, this is confirmation that there is no trapped pressure in the well. Pressure may
be trapped in the well if the surface pressure appears constant and no pressure build has
been seen.
The drillpipe pressure is used to determine the kick zone pressure and hence the mud weight
used to kill the well. An artificially high drillpipe pressure reading, used to determine the
kill mud weight, will result in overkilling the well.
4-19
March 1995
4-20
March 1995
The pit gain at surface provides a guide to the volume of the kick. With this information,
together with the annular geometry and the surface pressures, it is possible to estimate
theinflux density . The type of influx fluid can then be evaluated, using the following as
aguide:
Influx fluid
Gas
Oil
Water
0.05 0.2
0.3 0.4
> 0.4
Figure 4.6 shows an example of how to determine the influx type. This calculation is only
an approximation, for the following reasons. Firstly, it is assumed that the influx is a discrete
bubble, whereas it is more likely to be eccentric to the hole and contaminated with mud.
Secondly, the effective mud weight in the annulus is not likely to be the same as in the
drillpipe, due to cuttings loading the annulus, and possibly, contamination of the mud with
formation fluid. Thirdly, the hole may be out of gauge. It is important, however, that this
calculation is carried out for the additional reason that it provides a check of the validity of
the kick data.
It is useful to know the type of influx before circulation is initiated. Although most formation
fluids, including formation water, contain some gas, the calculated influx gradient provides
a guide to the proportion of gas in the fluid. The proportion of gas in the influx determines
two important factors, firstly, the well bore pressures during displacement, and secondly,
the pit gain during displacement. If the gas contains sufficient heavy hydrocarbon molecules
at reservoir conditions, condensate fluids may be formed as the gas is displaced from the
hole. This will not occur for a dry gas that does not contain a sufficient proportion of heavy
molecules. Gas will come out of solution from an oil influx when the influx pressure reduces
below the bubble point pressure during displacement. For light oils, a significant quantity
of gas will be produced.
It is recommended that all kicks are assumed to contain a certain proportion of gas. Prior to
circulation therefore, an estimation should be made of the maximum pressures that will be
encountered during circulation, and provision should be made for a pit gain during this
period. (See Chapter 5, Volume 2 for hand calculation techniques.)
6 Influx Migration
After a kick is taken, there is usually a tendency for the influx to migrate up the hole.
Thistendency is caused by the dif ference in density between the influx fluid and the mud.
Influx migration up a closed-in well can cause excessive pressures within the wellbore if
suitable control procedures are not implemented.
Figure 4.7 shows an example of the potential increase in bottomhole pressure caused by gas
migration.
4-21
March 1995
855
PRESSURE BALANCE
2. Determine the hydrostatic
pressure of the influx
500
ANNULUS
DRILLPIPE
SURFACE
PRESSURE
SURFACE
PRESSURE
1.7SG MUD
MUD
MUD
HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
OF MUD IN
THE DRILLPIPE
81/2in HOLE
HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
OF MUD IN
ANNULUS
61/4in COLLARS
=
20bbl INFLUX
INFLUX
HEIGHT OF BHA
= 195m
4000m
INFLUX
HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
=
BOTTOMHOLE
PRESSURE
BOTTOMHOLE
PRESSURE
=
=
=
=
= 10,163psi
Influx gradient
4-22
March 1995
SURFACE PRESSURE
250psi
3195psi
6180psi
GAS @
6180psi
1.4SG
MUD
1500m
GAS @
6180psi
2975m
GAS @
6180psi
3000m
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE
BOTTOMHOLE EMW (SG)
6180psi
1.45
9160psi
2.15
(12140psi)
(2.85)
WEOX02.021
4-23
March 1995
4-24
March 1995
Page
General
5-2
Pipe on Bottom
5-2
5-2
5-5
5-5
5-7
Underground Blowout
5-9
Illustrations
5.1
5-3
5.2
5-4
5-6
5.4
5-8
5.5
5-10
5-12
5.3
5.6
5-1
March 1995
1 General
This Chapter is intended to provide guidelines to the decision making process in the event
that a kick is taken in a variety of different situations.
In reality, the specific conditions prevailing at the rigsite at the time that the kick is taken
will determine the best course of action to take in order to kill the well.
This Chapter should therefore not be used as a guide at the moment that a kick is taken. However,
it is anticipated that general familiarity with the analysis presented in this Chapter will enable
rigsite personnel to be better prepared to deal with a situation in which the well has kicked.
The techniques referred to in this section are covered in detail in Chapter 6, Well Kill
Techniques.
2 Pipe on Bottom
If a kick is taken with the pipe on bottom, the well will be shut-in immediately unless the
decision has previously been made to divert.
Having established that the well is safely closed in, it will be necessary to decide on the
most appropriate method of killing the well. This decision is the responsibility of the
Company Representative.
Having decided on the most appropriate course of action, the Company Representative is
responsible for ensuring that contractor personnel are made aware of the procedures that
will be used to kill the well.
The general procedure that is presented in Figure 5.1 represents the steps that should be
taken in preparation to kill the well. These steps are applicable to any situation in which a
kick is taken.
5-2
March 1995
KICK TAKEN
WELL SHUT-IN
MONITOR THE
WELL
CONTINUOUSLY
PREKILL MEETING
DECISION MADE AS TO
MOST APPROPRIATE
METHOD OF KILLING
THE WELL
DRILLING
SUPERINTENDENT IN
TOWN SHOULD BE
MADE AWARE OF THE
SITUATION
ALLOCATE INDIVIDUAL
RESPONSIBILITIES
COMPLETE
PREPARATIONS
CHECK EQUIPMENT
ENSURE PERSONNEL
ARE BRIEFED
VERIFY
COMMUNICATIONS
START UP KILL
PROCEDURE
COMPANY
REPRESENTATIVE
CONTROLS THE
OPERATION THROUGH
THE CONTRACTOR
TOOLPUSHER
WEOX02.022
5-3
March 1995
IS IT
POSSIBLE
TO STAB A SAFETY
VALVE?
WELL IS
FLOWING UP
THE DRILLSTRING
NO
YES
STAB AND CLOSE
FULL OPENING
SAFETY VALVE
HANG OFF
OPEN CHOKELINE
VALVE
SHEAR PIPE
CLOSE
ANNULAR
INSTALL DP DART
OR INSIDE BOP
THE
SEVERITY OF THE
SITUATION DICTATES
THAT STRIPPING WITH
RIG EQUIPMENT
IS IMPRACTICAL
MONITOR SURFACE
PRESSURE
ROTATE THE PIPE
YES
ATTEMPT TO
REDUCE SURFACE
PRESSURE
CONSIDER:
VOLUMETRIC
LUBRICATION
BULLHEADING
CIRCULATE OUT
INFLUX
POSSIBLE TO
REDUCE SURFACE
PRESSURE?
NO
YES
CONSIDER
SNUBBING
SURFACE
PRESSURE
EXCEEDS PRESSURE
RATING OF
ANNULAR?
NO
REDUCE
ANNULAR CLOSING
PRESSURE
ATTEMPT TO
LOWER PIPE
THROUGH STACK
ATTEMPT TO
REDUCE SURFACE
PRESSURE
CONSIDER:
VOLUMETRIC
LUBRICATION
BULLHEADING
CIRCULATE OUT
INFLUX
YES
POSSIBLE TO
REDUCE SURFACE
PRESSURE?
NO
CONSIDER
FEASIBILITY
OF RAM TO RAM
STRIPPING
CONSIDER
SNUBBING
NO
POSSIBLE TO
LOWER PIPE
THROUGH
ANNULAR?
YES
POSSIBLE
TO LOWER
TOOLJOINT THROUGH
ANNULAR?
YES
IMPLEMENT
ANNULAR
STRIPPING
NO
ATTEMPT TO
REDUCE SURFACE
PRESSURE
CONSIDER:
VOLUMETRIC
LUBRICATION
BULLHEADING
CIRCULATE OUT
INFLUX
YES
POSSIBLE TO
REDUCE SURFACE
PRESSURE ?
NO
CONSIDER
FEASIBILITY
OF ANNULAR TO
RAM STRIPPING
WEOX02.023
5-4
March 1995
Many BOP stacks, especially on land, have only one annular BOP. The BOP element
will be subject to considerable stress as the spiralled collars are stripped through it. If
the element fails there is no back-up.
Further complications that may arise in this situation are numerous, but include the following:
There is not sufficient weight of collars to strip through the annular BOP.
The appropriate course of action required in these situations will depend to a large extent on
the particular conditions and equipment at the rigsite. However Figure 5.3 is intended as a
guide to dealing with such situations.
5-5
March 1995
WELL KICKS
(Drillcollar in
the stack)
IS IT
POSSIBLE TO
STAB A SAFETY
VALVE?
NO
WELL IS
FLOWING UP THE
DRILLSTRING
YES
STAB AND CLOSE
A FULL OPENING
SAFETY VALVE
OPEN CHOKE
LINE VALVE(S)
CLOSE ANNULAR
YES
INCREASE ANNULAR
CLOSING PRESSURE
IS THE
ANNULAR
LEAKING?
NO
MINOR LEAK
LEAK STOPS
IS THE
PIPE FORCED
OUT OF THE
HOLE?
INCREASE
ANNULAR
CLOSING PRESSURE
YES
NO
NO
INSTALL INSIDE
BOP
LEAK
THREATENS RIG
FLOOR AREA
IS THE
PIPE FORCED
OUT OF THE
HOLE?
YES
MAKE UP DRILLPIPE
TO COLLARS
IS IT
POSSIBLE TO
LOWER PIPE INTO
THE HOLE?
OPEN
CHOKE LINE
YES
STRIP IN
UNTIL DRILLPIPE
IN THE STACK
CHECK INTEGRITY
OF ANNULAR
PREVENTER
NO
ATTEMPT TO
LOWER SURFACE
PRESSURE CONSIDER
LUBRICATING
BULLHEADING
STRIP IN THE
HOLE
YES
IS IT
POSSIBLE TO
LOWER PIPE INTO
THE HOLE?
OPEN
CHOKE LINE
NO
CONSIDER
SNUBBING
WEOX02.024
5-6
March 1995
However, if the influx is someway down the hole, it may not be possible to reduce the
surface pressure significantly.
If the influx is migrating up the hole, it may be possible to kill the well by implementing the
Volumetric Control Method.
On fixed offshore and land rigs, the only practical method of controlling the well may be
with the use of a snubbing unit. Snubbing units have been used in exceptional circumstances
on floating rigs.
Figure 5.4 represents a full analysis of the decision making process in the event that a kick
is taken with no pipe in the hole.
Surge pressures while running casing leading to losses and hence inducing a kick.
When casing is run to cure a well control problem, such as after drilling with a floating
mud cap or after controlling an underground blowout.
Cross over to drillpipe (unless current string weight is too great) and strip to bottom to
kill the well.
Cross over to drillpipe, strip in until drillpipe is in the stack and kill the well at current
shoe depth.
5-7
March 1995
WELL SHUT IN NO
PIPE IN THE HOLE
MONITOR
SURFACE
PRESSURE
IS THE INFLUX
IMMEDIATELY BELOW
THE RAMS?
NO
YES
LUBRICATE MUD
INTO THE HOLE AND
BLEED GAS
ALL
GAS BLED
FROM RAMS?
NO
YES
IS THERE ANY
PRESSURE UNDER
THE RAMS?
NO
YES
ATTEMPT TO REDUCE
THE SURFACE
PRESSURE
BY LUBRICATING
OR BULLHEADING
POSSIBLE TO
REDUCE SURFACE
PRESSURE?
NO
DO
SURFACE
PRESSURES INDICATE
THAT INTRODUCING
PIPE INTO THE HOLE IS
POSSIBLE?
YES
YES
NO
IMPLEMENT
VOLUMETRIC
CONTROL METHOD
YES
IS THERE
EVIDENCE OF INFLUX
MIGRATION?
NO
BULLHEAD KILL
MUD INTO THE WELL
PREPARE
CONTINGENCY TO
DEAL WITH THE
FRACTURED ZONE
KILL WELL
NO
IS SNUBBING
A PRACTICAL
CONSIDERATION?
YES
SNUB IN PIPE
KILL THE WELL
FLOWCHECK
THE WELL
OPEN THE RAMS
WEOX02.025
5-8
March 1995
The major factors that will determine the most appropriate course of action will include the
following:
The feasibility of circulating out a kick by conventional means. (The relatively small
annular clearance may cause excessive pressures in the annulus, or may possibly
completely restrict circulation.)
The feasibility of killing the well by other means such as bullheading or by volumetric
control.
The likelihood of the casing being forced out of the hole by the well pressure.
7 Underground Blowout
(a) Flow to a Fracture above a High Pressure Zone
The majority of underground blowouts in the past have been as a result of a fracture to
a weak zone up the hole as high pressure zone is penetrated.
Figure 5.5 shows a decision analysis for identifying and dealing with an underground
blowout of this type.
If an underground blowout is suspected, on no account should attempts be made to
control the well using standard techniques. If the annulus is opened, reservoir fluids
will be allowed to flow up the wellbore to surface, thereby increasing surface pressures.
The first action, after shutting in the well, will be to perform a positive test. The purpose
of this test is to determine whether or not the hole is a closed system. A small displacement
pump is lined up to the drillpipe and a small amount of fluid is pumped. If the drillpipe
and casing pressure increase, there is no indication of fracture in the openhole. If the
drillpipe pressure does not increase, or if any increase is not evident on the casing, then
a fracture in the openhole is indicated.
In order to halt an underground flow, it is necessary to pump fluid at a high rate down
the drillpipe and up the annulus; thus effecting a dynamic kill. The fluid will eventually
have to be at kill weight in order to balance the kick zone EMW. However, it will also
have to be as thin as possible to ensure that it can be pumped at high rate without
excessive surface circulating pressures.
Generally the kill mud must flow at least as fast as the underground flow if it is not to be
dispersed by the flow as it passes out of the bit. The kick zone EMW can at best be
estimated because reliable drillpipe pressure will not be available. The mud weight
required to kill the well will depend on the position of the fracture in the wellbore and
the average weight of the fluid occupying the annulus between the fracture and surface.
5-9
March 1995
MONITOR SURFACE
PRESSURES
REASSESS THE
SITUATION
NO EVIDENCE
OF UNDERGROUND
BLOWOUT
IMPLEMENT STANDARD
TECHNIQUES TO KILL
THE WELL
SUSPECT
UNDERGROUND
BLOWOUT BECAUSE:
1. DRILLPIPE ON VACUUM
2. PRESSURE BUILDUP CLEARLY
INDICATES FORMATION HAS
FRACTURED
3. ANNULUS PRESSURE
FLUCTUATING
RUN TEMPERATURE
AND/OR NOISE LOG TO
IDENTIFY FLOW IF
NECESSARY
NO
UNDERGROUND
BLOWOUT
CONFIRMED ?
YES
IF ANNULUS PRESSURE
IS NOT EXCESSIVE
LEAVE ANNULUS SHUT IN
IF ANNULUS PRESSURE IS
BUILDING, PUMP MUD AT
SLOW RATE DOWN
ANNULUS. IF ANNULUS
CANNOT SUPPORT MUD,
PUMP WATER
CONTINUALLY
MONITOR ANNULUS
5-10
March 1995
PREPARE 2 x ANNULUS
VOLUME OF KILL WEIGHT
MUD (AT MIN PV AND YP
USE FRICTION REDUCER
IF AVAILABLE). REMOVE
KELLY INSTALL
HP CIRCULATING LINE
DRILLPIPE AND
ANNULUS PRESSURES
INDICATE THAT
UNDERGROUND FLOW
HAS CEASED?
TRY
AGAIN
YES
TAKE STEPS
TO SECURE WELL
OPTIONS:
1. CEMENT BHA IN PLACE
2. POOH TO PLUG
FRACTURE
3. POOH TO RUN CASING
NO
TRY
AGAIN
DRILLPIPE AND
ANNULUS PRESSURES
INDICATE THAT
UNDERGROUND FLOW
HAS CEASED?
YES
TAKE STEPS
TO SECURE WELL
OPTIONS:
1. CEMENT BHA IN PLACE
2. POOH TO PLUG
FRACTURE
3. POOH TO RUN CASING
NO
OPTIONS:
1. BACK OFF, STRIP UP
INTO CASING, SQUEEZE
HIGH FILTER LOSS
CEMENT SLURRY TO
PLUG WELL
2. IF CIRCULATION IS
POSSIBLE ON BOTTOM,
PUMP FRESHWATER AT
MAXIMUM RATE TO
SLOUGH HOLE
YES
IS THE PIPE
STUCK ?
NO
OPTIONS:
1. STRIP UP INTO CASING.
HAVING INSTALLED
DART SQUEEZE
HIGH FILTER
LOSS CEMENT SLURRY
TO PLUG WELL
2. PUMP FRESHWATER AT
MAXIMUM RATE TO
SLOUGH HOLE
WEOX02.027
5-11
March 1995
DRILLING AHEAD
LOSSES EXPERIENCED
CURE LOSSES
DRILL AHEAD
CANNOT CONTROL
LOSSES
WELL STARTS TO
FLOW
SHUT IN WELL
POSSIBLE UNDERGROUND
BLOWOUT INDICATORS:
NO SURFACE PRESSURE
ANNULUS AND DRILLPIPE ON
UNDERGROUND
BLOWOUT
CONFIRMED?
NO
REASSESS THE
SITUATION
YES
CONTINUALLY
MONITOR ANNULUS
OPTIONS TO
CONTROL THE FLOW:
NO
SURFACE
PRESSURE LOGS
INDICATE THAT
UNDERGROUND
FLOW HAS
CEASED ?
YES
TAKE STEPS TO
SECURE WELL
5-12
March 1995
WEOX02.028
The fracture may only support a column of water, in which case it will be necessary to
balance the kick zone pressure with the sum of the hydrostatic pressure of the kill weight
mud from the kick zone to the fracture and the hydrostatic pressure of the water above
the fracture.
If the first attempt to control the flow is unsuccessful, the most likely causes will beeither
that the volume or the velocity of kill mud was insufficient. Subsequent options therefore
include increasing the volume of the kill mud pumped and pumping at a greater rate.
If the rig pumps have been operating at maximum output there remains the options to
bring more pumps to the rigsite or to reduce the frictional resistance of the drillstring by
such measures as:
Pumping a lighter, less viscous mud ahead of the kill weight mud in order to reduce
the velocity of the inflow.
As indicated in Figure 5.5, if these measures do not bring the well under control, there
remains the option to mix an LCM pill or soft plug (See Chapter 2, Section 2.3) and
displace it down the annulus and into the fracture as the kill weight mud is pumped
down the drillpipe. The pump rates on the drillpipe and the annulus should be such as to
ensure that the LCM pill is completely displaced into the fracture over the period of
time that will be required to pump the prepared volume of kill weight mud.
Past experience has shown that in many cases, having halted the underground flow, a
further flow has been initiated by attempts to pull off bottom. If the decision is made to
pull off bottom having halted an underground flow, extreme care should be taken.
The industry has given the term Baryte plug to the heavy weight pills required to deal
with underground blowouts. The recommended procedure for mixing and spotting a
baryte plug, to deal with an underground blowout, is covered in Chapter 6.
5-13
March 1995
Drilling under pressure will however only be used in circumstances in which lost
circulation of this type has been anticipated, the high pressure zone has low permeability
and the correct equipment, including a rotating head, is available onsite.
See Chapter 2, Section 2.3 for LCM and cement plug recipes.
5-14
March 1995
Page
6-1
6-31
6-33
2.2 Stripping
6-47
2.3 Bullheading
6-67
2.4 Snubbing
6-75
6-84
6-93
6.3 COMPLICATIONS
6-97
March 1995
Page
General
6-2
6-2
Kick Sheet
6-3
6-5
6-8
6-11
6-14
6-23
Illustrations
6.1
6-14
6.2
6-21
6.3
6-24
6-25
6-26
6-27
6-28
6-29
6-30
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6-31
6-1
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
1 General
This section covers the basic steps that are required to implement the Drillers Method, the
Wait & Weight Method on both a fixed installation as well as a floating rig. Further
discussions on the theories behind the methods are covered in Vol.2, Chapter 5.
Company policy is that a contingency plan must be developed regarding the implementation
of the well control methods for both Company operated rigs and rigs that are under a Company
contract. This section is intended to assist in drawing up these contingency plans.
All the well control techniques are designed to ensure that:
Bottom hole pressure is maintained constant and equal to, or slightly greater than, the
formation pressure.
This is the key to well control practice. These techniques use the principle that:
The drillpipe pressure is used to monitor bottom hole pressure.
In the event of any well control incident it is important that a diary of events is kept. The
Well Control operations log can be used initially for this (See Figure 4.5). A full report
should eventually be issued and submitted to Line Management.
The surface pressure will be lower than using other methods if the kill weight mud
enters the annulus before the influx is circulated out. This difference is most
significant for influx containing gas, and for high intensity (large under-balance)
kicks. This is illustrated in Figure 5.5 in Vol.2, Chapter 5.
The pressure exerted on the casing shoe (or the weak point in the openhole) will be
lower than using other methods if the kill mud starts up the annulus before the top of
the influx is displaced to the shoe (or openhole weak point). This is illustrated in
Figure 5.6 in Vol.2, Chapter 5.
6-2
Rev
March
1 March
1995 1995
The rig mud weighting system is not capable of increasing the active mud weight to
kill weight as the kick is displaced.
There is some considerable doubt as to the mud weight required to kill the well.
Impending bad weather dictates that the kick must be displaced from the hole as
quickly as possible.
Increasing surface pressures indicate the influx is rising rapidly in the annulus
Under the above circumstances, the Drillers method should be considered. The Drillers
Method requires that two complete hole circulations are carried out before the well can
be killed. After a kick is taken and the well shut-in, the kick is displaced from the hole
by the first circulation with the original mud. In the mean time the mud is weighted up
to kill weight, and the second circulation carried out to kill the well.
The advantages of the Drillers Method over the Wait & Weight Method are:
The kick can be displaced from the hole soon after the well is shut-in.
The earlier circulation may reduce the risks of stuck pipe and other hole problems.
Influx fluids can be displaced from the well, even if suitable mud weighting material
is not available.
It avoids the need to initiate a volumetric control during the waiting period.
3 Kick Sheet
The kick sheet should be used to record all the relevant well and kick data. Figures 6.1a,
6.1b and 6.1c show an example kick sheet. The procedures for completing the kick sheet are
shown in Figure 6.1d.
The general well data, drillstring/annulus contents, circulating times and the mud pump
data should be recorded routinely and available at all times in the kick sheet.
In case a kick is taken, the relevant kick data should be recorded in the kick sheet. The
shut-in procedure and the interpretation of the pressure data are covered in Chapter 4. Based
on the kick data, a decision should be made regarding what method be used to kill the well.
In addition to the standard methods which have been described in the previous paragraphs,
some special techniques should be also considered. These special techniques are discussed
in Section 6.2.
If the decision is made to displace the kick from the hole by using one of the standard
methods, the relevant parameters should be calculated and recorded in the kick sheet.
6-3
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
(SG)
Pdp
= Stabilised shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
MW1 = Original mud weight (SG)
TVD = True vertical depth of kick zone (m)
It is not recommended practice to weight the mud any higher than the kill weight during
the well killing operation. After the well has been killed however, the mud weight should
be raised to provide suitable overbalance.
(MW2 - MW1)
(4.25 - MW2)
(lb/bbl)
(lb)
(bbl)
The stocks of baryte at the rigsite must be at least 10% greater than the calculated
quantity of baryte required.
6-4
Rev 1 1995
March 1995
March
A limiting factor, particularly in the case of oil mud, may be the rate at which viscosity
can be built in the mud. This, and associated problems of building mud weight are
discussed in Chapter 1 in Use of the Mud System.
Having established the maximum possible circulation rate, the actual circulation rate
will be determined on the basis of several factors. These factors are detailed in Chapter1
in Drills and SCRs. The chosen SCR and the relevant pumping data should be recorded
in the kick sheet.
Pic
Pdp
Pscr
6-5
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
MW2
MW1
(d) Determine the displacement times and the cumulative pump strokes
At all times during circulation, it is important to know the position of the influx in the
wellbore, as well as the volume of hole that has been circulated to kill weight mud.
The key points during the circulation are as follows:
When the top of the influx is circulated to the casing shoe or openhole weak point.
Before circulation is started, the estimated circulating time and the corresponding total
pump strokes to each point should be calculated.
Pumping time to reach point =
of interest
Total strokes to reach point =
of interest
Line up the pump to the drillpipe and route returns through the choke manifold to
the mud gas separator.
Open the remote operated choke at the same time as the pump is started on the hole.
Consider stroking the drillstring up at this point.
6-6
March
Rev 1 1995
March 1995
Maintain the choke pressure equal to the original shut-in casing pressure as the pump
is slowly brought up to speed. This may take 1/2 to 1 minute.
If the actual initial circulating pressure is considerably different from the calculated
value, stop the pump, shut in the well and investigate the cause.
If the actual initial circulating pressure is equal to, or reasonably close to the calculated
value, continue the displacement and adjust the standpipe pressure schedule accordingly.
Any marginal difference between the actual and calculated initial circulating pressure
is most likely to be due to the fact that the SCR pressure used to calculate the initial
circulating pressure was inaccurate. The actual SCR pressure, and hence the corrected
final circulating pressure, Pfc, can be determined from the initial circulating pressure as
follows:
Circulate the influx from the well maintaining constant bottom hole
pressure
As the drillpipe is displaced with kill weight mud, the standpipe pressure should be
stepped down according to the standpipe pressure schedule. (The standpipe pressure
will have a natural tendency to drop as the kill weight mud is displaced down the
drillpipe.)
Once the drillpipe has been displaced to kill weight mud, the drillpipe pressure should
be maintained at the final circulating pressure for the rest of the circulation.
The pit gain, drillpipe pressure, choke pressure and all other relevant information
should b e recorded during displacement using the Well Control Operations Log
(SeeFigure 4.5). These will help to determine the down hole condition during all stages
of the kill operation.
As the influx is displaced up the hole, the drillpipe pressure will tend to drop as the
influx expands. (This expansion will not occur if the influx is water or oil.) This effect
will be especially marked if the influx contains a significant quantity of gas. The choke
should therefore be adjusted to compensate for this. For example, if the drillpipe pressure
drops by 70 psi below that required, the choke pressure should be increased by
approximately 70 psi. The pressure on the drillpipe will increase after a lag time which
can typically be 2 seconds per 300m of drillstring depth. This technique will be most
effective at the early stages of displacement; and less so at later stages of the
displacement, if the well contains a significant proportion of gas.
When the influx reaches the choke, the choke pressure will start to decrease due to the
differences in density and viscosity between the influx and the mud. If the influx contains
significant quantities of gas, the drop in choke pressure may be quite substantial, and
the choke will have to be closed down quickly.
As the influx is circulated from the well and mud is circulated to the choke, the choke
pressure will begin to rise rapidly. The choke should therefore be opened to allow the
choke pressure to drop sufficiently to re-establish the final circulating pressure on the
drillpipe, and hence maintain constant bottom hole pressure.
6-7
Rev 1 March 1995
Once the hole has been circulated to kill weight mud, the pump should be stopped, the
well shut-in, and the casing and drillpipe checked for pressure. There should be no
pressure on either the casing or the drillpipe. However, if there is still some pressure on
the casing, circulation should be restarted to clear the contaminated mud from the annulus.
Once the well has been completely killed, a flowcheck on the choke line return should
be carried out before the rams are opened. If this flowcheck indicates no flow, the rams
should be opened and a further flowcheck on the annulus carried out.
In line with Company policy, a further complete hole circulation should be carried out
prior to continuing operations. A suitable overbalance can be added to the mud at
thisstage.
6-8
March
Rev 1 1995
March 1995
The following steps can be used as a guide for the procedure for the displacement of
thekick:
1
Line up the pump to the drillpipe and route returns through the choke manifold to
the mud gas separator.
Open the remote operated choke at the same time as the pump is slowly brought up
to speed. Consider stroking the drillstring up at this point.
Maintain the choke pressure equal to the original shut-in casing pressure as the pump
is slowly brought up to speed. This may take 1/2 to 1 minute.
Once the pump is up to speed record the initial circulating pressure. If the actual
initial circulating pressure is considerably different from the calculated value, stop
the pump, shut-in the well and investigate the cause.
If the actual initial circulating pressure is equal to, or reasonably close to the calculated
value, continue the displacement, holding the standpipe pressure at the value recorded
when the pump was first brought up to speed.
Any marginal difference between the actual and calculated initial circulating pressure
is most likely to be due to the fact that the SCR pressure used to calculate the initial
circulating pressure was inaccurate. The actual SCR pressure can be determined from
the initial circulating pressure as follows:
Pscr = Pic Pdp
This adjusted value for the SCR pressure should be used for estimating the circulating
pressures for the second complete circulation.
2
Circulate the influx from the well maintaining constant bottom hole
pressure
Influx behaviour during circulation will be similar to the Wait and Weight Method
requiring similar choke manipulation.
Choke pressures will inevitably be higher than if the Wait and Weight Method had
beenused. These higher pressures will be reflected downhole, causing greater stress in
the openhole.
Once the influx has been displaced from the hole, the shut-in drillpipe and shut-in casing
pressure should be equal. If the casing pressure is higher than the drillpipe pressure,
this is evidence that there is still some kick fluid in the annulus, or the mud weights are
out of balance.
Prior to circulating kill weight mud into the hole, the calculations as outlined in
Paragraph3 Kick Sheet should be carried out. The following further calculations are
then worked:
6-9
Rev 1 March 1995
Pic
Pdp
Pscr
MW2
MW1
Pfc
= Second circulation final circulating pressure (psi)
MW1 = Original mud weight (SG)
MW2 = Kill mud weight used for second circulation (SG)
Change pump suctions without stopping the mud pump, and begin pumping the kill
weight mud. (An alternative is to stop pumping and then restart using the procedure
for the Wait and Weight Method.)
Once the pump has been switched to the kill mud, record the initial circulating
pressure.
The initial circulating pressure should be the same with the standpipe pressure during
the first complete circulation. If this is the case, continue the displacement and adjust
the standpipe pressure schedule accordingly.
If the initial circulating pressure has changed considerably, stop the pump, shut in the
well, and investigate the cause.
6-10
Rev 1 1995
March 1995
March
Circulate the hole to kill weight mud maintaining constant bottom hole
pressure
As the drillpipe is displaced with kill weight mud, the standpipe circulating pressure
should be stepped down according to the standpipe pressure schedule.
Once the drillpipe has been displaced to kill weight mud, the final drillpipe circulating
pressure is held constant by manipulating the choke.
As kill weight mud is circulated up the annulus, the drillpipe pressure will tend to
increase. The choke should be adjusted to ensure that the drillpipe pressure is maintained
at the final circulating pressure; thereby ensuring constant bottom hole pressure.
When the returned mud is at kill weight, the pump should be stopped and the well
shut-in. The well should be checked for pressure.
Once the well has been killed, a flowcheck on the choke line return should be carried
out before the rams are opened. If this flowcheck indicates no flow, the rams should be
opened and a further flowcheck on the annulus carried out.
In line with Company policy, a further complete hole circulation should be carried
outprior to continuing operations. A suitable overbalance can be added to the mud at
this stage.
The advantages of the Wait & Weight Method over the Drillers Method are less
important in a high angle or horizontal well. This is because the weighted mud will
not reduce the surface and casing shoe pressures until it has passed the horizontal or
high angle section. By then the kick may have entered into the casing or been out of
the well.
The circulation should be started using the Drillers Method once the well has
beenshut in and the stabilised shut-in pressures are established. In the mean time,
the kill weight mud is prepared in the reserve mud pits. The earlier start of the
circulation will reduce the risks of stuck pipe and other hole problems associated
with the stagnant mud.
Once the mud weight has been increased to the kill weight, the circulation should be
switched to the kill weight mud, even if the influx is still in the annulus. The
circulation continues until the kick is circulated out and the kill mud returns to surface.
This will minimise the well pressures as well as the time of dealing with the kick.
6-11
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
Calculate the drillpipe size factor and the friction constant. This is necessary in
order to calculate the friction pressure increase due to the kill weight mud.
1 = L 1 / ID15
where:
1
L1
ID1
If there is more than one drillpipe section (tapered string), then the size factor should be
calculated for each of the sections. BHA can be treated as part of the drillpipe section.
Pfc - P scr
1 + 2
=
where:
1 2
Pfc
Pscr
=
=
=
=
ii. Calculate the friction pressure increase when the kill mud reaches each of the critical
depths in the drillpipe (kick-off, end-build, end-tangent, etc.).
If the critical depth is above/at the drillpipe section cross-over point, then:
P friction = x
MD
ID 1 5
If the critical depth is below the drillpipe section cross-over point, then:
P friction = x [ 1 +
(MD - L1 )
]
ID 25
where: P friction = Friction pressure increase due to kill weight mud, (psi)
6-12
March
Rev 1 1995
March 1995
Pstatic
Pdp
TVD
TVD h
TVD
)
TVD h
iv. Calculate the standpipe pressure when the kill weight mud reaches each of the
criticaldepths.
Pstand = P scr + Pfriction + Pstatic
where: Pstand = Standpipe pressure, (psi)
The results of the above calculations should be recorded in the Kick Sheet. These
calculations should be carried out if the hole has a maximum angle greater than
30de grees.
Figures 6.1a shows an example of a completed kick sheet for a high angle well.
Figure6.1b sho ws the standpipe pressure schedule for pumping down the kill weight
mud. It shows that the standpipe pressures required to maintain a constant bottom hole
pressure are lower for a high angle well (with build-hold profile) than if the well was
vertical. So if the standpipe pressure schedule for a vertical well was used (dotted straight
line in Figure 6.1b), excessive high well pressures would result, which would increase
the risk of fracturing the formation at the casing shoe or openhole weak point.
When the well is shut in, the drillpipe pressure and the casing pressure are the same
(under-balanced kick) or both are zeros (swabbed kick)
However the kick influx density/type (gas, water or oil) can not be determined based on
the above data (as using the method described in Section 4.3). A gas kick is recognised
when it is being circulated through the low angle or vertical hole section, where gas
expansion causes a continuous increase in the casing pressure. So the first attempt to
kill the well should be using one of the standard techniques.
6-13
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
If the kick can not be circulated to surface using the standard techniques, it indicates
that the kick influx is free gas which has been trapped in the inverted or horizontal hole
section. To remove the trapped gas, the mud must be circulated with an annular velocity
above a critical value. This critical annular velocity is about 100 ft/min when the hole
angle is between 90~95 degrees. In an 8-1/2" hole, this corresponds to a critical flow
rate of 4.6 bbl/min, which is higher than the normal range of SCR during a well control
operation. So prior to drilling an inverted or horizontal hole section, the pump pressure
at a SCR corresponding to 100~150 ft/min should be recorded in the kick sheet.
The following procedures may be attempted to remove the trapped gas from the inverted
or horizontal hole section:
Start circulation with the original mud at a flow rate corresponding to an annular
mud velocity of 100~150 ft/min until the entire horizontal hole section has been
displaced;
Reduce the flow rate to a normal SCR and proceed using one of the standard well
killing techniques.
After one complete circulation, stop the pump and shut in the well to check the
pitgain.
If there is still a positive pit gain, that indicates that some gas is still trapped downhole.
Repeat the previous procedures.
In cases where the high flow rate can not be achieved to remove the trapped gas, consider
bullheading the gas back into the formation. As the trapped gas should stay near the
kick formation, bullheading is more likely to succeed in an inverted hole section. The
bullheading technique is described in Section 6.2.
The frictional pressure generated by circulating through the choke line may cause
excessive pressures in the wellbore or in the circulating system.
The entry of the influx into the choke line may cause an uncontrollable drop in bottomhole
pressure.
As the mud displaces the influx from the choke line the rapid increase in hydrostatic
pressure in the annulus may cause excessive pressures in the openhole.
These problems are particularly acute in deep water. However, well control procedures should
be modified in line with those described here, even in relatively shallow water, to take
account of these problems. The drillpipe pressure is still used to monitor bottomhole
pressure.
6-14
March
Rev 1 1995
March 1995
Well No.
Well No.
Rig Name:
8-1/2"
1003
50
Hole Size:
MAASP (psi):
Barytes on Site (MT):
Rigname
27-Oct-94
Date:
9-5/8"
Casing Size:
1.44
40
13:10
Time:
TD= 4291
10900
300
DRILLSTRING CONTENTS
DP/DC Section
ID
5" DP
5" HWDP
6-1/4" DC
Capacity (bbl/m)
4.276
3
2.25
Length (m)
0.0583
0.0287
0.0161
5180
60
60
Vol (bbl)
301.82
1.72
0.97
303.5
304.5
ANNULUS CONTENTS
Hole/Casing Section
ID
5"DP - 9-5/8"csg
5"DP - Hole
6-1/4" DC - Hole
Capacity (bbl/m)
8.681
8.5
8.5
5-1/2"
5-1/2"
30
40
50
831.5
837.9
100
2.9
Vol (bbl):
350
4723
4723
PUMP 1
SPM
Length (m):
1151
Vol (bbl)
688.6
142.9
6.3
1501
Pump 2 Liner:
4291
949
60
Pump 1 Liner:
Length (m)
0.1605
0.1506
0.1058
Eff (%): 97
Eff (%): 97
PUMP 2
bbl/min
Pscr
2.565
3.42
4.275
350
590
890
SPM
bbi/min
Pscr
Surface to Bit
Bit to Shoe
2.565
3.42
4.275
355
600
900
119 / 3567
89 / 3567
71 / 3567
58 / 1746
44 / 1746
35 / 1746
TD= 5300
400
1.15
0.086
30
40
50
0.0855
0.0855
Shoe to Choke
Total
KICK DATA
Time of Kick:
15:25
30
15:30
750
460
81.1
2.565
0.98
20
55
350
psi
410
ID
5" DP + BHA
4.276
Section Point
MD (m)
Length (m)
Size Factor
5300
3.708
16.27
Surface:
Kick Off:
End Build 1:
TVD (m)
Vol (bbl)
Strokes
Pstatic (psi)
Pfriction (psi)
0
350
1328
350
1000
20
77
239
905
316
160
4
15
5300
1667
309
3612
60
=Pdp
750
670
525
Pfc=
410
DP Cross-Over:
End Tangent 1:
End Build/Drop 2:
Bit:
6-15
March 1995
0
239
905
3612
800
6-16
750
750
670
525
410
750
410
700
Kick
off
650
600
550
500
End Build
450
400
Bit
350
0
500
1000
1500
2000
Pump Strokes
2500
3000
3500
4000
March 1995
SUMMARY OF FORMULAE
1. MAASP = P wp - 1.421 x MW 1 x D wp
10.
= L 1 / ID15
= L 2 / ID25
Pdp
4. Kill Mud Weight (sg), MW2 = MW 1 +
1.421 x TVDh
11.
Pfc - Pscr
Drillpipe Friction Constant, =
1+2
(MW2 - MW1 )
5. Baryte Required (lb/bbl) = 1490 x
(4.25 - MW 2)
12.
MW 2
x
MW 1
13.
14.
MD
MW 1
MW 2
Pdp
Pfc
Pic
Pscr
Pstand
Pstatic
Pwp
TVD
TVD h
Maxi
mum allowable annulus surface pressure
(psi)
Measured depth at depth of interest (m)
Original (unweighted) mud weight (sg)
Kill mud weight (sg)
Shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi)
Final circulating pressure (psi)
initial circulating pressure (psi)
Standpipe pressure at solw circulating rate
with original mud (psi)
Pfriction
6-17
March 1995
/ 313.8
Annulus capacity [bbl/m] = [ (Hole size, inch) (Pipe OD, inch) 2 ] / 313.8
2
KICK DATA
Record all the relevant kick data (time, hole depths, mud weight, shut-in DP & casing pressures, pit gain). All
the kill parameters should be calculated.
Kill mud weight [sg] = (Mud weight in hole, sg) + [(SIDPP Pdp, psi)
6-18
March 1995
Calculate the pump stroke and the corresponding standpipe pressure when the kill mud has reached the
depth at MD/TVD (the point for calculation such as kick off, end-build, etc.):
Volume [bbl] = (Drillstring capacity, bbl/m) x (Measured depth MD, m)
Pump stroke [stk] = (Volume, bbl)
(TVD, m)
Static (shut-in) pressure Pstatic [psi] = (SIDPP Pdp, psi) x [ 1.0 ]
(Hole TVD, m)
Friction pressure increase (due to kill mud) Pfriction :
- If MD (point for calculation) is above or at DP1/DP2 cross-over point:
P friction [psi] = (DP Friction Const, ) x (MD, m)
6-19
March 1995
Choke line losses are generally not significant at slow circulating rates in shallow water and
so the calculations required during the implementation of both the Drillers Method and the
Wait and Weight Method on a floating rig, drilling in shallow water, do not account for
choke line losses. The calculations as covered in Paragraphs 4 to 6 (which cover the normal
implementation of the Wait and Weight Method and the Drillers Method) are therefore still
applicable.
In deep water, when choke line losses can be significant, it is necessary to assess the effect
of choke line losses on wellbore pressures during circulation. In which case further
calculations, as covered in Paragraph 8, Accounting for Choke Line Losses in Deep Water,
are required to account for choke line losses.
Standard procedure (as detailed in Paragraphs 4 to 6) should be modified along the following
lines when using either the Wait and Weight Method or the Drillers Method on a floatingr ig:
1
Line up to monitor wellhead pressure through the kill line. See Figure 6.2 for a
schematicof the kill line monitor . (Bear in mind that the kill line may not contain
mud at this stage.)
Line up the pump to circulate down the drillpipe and route returns through the choke
manifold to the mud gas separator.
Open the remote operated choke at the same time as the pump is started on the hole.
Hold the kill line monitor pressure constant as the pump is brought up to speed.
Once the pump is up to speed the initial circulating pressure should be checked.
6-20
March 1995
PUMP
KILL LINE
MONITOR
CHOKE
PRESSURE
GAUGE
VALVE
OPEN
VALVE
CLOSED
RETURNS
SEA
KILL LINE
(KILL LINE VALVES
OPEN)
CHOKE LINE
SEABED
KEY
MUD
VALVE OPEN
GAS
VALVE CLOSED
WEOX02.030
6-21
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
An increase in the pressure recorded at the kill line monitor may indicate that the original
mud behind the influx has started up the choke line.
In the case of the Wait and Weight Method, once the returns are at kill weight, the pump
should be stopped and the well checked for pressure.
In the case of the Drillers Method, the well will be circulated to kill weight mud prior
to step (4).
4
Isolate the well from the BOP stack by closing the lower pipe rams. (See Figure6.4.)
Circulate kill mud down the kill line, across the stack and up the choke line.
Route r eturns through the degasser. Record the kill line circulating pressure.
(SeeFigure 6.5.)
Shut the well in. Line up to circulate water down the kill line and up the choke line.
Slowly displace the kill line to water. As the kill line is displaced to water increase
the kill line circulating pressure by an amount equal to the difference in hydrostatic
pressure between the kill mud and water at the depth of the stack. (This will ensure
that the gas pressure is unchanged.)
Keep pumping water across the stack and maintain the final circulating
pressure.W hen the returns are clear water, stop the pump and shut in at the choke.
(See Figure6.6.)
Close the diverter. Line up the trip tank/pump to circulate the riser under the diverter.
Slowly bleed back the upper annular closing pressure. Open the annular.
Allow the riser to U-tube. Take returns up the choke line. Fill the hole as required.
(See Figure 6.8.) Be prepared to deal with gas in the riser.
Displace the riser and kill and choke lines to kill weight mud.
6-22
March 1995
For Case B:
where:
Pa
Poc
Pcl
6-23
March 1995
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
MUD
UPPER ANNULAR
GAS
VALVE OPEN
VALVE CLOSED
LOWER ANNULAR
BLIND/SHEAR
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.031
6-24
March 1995
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
MUD
UPPER ANNULAR
GAS
VALVE OPEN
VALVE CLOSED
LOWER ANNULAR
BLIND/SHEAR
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.032
6-25
March 1995
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
MUD
UPPER ANNULAR
GAS
VALVE OPEN
VALVE CLOSED
LOWER ANNULAR
BLIND/SHEAR
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.033
6-26
March 1995
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
MUD
GAS
UPPER ANNULAR
VALVE OPEN
VALVE CLOSED
LOWER ANNULAR
BLIND/SHEAR
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.034
6-27
March 1995
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
MUD
UPPER ANNULAR
GAS
VALVE OPEN
VALVE CLOSED
LOWER ANNULAR
BLIND/SHEAR
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.035
6-28
March 1995
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
MUD
GAS
UPPER ANNULAR
VALVE OPEN
VALVE CLOSED
LOWER ANNULAR
BLIND/SHEAR
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.036
6-29
March 1995
INITIAL SHUT-IN
CONDITIONS
CHOKE PRESSURE
DROPS BY CHOKE
LINE PRESSURE DROP
DRILLPIPE PRESSURE
INCREASES BY
SCR PRESSURE
800
400
800
800
1385
430
KILL LINE
PRESSURE HELD
CONSTANT
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE
STAYS APPROXIMATELY
CONSTANT
KEY
MUD
GAS
20
30
40
PSCR
400
680
985
PCL
150
250
370
WEOX02.037
6-30
March 1995
CHOKE PRESSURE
DROPS BY CHOKE
LINE PRESSURE DROP
DRILLPILE PRESSURE
INCREASED BY
SCR PRESSURE
400
100
400
400
780
150
KILL LINE
PRESSURE HELD
CONSTANT
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE
STAYS APPROXIMATELY
CONSTANT
CIRCULATION STARTED AT
MINIMUM RATE, 20SPM
DRILLPIPE PRESSURE
EQUALS THE SUM OF THE ORIGINAL
SHUT-IN DRILLPIPE PRESSURE PLUS
THE SCR PRESSURE PLUS
THE CHOKE LINE LOSS PLUS THE WIDE
OPEN CHOKE PRESSURE MINUS THE
SHUT-IN CASING PRESSURE
100
100
100
200
CHOKE PRESSURE
WITH CHOKE WIDE
OPEN
600
50
BOTTOMHOLE PRESSURE
INCREASES
20
30
40
PSCR
400
680
985
PCL
150
250
370
KEY
MUD
GAS
WEOX02.038
6-31
March 1995
These pressures as well as the annulus frictional pressure will act at all points in the
wellbore and circulating system. The effect of these additional pressures must therefore
be analysed at all points in the system and in particular at the openhole weak point.
2
For Case A:
For Case B:
where:
Pscr
Pdp
Pcl
Pa
Poc
MW2
MW1
MW2) + Pcl + Poc P a
MW1
4 Monitor pressure at the kill line monitor as the pump is brought up to speed
For Case A, the pressure at the kill line monitor is held constant as the pump is brought
up to speed. The choke pressure will decrease by an amount equivalent to the choke line
friction pressure once the pump is up to speed.
For Case B, the pressure at the kill line monitor will be constant as the pump is brought
up to speed. However at some point before the pump is up to the SCR the kill line
monitor pressure will start to increase. Once the pump is up to speed the choke will be
wide open and the pressure at the kill line monitor will have risen by the proportion of
the choke line friction pressure that is not compensated for. (The increase will be
equivalent to Pcl + P oc P a.)
5
6-32
March 1995
For Case A, the actual SCR pressure can be determined from the initial circulating
pressure as follows:
P scr = Pic P dp
For Case B, the actual SCR pressure can be determined as follows:
P scr = Pic P dp P cl P oc + P a
For the Wait and Weight Method the final circulating pressure must be recalculated as
follows:
For Case A, the final circulating pressure can be determined as follows:
Pfc = Pscr
MW2
MW1
The standpipe pressure should therefore be redrawn to take into account these adjusted
figures.
6
Assess the effect of choke line losses at the latter stages of kick
displacement
For Case A:
For Case B:
It should be noted that the most critical period in terms of downhole pressures is likely to
occur at early stages in the displacement. In this respect the change in choke line loss
compensation at latter stages in the displacement is unlikely to be a critical factor.
6-33/34
6-33
March 1995
6.2
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Subsection
Page
6-37
2.2 STRIPPING
6-51
2.3 BULLHEADING
6-71
2.4 SNUBBING
6-79
6-89
6-97
6-35/36
6-35
March 1995
6.2
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Subsection 2.1
VOLUMETRIC METHOD
Paragraph
Page
General
6-38
6-38
6-40
Lubrication
6-46
6-47
Illustrations
6.12 Static Volumetric Method an example of control
of bottomhole pressure at the choke
6-42
6-43
6-44
6-45
6-49
6-37
March 1995
1 General
The Volumetric Method can be used to control the expansion of an influx that is migrating
during shut-in periods. It can therefore only be used if significant migration is
occurring. This may occur only in the case of gas kicks.
This method can be used during shut-in periods prior to displacement, or as a means of
safely venting an influx from a well in which circumstances prevent the implementation of
normal well control techniques.
Situations in which the Volumetric Method may be applicable therefore include:
If the pipe is a considerable distance off bottom, out of the hole or stuck off bottom.
There are four techniques that may be required to deal with an influx that is migrating up
the hole. These are as follows:
Static Volumetric Control: When the drillpipe is on or near bottom and can be used to
measure bottomhole pressure.
Static Volumetric Control: When the drillpipe cannot be used to measure bottomhole
pressure.
Lubrication: When the influx has migrated to the stack this technique is used to replace
the influx with mud as the influx is bled at the choke.
Dynamic Volumetric Control: This technique may be used as an alternative to the above
but is most applicable as an alternative to lubrication on a floating rig.
The following Paragraphs can be used as guidelines for the implementation of the above
mentioned procedures.
6-38
March 1995
P2 P1
MW X 1.421
where P1
P2
MW
T
MR
=
=
=
=
=
(m)
60
(m/hr)
T
4
6-39
March 1995
Lubricate mud into the hole or implement the Dynamic Volumetric Method
See Paragraphs 4 and 5 as follows.
6-40
March 1995
For example, if the choke pressure increases by 100 psi, a volume of mud equivalent to a
hydrostatic pressure in the annulus of 100 psi is bled at the choke at constant choke
pressure. In this manner, control over the bottomhole pressure is achieved. It should be
noted that this method is only applicable if the influx is migrating as the mud
is bled from the well . The rate of influx migration determines the time required to bleed
each increment of mud from the well.
Figure 6.12 illustrates this technique. In this example, the following conditions apply:
Operating margin = 150 psi
Annulus
= 8 1/2 in.
Mud weight
= 1.85 SG
5 in.
= 17.5 psi/bbl
445.7 X MW
(d hc 2 d o2 )
(psi/barrel)
6-41
March 1995
2.
INCREASE IN SURFACE PRESSURE
FOR OVERBALANCE MARGIN
850psi Pa
650psi Pa
PRESSURE IN
BUBBLE 10,000psi
HEIGHT
OF INFLUX
66m
VOLUME OF
INFLUX 10bbl
VOLUME OF
INFLUX 10bbl
DEPTH 3615m
76m
BHP = Pf = 10,000psi
BHP = 10,200psi
T=0
3.
INCREASE IN SURFACE PRESSURE
FOR OPERATING MARGIN
4.
8.5bbl BLED OFF WHILST HOLDING
CHOKE PRESSURE CONSTANT
1000psi Pa
1000psi Pa
PRESSURE IN
BUBBLE NOW
5405psi
PRESSURE
IN BUBBLE
10,000psi
VOLUME OF
INFLUX 18.5bbl
VOLUME OF
INFLUX 10bbl
KEY
1824m
MUD
133m
GAS
BHP = 10,350psi
T = 25 min
MUD BLED AT
CONSTANT CHOKE
PRESSURE
BHP = 10,200psi
T = 6 hours
WEOX02.039
6-42
March 1995
3a.
BLEED MUD FROM
WELL INSTANTANEOUSLY
4a.
8.5bbl BLED OFF INSTANTANEOUSLY,
WELL SHUT-IN
Pa DROPS BELOW
1000psi
Pa > 1000psi
VOLUME OF
INFLUX = 10.4bbl
VOLUME OF
INFLUX = 10.4bbl
VOLUME OF
SECONDARY INFLUX
= 8.1bbl
BHP = 10,000psi
T
25 min
BHP DROPS
BELOW
10,000psi
BHP = 10,000psi
T
25 min
KEY
MUD
GAS
WEOX02.040
6-43
March 1995
WELL NO
26
RIG
UK
Units (US/UK):
Rig 10
1.85
15:30
1.85
sg MUD in
sg MUD in
8.5
20/08/95
SHEET NO
ANNULUS:
17.46
psi/bbl
ANNULUS:
psi/bbl
sg MUD in
HOLE:
psi/bbl
sg MUD in
HOLE:
psi/bbl
P1
psi
OVERBALANCE MARGIN:
TIME
( hr
200
psi
OPERATION
If DP pressure can't be read see page 6-36
of Vol. 1 of BP Well Control Manual
min)
19:00
OPERATING MARGIN:
Choke or DP
Choke
Monitor
Pressure
(psi)
Change in
Monitor
Pressure
(psi)
150
Hydrostatic
of Mud Bled/
Lubricated
(psi)
(psi)
Volume
of Mud Bled/
Lubricated
(bbl)
Time (min)
P2
100
200
100
19:25
Influx Migrating
1000
150
350
100
1000
-150
200
8.5
108.5
Influx Migrating
1150
150
350
108.5
1150
-150
200
8.5
117
Influx Migrating
1300
150
350
117
3:30 / 4:45
4.:55
4:55 / 5:30
1300
-150
200
8.5
125.5
Influx Migrating
1450
150
350
125.5
1450
-150
200
8.5
134
+ ve increase
- ve decrease
- ve bled
+ ve
overbalance
+ ve bled
+ ve lubricated
- ve
underbalance
- ve lubricated
WEOX02.199
6-44
March 1995
11.2311
Total
Volume of
Mud
(bbl)
200
3:30
20
5
Rate, (mpm)
850
1:35
Overbalance
Influx Migrating
1:35 / 3:15
Migration Rate
19:15
19:25 / 01.25
650
1.85
The choke pressure must be held constant as the mud is bled from the well.
As an example (refer to Figures 6.12 and 6.13):
Operating margin = 150 psi
Annulus
= 8 1/2 in. X 5 in.
Mud weight
= 1.85 SG
Hydrostatic equivalent of mud =
Therefore bleed
150
17.5
As can be seen from the example in Figure 6.12 the bottom of the influx has had to
migrate from 133m off bottom, to 1824m off bottom, whilst bleeding off 8.5 bbl of
mud. This could take considerable time. If the operating margin, in this case 150 psi
(8.5 bbl), had been quickly bled off and assuming no migration during this period, the
bubble would have expanded by only about 0.36/bbl before bottomhole pressure (BHP)
dropped to kick zone pressure. This would result in a further influx of 8.14 bbl.
Subsequent volumes bled from the well will require less migration distance, ie for anincrease
of bubble size to 27 bbl (after next bleed off), the distance from bottom will be 2395m.
2200
GAS MIGRATING
TO SURFACE
PRESSURE BUILDUP
2050
INFLUX MIGRATING
1900
1750
1600
1450
OPERATING MARGIN
1300
1150
OPERATING MARGIN
1000
OPERATING MARGIN
850
OVERBALANCE MARGIN
650
FINAL SHUT-IN ANNULUS PRESSURE
8.5
17
25.5
34
42.5
51
59.5
68
76.5
WEOX02.041
6-45
March 1995
Lubricate mud into the hole or implement the Dynamic Volumetric Method
See Paragraphs 4 and 5.
If this process has been implemented because the pipe was off bottom, it may be feasible
to circulate the influx out of the hole when the influx has migrated to the bit.
See Figure 6.15 for a typical choke pressure schedule for the Static Volumetric Method.
4 Lubrication
This technique may be used to vent the influx from below the stack while maintaining constant
bottomhole pressure.
Lubrication is most suited to fixed offshore and land rigs. It can be used to vent gas from the
stack after implementing the Static Volumetric Method, as well as to reduce surface pressures
prior to an operation such as stripping or bullheading.
Lubrication is likely to involve a considerable margin of error when implemented on a
floating rig because of the complication of monitoring the bottomhole pressure through the
choke line. When the influx has migrated to the stack it is quite possible that the choke line
will become full of gas cut mud. In this situation it is impractical to attempt to maintain
control of the bottomhole pressure with the choke.
However lubrication is simpler to implement than the Dynamic Volumetric Method. For
this reason alone, it may be considered for use on a floating rig.
The following guidelines can be used to lubricate mud into a well:
1
6-46
March 1995
The exact amount of mud lubricated into the well should be closely monitored.
3
Repeat this procedure until all the influx has been vented from the well
This procedure should be repeated until all the gas has been vented from the well.
It is likely that it will be necessary to reduce the volume of mud lubricated into the well at
each stage during this procedure. This is due to the reduction in volume of gas in the well.
If the influx was swabbed into the well and the mud weight is sufficient to balance formation
pressures, the choke pressure should eventually reduce to zero.
However, if the mud weight in the hole is insufficient, the final choke pressure will reflect
the degree of underbalance. It will then be necessary to kill the well.
6-47
March 1995
= 17.5 psi/bbl
6-48
March 1995
6-49/50
6-49
March 1995
6.2
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Subsection 2.2
STRIPPING
Paragraph
Page
General
6-52
6-52
Annular Stripping
6-56
6-57
6-59
6-61
6-67
Illustrations
6.17 A Guide to Interpretation of Surface Pressure Changes
during Stripping
6-54
6-55
6-57
6-60
6-62
6.22
to
6.25 Annular to Ram Stripping
6-63
to
6-66
6-68
6-51
March 1995
1 General
Stripping is a technique that can be used to move the drillstring through the BOP stack
when the well is under pressure. Stripping places high levels of stress on the BOPs and the
closing unit, and requires a particularly high level of co-ordination within the drillcrew.
Company policy is that a contingency plan must be developed regarding stripping procedure
for both Company operated rigs and rigs that are under a Company contract. This Section is
intended to aid in the drawing up of this contingency plan and as such the following are
proposed as the most important considerations:
Wellbore pressures in relation to the maximum allowable pressure for equipment and
the formation.
The procedure to be adopted in the event that the surface pressure approaches the
maximum allowable as the pipe is stripped into the influx.
See Figure 5.2 in Chapter 5 for a decision analysis related to stripping operations.
6-52
March 1995
(a) To compensate for the volume of pipe introduced into the hole
To avoid over pressuring the well, a volume of mud equal to the volume of pipe and tool
joints (the volume of metal plus the capacity) introduced into the well, must be bled off.
Where possible, mud should not be bled from the well while the pipe is stripped in. It is
recommended that mud is bled from the well during each connection. This ensures that
there is a clear indication at surface of the BHA entering the influx.
However it is recognised that there may be situations when it is impractical to bleed
mud from the well at connections. Such situations include:
If the surface pressures are close to maximum allowable prior to the stripping
operation.
If the pipe has to be stripped out of the hole. In this case, there will be a tendency for
the volume of metal removed from the well to be replaced by influx fluid.
(c) To allow an increase in surface pressure as the BHA enters the influx.
When the BHA is run into the influx, the height of the influx will be considerably
increased. This can cause a significant decrease in hydrostatic pressure in the annulus,
requiring a greater surface pressure to maintain a constant bottomhole pressure (See
Figure 6.18). A potential problem arises if this condition is undetected. The choke
operator may continue to bleed mud from the well to maintain a constant surface pressure
and inadvertantly cause further influx into the wellbore. It is therefore important to
accurately monitor the total volume of mud bled from the well.
It is recommended that the potential increase in surface pressure resulting from entering
the influx should be estimated before stripping into the hole.
6-53
March 1995
START
STRIPPING IN
PRESSURE
INCREASES AS PIPE
IS STRIPPED IN
CONTINUE
STRIPPING
BLEED VOLUME OF
MUD EQUAL TO
VOLUME OF PIPE
STRIPPED
SURFACE
PRESSURE DROPS TO
ORIGINAL VALUE?
NO
SURFACE
PRESSURE DROPS TO
VALUE GREATER
THAN ORIGINAL
YES
NO
CONTINUE
STRIPPING
CONTINUE
STRIPPING
SURFACE
PRESSURE INCREASES
WHILE PIPE IS
STATIONARY?
HAS THE
CORRECT VOLUME OF
MUD BEEN BLED
FROM THE WELL?
NO
YES
YES
INFLUX IS
MIGRATING
PIPE HAS
ENTERED INFLUX
BLEED MUD TO
COMPENSATE FOR
MIGRATION
NO
NO
IS THE PIPE
ON BOTTOM?
YES
SURFACE
PRESSURE LIMIT
APPROACHED?
YES
CIRCULATE OUT
TOP OF GAS BUBBLE
USING THE
DRILLER'S METHOD
WEOX02.043
6-54
March 1995
1. Start stripping
2.
KEY
GAS
INFLUX
MUD
GAS
INFLUX
GAS
MUD
MUD
WEOX02.044
6-55
March 1995
3 Annular Stripping
There are two stripping techniques, Annular and Ram combination stripping. The decision
analysis presented in Chapter 5, Pipe off Bottom Drillpipe in the Stack outlines the
basis upon which the most suitable stripping technique is selected.
Annular stripping is considered to be the most satisfactory technique. It involves less risk
than ram combination stripping for the following reasons:
During annular stripping the only item of well control equipment that is subject to high
levels of stress is the annular element.
The control system is not highly stressed during the operation (as is the case during ram
combination stripping).
The annular element can be changed out on a surface stack when pipe is in the hole by
inserting a split element.
The upper annular preventer, on a floating rig, is the only stack component that is subject
to wear and this can be changed without pulling the complete BOP stack.
Ram combination stripping is possible on all types of rig but involves significantly more
risk when implemented on a floating rig.
The surface pressure is the overriding factor which determines whether or not it will be
possible to implement annular stripping. However, it is also necessary to consider that the
operating life of an annular element is severely reduced by increased wellbore pressure.
Field tests* carried out on Hydril and Shaffer 5K Annulars, show good performance at 800
psi wellbore pressure, but at 1500 psi and above the performance was severely reduced and
unpredictable.
If surface pressures indicate that annular stripping is not possible, attempts should be made
to reduce the pressures in order to enable annular stripping to be used. The most appropriate
technique will depend on the position of the influx in the hole. The options are; to circulate
out the influx, to lubricate the influx from the well or to bullhead.
To ensure that the annular is not subjected to excessive pressures as the tool joint is stripped
through the element, a surge dampener must be placed in the closing line (See Figure 6.19).
This may not be necessary on a surface stack if the pressure regulator can respond fast
enough to maintain a constant closing pressure as a tool joint is stripped through the annular.
As a word of caution, some drilling contractors have installed check valves in the control
lines to the BOPs; the purpose being to ensure that the BOP stays closed if the hydraulic
supply is lost. However, if a check valve is installed in the closing line to an annular BOP, it
will not be possible to reduce the closing pressure once the annular has been closed. In
order to reduce the annular closing pressure, in this case, it will be necessary to open the
annular having closed another ram to secure the well.
* Tests carried out by Exxon Prod. Research 1977.
6-56
March 1995
OPENING
LINE
SURGE DAMPENER
(precharged to 50%
of required closing
pressure)
CLOSING LINE
WEOX02.045
6-57
March 1995
(psi/bbl)
(psi/bbl)
For more details on this technique, See Sub-section 2.1 Volumetric Method in this
chapter.
5
=
=
=
=
=
(MW G i)
(d hc2 d o2)
6-58
March 1995
1
dhc 2
(psi)
There is sufficient space for the tool joint between the two stripping BOPs.
6-59
March 1995
STRIPPING WORKSHEET
Units (US/UK)
RIG
Rig 10
uk
1.75
10/7/87
10:30
2000
HOLE DEPTH
SHEET NO
1.75
2250
STRIPPING DATA
VOLUME OF MUD DISPLACED BY
OVERBALANCE MARGIN
5
120
Inch Pipe
Drillpipe
psi
0.0797
bbl/m
OPERATING MARGIN
150
psi
2.15
bbl/stand
(Max)
SG MUD IN
8.5
ANNULUS
16.52 psi/bbl
1.75
SG MUD IN
6.5
8.5
ANNULUS
26.01 psi/bbl
1.75
SG MUD IN
8.5
HOLE
OPERATION
1.75
1.75
SG MUD IN
Choke or Dp
Change in
Choke
Monitor
Monitor
Pressure
10.80
8.75 HOLE
Bit
10.80
Pipe Stripped
Depth
psi/bbl
psi/bbl
Hydrostatic
of Mud Bled/
Overbalance
Lubricated
Volume of
Total
Mud Bled/
Volume
Lubricated
of Mud
Pressure
( hr
10:05
min)
(psi)
Well Shut In-Pressures
(psi)
550
bbl
2000
(psi)
(psi)
(bbl)
(bbl)
N/A
Stabilized
10:20
10:30
Strip in Stand No 1
770
120
2000
2027
27
2.2
N/A
120
0.0
10:36
Strip in Stand No 2
890
120
2054
54
4.4
N/A
240
0.0
10:40
770
-120
2054
54
4.4
N/A
120
2.2
2.2
10:45
Strip in Stand No 3
890
120
2081
81
6.6
N/A
240
2.2
10:48
770
-120
2081
81
6.6
N/A
120
2.2
4.4
10:53
Strip in Stand No 4
890
120
2108
108
8.8
N/A
240
4.4
10:57
770
-120
2108
108
8.8
N/A
120
2.2
6.6
11:00
Strip in Stand No 5
950
180
2135
135
11.0
N/A
240
6.6
8.8
11:05
830
-120
2135
135
11.0
N/A
120
2.2
11:10
1080
250
2162
162
13.2
N/A
240
8.8
11:15
960
-120
2162
162
13.2
N/A
120
2.2
11.0
11:20
Strip in Stand No 7
1330
250
2189
189
15.4
N/A
240
11.0
11:25
1210
-120
2189
189
15.4
N/A
120
2.2
13.2
11:28
Strip in Stand No 8
1460
250
2216
216
17.6
N/A
240
13.2
11:33
1340
-120
2216
216
17.6
N/A
120
2.2
15.4
11:40
Strip in Stand No 9
1590
250
2243
243
19.8
N/A
240
15.4
11:45
1470
-120
2243
243
19.8
N/A
120
2.2
17.6
+ve increase
M
-ve decrease
- ve bled
+ve
+ve lubricated
overbalance
+ ve bled
-ve lubricated
NA if bled to
- ve
compensate
for pipe
underbalance
WEOX02.197
6-60
March 1995
There is an inlet at the stack between the two BOPs used for stripping.
There is a suitable level of redundancy in the stack to ensure the lowest BOP is not used
during the stripping operation.
API RP 53 (issued 1984) states:
The lowermost ram should not be employed in the stripping operation. This ram should
be reserved as a means of shutting in the well if other stack components of the blowout
preventer fail. It should not be subjected to the wear and stress of the stripping operation.
In a critical situation, it may be possible to modify a surface stack to suit these conditions
after a kick has been taken. An example surface stack that is suitable for ram combination
stripping is shown in Figure 6.21.
The risks involved in ram combination stripping can be assessed by considering the following
points:
On a floating rig, the reduction in level of redundancy within the subsea BOP stack as
the ram preventer is used.
Estimate the increase in surface pressure due to the BHA entering the influx
6-61
March 1995
ANNULAR
BLIND RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WELLHEAD
ACCESS POINT
WEOX02.046
6-62
March 1995
MUD
VALVE OPEN
ANNULAR
VALVE CLOSED
BLIND RAM
TO
PUMP
CHOKE
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.047
6-63
March 1995
MUD
VALVE OPEN
ANNULAR
VALVE CLOSED
BLIND RAM
PRESSURE
BLED OFF
AT CHOKE
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.048
6-64
March 1995
MUD
ANNULAR
VALVE OPEN
VALVE CLOSED
BLIND RAM
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.049
6-65
March 1995
MUD
VALVE OPEN
ANNULAR
VALVE CLOSED
BLIND RAM
FROM
PUMP
PIPE RAM
PIPE RAM
WEOX02.050
6-66
March 1995
6-67
March 1995
MUD
VALVE OPEN
ANNULAR
VALVE CLOSED
BLIND RAM
PIPE RAM
MONITOR
PRESSURE
GAUGE
MANUAL
CHOKE
PIPE RAM
MUD TANK
PUMP
WEOX02.051
6-68
March 1995
The main problem associated with this technique is that migration and entrance into the gas
bubble may not easily be detected at surface. If no allowance is made for these complications,
further influx may be allowed to occur. To avoid this, the mud tank levels should be closely
monitored to ensure that the levels rise, or drop, in direct relation to the volume of pipe that
has been stripped into, or out of, the well. If any discrepancy is noticed, the well should be
shut-in and the surface pressures verified. Influx migration should be dealt with using the
Volumetric Method.
The Dynamic Stripping technique can be used during either annular or ram combination
stripping. For annular stripping it is implemented along the following lines:
(For details of Steps 1 to 6, See Paragraph 4 Annular Stripping Procedure)
1
Estimate the increase in surface pressure due to the BHA entering the influx
Ensure that the manual choke is fully closed. Open choke line valve(s)
Open the manual choke at the same time as the pump is brought up to
speed
1-69/70
6-69
March 1995
6.2
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Subsection 2.3 BULLHEADING
Paragraph
Page
General
6-72
When to Bullhead
6-72
6-72
Procedure
6-73
Illustrations
6.27 Well Shut-in after Production
tubing full of gas prior to bullheading
6-74
6-75
6-76
6-77
6-71
March 1995
1 General
Bullheading is a technique that may be used in certain circumstances during drilling
operations to pump an influx back into the formation.
This technique may or may not result in fracturing the formation.
Bullheading is however a relatively common method of killing a well during workover
operations. This technique is generally used only during workover operations when there is
adequate reservoir permeability.
2 When to Bullhead
During operations, bullheading may be considered in the following situations:
When displacement of the influx by conventional methods may cause excessive surface
pressures.
When a kick is taken with the pipe off bottom and it is not considered feasible to strip
back to bottom.
The rated pressure of the well control equipment and the casing (making allowance for
wear and deterioration).
6-72
March 1995
4 Procedure
In general bullheading procedures can only be drawn up bearing in mind the particular
circumstances at the rigsite. For example there may be situations in which it is considered
necessary to cause a fracture downhole to bullhead away an influx containing H2S. In another
situation with shallow casing set, it may be considered totally unacceptable to cause a fracture
in the openhole.
During a workover operation a procedure for bullheading will be drawn up along the
following lines:
1
Slowly pump kill fluid down the tubing. Monitor pump and casing pressure
during the operation
=
=
=
=
=
=
1.06 SG
1.66 SG
0.0499 bbl/m
8430 psi
3650 psi
0.1 psi/ft
0.0499
(bbl)
= 155 bbl
1.421) (0.1
3.2808 X 3100)
(psi)
= 6300 psi
Maximum allowable pressure when the tubing has been displaced to brine at 1.06 SG
= (1.66 1.06) X 3100
1.421 (psi)
= 2640 psi
6-73
March 1995
3650
psi
PACKER
PERFORATIONS @ 3100m
1.06SG
FORMATION PRESSURE
FORMATION FRACTURE GRADIENT
1.66SG
KEY
BRINE
VALVE OPEN
GAS
VALVE CLOSED
WEOX02.052
6-74
March 1995
Static tubing head pressure when tubing has been displaced to brine
= 0 psi (ie the tubing should be killed)
The above values can be represented graphically (as shown in Figure 6.28). This plot can be
used as a guide during the bullheading operation. Figures 6.29 and 6.30 show a schematic
of the well at two stages of the operation.
10000
10000
TUBING BURST
9000
9000
8430
8000
8000
WORKING PRESSURE
RANGE DURING BULLHEADING OPERATION
7000
7000
STATIC TUBING PRESSURE
THAT WOULD FRACTURE FORMATION
6300
5800
6000
5000
5000
4000
4000
3650
3000
2640
2000
2140
1000
1000
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
155
WEOX02.053
6-75
March 1995
4000psi
60bbl OF THE TUBING DISPLACED
(FROM FIG 6.28, TUBING PRESSURE
WITHIN ACCEPTABLE LIMITS)
BULLHEAD
BRINE
PACKER
PERFORATIONS
KEY
BRINE
VALVE OPEN
GAS
VALVE CLOSED
WEOX02.054
6-76
March 1995
0psi
PACKER
GAS TRAPPED
UNDER PACKER
PERFORATIONS
KEY
BRINE
VALVE OPEN
GAS
VALVE CLOSED
WEOX02.055
1-77/78
6-77
March 1995
6.2
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Subsection 2.4
SNUBBING
Paragraph
Page
General
6-80
Snubbing Units
6-80
6-82
Illustrations
6.31 Rig Assisted Snubbing Unit
6-81
6-83
6-84
6-85
6-79
March 1995
1 General
Snubbing is a technique used to force pipe into a shut-in well when the upthrust due to well
pressure makes it impossible to strip the pipe through the BOP under its own weight.
Snubbing is relatively common in some areas in workover operations, when the well may
be allowed to continue flowing as remedial work is carried out.
Snubbing may be considered during drilling operations for well control purposes, either
when it is impossible to introduce pipe into a well that is under pressure, or if the rig BOP
system is not considered adequate to provide reliable pressure containment during a prolonged
stripping operation.
A snubbing unit can be used to introduce a range of sizes of pipe into the well. It can be
used to snub tubing, drillpipe and even casing in exceptional circumstances.
The lowermost components of the snubbing unit are the snubbing BOPs, which are made up
to the top flange of the annular preventer on the rigs stack. This flange is often poorly
maintained because it is normally made up to the bell nipple and does not generally need to
form a pressure seal. It must therefore be inspected and, if necessary, repaired before the
snubbing BOPs are nippled up.
The snubbing BOPs are likely to be too tall to fit underneath the rotary table and too wide to
go through it. To overcome this problem, the snubbing company can provide suitable spacer
riser sections to bring the assembly above the rig floor.
The weight of the snubbing unit is supported by the wellhead. Guy lines from the work
platform prevent lateral movement.
Snubbing units can therefore be rigged up on land rigs and fixed offshore installations in a
relatively straightforward manner. Snubbing units are not commonly used on floating rigs,
however they have been used successfully in the past for well control operations.
In order to use a snubbing unit on a floating rig, pressure containment must be established
between the rig BOP and the unit on the rig floor. Drillpipe or tubing may provide this
pressure containment, in which case small diameter tubing may be run into the well through
the drillpipe or tubing. An operation of this type can only be carried out in relatively calm
seas so that the rig heave does not cause excessive movement of the snubbing unit.
2 Snubbing Units
(a) The Rig Assisted Type
The rig assisted unit uses the travelling blocks to generate the snubbing force through a
series of pulleys and cables. (See Figure 6.31.) The rig assisted unit can handle larger
diameter pipes such as casing up to 13 3/8 in. and have snubbing capacities of 80,000 lb
to 400,000 lb.
These were the first snubbing units used and the few that are currently available are
operated by Otis and Cudd Pressure Control.
6-80
March 1995
TRAVELLING BLOCK
BALANCE WEIGHT
TRAVELLING SNUBBERS
SNUB LINE
STATIONARY SNUBBERS
PLATFORM
STRIPPING OR
SNUBBING
PREVENTERS
PUMP
INLET
SAFETY PREVENTERS
WELL PRESSURE
WEOX02.056
6-81
March 1995
The unit consists of a set of travelling snubbers which are connected to the travelling block.
The travelling snubbers grip the pipe and force it into the well as the blocks are raised.
A set of stationary snubbers grip the pipe while the travelling snubbers are being raised (by
the counter balance weights) for a new bite on the pipe.
Once sufficient pipe has been run to reach the balance point, the travelling snubbers will be
removed and the pipe will be run in by conventional stripping.
The concentric cylinder unit (See Figure 6.32) for snubbing capacities up to 30,000
lb and for pipe up to 5 1/2 in. OD.
The multicylinder type (See Figure 6.33) for snubbing capacity up to 150,000 lb and
for pipe up to 7 5/8 in. OD.
The units are operated from the work platform which is on top of the hydraulic jack
assembly. From this position the speed of the pipe and the slips are controlled as can be
the rotary table, if required.
Stationary and travelling slips are operated in sequence to grip the pipe as it is snubbed
into the well.
One operator will control the BOPs and equalising valves. Another operator will
co-ordinate the pipe handling, using the counter balance system.
Snubbing Force
This is the force that the unit must exert to push the pipe into the hole. The snubbing
force will be a maximum for the first joint of pipe and decrease gradually as the weight
of the pipe in the hole increases in normal conditions.
6-82
March 1995
TRAVELLING
SLIPS (CLOSED)
TRAVELLING SLIPS
(OPEN)
PISTON
STATIONARY SLIPS
(CLOSED)
STATIONARY SLIPS
(OPEN)
ACCESS WINDOW
STATIONARY
SLIPS (OPEN)
SNUBBING UNIT
BLOWOUT
PREVENTER STACK
KEY
HYDRAULIC
CONTROL FLUID
WELL PRESSURE
WEOX02.057
6-83
March 1995
POWER TONGS
BOP CONTROL PANEL
CONTROL PANEL
COUNTERBALANCE
WINCH
WORK PLATFORM
TRAVELLING SLIPS
FOUR OPERATING
CYLINDERS
TELESCOPING
MAST
STATIONARY SLIPS
SPOOL
HANGER FLANGE
PUMP INLET
SNUBBING UNIT
BLOWOUT PREVENTER
STACK
WEOX02.058
6-84
March 1995
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
COMPRESSION FORCE
Fs
POINT OF
APPLICATION
OF TRAVELLING
SNUBBERS
Fs
wa
Ly
Ff
PIPE
(SNUBBING
UNIT STROKE)
SNUBBING
BOP
Ff
(wa)(Ly)
wb
Pw
Lz
WELLBORE
Fp
Fp
(wb)(Lz)
Fs
Fp
Ff
wa
wb
Ly
Lz
WEOX02.059
6-85
March 1995
(lb)
= 35,460 lb
The snubbing force, Fs, if there is already some pipe in the hole.
In this case the length of the pipe above the BOP is again considered insignificant.
As an example:
2 7/8 in. tubing of 6.5 lb/ft is run empty to 1000 metres in 1.2 SG mud. The wellhead
pressure is 5000 psi. Drag in the hole is 2000 lb, friction at the BOPs is 5000 lb.
Ai
Ao
wi
wo
wa
wb
D
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
62.4 X 6.492)
144
(lb/ft)
wb = 3.12 lb/ft
Therefore the snubbing force is given by:
Fs = Fp + Ff (wa X Ly) (w b X L z)
Fs = (6.492 X 5000) + 2000 + 5000 (3.12
1000 X 3.281)
(lb)
= 29,200 lb
Lifting Force
The unit must be able to provide a reasonable overpull, over and above the weight of
the maximum string weight.
6-86
March 1995
Tubular Selection
If there is already pipe in the hole, this will determine the most suitable type of pipe to
be used.
Drillpipe can be used, however the following points should be considered:
Drillpipe will require a relatively high snubbing force because of its large crosssectional area at the tool joints.
Drillpipe does not have gas-tight connections.
The drillpipe must be in good condition and inspected thoroughly before running in.
Tubing is more commonly used for snubbing for the following reasons:
The force required to snub it in is very much less, and the unit required corresponding
smaller.
External flush tubing can be run through the stripper rubbers without the need for
sequencing the rams.
The following points must also be considered:
The limitations imposed by the ID of the tubing on the maximum pump rate.
External upset tubing will be slower to run, but will be easier to control, if it starts to
be forced out of the well.
Premium connections are desirable because they are gas tight.
The collapse strength of the tubing.
The susceptibility of the tubing to failure due to buckling.
6-87
1-87/88
March 1995
6.2
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Subsection 2.5 BARYTE PLUGS
Paragraph
Page
6-90
Deflocculation
6-92
Pilot Tests
6-92
Slurry Volume
6-92
6-93
6-93
6-93
6-94
Illustrations
6.35 Field Mixing of Baryte Plugs
6-91
6-89
March 1995
(c) Settling/Non-settling
Since baryte settling is of little value downhole and troublesome on the surface, it should
be an optional feature of the slurry recipe. Figure 6.35 shows two recipes for baryte
slurries. The recipes are identical except that one contains XC polymer to eliminate
baryte settling. It would seem reasonable to use the settling recipe for small jobs or
where the settling baryte might really be helpful downhole. For large kill operations,
the non-settling recipe would be preferred.
Bentonite or some polymer other than XC could be used to suspend the baryte in a
slurry. The particular recipe in Figure 6.35 was selected because it is prepared easily in
both fresh and seawater and because XC solutions are shear-thinning enough to allow
good pumpability while adequately suspending the baryte in the pits.
6-90
March 1995
Setting recipe
1 bbl water (fresh or sea)
15 lb lignosulphonate
2 lb/bbl of caustic (pH = 10.5 to 11.5)
Non-setting recipe
1 bbl water (fresh or sea)
15 lb lignosulphonate
1 lb XC polymer
Defoamer (octanol or other)
2 lb/bbl of caustic (pH = 10.5 to 11.5)
Setting recipe
1 bbl base oil
1.5 US gal oil wetting agent
Non-setting recipe
1 bbl base oil
4 lb organophilic clay
1.5 US gal oil wetting agent
6-91
March 1995
Baryte-plug-type slurries can be prepared with all of the baryte substitutes which are now
on the market. In general the recipes in Figure 6.35 do not require change except that, in
some cases, the higher density of the substitue allows higher slurry weights than were possible
with baryte. For example, hematite slurries can be prepared to 3.00 SG using the non-settling
recipe in Figure 6.35. Replace the baryte with 870 lb hematite per final bbl of slurry. The
non-settling recipe is strongly recommended for hematite slurries because of the relatively
coarse grind of oil-field hematite.
2 Deflocculation
For years it has been standard practice to add a thinner to baryte slurries used for well
control. Both lignosulphonates and phosphates have been used, with the phosphate SAPP
having the widest acceptance. Chemicals of either type can deflocculate a baryte slurry to
improve pumpability and allow settling into a firm cake.
The choice of deflocculant will influence the baryte slurry properties as follows:
Use of SAPP gives a slurry with fairly high fluid loss (50cc). SAPP will not deflocculate
in sea water or in the presence of some contaminants which occur in natural baryte.
Use of lignosulphonate gives a slurry with low fluid loss (5cc). Lignosulphonate is
effective in sea water and tolerates both contamination and elevated temperatures.
Use of a high fluid loss baryte slurry is advantageous, possibly because it might dehydrate
and plug the wellbore, or promote, perhaps, hole instability. On the other hand, a low fluid
loss slurry would reduce the chances of differential sticking. Faced with this choice, prudence
suggests using the more reliable lignosulphonate rather than the somewhat unpredictable
SAPP. The recipes in Figure 6.35 contain lignosulphonate.
3 Pilot Tests
Because of variation and possible contamination of ingredients throughout the world, it is
always advisable to pilot test a baryte slurry. Prepare a sample of the slurry using the recipe
chosen and the ingredients at the wellsite. After being stirred well, the sample should have
the expected density and be easily pumpable. If the baryte needs to settle in the wellbore,
this should also be checked ahead of time. Reasonable settling is 2 in. in a mud cup after a
15 minute wait. The settled cake should be hard and somewhat sticky rather than soft and
slippery. The settling test is not a guarantee that the baryte pill will form an effective plug
under downhole conditions, but will certainly give an indication of the settling characteristics.
4 Slurry Volume
Slurry volumes depend upon the amount of openhole and the severity of the kick. These
volumes normally range from 40 bbl to 400 bbl.
The slurry volume should be 125 to 150 percent of the annular capacity necessary to give
the height of plug desired, but should not be less than 40 bbl. If a second baryte plug is
required, the slurry volume should be greater than the first.
6-92
March 1995
6-93
March 1995
The decision after placing a baryte plug is whether to pull pipe or not. The goal of pumping
a high-density slurry is to achieve a hydrostatic kill; the decision whether to pull pipe depends
on an assessment of the success of this kill. If a hydrostatic kill was probably achieved then
it is usually best to pull up above the slurry and try circulating mud. If there is doubt about
the hydrostatic kill it may be better to stay on bottom to be ready to pump a larger baryte
plug if needed. The risk in pulling out is that the pipe may become stuck off bottom or may
have to be stripped back to bottom if the baryte plug fails. The risk of staying on bottom is
that the pipe may become stuck or plugged. It is possible to keep the pipe free by moving it
(especially in a non-settling plug) but there is no way to circulate (to avoid plugging) unless
the pipe is pulled above the top of the baryte slurry.
After it has been determined that the flow is stopped, bullhead a cement
slurry through the bit to provide a permanent seal
Observe the annulus during the pumping. If the casing pressure begins varying
appreciably, or if a sudden change in the pumping pressure occurs, the baryte plug
may have been disturbed. Overdisplace the cement to clear the drillstring. Additional
cementing to obtain a squeeze pressure might be desirable.
6-94
March 1995
Perforate the drillstring near the top of the baryte plug. Attempt to
circulate
It may be difficult to tell whether the well is circulating or flowing from charged
formations. Pressure communication between the drillpipe and annulus is one clue;
a pressure increase should have appeared on the drillpipe from annulus pressure or
on the casing from hydrostatic pressure in the drillpipe when the perforation
wasmade.
Consideration should be given to circulating with lighter mud because of the known
lost returns zone.
6-95
March 1995
If no pressure is on the annulus, continue working the pipe, and observe annulus
mud level.
If the annulus is full, begin circulating at a low rate keeping constant watch
on pit levels.
If the annulus is not full, fill annulus with water and observe. If annulus will
stand full, begin circulating at a slow rate. Consider cutting mud weight, if
feasible.
If pressure is on the annulus, circulate the annulus using normal well control
techniques. Continue working the pipe.
If returns become gas-free, the baryte plug was successful and the well is
dead.
If returns do not become essentially gas-free after circulating two or three
annular volumes, the baryte plug was not effective. A second plug will be
necessary.
Trip out of the hole after verifying that the well is dead
If the bottom part of the hole is being abandoned, then a cement plug should be
placed on top of the baryte.
6-96
March 1995
6.2
SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Subsection 2.6 EMERGENCY
PROCEDURE
Paragraph
Page
6-98
6-99
6-97
March 1995
When it becomes necessary to move a floating rig off location at short notice.
When there is no pipe in the hole, the shear rams can be used as blind rams.
Most shear rams are designed to shear effectively only on the body of the drillpipe. Procedures
for the use of shear rams must therefore ensure that there is no tool joint opposite the ram
prior to shearing. Be aware that many subsea stacks have insufficient clearance between the
top pipe rams and the shear rams to hang off on the top rams and shear the pipe.
Specialist shear rams, such as the Cameron Super Shear Rams, are available that are designed
to shear 7 in. drillcollars and casing up to 13 3/8 in. OD. It is clearly important however,
that rigsite personnel are aware of the capabilities and operating parameters of the shear
rams installed in the rigs BOP stack.
Optimum shearing characteristics are obtained when the pipe is stationary and under tension.
It is therefore recommended practice that the pipe weight is partially hung off prior to
shearing. Hanging the pipe off also ensures that there is no tool joint opposite the shear
rams. Maximum operating pressure should be used to shear the pipe.
The following procedure can be used as a guideline for shearing the pipe in the case of an
internal blowout:
1
Space out to ensure that there is no tool joint opposite the shear rams
6-98
March 1995
As an alternative to the use of shear rams in the event of an internal blowout when
drillpipe is in the stack.
If the pipe is pushed out of the hole under the influence of wellbore pressure.
Once the pipe has been dropped the well is shut-in with the blind/shear rams. However,
re-establishing control of the well in this situation will be time consuming and costly.
It is clearly important to be sure that the pipe will clear the stack once it has been dropped
(especially on a floating rig in deep water). The possibility of damaging the ram packings
must also be considered.
There are two techniques that can be used to drop the string:
Lower the string until the elevators are at a manageable distance from
thefloor
6-99
March 1995
Break a tool joint. Ensure that the joint can support the weight of the
string
6-100
March 1995
6.3 COMPLICATIONS
Paragraph
Page
6-102
Plugged Choke
6-102
6-102
Pump Failure
6-103
6-103
String Washout
6-103
Stuck Pipe
6-104
6-104
Hydrates
6-105
10
6-109
11
6-110
12
Loss of Control
6-111
13
6-111
Illustrations
6.36 Temperature at which Gas Hydrates will Freeze (Katz)
6-106
6-107
6-113
6-114
6-115
6-116
6-101
March 1995
2 Plugged Choke
A plugged choke is indicated by an unexpected increase in choke pressure accompanied by
an equal increase in drillpipe pressure. Some plugging of the choke is to be expected if the
annulus is loaded with cuttings.
Clearly the first course of action is to open the choke in an attempt to both clear the restriction
in the choke and to avoid overpressuring the well. If this action is not successful the pump
should be stopped immediately. After switching to an alternate choke the excess pressure in
the well should be bled at the choke and the displacement restarted in the usual manner.
One of the reasons for displacing a kick at slow circulation rates is to avoid overpressuring
the well if cuttings plug the choke. In this respect, circulation rates should be minimised in
critical conditions if the annulus is likely to contain a substantial volume of cuttings.
6-102
March 1995
Having established that there is no loss of circulation a worn out choke should be suspected.
There may come a stage when it is no longer possible to maintain a suitable circulating
pressure even with the choke apparently fully closed. At, or preferably before this stage, the
flow should be switched to another choke and repairs effected to the worn choke.
4 Pump Failure
The most obvious indicator of failure at the fluid end is likely to be erratic standpipe pressure
together with irregular rotary hose movement. This may be preceded by an unexplained
drop in circulating pressure.
If pump failure is suspected, the pump should be stopped and the well shut-in. The
displacement should be continued with the second rig pump, or if necessary, the cement
pump. The faulty pump should be repaired immediately.
6 String Washout
A washout in the drillstring may be indicated by an unexpected drop in standpipe pressure,
while the choke pressure remains unchanged.
The recommended procedure in the event of a drillstring washout is to stop the pump and
shut the well in.
Every effort must be made to ensure that the washout is not enlarged by extended circulation
and drillstring manipulation.
The most critical situation would be in the event of a washout close to the surface. Should
this occur, it is unlikely that it will be possible to displace the influx from the hole effectively,
unless the influx is above the washout.
If the washout is identified as being near the bottom of the well, it may be possible to
displace the kick from the well effectively. In this case, there will of course be the risk of
parting the drillstring with continued circulation.
Regardless of the depth of the washout, it will be necessary to re-establish the correct
circulating pressure if the pump is restarted. Excessive downhole pressures may be caused
if the original circulating pressure is maintained at the standpipe. It is advisable to periodically
re-establish the circulating pressure, if the circulation is contained for prolonged periods
through a washout.
6-103
March 1995
7 Stuck Pipe
The complication of stuck pipe during a well control operation can cause serious problems,
most especially if the pipe is stuck off bottom.
Unfortunately, the likelihood of the pipe becoming stuck during a well control operation is
increased if the pipe is off bottom. The pipe should be rotated, to minimise the risk of
sticking the pipe, if the well is shut-in with the pipe off bottom and the BHA in openhole.
Due to the relatively high wellbore pressures during a well control operation, the most likely
cause of stuck pipe is differential sticking. However, mechanical sticking may result if the
hole sloughs and packs-off as a result of the contact with the influx fluids.
If the pipe is differentially stuck with the bit on bottom, continue the operation because it is
most likely that circulation can still be carried out in order to kill the well. Efforts to free the
pipe can be made once the well has been killed.
Should the pipe be differentially stuck with the bit off bottom, the situation is complicated
in that it will generally not be possible to reduce the wellbore pressure at that depth by
circulation. It may be possible to free the pipe by spotting a freeing agent. However, if the
influx was swabbed in, it may be possible to regain control of the well by volumetric control.
If the pipe is mechanically stuck, a combination of working the pipe and spotting a freeing
agent can be used in attempting to free the pipe.
The purposes of drilling a horizontal well are to improve hydrocarbon recovery and to
maximise the area of reservoir exposed at the wellbore, in order to maximise production
rates. It must therefore be considered that influx flowrates, in the event of a kick, will
be considerably greater than for a well drilled vertically through the reservoir.
Particular attention must be paid to tripping procedures when the reservoir is exposed.
It is possible that shut-in pressures in the event of a kick will be identical on both drillpipe
and annulus, although a large influx has been taken; this would depend on the length of
the horizontal openhole section.
This is not a problem, however it does mean that it is not possible to check the validity
of kick data.
The possibility that the wellbore contains a large influx should therefore be addressed
in such circumstances.
6-104
March 1995
There is a greater potential for swabbing when a large surface area of reservoir is exposed.
Correct tripping procedure must be rigorously adhered to.
It is quite feasible, in a horizontal well, that the horizontal section is full of reservoir
fluid and yet the well be dead. It is therefore recommended that extreme caution be paid
when tripping back into such a reservoir after a round trip. When back on bottom it is
recommended to circulate bottoms up through the choke manifold.
In the event of a kick whilst tripping it may not be possible to drop or pump down the
dart. This will depend on the hole angle at the dart sub position. If it is not possible to
install the dart into the dart sub, the Gray valve can be used.
9 Hydrates
Natural gas hydrates have the appearance of hard snow and consist of chemical compounds
of light hydrocarbons and liquid water. They are formed at temperatures above the normal
freezing point of water at certain conditions of temperature and pressure (See Figure 6.36).
This formation process is accelerated when there are high gas velocities, pressure pulsations
or other agitations, such as downstream of a choke and at elbows, which cause the mixing
of hydrocarbon components.
During well control operations, gas hydrates may cause the following serious problems:
Plugging of subsea choke/kill lines, preventing opening and closing of subsea BOPs,
sealing off wellbore annuli and immobilising the drillstring. There have been recorded
incidences of such occurrences with subsea stacks in water depths of 350m and deeper.
The major factors which determine the potential for hydrate formation are gas composition,
liquid content and pressure and temperature. The formation of hydrates can be predicted
using Figure 6.36. It should be noted that the conditions for hydrate formation can be created
at a subsea stack operating in a cold water environment.
Figure 6.37 can be used to predict the temperature drop associated with a pressure drop
(across a choke, for example). As an example, if gas at 3000 psi and 90F was choked to
1800 psi, the temperature would be expected to drop to 55F, in which case, hydrate formation
could be expected.
6-105
March 1995
The purpose of this chart is to determine the temperature below which hydrates will form,
when sufficient liquid water is present.
4000
3000
1000
NE
HA
900
800
ET
700
600
500
400
AV
0.
300
0.
0.
2000
200
1.
0.
100
90
80
70
60
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
TEMPERATURE (F)
Example: With 0.7 specific gravity gas at 1000psia, hydrates may be expected at 64F.
At 200psia this would be 44F.
WEOX02.061
6-106
March 1995
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
0
50
00
60
00
50
1000
00
55
00
45
00
40
00
35
00
30
00
15
0
20
MP
2000
0
50
TE
ET
CO
ES
SU
OP
PRESSURE (lb/in )
3000
2
S
VE
4000
R
ED
R
CU S
PY GA
L
A T
TH U F
EN 0 C
T
0
N 0
TA U/1
NS BT
50
DU
00
10
P
RO
R
OP
INITIAL TEMP
RISE
150
00
70
105 - 80 = 25
160
5000
EXAMPLE
REQUIRED: REDUCE GAS PRESSURE
FROM 2400 # PSI AT 80F TO 1500 #
PSI DETERMINE INITIAL TEMPERATURE
RISE NECESSARY SO THAT AFTER
EXPANSION TO 1500 # PSI THE FINAL
TEMPERATURE WILL BE 75F
BASE LINE
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
WEOX02.062
6-107
March 1995
Injecting antifreeze agents such as methanol into the gas flow; this has the effect of
dissolving liquid water deposits, and thus lowering the temperature at which hydrates
would be expected to form.
Methanol is often injected at the subsea test tree during well testing operations from a
floating rig.
The most appropriate place to inject methanol at surface is at the choke manifold. The
point of injection should be upstream of the choke. High pressure chemical injection
pumps (as manufactured by Texsteam) are suitable for this application.
Heating the gas above the temperature at which hydrate will form.
During gas well testing operations, a steam exchanger will usually be provided for this
purpose. Experience has shown that this is the most effective and reliable method of
preventing the formation of hydrates. The combination of heating and antifreeze injection
is ideal.
Reducing line pressure in order to allow the hydrates to melt. This is a temporary measure
and not always practical. Once hydrates have formed, it often takes a considerable length
of time to clear the line.
It is important that adequate contingency is provided, along the above lines, to deal with
hydrates, if it is suspected that the potential exists for hydrate formation. Subsea water
temperatures and pressures should be checked as well as the potential for hydrate formation
at surface in the event of a gas kick.
Hold the choke pressure so as to maintain bottomhole pressure equal to, or slightly
greater than, the kick zone pore pressure.
6-108
March 1995
The consequences of overpressuring the openhole weak point as in the first option can be
assessed, bearing in mind the following factors:
The length of time that the openhole weak point will be overpressured.
The consequences of underbalancing the formation as in the second option can be assessed,
bearing in mind the following factors:
The appropriate course of action should therefore be selected on the basis of these factors.
However, in general, a kick zone should only be underbalanced in exceptional
circumstances such as when the zone is known to have low permeability. This
can often be assessed from the rate of pressure build after shutting in a well that has kicked.
Close lowermost pipe rams (in addition to the hang-off rams). Shear the
pipe rams
6-109
March 1995
If additional time is available, consideration should be given to spotting a heavy pill or plug
on bottom to either kill the well hydrostatically or provide a barrier to migration.
Bad weather may cause problems regarding the supply of chemicals and barytes to all types
of rigs. In this respect, it may be necessary to implement the Drillers Method, should there
not be adequate chemical stocks at the rigsite.
In certain areas of the world, severe cold may cause operational problems. Points of particular
concern are, BOP operating fluid, manifolds and flowlines.
12 Loss of Control
Loss of control during a well control operation may result from excessive loading of pressure
control equipment or exposed formations.
However there are recorded incidents of equipment failure at pressures significantly below
rated values. These failures have been attributed to faulty manufacture, lack of proper
maintenance, or corrosion. High pressure equipment is considered particularly susceptible
to failure when exposed to corrosive fluids such as H2 S.
It is not possible to detail specific procedures in the event of loss of control during a well
control operation. However, in critical situations, action should be taken bearing in mind
that the absolute priority is the safety of rigsite personnel.
6-110
Rev
1 March
March
1995 1995
The system must be able to detect a small volume of pit gain (typically 1 or 2 bbl).
This technique is most reliable when the influx flow is slow (low kick intensity).
The system must be able to detect the difference between the mud flow in and out of
the well (typically 25 gpm). When the influx flow is fast, this technique is more
sensitive and reliable than the pit volume detection technique.
The system must be able to detect a kick whilst making a connection. The high
annular friction pressure creates a high ECD during drilling ahead. So the most likely
time for a kick to occur will be when the pumps are shut down to make a connection.
6-111
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
Estimate the annular friction pressure at the slow circulating rates and add this to the
maximum static pressure (i.e. the sum of the mud hydrostatic pressure and the surface
casing pressure) at the weak point in the wellbore.
Compare the total wellbore pressure with the breakdown pressure at the weak point.
Will lost circulation be likely?
If lost circulation is unlikely, the conventional well control technique can be applied.
Otherwise the slim hole well control technique must to be used.
6-112
Rev
1 March
March
1995 1995
Reduction In
BHP (osi)
1.0 sg Mud
1 0 400
8.5 x 5
66
94
8.5 x 5
10
6 x 4.5
199
283
6 x 4.5
3.5 x 2.5
523
743
3.5 x 2.5
Gas Influx
Height
(m)
10
200
Friction
Pressure
(psi)
Brine: 4.0 cPMud: PV=15/YP=10
13.8
31.2
523 m
199 m
0
66 m
8.5 x 5
6 x 4.5
Size of Annulus (inch)
3.5 x 2.5
41
128.6
68.9
254.3
6-113
Annular
Size
(inch)
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
254.3
Reduction in BHP
(psi)
6-114
128.6
400
743 psi
200
283 psi
0
94 psi
8.5 x 5
6 x 4.5
Size of Annulus (inch)
3.5 x 2.5
Mud: PV=15/YP=10
31.2
600
March
Rev
1 March
1995 1995
swab pressures
200
Brine: 4.0 cP
150
sec/std
Mud: PV=15/YP=10
129
100
50
0
31.2
41
13.8
8.5 x 5
6 x 4.5
Size of Annulus (inch)
8.5/5
300
250
200
150
100
50
40
30
25
20
15
6/4.5
40.9
41
41.3
68.9
41.7
42.5
44.8
46.2
3.5 x 2.5
48.3
55
58.8
64.8
3.5/2.5
45.8
46
46.3
48.8
47.8
50.9
52.5
55.1
66.4
92.2
147
90
90.8
92.1
94.2
98.5
110
117.7
128.4
168
238
368
6-115
254
250
Swab Pressure
(psi/1000m)
Height of Ga
(m)
300
Rev 1 March
March 1995
1995
Reduction in
(psi)
3.5"x2.5"
6-116
90
90.8
92.1
94.2
98.5
110
117.7
128.4
168
238
368
Swab Pressure
(psi/1000m)
3.5/2.5
1 8 08 . 5 / 5
6.0"x4.5"
120
8.5"x5.0"
Annulus
60
0
90
60
30
240
March
1995 1995
Rev
1 March
Volume 2 Contents
Nomenclature
Abbreviations
1 THE ORIGINS OF FORMATION PRESSURE
Section
Page
1.1
INTRODUCTION
1-1
1.2
1-9
1.3
1-11
1.4
1-17
1.5
SHALLOW GAS
1-33
INTRODUCTION
2-1
2.2
2-5
2-25
2-69
2.3
2.4
March 1995
3-2
2 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
3-2
3-2
3-4
3-7
3-10
3-12
4 FRACTURE GRADIENT
Paragraph
1 GENERAL
4-2
4-2
3 FRACTURE ORIENTATION
4-3
4-4
4-4
4-7
4-9
4-10
9 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
4-11
March 1995
5-4
5-4
5-9
4 SUBSEA CONSIDERATIONS
5-20
5 SAFETY FACTORS
5-25
5-29
WELLHEADS
6-1
6.2
6-5
6.3
CONTROL SYSTEMS
6-43
6.4
ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT
6-57
6.5
EQUIPMENT TESTING
6-67
March 1995
NOMENCLATURE
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
UNIT
A
a
An
b
c
C
Cp
Ca
CL
CR
D
Dshoe
Dwp
dbit
dh
dhc
do
di
dcut
dc
F
Fsh
FPG
g
G
Gi
H
Hi
Hp
ITT
K
L
MR
M
m
MW
Influx gradient
Height
Height of influx
Height of plug
Interval Transit Time
Bulk modulus of elasticity
Length
Rotary exponent
Migration rate
Matrix stress
Threshold bit weight
Mud weight
in.2
in.2
bbl/m
bbl/m
%
m
m
m
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
lb
SG
psi/ft
psi/m
SG
psi/ft
m
m
m
sec/m
March 1995
m/hr
psi
lb
SG
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
UNIT
N
OPG
P
Rotary speed
Overburden Pressure Gradient
Pressure
P
Pa
Pbit
Pcl
Pdp
Pf
Pfrac
Pfc
Pi
Pic
Plo
Pmax
S
Sg
Sw
t
Adjustment pressure
Annulus pressure
Bit pressure drop
Choke line pressure loss
Drillpipe pressure
Formation pressure
Fracture pressure
Final circulating pressure
Hydrostatic pressure of influx
Initial circulating pressure
Leak off pressure
Maximum allowable pressure
at the openhole weak point
Wide open choke pressure
Pore pressure
Slow circulating rate pressure
Plastic Viscosity
Flowrate
Mud flowrate
Gas flowrate
Reynolds number
Resistivity
Resistivity of water
Rate of Penetration
Shale factor
Overburden pressure
Gas saturation
Water saturation
Time
rpm
SG
psi/SG
(The units of subsurface pressure
may be either psi or SG)
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi
psi/SG
psi/SG
psi
psi
psi
psi/SG
TR
T
Transport Ratio
Temperature
TD
TVD
V
Total Depth
True Vertical Depth
Kick tolerance
Poc
Pp
Pscr
PV
Q
Qmud
Qgas
Re
R
Rw
ROP
psi/SG
psi
psi/SG
psi
cP
gal/min
gal/min
gal/min
ohm-m
ohm-m
m/hr
meq/100g
psi
Fractional
Fractional
seconds
min
degrees
C, F, R
m
m
bbl
March 1995
SYMBOL
DESCRIPTION
Volume
v
vmud
vp
vs
W
w
wb
wcut
WOB
x
YP
Z
1
t
600
March 1995
UNIT
bbl
cc
ml
l
Velocity
m/min
m/s
Mud velocity
m/min
Average pipe running speed
m/min
Slip velocity
m/min
Weight
gm
kg
lb
Weight
lb/ft
lb/bbl
SG
Weight of pipe
lb/ft
Baryte required for weighting up lb/bbl
Average cuttings weight
SG
Weight on Bit
lb
Offset
()
Yield Point
lb/100ft2
Compressibility factor
Viscosity
cP
Poissonss Ratio
Density
SG
Bulk density
SG
ABBREVIATIONS
ASN
BHA
BHC
BHT
BGG
BRT
CDP
CEG
CG
DE
DIL
DRG
DST
ECD
EMW
ES
FDC
FIT
HCR
ID
ITT
LMRP
MWD
OD
PV
RFT
RMS
ROP
SLS
TD
TG
UV
WOB
YP
March 1995
Page
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1-1
1-9
1-11
1-17
1-33
March 1995
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Paragraph
Page
General
1-2
Subsurface Pressures
1-2
Pressure Seals
1-6
Pressure Gradients
1-7
Illustrations
1.1
1.2
1-4
1-5
1-6
Tables
1.1
1-1
March 1995
1 General
All formations penetrated whilst drilling a well exert pressures of varying magnitudes. To
gain an understanding of the origins of these pressures, it is neccesary to define and explain
certain subsurface pressure concepts. These are explained in this Section.
2 Subsurface Pressures
(a) Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is defined as the pressure due to the unit weight and vertical height
of a fluid column. The size and shape of the fluid column do not affect the magnitude of
this pressure. Mathematically:
P=rXgXD
where P
g
D
=
=
=
=
(1-1)
hydrostatic pressure
average fluid density
gravitational acceleration
vertical height of fluid column
Relating this to drilling operations and commonly used oilfield units gives:
P = C X MW X D
where P
MW
D
C
=
=
=
=
(1-2)
The constant, C, is necessary to allow the use of oilfield imperial units (psi, ft, lb/gal).
It has a value of 0.052 psi/ft per lb/gal and is derived as follows:
Using consistent units (pressure in lb/sq.ft, length in ft, density in lb/cu.ft) and rearranging
equation 1-2, C would be numerically equal to 1:
C=
P
D X MW
Substituting the standard conversion constants of 144 sq.in/sq.ft and 7.48/gal/cu.ft gives:
C=1
C = 0.052
7.48
144
lb/sq.ft
ft X lb/cu.ft
sq.ft/sq.in
cu.ft/gal
lb/sq.in
ft X lb/gal
1-2
March 1995
(1-3)
SG
(1-4)
C' = 0.052
8.33 psi/ft
(1-5)
SG X D
(1-6)
SG X D
(1-7)
= 0.433
OPG = 0.433
SG
1-3
March 1995
1.
2.
3.
4.
1
4
DEPTH 1000m
6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.05
WEOX02.063
1-4
March 1995
However, because the degree of compaction of sediments varies with depth, the overburden
pressure gradient is not constant. Worldwide experience indicates that the probable maximum
overburden gradient in clastic rocks (fragmental sedimentary rocks ie sandstone, shale) may
be as high as 1.35 psi/ft.
Onshore, with more compact sediments, the overburden pressure gradient may be assumed
to be close to 1 psi/ft. Offshore however, overburden gradients at shallow depths will be
much less than 1 psi/ft due to the effect of the depth of sea water and large thickness of
unconsolidated sediment. Figure 1.1 shows average overburden gradient for various areas.
PRESSURE
AL
RM
NO
OS
VE
TA
TIC
EN
GR
DEPTH
DR
HY
AD
IEN
SUBNORMAL
PRESSURES
(Subpressures)
IE
ABNORMALLY
HIGH PRESSURES
(Surpressures)
Formation
Pressure, Pf
Matrix Stress, M
Overburden Pressure, S = Pf + M
WEOX02.064
1-5
March 1995
(1-8)
3 Pressure Seals
For abnormal pressures to exist, there must be a permeability barrier which acts as a pressure
seal. This seal restricts or prevents the movement of pore fluids and thus separates normally
pressured formations from abnormally pressured formations.
The origins of a pressure seal may be physical, chemical or a combination of the two. The
types of formation pressure seals are listed below in Table 1.1.
Type of Seal
Nature of Seal
Examples
Vertical
Massive siltstones
Shales
Massive salts
Anhydrite
Gypsum
Limestone, marl, chalk
Dolomite
Transverse
Faults
Salt and shale diapirs
Worldwide
Combination
Table 1.1
Worldwide
1-6
March 1995
4 Pressure Gradients
As indicated previously in Paragraph 2(b) under Overburden Pressure, it is common
practice to express subsurface pressures in terms of pressure gradients, or pressure per unit
depth, psi/ft or psi/m. It should be realised that densities such as mud weights in lb/gal
orSG, also express pressure gradients. These units can easily be converted to psi/ft or psi/m
using the conversion constants derived earlier in Paragraph 2(a). Rearranging equation
1-3 gives:
PG = P
D
= 0.052 X MW
(1-9)
where PG = pressure gradient (psi/ft) at depth D (ft), and rearranging equation 1-6 gives:
PG = P
D
= 1.421 X SG
(1-10)
= 0.433 X SG
(1-11)
P (psi)
0.052 X D (ft)
(1-12)
EMW (SG)
P (psi)
1.421 X D (m)
(1-13)
EMW (SG)
P (psi)
0.433 X D (ft)
(1-14)
NOTE: From this point on ppg will be used instead of lb/gal as the abbreviated version
of pounds per gallon.
Example:
1-7
March 1995
5970
3500 X 3.2808
pressure
depth
= 0.52 psi/ft
5970
(ppg)
0.052 X 3500 X 3.2808
5970
1.421 X 3500
= 1.20 SG
1-8
March 1995
1.2
Paragraph
Page
General
1-10
1-10
1-10
Tables
1.2
1-9
March 1995
1 General
Normal formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of water extending from the
surface to the subsurface formation. Thus, the normal formation pressure gradient in any
area will be equal to the hydrostatic pressure gradient of the water occupying the pore spaces
of the subsurface formations in that area.
Pressure
(psi/ft)
Gradient
(SG)
Example Area
Fresh water
0.433
1.00
Brackish water
0.438
1.01
Salt water
0.442
1.02
Salt water
0.452
1.04
Salt water
0.465
1.07
Salt water
0.478
1.10
Table 1.2
1-10
March 1995
1.3
Paragraph
Page
General
1-12
1-12
1-15
Summary
1-16
Illustrations
1.3
1.4
1.5
1-13
1-14
Formation Foreshortening
1-15
1-11
March 1995
1 General
Subnormal formation pressure is defined as any formation pressure that is less than the
corresponding pore fluid hydrostatic pressure. A subnormal formation pressure gradient is
thus any gradient less than the pore fluid hydrostatic gradient.
Subnormal formation pressures are often termed subpressures.
1-12
March 1995
INTAKE
AREA
ABNORMALLY HIGH
PRESSURES
SUBNORMAL
PRESSURES
PIEZOMETRIC
SURFACE
GROUND
LEVEL
HYDROSTATIC
HEAD
AQUIFER
DISCHARGE
AREA
RESERVOIRS
WEOX02.065
1-13
March 1995
DENSITY
0.98
1.0gm/cc
11
0.877
= Conditions at depth 2
0.909
0.933
0.962
10
2.5
C/
100
PRESSURE 1000psi
PRESSURE AT
DEPTH 1
PRESSURE AT DEPTH 2
FOR NORMAL FLUIDS
3
NORMAL
FLUIDS
ISOLATED
FLUIDS
PRESSURE AT DEPTH 2
FOR ISOLATED FLUIDS
T2
0
50
T1
100
150
200
250
TEMPERATURE C
WEOX02.066
1-14
March 1995
OVERPRESSURED
A
SUBNORMAL
PRESSURE
BED A
BED B
OVERPRESSURED
BED C
C
WEOX02.067
(f) Osmosis
Osmosis is the spontaneous flow of water from a more dilute to a more concentrated
solution when the two are separated by a semi-permeable membrane.
In the subsurface environment, clays and clayey siltstones can act as semi-permeable
membranes. If salinity differences exist between the fluids in the sediments on either
side of clay beds, then osmotic flow can occur. If the flow is from a closed volume, the
pressure will decrease and may become subnormal. Likewise, if the flow is into a closed
volume, abnormally high pressures may result.
Osmosis is discussed in more detail in Section 1.4 of this Chapter.
1-15
March 1995
4 Summary
The various suggested causes of subnormal formation pressures can be classed as artifically
caused or naturally caused.
Depleted reservoirs and piezometric surface (where pressure regime depends on the
surface location of the well) may be classed as artificial causes, since these subnormal
pressures do not originate in the subsurface formation, but are externally influenced.
Conversely, the other causes of subnormal pressure discussed have origins in the formations
themselves and can be thought of as being naturally caused. It is unlikely that any one of
these processes may be the sole cause of subnormal pressures in any particular area. It is
probable that a number of processes have contributed to produce the subnormal pressures,
particularly in the light of the dependency of the processes on depth and temperature.
1-16
March 1995
1.4
ABNORMALLY HIGH
FORMATION PRESSURE
Paragraph
Page
General
1-18
1-18
1-30
Summary
1-31
Illustrations
1.6
1-19
1.7
1-20
1.8
1-21
1.9
1-23
1-23
1-24
1-26
1-26
1-28
1-30
1-17
March 1995
1 General
Abnormally high formation pressure is defined as any formation pressure that is greater
than the hydrostatic pressure of the water occupying the formation pore spaces. Abnormally
high formation pressure gradients are thus any formation pressure gradient higher than the
pore fluid hydrostatic pressure gradient.
Abnormally high formation pressures are also termed surpressures, overpressures and
sometimes geopressures. More often, they are simply called abnormal pressures.
Compaction Disequilibrium
Compaction disequilibrium is also known as undercompaction or sedimentary
loading. It is the process whereby abnormal formation pressures are caused by a
disruption in the balance between the rate of sedimentation of clays and the rate of
expulsion of the pore fluids, as the clays compact with burial.
Freshly deposited clays have adsorbed water layers and the solid clay particles do
not have direct physical contact. The pore pressure is hydrostatic as the pore fluid is
continuous with the overlying sea water. As sedimentation proceeds, a gradual
compaction occurs and as the clay particles are pressed closer together, pore water is
expelled. The clay sediment has high porosity and is permeable in this initial state.
So as long as the expelled water can escape to surface or through a porous sand
layer, pore pressures will remain hydrostatic.
For this equilibrium to be maintained, a balance is required between the rate of
sedimentation and burial, and the rate of expulsion and removal of pore fluids. If the
rate of sedimentation is very slow, then hydrostatic pressures will be maintained.
The initial porosity of clays is 60 to 90%, depending on the type of clay, whereas
compacted clay/shale has a porosity of less than 15%. Thus a vast amount of water
must be removed from clay sediments during burial. If the equilibrium between rate
of sedimentation and rate of fluid expulsion is disrupted, such that fluid removal is
impeded, then an increase in pore pressure will result. This could occur either by an
increase in the rate of sedimentation or by a reduction in the rate of fluid removal
(caused by a reduction in permeability or by the deposition of a permeability barrier
such as limestone).
1-18
March 1995
The excess pore fluids help support the increasing overburden load, thereby
retarding compaction further, and resulting in abnormally high pressured formations.
Abnormal pressures resulting from this process will have a gradient no greater than
the overburden gradient. This is because these pressures are produced by the excess
overburden load being supported by the pore fluids.
If beds of permeable sandstone that are hydraulically connected to zones of lower
fluid pressure are present within an overpressured zone, adjacent clays will dewater
to the sand bed. The adjacent clays will compact and decrease in permeability and
porosity thus restricting further dewatering of the clay beds. The local pressure
gradient across these clay/sand boundaries will be significantly higher than the overall
pressure gradient, but are caused purely by leakage from the clays to the sand.
Figure 1.6 illustrates typical overpressures caused by compaction disequilibrium.
Areas in which abnormal formation pressures associated with high sedimentation
rates have been encountered include the North Sea, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Gulf
of Papua.
DEPTH
CLAY
Overall formation pressure
parallels the overburden
pressure gradient, but may
not reach extrapolated
pressure gradient due to
leakage from the clays
SAND
CLAY
SAND
Extrapolated initial
formation pressure
(parallel to overburden
pressure gradient)
CLAY
SAND
Overpressured sandstone
(hydrostatic gradient
within sandstone)
CLAY
SAND
PRESSURE
WEOX02.068
1-19
March 1995
(b) Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the alteration of sediments and their constituent minerals during burial
after deposition. Diagenetic processes include the formation of new minerals, the
redistribution and recrystallisation of the substances within the sediments, and
lithification (sediments turning into rocks).
Negative Charge
Imbalance
CLAY SHEET
H
H
Na +
Na +
Ca + +
O
O
H
Ca + +
H
O
H
O
About 4
Layers of
Structured
Water
Na +
1 or 2
Layers of
Adsorbed
Water
H
O
H
O
H
Ca + +
CLAY SHEET
WEOX02.069
1-20
March 1995
Clay Diagenesis
The major constituents of marine shales are bentonitic clays of which montmorillonite
is by far the most common. Montmorillonite has a swelling (expanded) lattice
structure and contains approximately 70 to 85% water at initial burial in sea floor
sediments. This water is present in the form of at least four layers of molecules
adsorbed between clay platelets and up to ten layers held on the outside of the platelets.
The clay platelets have a negative charge imbalance due to their structure. This causes
the adsorption of interlayer water together with various cations (positively charged
ions), principally sodium (Na +) and calcium (Ca++). The interlayer water is shown
schematically in Figure 1.7.
The environment at this initial burial stage would be alkaline, rich in calcium and
magnesium (and of course sodium from salt water), but poor in potassium.
After further burial, compaction expels most of the free pore water (non-adsorbed)
and the water content of the sediment is reduced to about 30%. As burial progresses
and the temperature increases, eventually all but the last layer of structured (adsorbed)
water will be desorbed to the pore spaces. This causes the clay lattice to collapse and
with the availability of potassium, montmorillonite diagenesis to illite occurs. This
reaction is shown schematically in Figure 1.8. It involves adsorption of potassium at
the interlayer and surface sites as well as the release of a small amount of silica.
O
M
O
A
A
W
W
W
3 LAYER SHEET
W
W
W
+
Add K
Substitute
Al for Si
and Mg
INTERLAYER SITES
Charge
Satisfied
O
3 LAYER SHEET
A
A
A
O
ILLITE
Ky AL4 (Si8-y, Aly) O20 (OH)4
= Oxygen
= Magnesium
= Silicon
= Water
O = Hydroxyl (OH)
= Potassium
A = Aluminium
MONTMORILLONITE
(Al4-x Mgx)(Si8-y, Aly) O20 (OH)4
Negatively charged plates
satisfied by interlayer
water and cation adsorption
WEOX02.070
1-21
March 1995
The reaction is temperature (and hence depth) dependent. Initial dehydration may
occur at temperatures as low as 6C. Most of the interlayer water is liberated between
100C and 250C, but some of the more structured water remains to about 300C.
Water distribution curves showing the various shale dehydration stages are shown in
Figure 1.9.
At the second dehydration stage (See Figure 1.9), the water that is released expands
due to a density reduction from the highly structured phase to the pore phase. Thus
abnormally high pressures may result, particularly if the rate of expulsion of free
pore water from the clay body is less than the rate of water release from the clay
interlayers. Figure 1.10 is a schematic diagram showing the stages of alteration of
montmorillonite to illite.
If water escape from the clay body is restricted, the silica released in the diagenetic
process will precipitate in the pore spaces. This may further reduce permeability and
so assist in developing abnormal pressures.
Sulphate Diagenesis
Diagenesis in sulphate formations (gypsum, anhydrite) may cause abnormal pressures
by creating permeability barriers, a fluid source and/or a rock volume change.
Carbonate reservoirs are commonly overlain by evaporite sections (salt, anhydrite).
Anhydrite (calcium sulphate, CaSO4) is formed by the dehydration of gypsum
(CaSO4.2 H 2O) which liberates large amounts of water. There is a 30% to 40%
shrinkage in formation thickness associated with this process. If this occurs at depth
and in the presence of a permeability barrier, abnormal formation pressures may
result. (The anhydrite itself is totally impermeable and may act as a vertical
permeability barrier.)
This process may have been the cause of the high pressure salt water flow discussed
under Rock Salt Deposition in (a) Depositional Causes. Here, a mud weight of
1.94 SG (0.84 psi/ft) was required to control a saturated salt water flow from an
anhydrite section sandwiched between massive salt sections.
The process is, however, reversible. Anhydrite can take on water to form gypsum.
There is an intermediate semi-hydrate stage (CaSO4.1/2 H2O) in which the rock volume
would increase by 15 to 25%. If such rehydration was to occur at depth in a closed
system, very high abnormal pressures could be developed.
1-22
March 1995
WATER AVAILABLE
% WATER
FOR MIGRATION
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
SEDIMENT SURFACE
PORE WATER
BURIAL DEPTH
(SCHEMATIC)
PORE AND
INTERLAYER WATER
EXPULSION
1st DEHYDRATION
AND LATTICE WATER
STABILITY ZONE
LATTICE WATER
STABILITY ZONE
INTERLAYER
WATER
2nd
DEHYD'N
STAGE
INTERLAYER WATER
ISOPLETH
3rd DEHYDRATION
STAGE
DEEP BURIAL
WATER LOSS
'NO MIGRATION LEVEL'
WEOX02.071
STAGE 1
Before diagenesis
(about 3000 6000ft,
below 60C)
porosity = 20 to 35%
clay is
70% montmorillonite
10 mixed layer
20% other
MOST WATER
IS BOUND WATER
LOW POROSITY
STAGE 2
FREE PORE WATER
FROM DESORBED
INTERLAYER WATER
During alteration
to illite (100 200C)
high porosity = 30 to 40%
clay is
20% montmorillonite
60% illite
20% other
CLAY RELEASES
SILICA, ADSORBS
POTASSIUM
LOW POROSITY
VERY LITTLE
BOUND WATER
VOLUME LOST
WEOX02.072
1-23
March 1995
Compressional Folding
Tectonic compression is a compacting force that is applied horizontally in subsurface
formations. In normal pressure environments, clays compact and dewater in
equilibrium with increasing overburden pressures. However, in a tectonic
environment, the additional horizontal compacting force (tectonic stress) squeezes
the clays laterally. If conditions are such that the pore fluids can still escape, then
pore fluid pressures will remain normal. However, it is more likely that the increase
in stress will cause disequilibrium. The pore fluids will not be able to escape at a
rate equal to the reduction in pore volume, resulting in an increase in pore pressure.
Abnormal pressure distribution within a series of compressional folds is shown in
Figure 1.11. Abnormally high pressures occur initially within the hinge portion of
each compressional fold in a thick clay sequence.
EXTENSION
EXTENSION
COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION
COMPRESSION
AMOUNT OF
SHORTENING
POSSIBLE
OVERPRESSURED
ZONES
WEOX02.073
1-24
March 1995
Faulting
Faults may cause abnormally high formation pressures in the following ways:
Slippage of formations along a fault may bring a permeable formation, eg a sand
bed, laterally against an impermeable formation such as a clay. Thus, the flow of
pore fluids through the permeable zone will be inhibited and abnormally high
formation pressures may result.
Non-sealing faults may transmit fluids from a deeper permeable formation to
a s hallower formation. If this shallower formation is sealed, then it will
be p ressured up by the deeper formation. (See Char ged Formations in (d)
Structural Courses).
Uplift
If a normally pressured formation is suddently uplifted, abnormally high pressures
may be generated. Uplift is not a unique cause of abnormal pressure as the process
that uplifts a buried formation will also uplift the overburden. For abnormal pressures
to occur, there must be a concurrent geological process that reduces the relief between
the buried formation and the surface. Such processes may be piercement salt domes,
shale diapirs, faulting or erosion.
Note that uplift and erosion may also cause subnormal formation pressures, depending
on the type of formation and the amount of cooling that the formation undergoes.
(See Temperature Reduction and Decompressional Expansion in Section
1.3 of this Chapter.)
Salt Diapirism
Diapirism is the piercement of a formation by a less dense underlying formation.
Salt will behave plastically at elevated temperatures and pressures and due to its
lower density, will move upwards to form piercement salt domes in overlying
formations. This upward movement disturbs the normal layering of sediments and
overpressures can often occur due to the associated faulting and folding action.
Additionally, the salt may act as an impermeable seal and inhibit lateral dewatering
of clays thereby further contributing to the generation of abnormal pressures.
The typical distribution of abnormal pressure zones around a piercement salt dome
is shown in Figure 1.12.
Abnormally high formation pressures associated with salt domes have been
encountered worldwide, both onshore and offshore.
Shale Diapirism
As with salt diapirism, this mechanism refers to the upward movement of a less
dense plastic formation. In this case, high porosity (high water content) shales
behaveplastically causing the formation of shale diapirs called mud volcanoes
(See Figure 1.13).
In practice, wherever mud volcanoes occur, there has been rapid Tertiary and/or late
Cretaceous sedimentation. This rapidly loads underlying shales of low shear strength
causing the formation of mud volcanoes. Formation pressures are abnormally high.
For example, pressure gradients of 0.9 psi/ft have been measured around mud
volcanoes on Aspsheron Peninsula in Azerbaidzhan, USSR.
1-25
March 1995
SAND
HORIZON
BASIN WARD
HORIZON
E
SALT
ABNORMAL
PRESSURE
WEOX02.074
MUD VOLCANO
UPPER MIOCENE
SEA LEVEL
MIDDLE MIOCENE
LOWER MIOCENE
Mile
5000ft
WEOX02.075
1-26
March 1995
Earthquakes
Earthquakes may cause compression in subsurface formations which causes a sudden
increase in pore fluid pressures. For example, the 1953 earthquake in California
caused production in the nearby Mountain View oil field to double over a period of
several weeks after the earthquake.
Piezometric Surface
This is defined in Section 1.3. A regionally high piezometric surface, such as that
caused by artesian water systems, will result in abnormally high pressures as shown
in Figure 1.3. Artesian systems require a porous and permeable aquifer sandwiched
between impermeable beds. The aquifer intake area must be high enough for the
abnormal pressure to be caused by the hydrostatic head.
Examples of areas where abnormally high pressures are caused by artesian systems
are the Artesian Basin in Florida and the Great Artesian Basin in Queensland,
Australia.
Reservoir Structure
In sealed reservoir formations containing fluids of differing densities (ie water, oil,
gas), formation pressures which are normal for the deepest part of the zone will be
transmitted to the shallower end where they will cause abnormally high pressures.
Examples of such formation are lenticular reservoirs, dipping formations and
anticlines.
Abnormal formation pressures will only be generated if fluids less dense than the
pore water are present, such as in oil/gas reservoirs. The pressure at the top of a fluid
zone is given by:
P fT = PfB [Gf X (DB
where P fT
P fB
Gf
DT
DB
=
=
=
=
=
D T)]
(1-15)
In the example shown in Figure 1.14, the formation pressure at the oil/water contact
is normal hydrostatic pressure with a gradient of 0.452 psi/ft. Using equation 1-15,
the pressure at the gas/oil contact is 4850 psi which gives an abnormally high
formation pressure gradient of 0.462 psi/ft. Similarly, the pressure at the top of the
reservoir is 4784 psi giving an abnormal gradient of 0.486 psi/ft.
Obviously, in very large structures, especially in gas/water systems with long gas
columns, the overpressures developed at the top of the gas column may be very
high. Indeed one documented example in Iran quotes a pressure gradient of 0.9 psi/ft
(approaching overburden gradient) at a depth of only 640 ft (195m).
1-27
March 1995
DEPTH
CAP ROCK
TOP OF
GAS CAP
D = 3000m
(D = 9842ft)
GAS
(Gf = 0.1psi/ft)
GAS/OIL
CONTACT
D = 3200m
(D = 10500ft)
OIL
(Gf = 0.325psi/ft)
OIL/WATER
CONTACT
D = 3450m
(D = 11319ft)
WATER
(Gf = 0.452psi/ft)
At top of reservoir:
Pf = 4850 0.1 x
(10500 9842)
Pf = 4784psi
.
. . FPG = 4784 = 0.486psi/ft
9842
At gas/oil contact:
Pf = 5116 0.325 x
(11319 10500)
Pf = 4850psi
.
. . FPG = 4850 = 0.462psi/ft
10500
At oil/water contact:
NORMAL HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE GRADIENT OF
0.452psi/ft
Pf = 11319 x 0.452
Pf = 5116psi
WEOX02.076
Charged Formations
Normally pressured, or low pressured porous and permeable formations at shallow
depths, may be pressured up by communication with deeper higher pressured
formations. This charging of the shallower formations may take place by fluid
communication along non-sealing faults behind casing in old wells, or wells with
faulty cement jobs, and whilst drilling a sequence of permeable formations with
very large differences in pore fluid pressures (causing recharge salt water flows).
Abnormal pressures caused by recharge can be very high, especially if gas is the
medium that transmits the pressure (same mechanics as gas reservoir in Reservoir
Structure, but over greater depth differences). Mud weights as high as 19 ppg
(2.28SG, 0.988 psi/ft) have been quoted as sometimes required for drilling through
shallow charged zones.
Aquathermal Pressuring
Referring to the temperature-pressure-density diagram for water (Figure 1.4), a
temperature increase in an isolated fluid system must take place along a constant
density path. The increase in pressure is thus very rapid and only small increases in
temperature are required to produce large overpressures.
1-28
March 1995
However, shales are not totally impermeable and the time taken to heat the shales
during burial should be sufficient to allow most of the excess pressures developed to
leak away. The main effect of heating during burial is to retard compaction, and
aquathermal pressuring is not thought to be a major cause of abnormally high
formation pressures.
Thermal Cracking
At high temperatures and pressures caused by deep burial, complex hydrocarbon
molecules will break down into simpler compounds. Thermal cracking of
hydrocarbons will increase the volume of the hydrocarbons in the order of two to
three times the original volume. If contained in an isolated system, this would result
in high overpressures being developed. However, there is no conclusive evidence
that thermal cracking is a significant cause of abnormal formation pressures.
Permafrost
In arctic regions, drilling and production operations may cause extensive thawing of
the permafrost. If this thawed permafrost refreezes later in the life of the well,
freezeback pressures, high enough to damage the casing, may result. Obviously,
this situation may be avoided by proper well planning and casing design.
Freezeback pressure gradients ranging from 0.66 psi/ft to as high as 1.44 psi/ft have
been recorded in Alaska.
Osmosis
As defined in Section 1.3, osmosis is the spontaneous flow of water from a more
dilute to a more concentrated solution when the two are separated by a suitable
semi-permeable membrane. This action is represented schematically in Figure 1.15.
For a given solution, the osmotic pressure (differential pressure across the membrane)
is almost directly proportional to the concentration differential; and for
agivenconcentration dif ferential the osmotic pressure increases with temperature.
Theoretically, osmotic pressures of up to 4500 psi can be produced across a
semi-permeable membrane with solutions of 1.02 gm/cc NaCl in water and saturated
NaClbrine.
Clay and clayey siltstone beds can act as semi-permeable membranes. If salinity
differences exist in the sediments above and below such beds, then osmotic flow can
occur. If the flow is into an isolated system, then a pressure increase will occur in
this system. Alternatively, the osmotic pressure developed across these beds may
inhibit the vertical flow of water from compacting shales, thereby contributing to
the development of abnormal pressures.
However, the efficiency of clay beds as semi-permeable membranes in the sub-surface
environment is unknown. It is thus currently believed that osmosis is a minor cause
of abnormal formation pressures.
1-29
March 1995
LIQUID PRESSURE
DECREASES
LIQUID PRESSURE
INCREASES
1
2
H2O
H2O
H2O
Na+
H2O
CINa+
SALINE WATER
H2O
CLAY MEMBRANE
FRESH WATER
CI-
H2O
OSMOTIC
H2O
FLOW
WEOX02.077
1-30
March 1995
In the North Sea abnormal pressures occur with widely varying magnitudes in many
geological formations.
The Tertiary sediments are mainly clays and may be overpressured for much of their thickness.
Pressure gradients of 0.52 psi/ft are common with locally occurring gradients of 0.8 psi/ft
being encountered. An expandable clay (gumbo) also occurs which is of volcanic origin and
is still undergoing compaction. The consequent decrease in clay density would normally
indicate an abnormal pressure zone but this is not the case. However, in some areas, mud
weights of the order of 0.62 psi/ft (1.43 SG) or higher are required to keep the wellbore
open because of the swelling nature of these clays. This is almost equal to the low overburden
gradients in these areas.
In the Mesozoic clays of the Central Graben, overpressures of 0.9 psi/ft have been recorded.
One BP well encountered a formation pressure gradient of 0.91 psi/ft in the Jurassic section.
In the Jurassic of the Viking Graben, abnormal formation pressure gradients up to 0.69psi/ft
have been recorded.
In Triassic sediments, abnormally high formation pressures have been found in gas bearing
zones of the Bunter Sandstone in the southern North Sea. Also in the southern North Sea,
overpressures are often found in Permian carbonates, evaporates and sandstones sandwiched
between massive Zechstein salts.
4 Summary
Of all the processes that may be responsible for causing abnormally high formation pressures,
it is unlikely that any one will be the sole cause in any particular area. The effects of several
processes will probably combine to cause the observed abnormal pressure.
Certain processes are thought to be either ineffective or uncommon as causes of abnormal
pressures. These include uplift (as a sole mechanism), osmosis, thermal cracking, permafrost
and earthquakes. A recent report(6) has found that the most significant cause of abnormally
high formation pressures in depositional basins is compaction disequilibrium, with
aquathermal pressuring contributing to a small extent. Clay dewatering (diagenesis) was
found to have little effect. However conditions within clays during dewatering are very
similar to these developed during undercompaction; and the two processes probably occur
concurrently, while undercompaction is recognised as the primary mechanism.
The significance of aquathermal pressuring as a cause of abnormal pressure is temperature
and hence depth dependent. This is also true of the diagenetic process.
With increasing depth aquathermal pressuring is thought to be a contributory factor in all
cases of abnormal pressure generation.
1-31
1-31/32
March 1995
1.5
SHALLOW GAS
Paragraph
Page
General
1-34
Definition
1-34
1-34
1-35
1-33
March 1995
1 General
Shallow gas accumulations present a major hazard to drilling operations. Gas influxes taken
at shallow depths cannot generally be shut-in for fear that the pressures involved will fracture
the formation at the previous casing shoe, thereby causing an underground blowout, or flow
around the casing to the seabed.
2 Definition
For the purposes of drilling operations, shallow gas can be defined as any gas accumulation
encountered at any depth before the first pressure containment casing string is set.
For well planning purposes, possible gas bearing zones at shallow depths may be identified
from shallow seismic sections (bright spot technique See Section 2.2 of Chapter 2).
These are normally used down to a depth of about 1000m below surface or mudline.
1-34
March 1995
1-35
March 1995
1-36
March 1995
2-1
2-5
2-23
2-65
March 1995
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Paragraph
Page
General
2-2
2-2
2-3
Table
2.1
2-1
March 1995
1 General
Knowledge of formation pore pressure is of prime importance in the planning, drilling and
evaluation of a well. Good estimates of formation pore pressures and fracture pressures are
required to optimise casing and mud weight programmes, and to minimise the risk of well
kicks, stuck pipe, lost circulation and other costly drilling problems.
The following sections describe the techniques used to predict, detect and evaluate formation
pore pressures at the various stages of drilling a well. Table 2.1 summarises these techniques.
Methods for predicting and evaluating fracture pressure are covered separately in a later
section of this Manual.
Abnormally high pressured zones are by far the most common encountered, and the most
important, in drilling operations. This Chapter is therefore mainly concerned with methods
of predicting, detecting and evaluating abnormally high formation pressures.
2-2
March 1995
Table 2.1
Data Source
Pressure Data/Indicators
Stage of Well
Offset wells
Mudloggers reports
Mud weights used
Kick data
Wireline log data
Wireline formation test data
Drillstem test data
Geophysics
Planning
Drilling
parameters
Drilling rate
Drilling exponents
Other drilling rate methods
Torque
Drag
MWD logs
While drilling
Drilling mud
parameters
Gas levels
Flowline mud weight
Flowline temperature
Resistivity, salinity and
other mud properties
Well kicks
Pit levels
Hole fill-up
Mud flow rate
Cuttings
parameters
Bulk density
Shale factor
Volume, shape and size
Miscellaneous methods
Wireline logs
After drilling
Direct pressure
measurements
2-3/4
2-3
March 1995
2.2
FORMATION PRESSURE
EVALUATION DURING WELL PLANNING
Paragraph
Page
General
2-6
2-6
Seismic Data
2-8
2-9
2-20
Summary
2-21
Illustrations
2.1
Pressure/Depth Plot
2-7
2.2
2-9
2.3
2-10
2-11
2.5
2-13
2.6
2-14
2.7
2-17
2.8
2-18
2.9
2-19
2.4
2-20
2-22
Table
2.2
2-16
2-5
March 1995
1 General
At the planning stage of a well, several early decisions are made that are directly influenced
by the predicted formation pore pressure profile for the well. The magnitude of the expected
formation pressure influences the pressure rating of the casing and wellhead/BOP equipment
to be used, and can ultimately influence drilling rig selection. Casing programme design
and mud weight programmes should be tailored to the predicted formation pressures for
thewell.
Other related aspects of well planning that are influenced include, cement programmes,
completion equipment, contingency stocks of casing, and mud chemicals/baryte stocks to
be held.
Thus, accurate formation pressure predictions are required in order to optimise well planning.
Good well planning will, in turn, help to minimise the risk of costly problems whilst drilling.
There are normally (but not always) two sources of formation pressure information for the
well location being considered. The first and most widely used is offset well data. However,
in areas where there are no offset wells or they are considered to be too far away to give
reasonable data, then seismic data may be used to predict formation pore pressures. Seismic
analysis may also be useful in validating offset well data for the location being considered.
Appraisal/development wells
The offset well data should usually be reliable as the offset wells will normally be fairly
close to the proposed well location and usually drilled on the same structure. For
development wells, the pore pressure profile should be accurately defined from data
from the appraisal wells.
2-6
March 1995
1500
TERTIARY TO RECENT
Holocene to Eocene
1000
Palaeocene
2000
SG EQUIVALENT
3500
psi ft
3000
Upper
4500
Lower
JURASSIC
2.61
1.128
2.51
1.085
2.41
1.042
2.31
0.998
2.21
0.955
2.1
0.911
4000
5000
psi ft
0.477
0.434
0.564
0.521
0.651
0.607
0.738
0.694
0.781
5500
0
Middle Lower
CRETACEOUS
Upper
DEPTH (m)
2500
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000
PRESSURE (psi)
WEOX02.078
2-7
March 1995
Exploration wells
In well explored regions, such as certain areas of the North Sea, the offset well data
should be reliable enough for a good estimate to be made of the pore pressure profile
for the proposed exploration well. However, if the nearest offset wells are far away,
then the pressure data should be treated with caution when applying it to the proposed
well. If there are insufficient pressure data available for any one profile to be predicted,
then the alternatives should be considered and the worst case evaluated for each
particular aspect of well planning.
Analysis of seismic data may be required to back-up the pressure profile predicted from
offset wells. In areas where there is no offset well information or they are too far away
to be of any use, then seismic data analysis may be the only method available to predict
the pore pressure profile (See Paragraph 3, Seismic Data).
In exploration areas where there is a well established Company office, the predicted pressure
profile is usually compiled by the Designated Resident Geologist (DRG) for the well. The
pressure depth plot should be obtained as soon as possible and the data must be checked
immediately by the Drilling Engineer responsible for planning the well. The DE must ensure
that the pressure data is the best available, whilst also accepting that the accuracy of the
data will vary depending on the number and proximity of nearby wells.
In areas where there is no established exploration office, or where the pressure profile is
required prior to compilation by the DRG, then the well planning DE will have to predict
the formation pressure profile. The DRG or Area Geology Group must be consulted. The
DRG or Area Geology Group will determine which offset wells are most geologically
similar to the proposed well and hence the best source of formation pressure data. Also,
geological features such as faults and unconformities in the area will be identified. These
may affect the way in which the pressure data are applied to the proposed well.
Notes on formation pressures from offset wells are often given in the Drilling Proposal
document, together with the lithological prognosis and other pertinent data (well location,
target depths, total depth etc). Petroleum Engineers should also be consulted, as they may
have additional pressure information, especially regarding expected reservoir pressures.
3 Seismic Data
In hydrocarbon exploration, seismic data are mainly used to identify and map prospective
reservoir traps and to estimate the depths of formation tops in the lithological column. Seismic
data can also be used to predict formation pressures quantitatively, or at least to give an
indication of the entrance into abnormally high pressures. In new or relatively unexplored
areas, seismic data are often the only information available from which pore pressure data
can be derived.
Seismic data can also be used to indicate the possible presence of shallow gas bearing sands.
This is done using data from high resolution shallow seismic surveys which are normally
used down to a maximum depth of about 1000m below surface or the mudline.
2-8
March 1995
3.1
Time
Refl
C
Refl
B
Up hole time
Refl
A
First breaks
8
10
11
12
Shot
Moment
Geophones
Shot Point
Geophones
V1
A
V2
Interval
Velocities
Reflecting
Beds
V3
WEOX02.079
2-9
March 1995
With increasing depth and compaction, the density and elasticity of shales increases
which results in increasing seismic velocity with depth. Overpressured shales are
undercompacted. This results in lower density and elasticity for that depth. The seismic
velocity in overpressured shales is thus lower than in normally pressured shales at similar
depths. Thus we need formation interval seismic velocity data to detect and evaluate
overpressured shales. These data are readily available from seismic surveys.
Seismic data are acquired by creating acoustic waves, by some form of explosion
(orimplosion), and measuring the time taken for the wave to travel down to subsurface
reflecting beds and back to the surface. The surface point of origin of the wave is
calledthe shot point and the reflected waves are detected at surface by a series of
geophone (or hydrophones if offshore) placed at known distances from the shot point.
The system is shown schematically in Figure 2.2, together with the seismic traces
recorded by the geophones. The whole system is moved across the surface and the
measurements are repeated from a new shot point. The process is continued along a
pre-determined seismic line.
By using the geometric relationships between the shot points and geophone positions, it
is possible to identify a series of seismic traces that have approximately the same
reflection point on a reflecting bed. This point is known as a common depth point (CDP),
and the seismic paths associated with this point are shown in Figure 2.3. For clarity,
only the first reflecting bed is shown, but obviously the deeper reflecting beds will also
have corresponding CDPs vertically below, the reflections from which will appear on
the series of seismic traces. The distance between the shot point and any particular
geophone is termed the offset.
Offset
Shot Points
Geophones
Surface
Reflecting bed A
COMMON DEPTH
POINT (CDP)
2-10
March 1995
Offset, x
to
Time, t
Reflecting Beds
The equations of the dashed lines through the seismic reflections are of the form:
x = V t2 - to2
where to = vertical two way reflection time to reflecting beds (ie offset, x = o)
V = stacking velocity (average velocity)
Thus the stacking velocity, V, is the variable defining the hyperbolae which best fit
the seismic reflections.
WEOX02.081
2-11
March 1995
In practice, the seismic traces from the same CDP are collected together to form a gather
in which seismic traces at the various offsets are plotted against the reflection time. A
simplified schematic plot of offset versus reflection time is shown in Figure 2.4. With
greater offset, the path length of the wave is longer (See Figure 2.3) and the reflection
time for the same reflecting bed increases. Curves can be drawn through the peaks on
the seismic traces, corresponding to the same reflecting beds, as shown by the dashed
lines in Figure 2.4.
The geometry of the CDP seismic system is such that the equation of the curve through
the seismic peaks (known as a seismic event) from a horizontal reflector should be a
hyperbola. The variable defining the shape of the hyperbola is called the stacking
velocity or the normal moveout velocity. In practice, the peaks on the seismic traces
do not lie exactly on a hyperbola. Velocity analyses are performed to determine the
velocity value that gives a best fit hyperbola to the data. This is done by investigating
the hyperbolic function with a range of stacking velocities at increasing time increments,
and comparing the result to the actual data from the seismic traces on the gather.
The results from the velocity analysis are output in the form of a plot of stacking velocity
versus reflection times. A typical example plot from an actual analysis is shown in
Figure 2.5. The plot appears as a series of contours defining a number of peaks. Due
to the mathematical computations involved in the analysis, the peaks represent the best
fit stacking velocity values and the corresponding vertical two-way reflection times
for each reflecting bed.
The stacking velocities obtained are not the true average velocities from the surface to
the reflecting bed. However, the stacking velocity is usually considered to approximate
to the root mean square (RMS) velocity (as indicated on the horizontal axis in Figure2.5).
The RMS velocity is the average velocity along the actual path of the seismic wave. In
many cases, this is also considered to be equal to the vertical average velocity from the
surface to the subsurface reflecting bed. Thus, the velocity-time pairs (as they are called)
from the velocity analysis can be used to calculate the depths of the reflecting beds.
The stacking velocities are used to compute the vertical two-way reflection times for
each of the seismic traces on the seismic gather. The seismic gather can then be stacked
to form one complete seismic trace for that particular CDP. A seismic section is then
produced by displaying the stacked traces for each CDP along a seismic line.
The stacking or RMS velocities are also used to calculate the interval velocities between
reflecting beds, which is the property that we require to detect and evaluate abnormal
pressure.
2-12
March 1995
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
4000
5000
6000
7000
9000
10000
12000
13000
8000
2-13
11000
WEOX02.082
March 1995
SP 561
VINT
1470
1470
1527
1685
1986
2218
2368
2668
2750
2850
2851
2930
3150
1470
1635
1809
2320
2942
3098
4923
3416
3972
2866
3165
3479
LINE CB-82-41
VRMS
0
200
300
650
1150
1450
1700
1850
2050
2200
2350
3100
5000
LINE CB-82-39
SP 870 202
TIME
140
550
146
600
WEOX02.083
2-14
March 1995
The first step in the method is to obtain the stacking velocity data for a range of CDPs
near to the proposed well location. The stacking velocities used for these CDPs should
be given in panels displayed above the surface line on the seismic section. An example
is shown in Figure 2.6.
At this point, it is worth checking the stacking velocities given in the panels against the
velocities obtained from the CDP velocity analyses. This is because stacking velocities
are chosen to produce a good CDP stack (clean appearance) and may not be equal to
the values that would be obtained from a velocity analysis such as that in Figure 2.5. A
geophysicist should be consulted to decide which stacking velocities should be used,
although more often than not, the velocities given in the panel on the seismic section
will suffice.
The interval velocities are then calculated from the two-way time and stacking velocity
(average velocity) using Dixs formula:
(V i12)2 =
where Vi12
t1
t2
V1
V2
(2-1)
In the example shown in Figure 2.6, the interval velocities have already been computed
using Dixs formula. The depths to the reflecting beds are calculated from:
D = t.V
2
(2-2)
2-15
March 1995
Two-way
time
Depth
Int. velocity
(Dixs formula)
Int. transit
time
t
(millisecs)
Average
(stacking)
velocity
V
(m/s)
D
(m)
Vi
(m/s)
ti
(sec/m)
1470
1470
680
200
1470
147
1635
612
300
1527
229
1809
553
650
1685
548
2320
431
1150
1986
1142
2942
340
1450
2218
1608
3098
324
1700
2368
2013
4923
203
1850
2668
2468
3416
293
2050
2750
2819
3972
252
2200
2850
3135
2866
349
2350
2851
3350
3165
316
3100
2930
4542
3479
287
5000
3150
7875
Table 2.2
(c) Interpretation
As stated, overpressured shales have lower interval velocities, and therefore higher
interval transit times than normally pressured shales at the same depth. The normal
shale compaction trend line on the ITT depth plot decreases with depth. Thus an increase
in interval transit time away from the normal trend line indicates the presence of abnormal
pressures. This is shown by the shaded section in Figure 2.7. From the seismic ITT plot
(stepped profile), the top of the abnormal pressures would probably be estimated to be
at 2300m to 2500m. When the well was drilled the top of the abnormal pressures was
found to be at about 2000m.
There is a certain amount of conflict surrounding the types of scale that should be used
for plotting ITT data. The format used in Figure 2.7 assumes that the normal compaction
trend is a straight line on semi-logarithmic scales. This method is recommended by
Fertl(17), as it enables ITT data to be directly compared with other pressure indicators
that are plotted using the same linear depth scale (composite plots). Alternatively,
Pennebaker(25) suggested that the normal compaction trend should be a straight line on
log-log scales. An example plot of this format is shown in Figure 2.8.
2-16
March 1995
Figure 2.7 Seismic and Sonic ITT versus Depth Plots for
Abnormally Pressured Well
LITHOLOGY
500
SEISMIC
DATA
siltstone with
mudstone
1000
SONIC
LOG
1500
calcareous
mudstone
and siltstone
Overpressure
Top:
Actual
sandstone
limestone
Predicted
2500
3000
mudstone and
siltstone
com
pac
tion
tren
d lin
3500
mal
4000
sandstone
Nor
DEPTH (metres)
2000
mudstone and
siltstone
4500
100
200
300
400
500
600
800
WEOX02.084
2-17
March 1995
NORMAL TREND
DEPTH
TOP OF OVERPRESSURE
2-18
March 1995
Another major problem in interpreting seismic ITT plots is the placing of the normal
compaction trend line. Referring to Figure 2.7, it would be most difficult to determine
the exact position and gradient of the normal compaction trend line from the seismic
data alone. The various non-shale lithologies affect the data quite considerably and
even with the actual sonic log from the well overplotted, the correct position of the
normal compaction trend line is still open to debate. One possible solution to this problem
is to make numerous seismic ITT (and sonic log ITT, if available) plots for the region
being investigated. It may then be possible to determine the position and gradient of an
average normal compaction trend line for the region.
A full discussion of other problems associated with the interpretation of seismic ITTplots
is given by Barr (2) and are further discussed in relation to sonic log plots in Section 2.4
of this Chapter.
1.0
0.9
2.25
ST
COA
OX
ILC
XAS
ST TE
WARE
DELA
BASIN
2.00
WE
0.8
RG
BU
FR
VI
AS
0.7
1.75
IO
S
CK
EA
CO
NA
LF
1.50
SO
0.6
I
CH
UT
GU
H
RT
SE
(FRIO, VICKSBURG,
AND WILCOX SOUTH
TEXAS GULF COAST
AREAS)
NO
1.25
GULF
0.5
1.00
0.4
0
10
20
30
40
50
abnormal
t pressured
shale
60
70
80
normal
t pressured , u sec/ft
shale
WEOX02.086
2-19
March 1995
0.4
0.5
1.25
0.6
PORE
PRESSURE
GRADIENT
psi/ft
1.50
0.7
EQUIVALENT
MUD DENSITY
SG
1.75
0.8
2.00
0.9
2.25
1.0
1.2
1.4
T/
1.6
Tn
WEOX02.087
Detailed high resolution seismic surveys as well as conventional seismic data are used to
identify potential gas bearing zones at shallow depths by using a technique known as bright
spot analysis. The high resolution seismic data are acquired over a survey grid with perhaps
only 150m between seismic lines, the grid covering an area of only a few square kilometres
around a proposed well location. The data are processed to produce detailed seismic sections
usually down to a maximum depth of about 1000m.
2-20
March 1995
Gas bearing formations may produce high amplitude anomalies on the seismic reflection
traces of the seismic section. These high amplitudes (relative to the other seismic reflections)
are caused by strong seismic reflections due to the velocity impedance contrast between the
gas bearing formation and the overlying formations. These amplitude anomalies appear
visually on the seismic section as bright areas. The lateral extent of the bright spots can be
mapped on a horizontal section, or sections, and the area of the proposed well location
examined in detail. It may be necessary to move the well location to avoid drilling into a
possible shallow gas zone as indicated by a bright spot.
It must be noted that the high resolution seismic technique cannot usually detect a gas sand
that is less than 2 to 3 metres thick, although such a thickness of gas accumulation may be
enough to cause a shallow gas blowout. Also, the absence of bright spots does not mean that
there will be no shallow gas and conversely, bright spots do not always contain gas. However,
it is wise to avoid drilling through any bright spots if possible.
Ideally, the Geophysicists must be responsible for analysing the shallow seismic data at the
proposed well location. Once the well location has been finalised, the Drilling Engineer
should liaise closely with the Geophysicists and Geologists to produce a drilling engineering
hazard log over the depths covered by the shallow seismic survey. An example hazard log is
shown in Figure 2.11. It will not be possible to predict formation pressures for shallow gas
formations from the seismic data. However, drilling personnel should always be aware that
shallow gas bearing formations may be overpressured, though this is not normally the case.
4 Summary
The importance of reliable formation pressure data must be stressed. It is the responsibility
of the well planning DE to ensure that the pressure data used are the most accurate available.
Whenever possible, pressure data from offset wells should be used to predict the pore pressure
profile for well planning. Direct pressure measurements such as those from RFTs, drillstem
tests and well kicks should give more accurate data than pressures derived from well logs.
Seismic methods of pressure prediction should only be used in the absence of offset well
data. Occasionally, seismic analysis may be necessary to endorse the data from offset wells,
although there is no guarantee that this will be successful.
A recent development by Geochemistry Branch at Company Research Centre, Sunbury is
worthy of note. A compaction model has been developed that may have an application for
predicting formation pressures. This model may be useful for pressure prediction in areas
with very few or no offset wells, especially if used in conjunction with seismic data. At
present, the model is being validated against actual well data.
2-21
March 1995
DEPTH
(m)
RTE
SEABED
100
DRILLING
HAZARD
200
210
230
350
FAULT
30in
(320m)
400
SAND, LENSES, POSSIBLE GAS
470
18 5/8in
(580m)
600
620
800
850
1000
FAULT
2-22
March 1995
WEOX02.088
2.3
Paragraph
Page
General
2-25
Drilling Parameters
2.1 Rate of Penetration
2.2 Drilling Exponents
2.3 Other Drilling Rate Methods
2.4 Hole Characteristics
2-25
2-25
2-27
2-38
2-42
2-43
2-43
2-52
2-53
2-53
Cutting Parameters
2-53
2-60
2-61
Summary
2-64
Illustrations
2.12 Example showing Increase in Penetration Rate
on Entering an Abnormally High Pressure Zone
2-26
2-27
2-28
2-30
2-31
2-33
2-34
2-23
March 1995
Illustrations
2.19 Example showing the Equivalent Depth Method for
Formation Pressure Determination from dc-exponent Plots
2-36
2-49
2-40
2-45
2-46
2-49
2-49
2-50
2-51
2-53
2-54
2-55
2-56
2-58
2-59
2-62
Table
2.3
2-24
March 1995
2-63
1 General
The aim of formation pressure evaluation whilst drilling is to determine the optimum mud
weight to contain any formation pore pressures encountered, whilst maximising rates of
penetration and minimising the hazards of lost circulation and drillstring differential sticking.
To achieve this, formation properties have to be closely monitored in order to detect any
changes that may indicate the transition from a normally pressured zone to an abnormally
pressured zone or vice versa.
Abnormally pressured zones may exhibit several of the following properties when compared
to normally pressured zones at the same depths.
Higher porosities
Higher temperatures
Any measureable parameter which reflects the changes in these properties may be used as a
means of evaluating formation pressures. The parameters commonly used to evaluate
formation pressures while drilling are listed in Table 2.1. It should be remembered however,
that the above properties also vary with differing lithologies. Lithological variations should
always be taken into account when interpreting changes in drilling and mud parameters.
As the aim of formation pressure evaluation whilst drilling is to reduce the risk of taking
well kicks, this section concentrates on the techniques used to achieve this. The pressure
evaluation techniques in Table 2.1 that are associated with kicks are not discussed here.
2 Drilling Parameters
2.1
Rate of Penetration
Rate of penetration varies with the weight on the bit, rotary speed, bit type and size,
hydraulics, drilling fluid properties and formation characteristics. If the weight on bit, rotary
speed, bit type, mud density and hydraulics are held constant, then the rate of penetration
(ROP) in shales will decrease uniformly with depth. This is due to the normal compaction
increase in shales with depth. However, the undercompaction present in transition and
abnormally pressured zones, together with the reduction in differential pressures across the
bottom of the hole, result in an increase in penetration rate. It should also be noted that
slower penetration rates have often been observed in the cap rock (pressure seal) overlying
transition zones.
2-25
March 1995
The increase in ROP on drilling into a transition zone can be best seen on a plot of ROP
versus depth. The average ROP over 0.5 to 2m depth increments (depending on whether
thedrilling is slow or fast) is plotted as shown in Figure 2.12. A normal compaction trend
can be established in shales as shown. A new trendline must be established for each new
bit r un. An increase in penetration rate away from the normal compaction trend may
indicateabnormal pressures provided that the drilling and mud parameters, and lithology ,
remain constant.
ROP
DEPTH
NORMAL SHALE
TREND LINE
NEW BIT
TOP OF
OVERPRESSURES
WEOX02.089
2-26
March 1995
ROP
sand
shale
DEPTH
NORMAL SHALE
COMPACTION
TREND LINE
WEOX02.090
2.2
Drilling Exponents
From the preceding discussion on ROP curves, it is clear that a method of accounting for
the effect of drilling parameters is desirable in order to make ROP a better indicator of
abnormal pressures. The d-exponent attempts to achieve this.
2-27
March 1995
SHARP BIT
ROP
DULL BIT
ROP
sand
DEPTH
shale
WEOX02.091
ROP = a WOB
N
B
where ROP
N
B
WOB
a
d
=
=
=
=
=
=
(2-3)
2-28
March 1995
Jorden and Shirley (21) rewrote equation 2-3 for d, the drillability exponent. They inserted
constants to allow the use of more common oilfield units and let the matrix strength
constant, a, equal 1. This removed the need to derive values for the matrix strength
constant, but made d-exponent lithology dependent:
log ROP
60N
d=
12WOB
log
106 B
where d
ROP
N
B
WOB
=
=
=
=
=
NOTE: The constant 106 is simply a scaling factor inserted in the equation in order to
give values of d in a convenient workable range, normally about 1.0 to 3.0.
In constant lithology, d-exponent will increase with depth as the ROP decreases due to
the increased compaction and differential pressures across the bottom of the hole.
However, when an overpressured zone is penetrated, compaction and differential pressure
will decrease and will result in a decrease in d-exponent. Hence d-exponent is, in general,
related to the differential pressure at the bottom of the hole which in turn is dependent
on pore pressure.
FPG N
ECD
(2-5)
where dc
= corrected or modified d-exponent (dimensionless)
FPGN = normal formation pressure gradient (ppg, SG)
ECD = equivalent circulating density (ppg, SG)
This correction has no theoretical basis but has been successfully used worldwide. ECD
should be used whenever possible but use of the actual mud density has been found to
be acceptable. The response of d-exponent in overpressure is shown schematically in
Figure 2.15.
The dc-exponent may be plotted with either semi-log or linear co-ordinate axes. Either
system will produce an approximately linear, normal compaction trendline, as indicated
in Figure 2.15. In practice, the semi-log co-ordinate system gives a more efficient data
display (values of dc are normally in the range 0.5 to 2.0) and is a more suitable format
for making formation pressure estimates from dc-exponent.
A d c-exponent plot should be commenced as soon as drilling begins. Values should be
calculated at 0.5 to 2m intervals, depending on penetration rate. This is normally done
automatically by the Mud Loggers computer and displayed as required. The values
may also be plotted up automatically to enable trends to be spotted as early as possible.
2-29
March 1995
NORMAL
CONCEPTION
TREND UNE
DEPTH
NORMAL
PRESSURE
TRANSITION
ZONE
OVERPRESSURED
ZONE
WEOX02.092
dc
Lithology
As previously stated, d-exponent increases with depth and compaction in constant
lithology. This implies that d-exponent is mainly applicable to shales. Changes
inlithology will thus cause changes in the value of d c. If the lithology change is
relatively minor, such as silty shales, then a slight decrease in dc values may be
observed which may not affect the overall trend significantly. Cuttings analysis should
help to identify true shale points for use in establishing the normal trend if the dc
values show a largescatter .
2-30
March 1995
(b)
MUDSTONE
SILTY MUDSTONE
DEPTH
CALCITIC MUDSTONE
MUDSTONE
NORMAL PRESSURE
NORMAL PRESSURE
DEPTH
SOFT CLAY
SAND
MUDSTONE
SAND
MUDSTONE
OVERPRESSURE
OVERPRESSURE
CALCITIC MUDSTONE
MUDSTONE
CALCITIC MUDSTONE
MUDSTONE
SAND
MUDSTONE
dc
dc
(c)
(d)
ROCK BIT
12 1/4in / 25 000 lb
W/B = 2040 lb/in
SMOOTHED CURVE
SMOOTHED
CURVE
DEPTH
DEPTH
RAW DATA
INSERT
BIT
12 1/2in / 10 000 lb
W/B = 1178 lb/in
ROCK BIT
RAW DATA
dc
dc
(e)
(f)
OVERPRESSURE
NEW BIT
NORMAL PRESSURE
DEPTH
DEPTH
NEW BIT
NEW BIT
dc
FRESH BIT
DULL BIT
dc
WEOX02.093
2-31
March 1995
Hydraulics
Changes in drilling hydraulics may produce changes in dc-exponent. This also applies
to formations that are susceptible to jetting. Therefore, it is often impossible to
establish a normal dc trend in soft, unconsolidated sediments, such as those commonly
drilled in offshore top hole sections.
Bits
The different drilling actions of different types of bits, ie mill tooth or insert, can
cause variations and trend shifts in dc.
It is sometimes necessary to plot a smoothed curve to account for trend shifts as
shown schematically in Figures 2.16 (c) and (d). Changes in hole size will also
produce a trend shift in dc.
The effect of bit wear is to produce an increase in dc values towards the end of the
bit run, as indicated in Figure 2.16(e). The new bit should give a new dc trend that
continues along the previous trend provided that it is the same type of bit and none
of the other parameters have varied significantly.
The effect of drilling into an overpressured zone as the bit dulls is shown schematically
in Figure 2.16 (f). A dull bit may mask the decrease in dc which would be expected
if the bit was fresh. In extreme cases, bit dulling may totally mask or even produce
an increase in dc values even though an overpressured zone has been penetrated.
Thus it can be seen that the position of normal trends should be established with great
care, as should the practice of shifting trends from raw data to produce smoothed curves.
Two further noteworthy phenomena that may cause difficulty in interpreting the plotsare:
Unconformities/Disconformities
The presence of an unconformity/disconformity in the geological age of formations
being drilled will often change the character of the normal trendline. The different
compaction histories and sedimentary conditions of the formations above and below
an unconformity/disconformity may result in not only a shifted normal dc trendline,
but also a change in slope. A new trendline should be established after drilling through
an unconformity/disconformity.
2-32
March 1995
dc EXPONENT
0.5
SG
1.3
1.5
2.0
G
1S
1.
1.2
1.0
SG
DEPTH
OVERCOMPACTED
NORMAL
COMPACTION
TREND
NORMALLY COMPACTED
OVERPRESSURED
WEOX02.094
2-33
March 1995
dcN
dcO
(2-6)
DEPTH
2.04
SG
1.80
1.56
1.44
1.32
1.20
1.08 SG
TYPICAL
TRANSITION
ZONE
WEOX02.095
(2-7)
2-34
March 1995
(2-8)
This equation holds at any depth. Therefore, referring to the example dc plot in
Figure 2.19, the actual formation pressure gradient (FPG O) at the depth of interest
(D O) is given by:
FPGO =
PfO =
DO
SO M O
D O DO
FPGO = OPGO MO
DO
where OPG O
MO
(2-9)
2-35
March 1995
A line is then constructed vertically upwards from the value of dc at the depth of
interest until it crosses the normal dc trendline at the equivalent depth (DE), as
shown in Figure 2.19. At this equivalent depth, both the pore pressure and the
overburden pressure are known. Thus, equation 2-8 can be solved for the matrix
stress (ME) at the equivalent depth (DE):
ME = SE PfE
(2-10)
In terms of gradients:
ME = SE = PfE = OPG E FPG E
DE
DE
DE
ME = DE (OPGE FPG E)
(2-11)
dc EXPONENT
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
DEPTH
DE
NORMAL
COMPACTION
TREND
DO
WEOX02.096
2-36
March 1995
Since the matrix stress at the depth of interest and equivalent depth are considered
equal (equal d c values), then substituting equation 2-11 into equation 2-9 gives:
FPGO = OPGO D E (OPGE FPG NE)
DO
where FPG O
OPG O
OPG E
FPG NE
DO
DE
=
=
=
=
=
=
(2-12)
NOTE: Equation 2-12 can be used directly with gradients in SG, lb/gal or psi/ft
and depths in metres or ft.
The equivalent depth method has been successfully used to estimate formation
pressures from both semi-log and linear scale d c plots. However a major flaw in the
theory occurs when the equivalent depth of a particular overpressured formation is
found to be above the rig floor. This will be the case if high overpressures are
developed at relatively shallow depths. Also, the method relies on determining the
intersection point of a vertical line with the normal compaction trendline. It therefore
becomes inaccurate when the normal compaction trendline is very steep, as is usually
the case on the semi-log dc plot.
(2-13)
Eaton then introduced a term to relate the dc-exponent (drilling rate) response in
overpressures to the reduction in matrix stress:
MO = MN DcO
d cN
1.20
(2-14)
1.20
(2-15)
(2-16)
Substituting equation 2-16 into equation 2-15 then gives the Eaton equation:
PfO = SO (SO PfN) DcO
d cN
1.20
(2-17)
2-37
March 1995
Dividing through by the depth (D), gives the equation in terms of gradients:
PfO = SO SO PfN
DO DO
DO DO
dcO
d cN
1.20
1.20
where FPGO, FPGN, OPGO, dcO and dcN are the same terms as explained for equations
2-6 and 2-12.
By rearranging equation 2-18 and substituting known values of FPGN, d cN and OPG,
it is possible to plot a series of d cO lines equivalent to various values of FPG O (in a
similar manner to that previously explained for the Ratio method). An example of
this construction is shown schematically in Figure 2.20. Formation pressure gradients
can then be read directly from the dc plot.
Eaton originally developed the equation for use in estimating formation pressures
from shale resistivity plots (See Section 2.4), but found that it applied equally
tocorrected d-exponent. The value of the exponent, 1.20, was derived from actual
well data.
All the methods for estimating formation pressures from dc-exponent plots rely on correct
placement of the normal compaction trend. The difficulties in achieving this have
previously been discussed and highlight the fact that identification of overpressured
zones should not be based on dc-exponent calculations alone. Other abnormal pressure
indicators, which are often more basic in nature than dc-exponent calculations, should
always be checked. These indicators must support, as far as possible, any formation
pressure conclusions drawn from the dc plot.
Drilling factors that are not accounted for by dc-exponent are drilling hydraulics, bit
tooth efficiency (bit wear) and matrix strength (lithology dependent). Also, the
relationship between ROP and the various drilling parameters is not so simple as is
implied by the dc-exponent equation.
These factors have led to the development of more refined drilling exponents in which
attempts have been made to model the various drilling/formation interactions more
closely. In particular, mud logging companies have developed their own drilling
exponents from which they make formation pressure estimates. Exlogs Nx (normalised
exponent) and Nxb, and Anadrills A exponent are examples of these more refined
drilling exponents.
The theory of these drilling exponent methods will not be discussed in detail here as
their formulae are of a proprietary nature and are not generally available. Suffice it to
say that the methods still rely on estimating a normal compaction trend and spotting
deviations from it caused by pore pressure changes and not by lithology or drilling
changes.
2.3
There are a number of other drilling rate methods for estimating formation pressures that
are worthy of note. As these methods are generally more complex than d-exponent methods,
they have not gained wide acceptance and thus tend only to be used by their originators.
2-38
March 1995
dc EXPONENT
0.5
1.80
1.68
1.56
1.44
1.0
1.5
SG
DEPTH
NORMAL
TREND
TOP OF
OVERPRESSURE
WEOX02.097
2-39
March 1995
2960
NEW BIT
1.08 SG
ECD = 1.25 SG
2990
ECD = 1.25 SG
3020
1.08 SG
8.53m/hr
4.11m/hr
DEPTH (metres)
NEW BIT
3050
1.28 SG
CIRCULATED 1.38
ECD ALL AROUND
NEW BIT
ECD = 1.38 SG
1.28 SG
8.23m/hr
3080
6.1m/hr
1.37 SG CIRCULATED 1.5
ECD ALL AROUND
12
4100
2-40
March 1995
ROPN = ROPO
where ROP
W
N
Pbit
Q
m
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
WN m
WO m
NN
NO
PbitN QN
PbitO QO
(2-19)
= normal values
= observed values
Values of and m are given by Prentice(26). If the normal conditions are chosen so that
most of a bit run can be drilled at these conditions, then no corrections will be necessary and
ROPN will equal ROPO. Each bit run is treated as an individual unit and is plotted up as
shown in the example in Figure 2.21. Changes in mud weight are also plotted separately.
Drilling trends are fitted to each bit run, or part bit run, at constant ECD, as shown in
the example. Provided that the ECD and formation pressure remain constant, the bit
will dull and the ROPN will follow the dulling trend. If a deviation from the dulling
trend is noted at constant ECD, this then indicates either a lithology change or a change
in formation pressure. Lithology changes are generally abrupt, and easily identified.
Formation pressure changes show a more gradual deviation from the dulling trend, as
shown in the example plot at about 9950 ft and 10,100 ft.
Vidrine and Benit (32) developed a graphical relationship between differential pressure
across the bottom of the hole and the percentage decrease in ROP caused by this
overbalance. Using this relationship, the extrapolated dulling trend ROP N and the
observed ROPN at a particular depth are used to estimate the actual formation pressure
at that depth. The method is detailed in full by Prentice(26) together with worked examples
and a comprehensive discussion of the theory behind the method. The method is quoted
as being the most responsive of all methods used to indicate the changes in formation
pressure, but no data are presented to support this claim.
(b) Sigmalog
This method was developed by AGIP and Geoservices(3). Basically, it is a plot of a
calculated rock strength parameter versus depth. The method is based on the following
drilling rate equation (developed by AGIP):
0.5
0.25
t = WOB . N
B . ROP0.25
(2-20)
where t = raw rock strength parameter and WOB, N, B and ROP are as previously
defined. The raw rock strength is then corrected to the rock strength parameter, o, using
experimentally derived relationships to account for depth and bottomhole differential pressure
(assuming a normal formation pressure gradient). The Sigmalog is then constructed by plotting
o versus depth.
2-41
March 1995
2.4
Hole Characteristics
2-42
March 1995
Torque can be useful in detecting large increases in pore pressures, for example when
crossing a fault line into overpressured formations. However, sudden large increases in
torque can also be caused by a locked cone on the bit, a sudden change in formation
type, and by stabilisers hanging up on hard stringers.
Both torque and drag are not considered to be valid overpressure indicators when drilling
high angle deviated holes. Also, increases in torque due to abnormal pressures are difficult
to distinguish from the normal torque increase with depth. When drilling from a floating
rig the vessel motion and varying offset from the wellhead tend to produce significant
torque fluctuations that make interpretation very difficult.
Gas Levels
Hydrocarbon gases enter the mud system from various sources during the drilling of a well.
The gases in the return mud stream are extracted from the mud for analysis in the mud
logging unit. There is no quantitative correlation between measured gas levels and formation
pressure. However, changes in gas levels can be accounted for by relating them to the actual
drilling operation in progress (drilling, tripping etc) and the mud weight in use. Tentative
pore pressure estimates may then be made.
The main sources of gas in the mud system are:
The gas levels from these sources are dependent upon the formation gas saturations, the
mud weight and the particular drilling operation.
2-43
March 1995
2-44
March 1995
PRESSURE PROFILES
MUD WEIGHT
GAS LEVELS
C
Connection
C
Bottomhole
Dynamic Pressure
DEPTH
C
C
Background
Gas
Pore
Pressure
Connection
Gases
C
C
Increase in
BGG Level
C
C
C
C
C
C Indicates connection
WEOX02.099
One major problem with this type of interpretation is to distinguish connection gas
peaks caused by effective mud weight reduction due to stopping circulating, from gas
swabbed into the wellbore when the drillstring is picked up. Swabbing effects are much
more difficult to quantify than simple reductions from the ECD to static mud weight.
This may result in higher than actual pore pressure estimates being made, especially if
the connection gases observed are entirely due to swabbing. Clearly, it is good practice
to use connection procedures that minimise swabbing. If used consistently, this will aid
in the interpretation of connection gas levels.
2-45
March 1995
Due to the complex causes of trip gas, it may only be used qualitatively in estimating
formation pressures. The early onset of trip gas after circulation is resumed may indicate
that much of the openhole is slightly underbalanced. Other abnormal pressure indicators
must be consulted to confirm this.
GAS LEVEL
TOTAL GAS
10
20
MUD WEIGHT
30
40
50
60
70
60
70
60
70
20
30
40
50
TIME
10
KELLY CUT
TRIP GAS
10
20
30
40
50
CIRCULATION STARTED
WEOX02.100
2-46
March 1995
Kelly gas (also known as kelly cut) is caused by air being circulated around the system
from a partly empty drillstring or kelly after a trip or connection. The air is pumped into
the borehole as a slug of mud aerated with compressed air. This enhances any gas
diffusion effects from formations to the borehole and may result in enrichment of the
aerated mud with the hydrocarbon gases. A gas peak will thus be recorded when this
mud is circulated back to the surface.
Kelly gas due to connections is rarely seen as the kelly is usually kept full of mud
during connections by closing the lower kelly cock. Kelly gas after a trip is sometimes
observed (as shown in Figure 2.23) but should be easily distinguishable from other gas
peaks by experienced Mud Loggers. Although indicating the presence of hydrocarbon
gases, kelly gas is of no value for formation pressure evaluation.
Recirculated trip gas (or any other recirculated gas) behaves in a similar way to kelly
gas, and should be anticipated by the Mud Loggers from knowledge of the mud system
total circulation time. An example is shown in Figure 2.23.
Carbide gas is used to check the calculated total circulation time and is caused by the Mud
Loggers putting calcium carbide down the drillpipe at a connection. The carbide reacts with
the water in the mud to produce acetylene, a hydrocarbon gas that is detected as a large
sharp gas peak when circulated round to surface. The circulation time can then be used to
back calculate the openhole volume and thus to check for hole enlargement.
It must be noted that evaluation of formation pressures from gas levels relies entirely on
hydrocarbon gases being present to some extent in the well being drilled. Occasionally,
very dry holes are drilled which may be overpressured, but show very low background
gas levels. In these wells, it is very difficult to use gas levels as a reliable formation
pressure indicator.
3.2
Temperature
Due to the radial flow of heat from the earths core to the surface, the subsurface temperature
increases with increasing depth. The geothermal gradient is the rate at which the temperature
increases with depth and is usually assumed to be constant for any given area. However, it
has been found that the temperature gradient across abnormally pressured formations is
generally higher than that found across normally pressured formations in the same area.
This phenomenon can be explained by considering the thermal conductivity of the formations.
Since water has a thermal conductivity of about one-third to one-sixth that of most formation
matrix materials, then formations with a higher water content (higher porosity) will have a
lower thermal conductivity. These formations will thus have a higher geothermal gradient
across them. Overpressured shales usually have a higher water content than normal and will
thus have higher than normal geothermal gradients across them.
The top of an overpressured shale should therefore be marked by a sharp increase in
geothermal gradient. This may often be reflected by an increase in the temperature of the
return mud in the flowline. Also, the caprock immediately above a pressure transition zone
often shows a reduced geothermal gradient due to increased compaction (higher thermal
conductivity) and a lower than normal temperature at the top of the transition zone. This
effect is shown schematically in Figure 2.24. Again, this may be reflected in the flowline
mud temperature by a reduced flowline temperature gradient. In some cases, the flowline
temperature may even fall (negative gradient) and be then followed by a large increase as
the overpressured zone is penetrated, as shown schematically in the plot of flowline
temperature versus depth in Figure 2.25.
2-47
March 1995
The example in Figure 2.25 is, of course, an idealised case. The flowline temperature very
clearly reflects the changes in formation temperature and there are no other influences on
the mud temperature. In practice, there are many other factors that affect the flowline
temperature and make the interpretation of flowline temperature plots very difficult,
especially offshore. Such factors include:
Circulation rate.
Rate of penetration.
Time elapsed since the last trip (the mud in the hole heats up during a trip).
Various methods are used to improve the interpretation of temperature-depth plots. Surface
effects can be minimised by measuring the temperature of the mud in both the flowline and
the suction pit (mud temperature into the hole), and then plotting lagged differential
temperature. A sharp increase in differential pressures may then indicate entry into a pressure
transition zone. However, the temperature trends (flowline and differential) are still found
to be obscured by discontinuities at bit trips, wiper trips and other periods with no circulation.
These discontinuities split the temperature depth plot into a series of unconnected depth
segments, as shown in the left hand curve in Figure 2.26.
Since overpressure indications are based on temperature gradient changes rather than on the
magnitude of the flowline temperature, each depth segment on the temperature-depth plot
can be investigated separately for gradient changes. It may, however, be helpful to plot the
segments end to end, disregarding the absolute temperatures, to produce a smoothed curve.
Also, end to end plotting of the individual segment trendlines may be of value, but care is
required to ensure that this technique does not smooth out obvious gradient changes within
an individual segment. The three techniques for plotting flowline temperature are shown in
Figure 2.26.
2-48
March 1995
GEOTHERMAL GRADIENT
DEPTH
GEOTEMPERATURE
OVERPRESSURE
WEOX02.101
DEPTH
TOP OF
OVERPRESSURED
ZONE
WEOX02.102
FLOWLINE TEMPERATURE
2-49
March 1995
NEW
BITS
NB
NB
DEPTH
NB
NB
NB
NB
NB
NOTE
TEMPERATURE REDUCTION
GRADIENT
NB
NB
NB
NB
TOP OF OVERPRESSURE
NB
RAW DATA
END-TO-END PLOT
FLOWLINE TEMPERATURE
TREND-TO-TREND PLOT
WEOX02.103
Due to the many factors affecting the flowline mud temperature, it is very difficult to interpret
temperature-depth plots to evaluate formation pressures. At least, changes in the gradient of
the plots may suggest that an overpressured zone has been penetrated. It is unlikely that
flowline temperature will be the primary indication of abnormal pressures, though it may
well be useful to support other pressure indicators.
2-50
March 1995
tL
LOG tc + tL
tL
241
257
262
4.25
7.00
9.50
0.260
0.178
0.133
300
290
TRUE BHT
IS 288F
280
270
260
250
240
230
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
LOG tc + tL
tL
WEOX02.104
When drilling, the formations in the lower section of the hole are cooled by the mud in
circulation. When circulation stops, the mud temperature begins to rise and gradually
approaches the formation temperature. It is estimated that about four days are required
for the mud temperature to reach equilibrium with the formation temperature. A modified
Horner expression is used to model the temperature increase with time. By extrapolating
2-51
March 1995
T = Tf c.log
where T
Tf
c
tC
tL
tC + t L
tL
(2-21)
A plot of T versus log ((tC + tL)/tL) should thus give a straight line, as shown in
Figure2.27.
At infinite time after circulation was stopped (i.e. tL = infinity), the value of log
(t C +t L)/tL) equals zero. Hence, extrapolating the plot to intercept the temperature axis
gives the estimated actual formation temperature, as shown in Figure 2.27. The
geothermal gradients between the logging run end points can then be calculated. Increases
in the geothermal gradient may indicate the presence of abnormal pressures.
Unfortunately the actual formation temperature can only be estimated at logging points.
Thus, only three or four formation temperatures can be estimated from which geothermal
gradients can be established. These gradients are thus average gradients over significant
depth intervals and they can only be established after each hole section has been drilled.
Hence, they are generally of little use in pressure evaluation while drilling, but may
confirm any flowline temperature trends that were noticed earlier.
3.3
Resistivity/Conductivity/Chlorides
The resistivity of a formation depends on the porosity and the dissolved salts concentration
in the formation pore water. Due to their higher pore water content, overpressured shales
generally have lower resistivities than normally pressured shales at the same depths. When
using water base muds, an attempt can be made to monitor this formation property by
measuring the mud conductivity (conductivity is simply the inverse of resistivity).
The mud conductivity at the flowline and suction pit can be measured and a conversion
made to chlorides. An increase in the differential chlorides, known as delta-chlorides,
may then indicate abnormal pressures. It is doubtful whether an increase in mud conductivity
due to the release of pore water from drilled cuttings would be measurable. This is due to
the volume of pore water released being minute compared to the volume of mud.
However, pore water influxes from more permeable formations may be seen as changes in
mud conductivity or delta-cholrides. Hence, a warning of underbalanced conditions may be
given. The system is best suited to situations where there is a large difference between pore
water and mud salinity. In these situations, the response of differential mud conductivity is
similar to that of mud gas levels showing influx peaks at connections or a gradual increase
due to underbalanced conditions. This is shown schematically in Figure 2.28.
Obviously, mud conductivity as an abnormal pressure indicator has many limitations. A
large salinity contrast between mud filtrate and formation fluids is required. Thus, the method
is of little use in saline mud systems, unless of course, the mud filtrate salinity is much
greater than the formation water salinity. This could be the case with saturated salt and
potassium chloride (KCl) mud systems, and may well result in a mirror image plot to that
shown in Figure 2.28.
2-52
March 1995
ZERO
LOSS
GAIN
MUD CONDUCTIVITY
DEPTH
MUD CHLORIDE
INFLUX AT CONNECTION
CONTINUOUS INFLUX
MUD CONDUCTIVITY
MUD CHLORIDE
WEOX02.105
3.4
Continuous recording of the flowline mud weight will show mud density changes due to gas
cutting or formation influxes. Some influxes are not always picked up by an increase in
return mud flow or by an increase in mud pit level, especially if the influx occurs gradually
due to a very low permeability formation. Thus, an underbalanced situation due to abnormal
pressures may be indicated by a slight reduction in the flowline mud weight.
4 Cuttings Parameters
(a) Shale Bulk Density
The bulk density of normally compacted shales increases with depth. Overpressured
shales are generally undercompacted and thus have higher porosities and lower bulk
densities than would be expected. If shale bulk density is plotted against depth as drilling
progresses, then a normal compaction trendline can be established. A decrease in shale
bulk density away from the normal compaction trendline may then indicate the presence
of an overpressured zone. A schematic shale bulk density plot is shown in Figure 2.29.
2-53
March 1995
The magnitude of abnormal pressures can be calculated from shale bulk density plots
using the equivalent depth method (as described previously for d-exponent plots).
DEPTH
NORMAL SHALE
TREND LINE
TOP OF
OVERPRESSURES
2.4
2.5
SHALE DENSITY (gm/cc)
2.6
WEOX02.106
Alternatively empirical curves, relating observed bulk density deviation from the normal
trend to formation pressure gradient, can be used. However, such curves are area
dependent, so can only be used if the appropriate area curve is available. Hence it will
usually be necessary to use the equivalent depth method if formation pressure magnitudes
are required from shale bulk density plots.
2-54
March 1995
The most common methods of measuring shale bulk density at the rigsite are:
Mud Balance
Shale cuttings are added to the mud balance cup until the balance reads 1.0 SG
(8.33ppg) with the cap on. The cup is then topped up with fresh water and re-weighed
(W). The shale bulk density is then given by:
Bulk density (SG) =
1
2W
(2-22)
Density Column
A graduated column of fluid is prepared from a mixture of two fluids of different
densities such that the density of the mixture varies with column height. The column
is calibrated using beads of known density which settle at different heights in the
column. Selected shale cuttings are then dropped into the column and the height at
which they settle is converted to shale density using the calibration curve. The method
is illustrated in Figure 2.30.
250
200
SG
2.2
150
2.3
Shale
2.65
100
Shale Density
2.48
FLUID LEVEL cc
2.38
50
0
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
The mud balance method has the advantage of being fast and simple and uses a good
quantity of cuttings to obtain a good average bulk density. The density column, however,
requires selection of individual cuttings and multiple determinations to obtain an average
density value. The mud balance method is probably the more representative method.
2-55
March 1995
Use of shale bulk densities for the detection and evaluation of formation pressures
frequently has the following limitations:
Presence of shale gas in the cuttings decreases the bulk density values determined.
The reliability of the data depends on the consistency and care taken by personnel,
when carrying out the density determinations.
Formation age boundaries and unconformities may cause shifts in the normal
compaction trendline. It may be necessary to determine individual normal compaction
trends for each geological age unit.
Variations in the lithology, such as high carbonate content, silty/sandy shales etc,
may cause significant variations in the bulk density determinations. Only good clean
shales should be plotted. The presence of high density minerals, such as pyrite, will
increase bulk density values and may mask the onset of abnormal pressures.
Density measurements on cuttings from water base muds are usually low due to the
absorption of water by the cuttings. Less reactive muds, such as oil base muds and
highly inhibited water base muds, will give more accurate cuttings densities.
SHALE DENSITY
DEPTH
NORMAL
PRESSURE
OVERPRESSURE
COMPACTION
DISEQUILIBRIUM
CLAY
DIAGENESIS
AQUATHERMAL
PRESSURING
TECTONIC
PRESSURING
WEOX02.108
2-56
March 1995
The response of shale bulk density values in abnormal pressured zones will vary
with the type of mechanism that caused the overpressure. This is illustrated by the
idealised plots shown in Figure 2.31. However, as most overpressures in shales are
caused by compaction disequilibrium and aquathermal pressuring, the most common
response will be a decrease in shale bulk density at the top of an overpressured zone.
(See Chapter 1 Section 1.4 for explanations of the various causes of abnormal
formation pressures.)
Despite the above limitations, shale bulk density plots can be a very valuable indicator
of abnormal pressures. They should be constructed during the drilling of all exploration
and appraisal wells, and are most useful when long shale sections are encountered.
titrant
vol
(ml)
titrant
normality
(2-23)
Pure montmorillonite clays have a high shale factor of about 100 meq/100gm. This is
due to the presence of many loosely bound cations (Na+ , Ca++) between the clay platelets.
However, pure illite clays, due to their tightly bound cation (K+ ) between clay patelets,
have low shale factors of 10 to 40 meq/100gm. Thus, shale factor can be used to identify
the montmorillonite/illite content of shale samples.
For abnormal pressure evaluation, however, the use of shale factor is limited as it is
dependent on the various mechanisms that may cause overpressures.
Generally, shale factor decreases with depth as montmorillonite is converted to illite.
In o verpressured intervals caused by compaction disequilibrium (see Chapter 1
Section1.4 ) clay dewatering has been restricted, which in turn restricts montmorillonite
diagenesis to illite. Thus a larger proportion of montmorillonite will be present in the
overpressured zone, resulting in an increase in shale factor. This is shown schematically
in Figure 2.32(a).
However, overpressures caused by clay diagenesis (montmorillonite dehydration) will
show a decrease in shale factor on entering the overpressured zone. The proportion of
montmorillonite has been reduced by conversion to illite, with the release of large
amounts of water. This causes increased pore pressure if water escape is restricted. This
shale factor response is shown schematically in Figure 2.32 (b).
2-57
March 1995
DEPTH
SHALE FACTOR
DEPTH
SHALE FACTOR
MONTMORILLONITE
CONTENT INCREASE
MONTMORILLONITE
CONTENT DECREASE
OVER
PRESSURES
OVERPRESSURES
Underbalanced drilling
In underbalanced drilling conditions, the pore pressure in the formation adjacent to the
borehole is greater than the pressure in the borehole. In impermeable formations, such
as shales, the pressure differential due to an underbalance may be high enough to exceed
the tensile strength of the shales. The shale will thus fail in tension and form cavings
which fall into the borehole. These cavings are usually long, splintery, concave and
delicate, as illustrated in Figure 2.33 (a).
2-58
March 1995
The natural stresses that are present in the earths crust vary regionally and with depth,
lithology etc. Drilling a hole through formations will relieve some of these stresses
depending on the hole angle and direction in relation to the principal formation stresses.
The result may be that the formation stress at the borehole wall is greater than the stress
(pressure) due to the mud column. The borehole wall may then fail either in compression
from vertical stresses or in tension due to horizontal stresses, or a combination of both.
Cavings produced in this manner tend to be blocky and rectangular in shape, as shown
in Figure 2.33 (b).
Thus, the presence of cavings in cuttings samples will not necessarily mean that the
hole is underbalanced. However, other overpressure indicators should always be
examined in detail to confirm whether abnormal pressures are being encountered. Even
if it can not be confirmed that the hole is underbalanced, it may still be necessary to
increase the mud weight to regain hole stability, and avoid the problems caused by
excessive amounts of cuttings/cavings being present in the hole.
FRONT
SIDE
MAY BE
STRIATED
FRONT
SIDE
SCALE
0.5in to 1.5in
TYPICALLY
CRACKED
DELICATE
SPIKY
SHAPE
BLOCKY
RECTANGULAR
SHAPES
PLAN
PLAN
CONCAVE SURFACE
WEOX02.110
2-59
March 1995
Weight-on-bit
The actual downhole weight-on-bit (WOB) is usually less than recorded at surface due
to the drag in the hole. Using the actual downhole WOB will give more accurate values
for d-exponent or the drilling rate method that is being used as a formation pressure
indicator.
Downhole Torque
Variations in torque at the bit may be used to indicate bit wear. This in turn may be used to
account for bit wear in more complex drilling rate methods for estimating formation pressures.
Downhole Temperature
The difference between downhole annulus temperature and flowline temperatures will
give an indication of the amount of heat transferred from the formation to the mud. A
similar effect to that described in Differential Temperature on Page 2-50, should be
observed on drilling into an overpressured zone.
The MWD formation logs presently available for formation pressure evaluation are gamma
ray, resistivity and most recently, porosity.
The gamma ray log is used to identify lithology. Shales show a high level of radioactivity,
whereas sands and evaporites (except for complex salts) show a low level. Hence the gamma
ray log can be used to pick clean shale sections for overpressure determination by any of the
shale related parameters previously discussed. In particular, the gamma ray log can be used
in conjunction with the MWD resistivity log to plot shale resistivities whilst drilling. The
theory and method of formation pressure evaluation from shale resistivities is discussed
further under Wireline Logs in Section 2.4 of this Chapter.
The gamma ray log itself has been used as a formation pressure indicator. A normal depth
related compaction trend was established with departures from this trend indicating the
magnitude of overpressures. However, it would appear that this method may only be valid
for US Gulf Coast shales.
More recently, an MWD porosity log has become available. Thus shale porosities may be
measured whilst drilling and a normal compaction trend established. Again, overpressured
shales will show an increase in porosity away from the decreasing normal trend. The MWD
gamma ray log will also be required to pick clean shales, from which the porosity values
can be plotted.
2-60
March 1995
Sampling and description of drilled cuttings, and hydrocarbons detection and evaluation.
Monitoring and interpretation of drilling data for drilling optimisation and formation
pressure evaluation.
These functions, and their relation to information flow through a typical mud logging unit,are
illustrated in Figure 2.34. The level to which the latter function is required depends on
the t ype of well being drilled. Usually exploration and appraisal wells require mud
logging s ervices capable of a higher level of formation pressure evaluation than for
development wells.
2-61
March 1995
KELLY POSITION
DEPTH
PENETRATION RATE
CARBON DIOXIDE
H2S
PUMP RATE
MICRO GAS
MUD FLOW
TOTAL GAS
HYDROCARBONS
UV
BOX
CHROMATOGRAPH
COMPUTATION
DISPLAY
DATA STORAGE
MUD pH/PHS
REMOTE DATA DISPLAY
MUD RESISTIVITY
EVALUATION
MUD WEIGHT
FORMATION
CUTTINGS
MUD TEMPERATURE
PIT LEVEL/PVT
DENSITY
GEOCHEMICAL
ANALYSIS
DRILLING PARAMETERS
KELLY
HEIGHT
HOOK
LOAD
BIT
REVOLUTIONS
DRILL
RATE
WEIGHT
ON BIT
ROTARY SPEED
TORQUE
TOTAL
DEPTH
STANDPIPE
PRESSURE
CASING
PRESSURE
CEC
MUD PRESS
FORMATION LOG
MISC ENGINEERING
DATA
PRESSURE LOG
GEOCHEMICAL LOG
BASIC
ADDITIONAL
REMOTE DATA
TRANSMISSION
WEOX02.111
2-62
March 1995
Required
Accuracy
+/- 0.1%
+/- 1ppm
+/- 0.5%
Flame ionisation
Solid state semi-conductor instrument
Flame ionisation
+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/+/-
Table 2.3
10 cm
10 cm
200 lb
1 rpm
5 amp
0.01 SG
10 psi
10 psi
20 gpm
50 gpm
20 gpm
1 SPM
1C
5 bbl
0.5 bbl
2-63
March 1995
7 Summary
The majority of the whilst drilling formation pressure indicators discussed are only
applicable to massive shale sections interbedded with sandstone/siltstones. However, as
most of our drilling occurs in sedimentary basins containing such sections, then the techniques
discussed are of direct relevance to our drilling operations.
The most reliable abnormal pressure indicators in shales are probably d-exponent (or other
drilling rate method) in combination with gas levels and cuttings character (cavings).
Occasionally, one indicator may be particularly effective in showing the onset of abnormal
pressures, but this will probably not be apparent until drilling has progressed well into the
overpressured zone.
It is stressed that all formation pressure indicators must be carefully examined to confirm
the possible abnormal pressures that may be implied by a particular overpressure indicator.
Also, the possibility of lithological changes should always be borne in mind when sharp
changes in abnormal pressure indicators are observed.
2-64
March 1995
2.4
Paragraph
Page
General
2-66
2-66
2-66
2-70
2-75
2-77
2-77
2-77
2-82
Summary
2-84
Illustrations
2.35 Schematic diagram showing the Operating Principle
of the Sonic (BHC) Logging Tool
2-67
2-68
2-71
2-73
2-74
2-78
2-79
2-79
2-81
2-83
2-65
March 1995
1 General
After each intermediate and reservoir hole section has been drilled, the formations are
electrically logged to evaluate their physical characteristics and hydrocarbon potential. Some
of these logs can be used to estimate formation pressures to confirm (or otherwise) the
estimates made whilst the hole sections were being drilled. Formation pressures calculated
from wireline logs are estimates only.
Direct formation pressure measurements are normally taken in the reservoir hole section(s)
using a wireline repeat formation test (RFT) tool. Also, formation pressures are directly
measured in the shut-in (pressure build-up) periods during drillstem testing (DST) of
potential reservoir formations.
Sonic Log
The sonic logging tool measures the time, t, required for a compressional sonic wave to
travel through one foot (or metre) of formation. This is known as the interval transit time
(ITT) and is the reciprocal of formation interval velocity. The principle of operation of the
sonic tool (borehole compensated (BHC) tool) is shown in Figure 2.35. Sonic pulses from
two transmitters travel through the formation, and are picked up by two pairs of receivers.
The time difference between sonic arrivals at each pair of receivers is measured. The average
time difference is then recorded to compensate for borehole geometry and tool tilt.
As discussed in Section 2.2 of this Chapter, overpressured shales show a higher sonic ITT
than normally pressured shales at the same depth. Thus, a plot of sonic ITT in shales versus
depth on semi-logarithmic axes should show a straight line compaction trend in normally
pressured shales. Departures from this line towards higher shale ITT values indicates
abnormal pressures. The normal compaction trend and sonic log departure in overpressures
are shown in the schematic sonic log plot in Figure 2.36.
A discussion of the problems associated with the interpretation of ITT depth plots, is given
in relation to seismic ITT data in Section 2.2 of this Chapter. The main problem areas are:
Scales
Two types of formats have been proposed for plotting ITT-depth data. These are log-log
plots (as suggested by Pennebaker(25)), and semi-log plots, as suggested above. The
semi-log format is recommended as the linear depth scale enables direct comparison of
sonic ITT data with other overpressure indicator plots.
2-66
March 1995
UPPER TRANSMITTER
R1
R2
t1
PAIRED RECEIVERS
R1 + R3/R2 + R4
t = t2 t1
R3
t2
MUD CAKE
R4
LOWER TRANSMITTER
WEOX02.112
The BHC sonic tool has a depth of investigation of only a few inches into the borehole
wall. Hence, reactive shales that absorb water from the drilling mud, may exhibit higher
ITT values (higher porosity) than would be recorded if the shales were non-reactive.
These higher ITT values may falsely indicate the presence of abnormal formation
pressures. A deeper reading long spacing sonic (SLS) tool is sometimes run. When
available, the sonic log data from this deeper reading tool should be used in preference
to those from the BHC sonic tool.
2-67
March 1995
DEPTH
NORMAL COMPACTION
TREND LINE
TOP OF
OVERPRESSURES
t
WEOX02.113
2-68
March 1995
Once the position of the normal compaction trend lines has been firmly established on the
semi-log sonic ITT-depth plot, then the depths and magnitudes of suspected abnormal
pressures may be calculated. Several methods are available for estimating the magnitude of
abnormal pressures from sonic log plots:
(2-12)
NOTE: Equation 2-12 can be used directly with gradients in SG, ppg or psi/ft and
depths in metres or feet.
It is necessary to obtain overburden pressure gradient data for the well being investigated
in order to use the equivalent depth method. These data should be available in the form
of an overburden gradient-depth plot in the Mud Loggers report for the well.
The advantages and disadvantages of this method are discussed in Section 2.3 of
thisChapter .
2-69
March 1995
(c)
Eaton Equation
The following equation was presented by Eaton(12) for calculation of formation pressures
from sonic ITT plots, the derivation of which is exactly analogous to equation 2-18,
which was developed for dc-exponent plots:
t N
t O
3.0
(2-24)
2.2
Resistivity Log
Porosity
Temperature
Temperature varies approximately linearly with depth and hence formation resistivities can
be corrected for temperature. Also, the salinity of the pore water should not vary significantly
with depth. Porosity is thus the major factor controlling shale resistivity.
Under normal compaction (i.e. in normal pressure environments), shale resistivity increases
with depth since porosity decreases. A plot of shale resistivity versus depth will thus show
an increasing trend with depth. In clean shale sections, any departure from this normal trend
towards lower shale resistivities may indicate an increase in porosity and hence overpressures.
Shale resistivity (Rsh) is plotted on a log scale versus depth on a linear scale. The shape and
slope of the normal trend line will vary with the age and type of shales present. This will
lead to individual normal compaction trends being developed for each area investigated. It
is unlikely that any two areas will have identical normal compaction trends. A schematic
shale resistivity-depth plot is shown in Figure 2.37. The normal compaction trend line may
be a curve or may approximate to a straight line over certain depth intervals, depending on
the area under investigation.
2-70
March 1995
DEPTH
NORMAL
COMPACTION
TREND LINE
CAP ROCK
TOP OF
OVERPRESSURE
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.5
2.0
3.0
2-71
March 1995
Originally, shale resistivities were plotted from the amplified short normal (ASN) curve of
the now absolute ES (electrical survey) logging suite. Today, a variety of resistivity logging
tools are run, from which shale resistivity plots may be made. The tools are designed for
various depths of investigation from shallow to very deep. The deep reading tools record
the true resistivity of virgin formation and thus near borehole effects (shale hydration, mud
filtrate invasion in permeable zones) do not affect the resistivity values recorded.
The deep reading logs that should be used for resistivity plots are the ILd curve from the
dual induction laterolog (DIL) tool and the LLd curve from the dual laterolog (DLL) tool.
The dual laterolog tool requires a conductive mud, so it will not work in oil base muds. The
dual induction laterolog will work in oil base or water base muds and tends to be the resistivity
log that is normally run.
Possible problems that may be encountered with shale resistivity plots are:
Only shale resistivities in thick clean shales must be plotted. It may be necessary to
consult a geologist in order to pick good clean shales from the well logs. Use the deepest
reading resistivity curve available to plot true shale resistivities.
It may be very difficult to firmly establish the shape and position of the normal
compaction trend line from the resistivity plot for just one well. An average regional
trend may have to be established from the resistivity plots of many wells in the area of
interest. Unconformities/disconformities and variations in geological age may show
sudden changes in shale resistivities which will affect the position of the normal trend
line.
Changes in formation water salinity may give false pressure indications. For example,
shales in the proximity of large salt masses (e.g. salt domes) have very low resistivities
due to increased pore water salinity. This may indicate higher-than-actual formation
pressures. Also, shales at depths less than 1000m below surface or the mudline, usually
contain formation water fresher than sea water. This results in high resistivity values
that may indicate lower-than-actual formation pressures.
The problems associated with interpreting shale resistivity plots are illustrated in Figure2.38.
Once the normal compaction trend has been firmly established, it is possible to estimate the
magnitude of any abnormal formation pressures indicated by the shale resistivity plot. Again,
there are several methods available:
2-72
March 1995
Fresh water
shales
Normal
pressure
environment
Region 'A'
limey shales
DEPTH
ne
o
Err
s tr
ou
Pressure
top
en
nd
l tre
rma
No
Abnormally
high
pressure
environment
Region 'B'
Lithology, not
pressure,
change
0.1
0.5
1.0
5.0
Rsh (ohm-m)
WEOX02.115
(2-12)
where DE = equivalent depth (depth at which shale resistivity is equal to the value at
the depth of interest, DO) (ft)
and FPG O, OPG O, DO, OPGE, and FPGNE are as previously defined in connection with
dc-exponent plots and sonic ITT plots. As explained previously, overburden gradient
data must be obtained (from Mud Loggers report) in order to use this method.
2-73
March 1995
0.4
0.5
1.25
0.6
0.7
HottmanJohnson,
1965
0.8
East Cameron
Timko-Fertl, 1970
2.00
0.9
Eaton, 1972 (Range)
2.25
1.0
10
15
20
30
Normal R(sh)/observed R(sh)
40
50
WEOX02.116
Rsh(N)
1.20
R sh(O)
where FPGO, OPGO and FPGN are as defined for equation 2-24 (sonic log plots), and
Rsh(N) = extrapolated normal trend shale resistivity at depth of interest (ohm-m)
Rsh(O) = observed shale resistivity at depth of interest (ohm-m)
Again, the value of the shale resistivity ratio exponent, 1.20, was derived from actual
well data. Overburden pressure gradients for the well are also required (from Mud
Loggers well report) in order to use equation 2-25.
2-74
March 1995
Rsh
Rw
(2-26)
2.3
Density Log
The formation density logging tool consists of a radioactive source which bombards the
formations with medium-energy gamma rays. The gamma rays collide with electrons in the
formation which cause the gamma rays to scatter. The degree of scattering is directly related
to the electron density and therefore the bulk density of the formation. The scattered gamma
rays that return to the borehole are picked up by detectors in the logging tool.
In the FDC (formation density compensated) logging tool, the gamma ray source and two
detectors are mounted on a skid that is pushed against the borehole wall by an eccentering
arm. The skid has a plough shaped leading edge to cut through any mud cake present on the
borehall wall. Any mud cake that is not removed will effect the tool reading. The dual
detectors of the FDC tool automatically compensate for mud cake effects. The corrected
bulk density (Pb) and the correction made () are recorded on the FDC log.
2-75
March 1995
DEPTH
NORMAL
COMPACTION
TREND LINE
CAP ROCK
TOP OF
OVERPRESSURES
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.7
WEOX02.117
2-76
March 1995
A plot of shale bulk density versus depth on either linear or semi-log scales will show a
straight line normal compaction trend. Since the bulk density of shales is inversely
proportional to porosity, and an increase in shale porosity indicates abnormal pressures,
then a decrease in shale bulk density from the normal compaction trend line will indicate
abnormal pressures. The semi-log type plot is shown schematically in Figure 2.40.
The densities from non-washed-out pure shale sections should be plotted. After the normal
compaction trend line has been established, the equivalent depth method (See Sonic and
Resistivity Logs) may be used to estimate the magnitude of formation pressures.
The use of shale bulk density trends from the formation density log should be a fairly reliable
overpressure indicator. However, it has been found that unless borehole conditions are ideal
(uniform gauge hole), the formation density log will not be as accurate or reliable for pressure
evaluation as other techniques based on sonic or resistivity logs.
2.4
Other Logs
Other wireline logs that have been used to evaluate formation pressures include the
spontaneous potential (SP) log, the neutron porosity log (CNL), the thermal neutron decay
time log (TDT), and also downhole gravity and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logs.
These techniques are discussed further by Fertl(17).
Also, the use of an MWD gamma ray log for formation pressure evaluation of US Gulf
Coast shales, has been discussed by Zoeller(34).
RFT/FIT Data
The repeat formation tester (RFT) is an electric wireline tool designed to measure formation
pressures and to obtain fluid samples from permeable formations. After it has been run in
the hole, the tool can be set any number of times. This enables a series of pressure readings
to be taken and permits the Logging Engineer to pre-test, or probe the formation for
permeable zones before attempting to take a fluid sample or a pressure recording.
The RFT was developed from the formation interval tester (FIT) which is only able to take
one, less accurate, pressure measurement whilst taking a sample. However, the FIT is able
to take a pressure measurement/sample in cased hole by using a shaped charge to perforate
the casing.
A schematic diagram of the RFT pre-test and sampling principle is shown in Figure 2.41.
2-77
March 1995
FILTER PROBE
PACKER
FLOWLINE
PRESSURE GAUGE
EQUALIZING VALVE
(TO MUD COLUMN)
CHAMBER No 1
CHAMBER No 2
PRETEST
CHAMBER
SEAL VALVE
(TO LOWER SAMPLE
CHAMBER)
SEAL VALVE
(TO UPPER SAMPLE
CHAMBER)
WEOX02.118
2-78
March 1995
MUD CAKE
PACKER
UNCONSOLIDATED
SAND
PROBE
PISTON
FLOWLINE
FILTER
PROBE CLOSED
DURING
INITIAL SET
PROBE OPEN
AND SAMPLING
WEOX02.119
q2
SHUT-IN
q1
TIME, t
PRESSURE, P
t=0
t1
t2
HYDROSTATIC
PRESSURE
FORMATION
PRESSURE
P1
P2
TIME, t
WEOX02.120
2-79
March 1995
The initial pressure (See Figure 2.43) before the tool is set is the hydrostatic pressure of the
mud column. When the tool is set, the pressure rises slightly due to the compression of the
mud cake by the packer. The probe piston then retracts giving a drop in pressure due to the
flowline volume expansion and communication with the formation. When the piston stops
retracting, there is a slight pressure rise because the packer continues to compress the mud
cake until the tool is fully set.
The pressure then drops again as the first 10cc pre-test piston starts to retract (at time tO).
After about 15 seconds, the first pre-test chamber is full (at time t1) and the second piston
begins moving at a rate 2.5 times faster than the first piston. The pressure thus drops further
until the second pre-test chamber is full (at time t2 ). The pressure then builds up towards a
final pressure, which is usually that of the original formation pressure(30). Finally, the probe
and packer are retracted and the mud hydrostatic pressure is again measured.
Thus, the RFT provides three distinct pieces of pressure data:
The pressure transient induced by the withdrawal of a small sample of formation fluid
(2 x 10cc).
The two mud hydrostatic pressure readings are compared to verify the stability of the tools
recording system. The two values should be within a few psi of each other.
The formation pressure is used to verify estimates made whilst drilling the well and to
construct a reservoir pressure profile. This will yield data on the pressure gradients and
nature of the reservoir fluids.
The pressure/flowrate/time data from the pre-test sample withdrawal can be used to calculate
reservoir characteristics, such as permeability.
Hence, the RFT provides accurate data on formation pressures. However, formation pressure
data can only be obtained from permeable formations such as reservoir sandstones. These
formations may or may not be at the same pressure as adjacent shales.
RFTs are normally run at the request of the Geologists/Petroleum Engineers to seek
information on potential reservoir formations. However, in deep high pressure wells, the
RFT is being increasingly run to obtain accurate formation pressures before potentially
troublesome drilling operations (such as coring) are commenced. Accurate knowledge of
formation pressures in such wells allows fine mud weight adjustments to be made to minimise
the risk of swab/surge pressure problems.
2-80
March 1995
Flowhead
Tubing
Lubricator Valve
Tubing
5in PIPE RAMS
MUD LINE
Tubing
Downhole Safety Valve (surface controlled)
Tubing
Annulus pressure operated Downhole Shut-in Tool
(including tubing reverse-out facilities)
Tubing
Nipple
Tubing (2 joints)
Crossover
Pressure Gauge Carrier + 2 Gauges
Drill Collar (1 joint)
Pressure Gauge Carrier + 2 Gauges
Drill Collar (1 joint)
Pressure Gauge Carrier + 2 Gauges
No-Go Shoulder of Seal Assembly
Permanent Packer
Millout Extension
Seal Assembly
Seal Bore Extension
Liner
WEOX02.121
2-81
March 1995
3.2
Whenever drillstem tests are carried out on potential reservoir formations, various pressure
gauges are run in the hole with the test string. The purpose of these pressure gauges is to
record the downhole pressure during the sequence of flow and shut-in periods that comprise
the drillstem test (DST). The pressures recorded during the test are used to calculate reservoir
characteristics such as formation pressure, permeability, skin damage and productivity index.
Various types of pressure gauges are available. These are run in conjunction with clocks
and recorders, and include:
Mechanical gauges normally bourdon tube (BT) type pressure gauges with mechanical
clocks and recorders.
Electronic gauges strain gauge, quartz crystal or bourdon tube type pressure gauges
with electronic clocks. Data are recorded on various types of electronic memories and
read from the gauge on surface after the test by a special reader.
Electronic surface read out (SRO) gauges strain gauge or quartz crystal type pressure
gauges linked by cable to the surface where downhole pressures are continuously
monitored and recorded.
The mechanical and electronic gauges can be run in various ways/positions in the test string:
Hung off in the tailpipe (below the packer) using a DST hanging kit.
The SRO gauges are always placed above the tester valve (above the packer) as they are
connected to surface equipment by a cable. A typical DST string is shown in Figure 2.44
(for a gas well test). This illustrates the various positions of the pressure gauges in the
DSTstring.
After a DST has been successfully completed, the test string is pulled and the pressure
gauges are retrieved for the pressure charts to be read. A typical valid pressure chart from a
mechanical gauge placed below the tester valve is shown in Figure 2.45. Note that a linear
plot of the pressures recorded by an electronic gauge should have the same general form,
without the baseline.
The significant events during the test (marked by capital letters) on Figure 2.45 are as follows:
A:
A-B: The gauge is run in the hole with the test string and records increasing hydrostatic
pressure. The early steps effect is the result of pauses to pump the water cushion
into the test string.
B:
At test interval depth, the gauge records the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column.
C:
The packer is set, squeezing the sump below the packer and causing an increase in
pressure.
D-E: The tester valve is opened and the gauge is suddenly subjected to the reduced
hydrostatic pressure of the water cushion alone.
2-82
March 1995
C D
B
PRESSURE
I
E
F
H
J
K
TIME
BASE
LINE
WEOX02.122
The influx of reservoir fluid into the test string adds to the pressure of the partial
water cushion.
F:
The tester valve is shut after an initial 5 to 10 minute short flow period.
F-G: The reservoir pressure slowly builds up. After 30 minutes, no more build up is seen.
The gauge now gives an estimate of the virgin reservoir pressure (G).
G-H: The tester valve is now opened again and the reservoir is exposed to hydrostatic
pressure of the fluids in the test string.
H-I:
The reservoir flows again and the gauge pressure increases until the water cushion
reaches the surface.
I-J:
As the reservoir fluid replaces the water cushion in the test string, the gauge pressure
decreases until all the water cushion has been unloaded (J).
J-K:
The pressure continues to fall due to wellbore effects before steadying out as the
flow into the wellbore becomes radial.
K: The tester valve is closed at the end of the second flow period.
K-L: The reservoir pressure starts to build up again as it returns to equilibrium.
L-M: The packer is unset at the end of the second build up period and the pressure gauge
again reads the pressure of the annulus mud column.
N-O: The test string is pulled out of the hole and the gauge pressures reduces.
O:
2-83
March 1995
Analysis of the pressure build up data from the shut-in periods can then give accurate
estimates of the reservoir formation pressure. An example of this analysis is given in the BP
Guide to Testing Operations.
Thus, data from drillstem tests can give accurate estimates of formation pressures. However,
the pressure data can only be obtained from permeable reservoir formations that are
considered to have sufficient hydrocarbon potential to warrant the expense of a drillstem
test. As with RFT pressure data, the reservoir pressure calculated from DST data may or
may not be the same as the pressures in adjacent shales.
4 Summary
The most accurate estimates of formation pressures are obtained from wireline RFT
measurements and drillstem test pressure data. However, these direct measurements are
only possible in permeable formations such as sandstones and limestones. These methods
are clearly not applicable to impermeable shale sections (where the majority of overpressures
are developed).
Conversely, estimates of formation pressures from wireline logs are restricted to
shalesections, with assumptions made as to the pressures in any adjacent permeable sections.
The recognition of a normal shale compaction trend line is of vital importance
whenestimating formation pressures from log-derived shale properties. Of the various logs
available, the sonic log is usually the best log for quantitative pressure evaluation as it
is r elatively unaf fected by changes in hole size, formation temperature, and formation
watersalinity .
Section 2 References
1. ANSTEY, N.A., 1976. the New Seismic Interpreter Videotape Manual, International
Human Resources Development Corporation, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
2. BARR, M.V., 1983. An Appraisal of Seismic Reflection Techniques for the Recognition
and Prediction of Abnormal Formation Pressures. Report PEB/55/83. BP Research
Centre, Sunbury.
3. BELLOTTI, P. and GERARD, R.E., 1976. Instantaneous Log Indicates Porosity and
Pore Pressure. World Oil, Oct. 1976.
4. BINGHAM, M.G., 1965. A New Approach to Interpreting Rock Drillability. Oil and
Gas Journal, Nov. 2 1964?Apr. 5 1965.
5. BOURGOYNE, A.T., 1971. A Graphic Approach to Overpressure Detection While
Drilling. Pet. Eng. 43(9): 76?78.
6. BP, 1985. A Guide to Testing Operations. BP Exploration Co. Ltd., Operations Support
Division, London. June 1985.
7. BP, 1986. A Wellsite Guide to Logging Operations. BP Exploration Co.Ltd., Logging
Operations Branch, London. January 1986.
8. BP, 1985. Resident Geologists Manual. BPPD Aberdeen. 2nd Edition, Sept. 1985.
9. COCHRANE, D.F. and HARDMAN, P., 1986. Shallow Gas Hazards in Drilling
Operations. Report DTG/L/1/1986. BPPD London.
2-84
March 1995
10. COMBS, G.D., 1968. Prediction of Pore Pressure from Penetration Rate. SPE Paper2162.
11. DIX, C.H., 1955. Seismic Velocities from Surface Measurements. Geophysics, 20: 68?86.
12. EATON, B.A., 1975. The Equation of Geopressure Prediction from Well Logs.
SPEPaper5544.
13. EXLOG, 1980. Field Geologists Training Guide. Exploration Logging Inc., USA.
14. EXLOG, 1979. Mud Logging: Principles and Interpretations. Exploration Logging
Inc., USA.
15. EXLOG, 1981. Theory and Evaluation of Formation Pressures. Exploration Logging
Inc., USA.
16. EXXON, 1975. Abnormal Pressure Technology, Exxon Company, USA.
17. FERTL, W.H., 1976. Abnormal Formation Pressures. Elsevier Scientific Publishing
Company, Amsterdam.
18. FOSTER, J.B., amd WHALEN, H.E., 1966. Estimation of Formation Pressures from
Electrical Surveys Offshore Louisiana. SPE Paper 1200.
19. GEARHART, 1986. Overpressure. Gearhart Geodata Services Ltd., Aberdeen.
20. HOTTMAN, C.E., and JOHNSON, R.K., 1965. Estimation of Formation Pressures from
Log-derived Shale Properties. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 17: 717-723.
21. JORDEN, J.R., and SHIRLEY, O.J., 1966. Application of Drilling Performance Data to
Overpressure Detection. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 18: 1387-1394.
22. LESSO, W.G. and BURGESS, T.M., 1986. Pore Pressure and Porosity from MWD
Measurements. IADC/SPE Paper 14801.
23. MANN, D.M., 1985. The Generation of Overpressures During Sedimentation and
theirEf fects on the Primary Migration of Petroleum. Report GCB/156/85. BP Research
Centre, Sunbury.
24. MINTON, R.C., 1986. Technical Specification for Drilling Mud Logging Service.
ReportDTG/D/4/86. BPPD Aberdeen.
25. PENNEBAKER, E.S., 1968. An Engineering Interpretation of Seismic Data. SPE
Paper2165.
26. PRENTICE, C.M., 1980. Formation Pressures from Normalized Penetration Rate Plots.
Prentice and Records Enterprises, Inc., Lafayette, Louisiana, USA.
27. REHM, W.A., and McCLENDON, R., 1971. Measurement of Formation Pressure from
Drilling Data. SPE Paper 3601.
28. ROESLER, R.F., BARNETT, W.C., and PASKE, W.C., 1986. Theory and Applications
of an MWD Neutron Porosity Sensor. SPE/IADC Paper 16057.
29. SCHLUMBERGER, 1972. Log Interpretation Volume 1 Principles. Schlumberger
Ltd., New York, USA.
30. SCHLUMBERGER, 1981. RFT Essentials of Pressure Test Interpretation.
Schlumberger Ltd.,
2-85
March 1995
2-86
March 1995
Page
General
3-2
Hydrostatic Pressure
3-2
3-2
3-4
3-7
3-10
3-12
Illustrations
3.1
Hydrostatic Pressure
3-3
3.2
3-5
3-6
3.3
3.4
3.5
3-11
3-12
3-1
March 1995
1 General
Primary well control is maintained by controlling formation pore pressures with the
hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid.
Primary well control is exercised between two distinct limits; these being the maximum
formation pore pressure gradient and the minimum fracture pressure gradient in a section of
openhole.
This Chapter is intended to outline the various factors that can influence the actual pressure
exerted by the drilling fluid in the wellbore during routine drilling operations.
The effect of the following is considered:
Flowline elevation.
Circulation.
Tripping pipe.
Easy to use formulae are presented to predict the effects of these factors.
2 Hydrostatic Pressure
The hydrostatic pressure of a column of drilling fluid is determined, in theory, by the density,
and vertical height of the fluid above a point of interest.
The density of the drilling fluid and the height of the fluid column are related to the hydrostatic
pressure as follows:
Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = MW (SG) X D (m)
1.421
3-2
March 1995
VERTICAL DEPTH
= 1000m
MEASURED DEPTH
= 1200m
MUD @ 1.5 SG
The hydrostatic pressure at total depth in well A and well B
= Density of the (SG) x vertical depth (m) x 1.421
= 1.5
x 1000
x 1.421 = 2130 psi
WEOX02.123
3-3
March 1995
It is important therefore that the effect of flowline elevation be considered when describing
formation pressures in terms of an equivalent mud weight. This is because formation pressures
are originally referred to sea-level, or the surface elevation, depending on whether the well
is offshore or on land.
Figure 3.2 shows an example of the calculation of the EMW of a normally pressured formation
referenced to the flowline of a semi-submersible drilling rig.
3-4
March 1995
FLOWLINE ELEVATION
SEA LEVEL
25m
100m
SEA BED
200m
WEOX02.124
3-5
March 1995
HOLE STATIC
PUMP
1.5 SG MUD IN
THE HOLE
2000m
500m
Total pressure at TD
= (1.5 x 2500 x 1.421) + 250
= 5579psi
ECD at TD =
5577
2500 x 1.421
= 1.57 SG
WEOX02.125
3-6
March 1995
(m/min)
3. Calculate the pressure loss for the pipe section, assuming laminar flow.
P=
L X PV X v
8361.5 X d i2
L X YP
68.6 X d i
(psi)
422.8 X MW
d i2
The critical Reynolds number is assumed to be 2000 for Bingham fluids. If Re isless
than 2000, the flow is assumed to be laminar and the pressure loss is calculatedusing
the formula in step 3. If Re is greater than 2000, the flow is assumed to be nonlaminar
and the pressure loss must be re-calculated using the formulae in steps 6 and 7:
3-7
March 1995
0.079
Re 0.25
7. Calculate the pressure loss for the pipe section in non laminar flow.
P=
L X MW X v 2
315.8 X d i
(psi)
7.76
PV + [7.76
(PV2 + (102.79
MW X di
YP
MW X di2 ) )2 ]
(m/min)
(m/min)
2. Calculate the pressure loss for the section of annulus assuming laminarflow .
P=
L X PV X v
+
L X YP
5574.32 (dhc d o)2
60.96 (dhc do )
(psi)
5574.32
P X (dhc d o)2
LXv
(centipoise)
422.8 X MW
(dhc d o)
f X L X MW X v 2
315.8 X (dhc d o)
(psi)
3-8
March 1995
vc =
11.63
PV + [11.63
(PV2 + (51.46 X MW
MW X (dhc do)
YP X (dhc do)2))2 ]
(m/min)
Q
An X 10.23
(m/sec)
600
300
An
P
Pbit
vn2 X MW (psi)
12.49
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
These formulae can be used to estimate the pressure drop in each section of pipe and annulus.
The standpipe circulating pressure can be estimated from the sum of the pressure losses
across the bit and in all sections of the pipe and the annulus. The ECD at the bottom of the
hole can be estimated from the total annulus pressure loss.
The annulus pressure losses may also be estimated when circulating by subtracting the
calculated pressure drop in the drillstring and the bit from the actual standpipe pressure
(accounting also for surface pressure losses).
This technique is likely to yield a more accurate estimate of the annulus pressure losses for
the following reasons:
The inside measurements of the drillstring are more accurate than the openhole internal
diameter.
The pressure drop through the bit is accurately modelled by the formula presented.
3-9
March 1995
The main disadvantage of this technique stems from the fact that the majority of the pressure
loss in the system is in the drillstring and across the bit. Therefore, a small error in the
calculated pressure drop will cause a relatively large error in the estimate of the annulus
pressure loss.
Inertial forces of the mud when the speed of the pipe is changed.
Therefore the factors that determine the magnitude of swab and surge pressures are assumed
to be:
The position of the low clearance pipe in the hole in relation to the point of interest.
On the basis of these assumptions, typical variations in wellbore pressure due to swab and
surge pressures whilst tripping pipe are shown in Figures 3.4 and 3.5.
Recent studies however, have shown that steady state models are not adequate to model the
behaviour of the mud while the pipe is tripped. It has been shown that swab and surge
pressures are best modelled as a transient, rather than a steady state phenomenon.
The transient model assumes that a pressure wave is propogated at the instant that the pipe
begins to move; the wave then travels down the well at the speed of sound and is reflected
back up the hole. As a result of this effect, the pressure at a point in the well oscillates. The
oscillations will continue until either the pipe reaches a steady speed, or the pipe has stopped
and the reflected pressure waves have diminished.
3-10
March 1995
1 Increase due to
BHA
4 Reduction due to
removal of BHA from
the hole
MAX SURGE
PRESSURE
WHEN BIT IS
AT POINT
OF INTEREST
3 Decrease as BHA
passes point A
4 Constant stage
pressure due to
drillpipe in
the casing
SURGE PRESSURE AT A
3 Reduction due
to removal
of drillpipe
from the hole
BIT DEPTH
BIT DEPTH
2 Increase due to
drillpipe
MAX SWAB
PRESSURE
WHEN BIT IS
AT POINT
OF INTEREST
2 Influence of BHA
1 Constant swab
pressure due to
drillpipe in
the casing
SWAB PRESSURE AT A
WEOX02.126
3-11
March 1995
PRESSURE
0
C
A
TIME
WEOX02.127
The change in rheological properties of the mud with pressure and temperature.
3-12
March 1995
The formulae used for the steady state model are relatively easy to use and, as such, may be
used in the field to approximate swab/surge pressures.
The following procedure should be used to calculate swab/surge pressure for either open or
closed pipe:
1. Estimate the velocity of the mud for a given pipe running speed.
For closed pipe: v = CL +
do 2
dhc2 do 2
do 2 di 2
dhc2 do 2 di
vp
vp
sumP
(SG)
D X 1.421
3-13
March 1995
The procedure for calculating swab/surge pressures for a drillstring that contains a bit and
nozzles is as follows:
1. Calculate the velocity of the mud around the drillpipe for open pipe.
Use the formulae as shown for the previous technique.
2. Calculate the swab/surge pressure generated by the drillpipe due to the
pipe movement.
The swab/surge pressure can be calculated by substituting the annular mud velocity in
the formulae for annular pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
3. Calculate the velocity of the mud around the collars.
Use the following formulae:
v(drillcollar) = v(drillpipe) X Adp
Adc
where Adp = cross-sectional area of drillpipe annulus (in.2)
Adc = cross-sectional area of drillcollar annulus (in.2 )
4. Calculate the swab/surge pressure generated at the collars due to
pipemovement.
Use the formulae for annular pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law) and v(drillcollar) as
calculated in (3).
5. Calculate the total annular swab/surge pressure.
This is equal to the sum of the swab/surge pressures at the drillpipe and the collars, or
the sum of (2) and (3).
6. Calculate the swab/surge pressure inside the drillstring.
Using Preston Moores assumption that the fluid level outside the pipe equals the level
inside the pipe, the velocity of the mud inside the pipe equals the velocity outside.
7. Calculate the swab/surge pressure generated inside the drillpipe.
Assuming that the mud velocity outside the pipe equals that inside the pipe, use the
formulae for internal pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
8. Calculate the swab/surge pressure generated inside the drillcollar.
Assuming that the mud velocity outside the drillcollar equals that inside the collar, use
the formulae for internal pressure loss (Bingham or Power Law).
9. Calculate the swab/surge pressure generated at the bit.
Using the formulae:
vn =
Q
An X 10.23
P bit = vn2 X MW
12.49
(m/sec)
(psi)
where in this case the mud flowrate, Q, is equal to the mud flowrate through the collars.
3-14
March 1995
10. Calculate the total internal swab/surge pressure due to the pipe movement.
This is equal to the sum of the swab/surge pressures inside the drillstring, (6) plus (8),
plus the bit swab/surge pressure as calculated in (9).
11. Estimate the actual swab/surge pressure due to the pipe movement.
It is assumed that the actual swab/surge pressure will be between the values calculated
in (5) and (10).
The resultant swab/surge pressure is added to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud if the
pipe is being run into the hole and subtracted if the pipe is being pulled. Therefore:
EMW at the point of interest = MW
D
sumP
X 1.421
(SG)
3-15/16
3-15
March 1995
4 FRACTURE GRADIENT
Paragraph
Page
General
4-2
4-2
Fracture Orientation
4-3
4-4
4-4
4-7
4-9
4-10
Interpretation of Results
4-11
Illustrations
4.1
4-3
4.2
4-5
4.3
4.4
4-12
4-1
March 1995
1 General
The absolute upper limit of primary well control is the point at which the wellbore pressure
equals the fracture pressure of the exposed formation. At this point a fracture is initiated
and the wellbore can no longer be considered to be a closed system. This will lead to loss of
mud from the hole and the possibility of the loss of primary control.
In order to drill a well safely therefore, it is useful for the Drilling Engineer to be able to
predict and measure fracture pressures.
At the well planning stage, the fracture gradient can be estimated from offset well data.
Ifthis information is not available then Daines Method can be used to predict the fracture
gradient.
As the well is drilled, Leak Off Tests are carried out to assess the mud holding capability of
the openhole. It is Company policy that these tests be carried out to leak off point, which in
most cases will represent a pressure that is less than the actual fracture initiation pressure.
The leak off pressure is converted to an equivalent mud weight which determines the upper
limit of primary control for the next hole section.
LO tests are generally carried out once in each openhole section after drilling out of the
shoe. However the test should be repeated when weaker zones are drilled into. It is not
practical to conduct a leak off test at every change in formation and consequently it is useful
to be able to predict the fracture gradient of new formations without conducting further leak
off tests.
Before covering the techniques that are used to predict fracture gradient, it is appropriate to
explain the origins of the stresses that occur naturally below the surface of the earth.
In most cases, the maximum stress will be vertical, due to the pressure of the overlying rock
and pore fluid. This is defined as the overburden pressure.
In a tectonically relaxed area the maximum stress will, in most cases, be vertical and the
stresses in the horizontal plane will be equal. At shallow depths however, the horizontal
stress may be greater than the vertical stress, even in a tectonically relaxed area.
Figure 4.1 shows the effect of tectonic forces on the principal stresses. A small tectonic
force ensures that the two principal stresses in the horizontal plane are no longer equal. This
has the effect of creating an actual intermediate stress.
4-2
March 1995
'3
'1
'1
'2
'2
'3
'3
'2
'1
WEOX02.128
3 Fracture Orientation
A fracture will be created if wellbore pressures exceed the minimum principal stress at any
point in the openhole.
The fracture will propogate along the path of minimum resistance, which will be at right
angles to the direction of the minimum principal stress.
Fractures will therefore be vertical when the minimum principal stress is horizontal, and
horizontal if the minimum principal stress is vertical. (See Figure 4.1).
Consequently induced fractures will be vertical in areas where tectonic forces are negligible,
except possibly at very shallow depths. However horizontal fractures may be formed in
areas where tectonic forces are significant. In effect, it is necessary for the applied pressure
to lift the weight of the overburden for horizontal fractures to be formed. This is unlikely to
occur at depth when overburden pressure will, in most cases, be greater than pressures due
to tectonic forces.
4-3
March 1995
t = Pfrac 'l
where t =
Pfrac =
'1 =
=
Pf =
Pf
l
and '1 = S Pf
where S = overburden pressure (psi)
4-4
March 1995
0.50
Clay
0.17
Conglomerate
0.20
Dolomite
0.21
Greywacke:
coarse
fine
medium
0.07
0.23
0.24
fine, medium
medium, calcarenitic
porous
stylolitic
fossiliferous
bedded fossils
shaley
0.28
0.31
0.20
0.27
0.09
0.17
0.17
coarse
coarse, cemented
fine
very fine
medium
poorly sorted, clayey
fossiliferous
0.05
0.10
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.24
0.01
0.14
0.28
0.12
0.17
0.12
0.25
Limestone:
Sandstone:
Shale:
Siltstone
0.08
Slate
0.13
Tuff: Glass
0.13
4-5
March 1995
The overburden pressure is determined from density logs, or from bulk densities determined
from the cuttings.
2. Calculate the tectonic stress coefficient.
The tectonic stress coefficient can be calculated as follows:
= t / '1
where = tectonic stress coefficient
This value is used to predict the magnitude of the tectonic stress throughout the nexthole
section until the next LO test can be used to recalculate the figure. It is however generally
the case that '1 remains directly proportional to t throughout the well, if the rock
strata are horizontal and the basin structure does not change significantly with depth.
Having calculated the above figures at the first LO test, the fracture pressure can be calculated
as drilling proceeds in the following manner:
3. Calculate the maximum principal stress at the point of interest.
The magnitude of the maximum principal stress is calculated from the pore pressure
and the overburden pressure as follows:
'1 = S Pf
where S = overburden pressure (psi)
Pf = pore pressure (psi)
The overburden pressure can be calculated from density logs, or from the bulk density
values determined from the cuttings.
4. Calculate the tectonic stress at the point of interest.
The magnitude of the tectonic stress is calculated from the maximum principal stress
and the tectonic stress coefficient as follows:
t = '1
Pfrac = t + 'l
+ Pf
l
(psi)
4-6
March 1995
Pfrac = t + 'l
+ Pf
l
(SG)
0.44
+ 1.0
l 0.44
P frac = 1.93 SG
An interesting case would be to estimate the fracture gradient of a sand at these conditions
and at this depth. Using the same formula, but substituting a Poissons ratio of 0.01 for a
typical shallow marine sand, the fracture gradient is calculated as follows:
0.01
+ 1.0
l 0.01
P frac = 1.32 SG
The possible variation in fracture gradients at these depths is therefore quite significant.
After 1450m, the clays have sufficiently dewatered due to compaction to support a horizontal
stress. As a result, the fracture gradient is reduced to a value that is less than the overburden
gradient. This means that vertical fractures may be formed at pressures lower than the
overburden pressure.
The tectonic stress coefficient is calculated from the result of the LO test carried out at the
18 5/8 in. casing shoe. This is the first point at which the clays are assumed to be adequately
compacted so as to predict a reasonable figure for the tectonic stress coefficient as follows:
t = Pfrac
'l
Pf
l
(SG)
4-7
March 1995
0.2 1.53
l 0.2
= 0.165 SG
therefore the tectonic stress coefficient is given by:
= t
'1
0.165
= 0.39
(1.95 1.53)
and this value of is used to calculate the tectonic stress in subsequent rock strata.
From the 18 5/8 in. shoe to 2880m, the fracture gradient increases in line with the overburden
gradient. At 2880m, the pore pressure gradient begins to decrease, causing a reduction in
the calculated fracture gradient to 1.88 SG at 3100m.
At 3120m, the formation changes to a sandstone interbedded with siltstone. A Poissons
ratio of 0.06 is chosen for these loose fine grained sands which results in a reduction in the
calculated value of the fracture gradient to approximately 1.72 SG.
At 3220m, the formation changes to limestone, for which a Poissons ratio of 0.28 is used.
Therefore at 3400m, the fracture gradient is calculated as follows using Daines formula:
Pfrac = t +
'l
+ Pf
l
(SG)
0.28
+ 1.25
l 0.28
Pfrac = 2.03 SG
The LO test at the 13 3/8 in. shoe shows a fracture gradient of 2.13 SG, which is slightly
higher than the predicted figure.
The fracture pressure then increases with depth and pore pressure throughout the 12 1/4 in.
section to a calculated maximum of 2.23 SG at the 9 5/8 in. casing point. The LO test at this
point confirms a 2.21 SG fracture gradient.
Mud was lost to the sandstone stringers at the base of the limestone (4200m) at an ECD of
2.06 SG. This figure is therefore taken to be the minimum fracture gradient in the 8 1/2 in.
hole. However, the actual fracture gradient of the mudstone increases with depth and in line
with the pore pressure, to 2.205 SG at 4429m.
A Poissons ratio of 0.06 is used to calculate the fracture gradient in the sandstone section
after 4429m. The fracture pressure in the sand remains constant at 2.16 SG until the formation
becomes interbedded with mudstone, at which point, the calculated fracture pressure increases
to 2.22 SG.
The underlying mudstone has a calculated fracture gradient of 2.22 SG.
4-8
March 1995
(On a development well) where the pressure may be limited to that required to drill
safely the next section of hole (competency test).
When drilling through sands, or permeable rock, at any point below the casing shoe,
consideration should be given to carrying out a further LO test to ascertain the new rock
strength, and thus, the ability of the hole to contain a kick. Leak off tests should not be
conducted in brittle formations (eg fractured limestone).
Company policy is therefore to restrict applied pressures to a maximum represented by the
LO point. The reason for this is that, in many cases, it is not certain that an induced fracture
will heal completely to withstand the pressure that originally caused it to fracture. Field
evidence, however, suggests that in most cases induced fractures will heal
completely. However it is difficult to predict the circumstances in which fractures will not
heal completely and hence permanently weaken the formation.
It has been suggested that the drilling process locks additional stresses into the rock around
the wellbore, thereby increasing the pressure required to cause a fracture. If a fracture is
created, these additional stresses are released and consequently the pressure required to reopen the fracture may be less than that originally required.
It is accepted, however, that particularly brittle rocks, such as limestone, will show very
little inelastic behaviour prior to fracture. As a result, there may be no clear leak off before
a fracture occurs. A brittle formation may be permanently weakened by an induced fracture
and consequently it is not recommended to conduct LO tests in such formations.
4-9
March 1995
V
V
P
K
=
=
=
=
4-10
March 1995
9 Interpretation of Results
Figure 4.4 shows the result of a typical fracture test carried out in a consolidated low
permeability formation in a tectonically relaxed area.
NOTE: It is Company policy that the test is stopped at leak off point.
From points 1 to 2, the exposed rock is deforming elastically as the relationship between
pressure and volume pumped is linear.
At point 2, the pressure in the wellbore at the exposed formation is equal to the sum of the
pore pressure and the minimum horizontal effective stress. In other words, any cracks that
exist at the wellbore and in the vertical plane will be in a state of equilibrium, the applied
pressure exactly counteracting the naturally occurring compressive forces. At point 3, which
represents the leak off point (because it is the first noted deviation from the linear
relationship), the pump would normally be stopped and the pressure bled down in line with
Company policy.
If the pump was left running, the pressure would eventually build to fracture pressure as
shown. From points 2 to 4, the formation is deforming plastically, in that for the same
increment of applied stress (pressure), a greater level of strain (volume) is produced. The
difference between the pressure at point 2 and the pressure at point 4 represents the pressure
required to initiate the fracture.
If the pump was stopped at point 4, as is shown on the diagram, the fracture would not
propogate further into the formation and the pressure will drop to point 5. The pressure at
point 5 should be equal to the pressure at point 2. If the pressure is then bled down, the
returned volume should be equal to the volume pumped into the hole; if it is significantly
less, then the fracture may be still be open.
If the pump was kept running after point 4, the fracture would propogate into the formation
at a pressure slightly lower than point 4, or the fracture propogation pressure.
4-11
March 1995
2
LEAK OFF
PRESSURE
(the pump would
normally be
stopped at this
point)
1
1
1
2
bbl PUMPED
TIME, MINUTES
WEOX02.130
4-12
March 1995
Page
General
5-3
5-3
5-8
Subsea Considerations
5-19
Safety Factors
5-24
5-27
Illustrations
5.1
5-5
5.2
5-5
5.3
Shoe Pressure during the first circulation of the Drillers Method 5-6
5.4
5-6
5-7
5.6
5-8
5.7
5-9
5-9
5-11
5.5
5.8
5.9
5-11
5-12
5-12
5-13
5-1
March 1995
5-13
5-14
5-15
5-15
5-16
5-16
5-17
5-17
5-19
5-20
5-21
5-22
5-24
5-25
5-26
5-26
5-31
5-33
5-34
5-2
March 1995
1 General
When a kick is taken with the pipe on bottom, the well can be killed using either the Wait
and Weight Method or the Drillers Method. The Wait and Weight is the preferred
method. The procedures used to implement these techniques on either a floating or a fixed
rig are detailed in Volume 1.
Both these methods ensure that the bottomhole pressure is maintained constant and equal
to, or slightly greater than, the kick zone pressure.
In order to fully understand the implementation of these methods, it is important to understand
the surface and downhole pressures that are caused by displacing a kick from the hole using
either the Drillers Method or the Wait and Weight Method.
This chapter is intended to cover the variations in surface and subsurface pressures during these
methods, and to explain the most important factors that affect the magnitude of these pressures.
All the pressure plots shown in this chapter are developed by computer programme. The
pressures are determined by simulating the displacement of a gas kick from a well with the
model of a discrete bubble of gas. The actual pressures seen when a kick is taken may be
different from those predicted by the programme; however the plots can demonstrate the
influence of the major factors that affect the wellbore pressures during circulation.
The pressure plots contained in this chapter are generated on the basis that the bottomhole
pressure is constant and exactly equal to the kick zone pressure.
5-3
March 1995
Figure 5.1 shows the choke pressure during the displacement of a kick with the Drillers
Method for a surface BOP. Point A represents the shut-in casing pressure. From point A to
point B, the casing pressure drops as the influx is displaced past the BHA. This drop is
caused by a reduction in height of the influx as the influx is displaced from the BHA annulus
to the drillpipe annulus. The choke operator will open the choke to maintain the appropriate
standpipe pressure.
From point B to point D, the influx is expanding as it is circulated up the hole and hence
the choke pressure required to balance the kick zone pressure is increasing. The choke
operator will therefore close in on the choke to maintain the correct standpipe pressure.
At point C, the gas has expanded to occupy its original height in the annulus when
opposite the BHA.
At point D, the gas arrives at the choke; the choke operator will have to close in on the
choke to ensure that the choke pressure does not drop significantly as the low density
gas passes across the choke. From point D to point E, the gas is passing the choke; the
choke operator will have to open the choke to reduce the choke pressure to maintain the
correct standpipe pressure. The choke pressure required to balance the kick zone pressure
reduces as the gas passes the choke because the column of gas in the annulus is continually
decreasing in height.
At point E, the gas has been displaced from the well and the choke pressure will stabilise
at a value determined by the degree of underbalance.
Figure 5.2 shows the pit gain, or the volume of the kick, as it is displaced to the choke.
Figure 5.3 shows the pressure at the casing shoe as the kick is displaced from the hole.
From point P to point Q, the pressure drops as the influx is displaced past the BHA.
From point Q to point R, the pressure increases as the influx expands as it is circulated
up to the casing shoe. At point R, the top of the influx has arrived at the casing shoe and
from point R to point S the influx is circulated past the casing shoe. Once the influx has
been circulated past the shoe, the pressure at the shoe will remain constant as the influx
is circulated to the choke, as long as the choke is correctly manipulated. It can be seen
from Figure 5.3 that, in this case, the shoe pressure was at maximum when the well was
shut-in. In other words, the influx did not expand to its original height in the annulus
before it arrived at the choke. However, if the shoe was shallower, the maximum shoe
pressure might have been when the influx was circulated to the shoe.
Figure 5.4 shows the standpipe and choke pressure during the second circulation during
which the well is circulated to kill weight mud. Having established the initial circulating
pressure, the standpipe pressure must be reduced as the drillpipe is displaced to kill
weight mud. In practice, very little choke manipulation will be required at this stage
because the standpipe pressure will drop automatically as the kill weight mud is pumped
down the drillpipe. Once the kill weight mud starts up the annulus, the choke size will
have to be increased so that the correct final circulating pressure is maintained.
Once the hole has been displaced to kill weight mud, the choke pressure required to
maintain the final circulating pressure will be zero. In practice therefore, the choke will
be wide open at this point and it may not be possible to keep the standpipe pressure
down to the final circulating pressure.
5-4
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
DRILLER'S
20bbl GAS
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
STANDPIPE PRESSURE
A
1000
SCR1
800
C
E
600
CHOKE PRESSURE
400
P DRILLPIPE
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.131
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
200
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
DRILLER'S
20bbl GAS
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
400
600
800
WEOX02.132
5-5
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
DRILLER'S
20bbl GAS
6600
6400
6200
6000
5800
5600
5400
5200
5000
4800
0
400
200
600
800
WEOX02.133
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
DRILLER'S
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
SCR1
800
600
STANDPIPE PRESSURE
400
P DRILLPIPE
CHOKE PRESSURE
SCR2
200
0
0
DRILLPIPE
VOLUME
200
400
ANNULUS
VOLUME
600
800
5-6
March 1995
WEOX02.134
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
W+W
20bbl GAS
2000
1800
1600
1400
C
1200
1000
SCR1
800
B
CHOKE PRESSURE
(DRILLER'S METHOD)
600
400
P DRILLPIPE
SCR2
200
0
0
DRILLPIPE
VOLUME
200
400
STANDPIPE
PRESSURE (W + W METHOD)
CHOKE PRESSURE
(W + W METHOD)
E
600
800
WEOX02.135
5-7
March 1995
In this case therefore, the maximum shoe pressure is unaffected by the technique used
to kill the well, however, the shoe will be under pressure significantly longer if the
Drillers Method is used.
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20bbl GAS
6600
6400
6200
6000
5800
R
S
5600
DRILLER'S
METHOD
5400
5200
WAIT AND
WEIGHT METHOD
U
5000
4800
0
DRILLPIPE
VOLUME
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.136
5-8
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
DRILLER'S
20, 30, 40, 50bbl GAS
2000
1800
1600
1400
50bbl
40bbl
1200
30bbl
1000
20bbl
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.137
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
W+W
20, 30, 40, 50bbl GAS
2000
1800
1600
1400
50bbl
40bbl
1200
30bbl
1000
20bbl
800
600
400
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.138
5-9
March 1995
Figure 5.9 shows the shoe pressures as various influx volumes are displaced from the
well using the Drillers Method. Figure 5.10 shows the shoe pressures as the same influx
volumes are displaced using the Wait and Weight Method.
Figure 5.11 shows a comparison of choke pressure during the Wait and Weight Method
against the Drillers Method for influx volumes of 20 bbl and 50 bbl.
Influx volume is therefore a variable that has significant influence on wellbore pressure
during the displacement of a kick. However, it is the only variable that the rig crew have
some control over for a given kick situation; it is therefore particularly important that
shut-in procedures are implemented as quickly as possible, even if there is some doubt
as to whether the well is flowing.
5-10
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
DRILLER'S
20, 30, 40, 50bbl GAS
6600
6400
6200
50bbl
40bbl
6000
30bbl
5800
20bbl
5600
5400
5200
5000
4800
0
400
200
600
800
WEOX02.139
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
W+W
20, 30, 40, 50bbl GAS
6600
6400
6200
50bbl
40bbl
6000
30bbl
5800
20bbl
5600
5400
5200
5000
4800
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.140
5-11
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20, 50bbl GAS
2000
1800
1600
1400
50bbl
1200
1000
20bbl
800
DRILLER'S
METHOD
600
400
WAIT AND
WEIGHT METHOD
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.141
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.75, 1.79, 1.83,
1.87, 1.91SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
DRILLER'S
20bbl GAS
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1.91SG
1000
1.87SG
800
1.83SG
600
1.79SG
400
1.75SG
200
0
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.142
5-12
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.75, 1.79, 1.83,
1.87, 1.91SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
W+W
20bbl GAS
2000
1800
1600
1400
1.9SG
1200
1.87SG
1000
1.83SG
800
1.79SG
600
1.75SG
400
200
0
0
400
200
600
800
WEOX02.143
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.75, 1.91SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20bbl GAS
2000
1800
1600
1.91SG
1400
1200
1000
800
600
DRILLER'S
METHOD
1.75SG
400
200
WAIT AND
WEIGHT METHOD
0
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.144
5-13
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.75, 1.91SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20bbl GAS
6600
6400
6200
1.91SG
DRILLER'S
METHOD
6000
5800
5600
WAIT AND
WEIGHT METHOD
1.75SG
5400
DRILLER'S
METHOD
5200
5000
WAIT AND
WEIGHT METHOD
4800
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.145
5-14
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
3500m
1000m, 2000m,
3000m
MW1:
1.7SG
KICK ZONE EMW: 1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
DRILLER'S
20bbl GAS
+100
INITIAL
(SHUT IN
PRESSURE) 0
-100
SHOE AT
3000m
-200
SHOE AT
2000m
SHOE AT
1000m
-300
-400
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.146
3500m
3000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20bbl GAS
8300
8200
Q
P
8100
8000
7900
DRILLER'S METHOD
WAIT AND
WEIGHT METHOD
7800
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.147
5-15
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2500m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20bbl GAS
7100
7000
6900
6800
DRILLER'S METHOD
6700
6600
6500
6400
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.148
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20bbl GAS
5900
5800
5700
5600
DRILLER'S METHOD
5500
5400
5300
5200
5100
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.149
5-16
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
1500m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20bbl GAS
4700
4600
4500
4400
DRILLER'S METHOD
4300
4200
4100
4000
3900
3800
0
400
200
600
800
WEOX02.150
3500m
1000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
BOTH
20bbl GAS
3500
3400
3300
3200
DRILLER'S METHOD
3100
3000
2900
2800
2700
2600
2500
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.151
5-17
March 1995
Figure 5.17 shows the shoe pressure for a 20 barrel kick taken at 3500m for the shoe at
3000m. From initial shut-in to point P, the pressure decreases as the influx is displaced
past the BHA; from point P to point Q the pressure increases as the influx expands as it
is displaced up towards the shoe. At point Q, the top of the influx arrives at the shoe and
from point Q to point R the pressure at the shoe drops as the influx is displaced past it.
From point R to point S, the pressure at the shoe remains constant as the original mud
occupies the annulus from the bottom of the hole to the shoe. However, the pressure at
the shoe is further reduced at point S when, in the case of the Wait and Weight Method,
the kill weight mud starts up the annulus.
Figure 5.18 shows the shoe pressure for the shoe at 2500m. A similar pressure profile is
shown to that in Figure 5.17; however in this case the influx expands more before it
arrives at the shoe due to the greater length of openhole.
Figure 5.19 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 2000m. In this case, the kill
weight mud starts up the annulus at point R, when the tail of the influx is passing the
shoe.
Figure 5.20 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 1500m. In the case of the
Drillers Method, the shoe pressure almost reaches its original shut-in value. In the case
of the Wait and Weight Method however, the kill weight mud starts up the annulus at
point P, before the influx arrives at the shoe. The shoe pressure is reduced by the kill
weight mud from this point on.
Figure 5.21 shows the shoe pressure profile for the shoe at 1000m. In the case of the
Drillers Method, the shoe pressure now increases past the shut-in value as the influx is
circulated to the shoe. However, in the case of the Wait and Weight Method, the kill
weight mud starts up the annulus at point P, and this has the effect of reducing the
maximum pressure that the shoe experiences.
Figures 5.17 to 5.21 show that the Wait and Weight Method has only a small influence
on the maximum shoe pressure for wells of this type, even when the shoe is relatively
shallow.
The most important point however is that the time that the shoe is subject to high pressure
is substantially reduced when the Wait and Weight Method is used. The reduction in
shoe pressure due to the kill weight mud is most significant when there is a long section
of openhole (as is seen in Figures 5.17 to 5.21).
5-18
March 1995
Figure 5.22 shows a typical choke pressure profile for a salt water kick displaced from
the hole by the Wait and Weight Method. From point P to point Q, the choke pressure
remains relatively constant as the drillpipe is displaced to kill weight mud. From point
Q to point R, the choke pressure drops as the kill weight mud starts up the annulus. This
is in marked contrast to the gas kick where the expansion of the kick at this stage tends
to increase the choke pressure. From point R to point S, the influx passes the choke with
a corresponding drop in choke pressures. From point S to point T, the choke pressure
drops as the original mud behind the influx passes the choke. At point T, the kill weight
mud arrives at surface.
500
400
300
200
R
100
S
T
0
0
200
400
600
800
WEOX02.152
4 Subsea Considerations
If a kick is taken from a floating rig, the influx will be displaced to the surface through a
small diamater choke line that is attached to the drilling riser. The fundamental difference
between well control procedures on a fixed and a floating rig originate from the necessity of
having to circulate through this choke line.
5-19
March 1995
The potential problems caused by circulating through the choke line can be summarised
asfollows:
(a) Choke pressures will be significantly higher than for an equivalent well
drilled from a fixed rig.
This is due to the fact that the height of the influx is considerably increased as it is
displaced from the annulus to the choke line.
Figure 5.23 shows a comparison between the choke pressure during displacement of a
gas kick from a well drilled in 1000m of water and a similar well drilled from a fixed
rig. The influence of the choke line is apparent in that the maximum choke pressure is
increased from 1200 psi to approximately 2600 psi.
FIXED RIG:
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW, MW2:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
WAIT AND WEIGHT
20bbl GAS
FLOATING RIG:
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW, MW2:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
CHOKELINE:
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
1000m/3in ID
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
WAIT AND WEIGHT
20bbl GAS
2800
2400
FLOATING RIG
2000
1600
1200
FIXED RIG
800
400
0
0
200
400
600
800
5-20
March 1995
Figure 5.24 shows the choke pressures during displacement of the same 20 bbl influx
for a variety of water depths. It can be seen that the choke pressure is not, in this case,
significantly affected by a water depth of 100m.
FIXED RIG:
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW, MW2:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
WAIT AND WEIGHT
20bbl GAS
FLOATING RIG:
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW, MW2:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
CHOKELINE:
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
2800
1000m
WATER
2400
2000
500m
WATER
1600
100m
WATER
1200
800
FIXED RIG
400
0
0
200
400
600
800
=
=
=
=
64
64
64
64
x
x
x
x
4
3
1
0.1
=
=
=
=
256 psi/min
192 psi/min
64 psi/min
6.4 psi/min
5-21
March 1995
It can therefore be seen that normal displacement rates have the potential to require an
unrealistic rate of manipulation of the choke. In this case, the most satisfactory rate of
displacement would be of the order of 1 bbl/min.
As gas invades the choke line:
p
=
bbl/pumped
1800
28
= 64psi/bbl
2000
28
= 71psi/bbl
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
CHOKELINE:
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
INFLUX:
1000m/3in ID
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
WAIT AND WEIGHT
20bbl GAS
2800
2400
2000
1800psi
1600
2000psi
1200
800
400
0
0
200
400
600
800
5-22
March 1995
On a fixed rig, the lag time will not be so problematical because the required rate of
choke manipulation is generally lower. In other words, the bottomhole pressure will
drop only very slightly before the drillpipe pressures registers that drop and the choke
operator closes in the choke (to increase the choke pressure and hence the bottomhole
pressure).
The lag time between the choke and the drillpipe pressure gauges is generally considered
to be of the order of 2 seconds per 300m of drillstring length. This lag time, however,
will be significantly affected by the type and size of the influx in the hole. It can be seen
therefore that there may be a lag time of approximately 20 seconds in deep wells. If the
required rate of choke manipulation is 420 psi/min as the influx is displaced up the
choke line, the bottomhole pressure may have dropped 130 psi before the drillpipe
pressure gauge registers this drop. Clearly this is an additional reason for displacing the
influx through the choke line at a rate that is substantially slower than normal slow
circulation rates.
(c) The rate of decrease of choke pressure required as the mud behind the
gas reaches the base of the choke line may be unrealistically high.
In a similar manner, the required rate of choke manipulation as the mud behind the
influx enters the choke line may be unrealistically high at normal slow circulating rates.
In this case, the potential problem is that the well may be overpressured, leading to the
possibility of fracturing the exposed formation.
Figure 5.25 shows that the choke pressure would theoretically have to be reduced at
71psi/bbl which corresponds to the following rates for various displacement rates:
At 4 bbl/min
At 3 bbl/min
At 1 bbl/min
At 0.1 bbl/min
=
=
=
=
71
71
71
71
x
x
x
x
4
3
1
0.1
=
=
=
=
284 psi/min
213 psi/min
71 psi/min
7.1 psi/min
This is clear indication that normal displacement rates are unsuitable when displacing a
gas influx through a long choke line.
(d) The frictional pressure as a result of circulating through the choke line
may be significant at slow circulating rates.
Choke line frictional pressure may be significant, when added to the wellbore pressures
resulting from the displacement of a kick. In certain circumstances, it may be of a
magnitude such as to cause formation breakdown.
There are special techniques that can be used to eliminate the effect of choke line losses
during displacement of a kick. One such technique, namely the use of the kill line monitor,
is described in Chapter 6 of Volume 1.
Choke line losses are generally insignificant in relatively shallow waters, but can be
significant in waters of 500m or greater. Figure 5.26 shows a table of estimated choke
line losses for various choke line lengths.
When very slow displacement rates are used, (such as 1 bbl/min) choke line losses are
generally insignificant, even in deep water.
5-23
March 1995
3 bbl/min
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
1000 m
120
200
220
245
500 m
90
100
110
125
100 m
17
19
22
25
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
1000 m
260
295
325
360
500 m
130
145
165
180
100 m
26
30
33
36
4 bbl/min
5 Safety Factors
During well control operations, it is clearly necessary to maintain the bottomhole pressure
slightly greater than the kick zone pressure. This will provide a margin of error for the
choke operation that will prevent a second influx occurring. However, excessive additional
pressure may needlessly overpressure the wellbore and possibly cause the formation to
fracture.
In general, every effort should be made to ensure that no additional pressures are applied to
the openhole at early stages in the displacement of the kick when downhole pressures will
generally be at a maximum.
The following are possible causes of additional pressures during the displacement of a kick:
5-24
March 1995
13 3/8in
@ 1500m
12 1/4in hole
180m of 8in
collars
TD 1800m
7in
@ 3200m
9 5/8in
@ 3200m
9 5/8in shoe
@ 3500m
8 1/2in hole
270m of
6 1/2in collars
TD 4000m
3 1/2in
drillpipe
Annulus pressure loss at
3 to 4bbl/min for mud weight
range 1.7 SG to 2.1 SG
= 100 to 125psi
7in
@ 4200m
200m
4 3/4in collars
6in hole
TD 4500m
Annulus pressure loss at
3 to 4bbl/min for
1.5 SG mud = 150 to 180psi
2.1 SG mud = 190 to 240psi
WEOX02.157
5-25
March 1995
WELL DEPTH:
SHOE DEPTH:
MW1:
KICK ZONE EMW:
MW1:
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
1.83, 1.85, 1.87,
1.9SG
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
OVERBALANCED
MUD
INFLUX: 20bbl GAS
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
1600
1400
1.9SG
1200
1000
800
1.87SG
1.85SG
600
1.83SG MUD
(WAIT AND
WEIGHT)
400
200
0
0
400
200
600
800
WEOX02.158
3500m
2000m
1.7SG
1.83SG
1.83, 1.85, 1.87,
1.9SG
6 1/4in/180m
5in DP
OVERBALANCED
MUD
INFLUX: 20bbl GAS
BHA:
PIPE:
TECH:
5000
4800
4600
1.9SG MUD
1.87SG MUD
4400
1.85SG MUD
1.83SG MUD
(WAIT AND WEIGHT)
4200
4000
3800
0
200
400
600
800
5-26
March 1995
WEOX02.159
Heavier than kill weight mud is often considered in order to either add a small overbalance
after the kick has been displaced from well or to kill an underground blowout. From the
examples in Figures 5.28 and 5.29 it can be seen that even a relatively small overbalance
will increase the wellbore pressures during kick displacement. Overbalance should be
added to the mud after the well has been killed.
5-27
March 1995
The formulae that are presented as follows are recommended for use at the rigsite for quick
estimations of annulus pressures during the displacement of a kick, if a computer is not
available for this purpose:
1
2
S
2
(psi)
where:
S = (TD D) MW2 X 1.421 H1
(psi)
and:
K=
PO X VO X Z D
ZO X TO
TD
or:
K = PO
and D
PD
TD
ZD
PO
TO
ZO
VO
MW2
MW1
C
TD
H1
Pi
Pf
=
=
=
=
5-28
March 1995
1
2
S
2
(psi)
where:
S = (TD D) MW1
1.421 + Pi Pf
(psi)
1
2
S
2
(psi)
where:
S = H1 X 1.421
1.421 + Pi Pf
(psi)
1
2
S
2
(psi)
where:
S = (TD Dwhd +V cl ) MW1 X 1.421 + Pi Pf (psi)
C
and Pchoke
Dwhd
Vcl
C
=
=
=
=
5-29
March 1995
201 = 1253m
0.1604
(psi)
1.421 + 59 + 9101
= -2310 psi
Substituting into:
2
Pchoke = S + K X MW2 X 1.421
C
4
2
Pchoke = -2310 + 20
4
1
2
S
2
(psi)
1
2
-2310
2
(psi)
= 3225 psi
Therefore the maximum anticipated pressure during displacement is 3225 psi. It would
however be anticipated that this figure represents the maximum possible pressure at
surface and, as such, the actual maximum pressure would be expected to be lower than
this value.
(For derivation of these formulae ref: Blowout Prevention, Theory and Application by
Peter Mills, 1984, D. Reidel Publishing Company.)
5-30
March 1995
Units (US/UK):
Rig Name:
bbl
Date:
TVD,ft
Annulus, in.
ID X OD
length, ft
bbl/ft
Volume
bbl
Annulus, in.
ID X OD
length, ft
bbl/ft
Volume
bbl
TVD,ft
=
psi
ppg
ppg
Annulus, in.
ID X OD
length, ft
bbl/ft
Volume
bbl
Casing Pressure:
psi
ppg
Annulus, in.
ID X OD
length, ft
bbl/ft
Volume
bbl
Pit Gain
bbl
Surface Temp:
Annulus, in.
ID X OD
length, ft
bbl/ft
Volume
bbl
Influx Height
ft
Temp Grad:
F/ft
bbl
Influx Hydrostatic
psi
Kill Mud
Height of
Hydro
Pressure
Below Influx
Mud
Below
Influx
( )
of Mud
Below
Influx
( psig )
Influx
Hydrostatic
(psi)
Influx
Mid-point
Pressure
(psia)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
Vol
(bbl)
Height
( )
Pressure
(psi)
Vol
(bbl)
Height
( )
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Influx Temp
Influx Size
Original Mud
Hydro-
above influx
Req'd
Back
Pressure
(psi)
Pressure
at the
Shoe
(psi)
(20)
(21)
Factor
Vol
(bbl)
Height
( )
Height
( )
Pressure
(psi)
static of
Annulus
Fluids
(psi)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
ft
ft
5-31
ft
ft
ft
WEOX02.196
Original Mud
Volume
of Mud
Pumped
(bbl)
Well No:
Figure 5.30a
March 1995
Figure 5.30b
The worksheet provided can be used to estimate annulus pressures during the displacement of a kick.
The worksheet can be used as follows for the Wait and Weight method:
(if the Drillers method is used (5), (6) and (7) are left out of the calculation)
(1)
(2-4)
(5-7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(12-13)
T(R)
T pseudo critical
Z factor
The compressibility factor, Z, can be determined from Figure 5.32 (BP Well Control Manual, Volume 2) using the calculated values of pseudo
reduced pressure and temperature.
(15-16)
V2 = T2 X Z2 X P1 X V1
P2 X T1
V
T
P
Z
=
=
=
=
Influx height =
Influx volume
Annular capacity
(19)
(20)
(21)
This is the difference between the kick zone pressure and the total hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in the annulus (19).
Subtracting the hydrostatic pressure of the annulus fluids from the bottomhole to the shoe from the bottomholepressure
Adding the hydrostatic pressure of the fluids from the shoe to the surface to the required back pressure (20)
This procedure will be repeated until the influx is positioned at the appropriate point in the well. For example if the first calculation shows that the top
of the influx is above the shoe (assuming that the point of interest is when the top of the influx arrives at the shoe), the calculation should be
reworked for a smaller volume of mud pumped.
For the first approximations it is a good idea to neglect the effect of temperature and compressibility in order to speed the calculation.
5-32
March 1995
700
Miscellaneou
Pseudo Critical Pressure psia
s gases
Cond
650
ensat
e well
fluids
600
550
500
es
as
ne
lla
450
e
isc
g
us
ell
ew
sat
ds
flui
den
Con
400
350
300
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
WEOX02.162
5-33
March 1995
1.1
1.1
PSEUDO REDUCED
TEMPERATURE
1.05
3.0
1.0
2.8
2.4
2.6
1.0
2.2
2.0
0.9
0.95
1.5
1.9
1.8
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.4
1.7
1.6
0.8
1.7
1.
05
1.5
1.
1.45
1.6
1.35
1.
1.3
0.6
1.
1.5
1.25
1.
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.2
0.5
.15
1.9
1.8
2.0
1.4
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Z
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR Z
1.4
0.7
2.2
1.
0.4
2.4
1.3
2.6
3.0
1.2
1.
05
0.3
0.25
3.0
2.8
1.1
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.0
1.1
2.4
2.0
1.8
1.1
1.05
1.2
1.0
1.7
1.6
January 1, 1941
1.4
1.3
0.9
0.9
7
10
11
12
13
14
15
WEOX02.163
5-34
March 1995
Page
6.1 WELLHEADS
6-1
6-5
6-43
6-55
6-64
A properly designed and cemented casing string that can contain pressures
encountered whilst drilling.
A properly designed and installed wellhead assembly that can support, and seal
between, the casing string and the BOP stack.
BOPs securely anchored to the wellhead and capable of closing off the annulus
against openhole or any tool that is run into the hole.
A control system to operate the BOPs which features adequate redundancy and
acceptable closing times.
A choke system that can maintain a variable back pressure on a well whilst it is
circulated.
A kill system which gives flexibility to pump to the hole via the annulus or
drillstring.
March 1995
6.1
WELLHEADS
Paragraph
Page
Surface Wellheads
6-2
Subsea Wellheads
6-2
6-1
March 1995
1 Surface Wellheads
A conventional wellhead for use on land, platform and jack-up rigs, comprises a series of
spools and is based on a starting head. The starting head is anchored to the surface string of
casing, with the weight of the casing transferred to the cement, or mud line hanger. Additional
support may be provided by the conductor.
The major components of the surface wellhead are as follows:
(a) Spools
Conventional wellhead spools generally incorporate the following features:
API standard flanges, or hub to suit a clamp, top and bottom. The flange face has a
machined groove, often inlaid with stainless steel, to suit an API gasket.
A set of seals, sometimes energised with plastic packing, in the base of the spool, to
pack off around the preceding casing stub.
Studded or flanged side-arms below the bowl,which provide communication to the casing
annulus. Often the side-arm is threaded to accept a plug to facilitate valve removal.
Lock down screws are provided in the top flange of most spools, to retain, and
sometimes to energise the pack-off, and also to retain the bore protector.
Ports are provided to allow the pressure testing of the flange seals (i.e. the void
between the slip and seal assembly, the upper spool seals, and the ring gasket).
2 Subsea Wellheads
A subsea wellhead as used on floating rigs, consists of one or two wellhead housings, casing
hangers/pack-offs and a guide base. It is positioned just above the seabed.
The wellhead housings are normally made up onto the conductor and 13 3/8 in. casing in the
case of a 2 stack system, or onto the conductor and surface casing in the case of a single
stack system. They perform four functions:
Support of casing strings by means of an internal upset on which the first casing hanger
lands. Subsequent casing hangers land off on the previous seal assembly.
6-2
March 1995
Pressure isolation of the casing annulus from the wellbore by providing a polished bore
on which the seal assembly packs off.
Pressure containment between the wellhead housing and the BOP, by provision of a
polished stainless steel inlaid profile for a gasket in the hub bore.
Support of the stack which lands on the hub and latches onto a profile on the outside of
the hub.
Commonly 21 1/4 in. housings are rated to 2000 or 5000 psi, 16 3/4 in. housings to 5000 or
10,000 psi, 18 3/4 in. and 13 5/8 in. housings to 10,000 psi or 15,000 psi.
The following are the major items of equipment associated with the subsea wellhead:
6-3/4
6-3
March 1995
6.2
Paragraph
Page
6-7
Annular Preventers
6-15
6-20
Stack Configurations
6-23
6-29
6-36
Diverters
6-39
Illustrations
6.1
6-8
6.2
6-9
6.3
6-10
6.4
6-11
6.5
6-12
6.6
6-13
6.7
6-14
6.8
6-17
6.9
6-18
6-21
6-22
6-25
6-26
6-27
6-28
6-34
6-5
March 1995
6-35
6-38
6-39
6-40
6-6
March 1995
1 Annular Preventers
Annular preventers have a doughnut shaped elastic element with bonded steel internal
reinforcing. Extrusion of the element into the wellbore is effected by upwards movement of
a hydraulically actuated piston. The element is designed to seal around any shape or size of
pipe and to close on openhole. (See Figure 6.1.)
An important function of annular preventers is to facilitate the stripping of the drillpipe in
or out of the well, with pressure on the wellhead. Undue wear of the element is avoided by
the use of pilot-operated hydraulic regulator, which controls closing pressure.
The majority of annular preventers currently in use are manufactured by Hydril (Types MSP,
GK, GL, GX), Shaffer (Spherical) and Cameron (Type D), these are illustrated below (See
Figures 6.2 to 6.6) together with a summary of major operating features.
The following are the most important aspects of the operation of annular preventers:
To obtain maximum sealing element life, hydraulic closing pressures should conform to
the manufacturers recommendations for pressure testing and operational use of the
preventers. Excessive closing pressures, when coupled with wellbore pressure sealing
effects, cause high internal stresses in the element and reduce element life.
Cavities should be flushed out and the element inspected following each well. Preventers
should be stripped and inspected annually. Seals should be replaced and all sealing
surfaces inspected.
Drilling tools, especially rock bits, should be run cautiously through BOPs to minimise
element damage. Elements of annular preventers do not, on occasions, retract fully.
The type of elastomer (natural rubber, synthetic rubber, neoprene) used in the
packingelement should be the most suitable for a particular wellhead environment. See
Figure 6.7.
Although most models and sizes of annular preventer will seal an openhole in an
emergency operation, it is not recommended as such gross deformation of the elastomer
causes cracking and accelerated wear.
When stripping, the closing pressure should be regulated to the minimum required for a
slight weeping of mud past the element. Closing pressures higher than this will increase
element wear. The pipe should be moved slowly, particularly as tool joints pass through
the element. The manufacturers also provide information regarding recommended closing
pressures during stripping operations. Surge vessels on the closing ports will help to
smooth-out surge pressures as tool joints pass through the element.
6-7
March 1995
(CAMERON)
OPEN
CLOSED ON PIPE
CLOSED ON PIPE
WEOX02.164
6-8
March 1995
PACKING UNIT
PISTON
OPENING
CHAMBER
CLOSING
CHAMBER
Operating Features:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Will close on open hole and hold 2000psi (but not recommended).
Primary usage is in diverter systems.
Automatically returns to the open position when closing pressure is released.
Sealing assistance is gained from the well pressure.
Good stripping capability of the packing unit since (fatigue) wear occurs on the
outside of the packing unit.
Most annular preventers are designed to use wellbore pressure to assist in maintaining
closure. In some circumstances and depending on the preventer size, the well pressure
can maintain closure without any closing hydraulic pressure being applied. An annular
preventer should never be operated without some closing hydraulic pressure applied.
The reason is that with only well pressure maintaining closure, the packing unit may
suddenly open with only a small surge or reduction in well pressure. Also, the pressure
seal may be lost around the body of the drillpipe after a tool joint passes through the
element during stripping operations.
6-9
March 1995
PISTON TRAVEL
INDICATOR HOLE
PACKING UNIT
PISTON
OPENING PORT
CHAMBER
CLOSING
CHAMBER
Operating Features:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
WEOX02.166
6-10
March 1995
PACKING UNIT
OPENING
CHAMBER
PISTON
PRIMARY
CLOSING
CHAMBER
SECONDARY
CHAMBER
Operating Features:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
6-11
March 1995
PACKING UNIT
UPPER ADAPTER
HEAD
OPENING CHAMBER
PISTON
CLOSING CHAMBER
Operating Features:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Camerons Type D annular preventer requires 3000 psi hydraulic closing pressure for
positive closure with no pipe in the preventer. This reqires a bypass arrangement around
the 1500 psi annular regulator on 3000 psi closing units. Hydrils and Shaffers annular
preventers are claimed to provide positive closure with 1500 psi closing unit pressure
when the rubber elements are new.
If the annular packing element wears out during stripping or well killing operations, the
element can be changed without pulling the pipe. After the pipe rams are closed and
locked below the annular preventer and the hydraulic and well pressure bled off, the
cover of the preventer can be unbolted and the packing element lifted out with a hoist
line. With the element above the preventer, the damaged unit can be split and removed
from the pipe. New packing elements for Hydril and Shaffer annular preventers can be
split in the field and installed in reverse order. Cameron has recently developed a packing
element for their Type D annular preventer which can be split in the field.
6-12
March 1995
A 1 in. valve can be installed on both the opening and closing lines next to the annular
preventer. These valves must be in the open position at all times except when testing
hydraulic lines and hydraulic chamber seals. These valves can be used to verify seal
leaks between the opening and closing chambers of an annular preventer.
PACKING UNIT
OPENING
CHAMBER
PISTON
CLOSING
CHAMBER
Operating Features:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
6-13
March 1995
IDENTIFICATION
PACKING UNIT
TYPE
Colour
Code
OPERATING
TEMP RANGE
DRILLING FLUID
COMPATIBILITY
NATURAL
RUBBER
Black
NR
-30F 225F
Waterbase fluid
NITRILE
RUBBER
Red
Band
NBR
-20F 190F
Oil base/oil
additive fluid
NEOPRENE
RUBBER
Green
Band
CR
-30F 170F
Only packing elements which are supplied by the manufacturer of the annular preventer
should be used. New or repaired units obtained from other service companies should
not be used since the preventer manufacturers cannot be held responsible for malfunction
of their equipment unless their elements are installed.
Closing pressures must be adjusted when annular preventers are operated subsea. The
manufacturers recommendations for the required adjustment pressure are summarised below:
For Hydril GK and MSP, the adjustment pressure is related to the mud weight, the water
depth, and the water density as follows:
P =
(MW
where P
MW
w
D
CR
=
=
=
=
=
1.421 X D)
(w
CR
D X 1.421)
(psi)
and
CR =
For Hydril GL operated subsea (with the secondary chamber connected to the
openingline):
Adjustment pressure as for Hydril GK in subsea operation.
6-14
March 1995
For Hydril GL operated subsea (with the secondary chamber connected to the
closingline):
Adjustment pressure = K X Adjustment pressure (as determined for Hydril GK)
where
K =
For the NL Shaffer annular operated subsea, tests carried out by Exxon indicated
that the required adjustment to the closing pressure is given by the following:
For the 16 3/4 in. 5M:
P = (0.335MW 0.335)D
P = (0.339MW 0.318)D
6-15
March 1995
11 in.
11 in.
13 5/8
13 5/8
16 3/4
16 3/4
18 3/4
18 3/4
5
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
in.
6-16
March 1995
closed position after they are shut hydraulically. In an emergency, the screws can be
used to close the rams if the hydraulic system fails. If the locking screws are used to
close the rams, the hydraulic closing unit valve handle should be turned to the closed
position. This will eliminate the possibility of hydraulic oil being trapped on the opening
side of the actuating pistons.
An optional hydraulic lock mechanism (Camerons Wedge Lock, Shaffers Poslock and
Hydrils MPL) can be used in place of locking screws to lock the rams in the closed
position. The hydraulic lock holds the rams closed until unlocking pressure is applied
even though the primary control pressure is released. The hydraulic ram lock was
developed for subsea BOP stacks and can be used on land rigs in place of the manually
operated locking screws.
BACK-UP RINGS
(IN 10000 AND 15000psi
WP PREVENTERS ONLY)
CHECK VALVE
ENERGISING RING
HYCAR LIP SEAL
RETAINER RING AND
LOCKING RING
'O' RING
VENT TO ATMOSPHERE
OPERATING CYLINDER
PREVENTER BODY
PREVENTER BONNET
WEOX02.171
6-17
March 1995
SIZE
7 1/16 in.
9 in.
11 in.
WP (psi)
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
Cameron U
Open
Close
2.3
2.3
2.3
2.3
6.9
6.9
6.9
6.9
Shaffer SL
Open
3.37
Hydril Ram
Close
Open
Close
7.11
1.5
1.5
1.7
6.6
5.4
5.4
8.2
7.6
2.6
2.6
5.3
5.3
6.8
6.8
7.6
7.6
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.2
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
9.9
7.62
2.8
7.11
7.11
2.0
2.0
2.4
3.24
13 5/8 in.
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
2.3
2.3
2.3
5.6
7.0
7.0
7.0
8.4
3.00
3.00
4.29
2.14
5.54
5.54
7.11
7.11
2.1
2.1
3.8
3.56
5.2
5.2
10.6
7.74
16 3/4 in.
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
2.3
2.3
2.3
6.8
6.8
6.8
2.03
2.06
5.54
7.11
2.41
10.6
18 3/4 in.
10,000
15,000
3.6
4.1
7.4
9.7
1.83
1.68
7.11
10.85
1.9
2.15
10.6
7.27
21 1/4 in.
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
1.3
1.3
5.1
4.1
7.0
7.0
6.2
7.2
0.98
0.98
1.9
5.23
5.2
10.6
2,000
3,000
1.0
7.0
26 3/4 in.
1.63
7.11
Closing Ratios
Ram-type preventers have specially designed opening and closing ratios, as shown in
Figure 6.9. These are the ratios between the well pressures and the operating pressures
needed to open or close the rams. Closing ratios are generally in the range of six-to-one
to nine-to-one. This means that a preventer having a closing ratio of six-to-one would
require 500 psi closing pressure to close the preventer when the wellbore pressure is
3000 psi. Opening ratios are much lower because the wellbore pressure acts behind the
ram to oppose opening. Opening ratios of two-to-one are common.
6-18
March 1995
It should also be noted that, for high wellbore pressures, pressures greater than 3000 psi
may be required to open some ram preventers.
Bonnet Seals
Bonnet (or door) seals are exposed to wellbore pressures and fluids. Since they can be
subjected to high pressures and temperatures without being backed-up by another seal,
bonnet seals are critical to the integrity of the BOP system. The seals are generally of
fibrous/rubber construction and require careful handling and installation. Manufacturers
recommendations should be observed meticulously.
Bonnet seals should be replaced each time bonnets are opened.
Bonnet seals should be handled carefully, particularly on installation, and be stored
at controlled temperatures in darkness. They should be discarded after storage for
one year.
Bonnet bolts should be made up to manufacturers recommended torques, which can
be extremely high with some compression-type seals. Due regard should be paid to
the type of lubricant used, eg make-up torque is reduced by approximately 50% if a
molybdenum disulphide lubricant, rather than an API5A lubricant, is used.
Bonnet faces, preventer faces and seal grooves should be clean and dry before seal
installation and make-up.
Bonnet seals should be tested after installation.
The following are the most important aspects of the care and maintenance of ram preventers:
Pipe rams should not be closed on openhole or on mis-matched pipe. This would induce
excessive extrusion of the elastomer and can cause cracking or bonding failures.
Ram recesses should be washed out and the ram element inspected following each well.
Preventers should be stripped, inspected (particularly all sealing surfaces) and seals
replaced annually.
When in good operating condition, ram preventers should close with 300 psi or less
hydraulic pressure without wellbore pressure. If high closing pressure is required during
test operations, the preventer should be checked first for debris in the ram cavity and
then inspected for piston rod misalignment or other mechanical problems.
Wellbore pressure helps close ram preventers. They are designed to hold pressure from
the lower side and will not seal properly if installed upside down. Also, ram preventers
are not designed to be pressure tested from the top side and this can damage the preventer.
Field experience has proven that ram preventers are more likely to leak with a
lowwellbore pressure than a high pressure. For this reason, they should be tested at
200/300psi prior to the rated working pressure test.
Ram preventers will close faster than annular preventers, especially in the larger sizes.
Usually, ram preventers require only one-third or less of the hydraulic fluid volume to
close compared to an annular. In instances where mechanical problems prevent rapid
closure of the annular preventer, a ram preventer should be closed immediately to
minimise additional well flow.
The main closing unit control handle for operating blind or blind/shear rams should
always be protected against accidental closure with pipe in the hole. Numerous costly
incidents have resulted from accidentally closing the blind rams and flattening or cutting
6-19
March 1995
the drillpipe during well control or drilling operations. A flip-up cover without locking
device should be used. If the handle is locked in the open position, it prevents closing
the preventer from a remote station. Shear rams are not recommended for land rig
operations.
When aluminium drillpipe is used, special consideration must be given to ram size
selection. For example, 5 in. aluminium drillpipe has an outside body diameter of 5.150
in., versus a 5.000 in. body diameter for 5 in. steel pipe. Thus, regular 5 in. ram blocks
must be slightly modified to seal and not damage the main tube section of aluminium
pipe. In addition, 5 in. aluminium pipe has a tapered transition zone for a length of 41
in. to 46 in. on both the box and pin ends from 5.150 in. OD up to 5.688 in. OD. Standard
rams will not seal on the tapered end sections. Variable bore rams can be used to seal on
the body and end sections of aluminium drillpipe.
Ram preventers can be used to strip drillpipe in or out of the hole under pressure, but it
is necessary to use two preventers which have sufficient distance between rams to isolate
a tool joint box. The drilling spool provides this space in a five preventer stack. The
upper and lower rams of a double ram preventer are too close together for this purpose.
Excessive hydraulic pressure should not be applied on the rams when stripping pipe
under pressure because it tends to wear the resilient material of the ram. The lowest ram
in the BOP stack should never be used for stripping since it is always considered the
master valve.
Working Pressure
21 1/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
Working Pressure
21 1/4 in.
13 5/8 in.
11 in.
2M or 5M
5M, 10M or 15M
5M, 10M or 15M
Figure 6.10 shows a summary of approved BOPs. Figure 6.11 shows the availability
and bore of BOPs from the major manufacturers.
6-20
March 1995
Hydril C
ANNULAR PREVENTERS
ACCEPTABLE RUBBERS*
Cameron Type D
Shaffer Spherical
RAM PREVENTERS
ACCEPTABLE RUBBERS*
Koomey Type PL PB
*
All BOP manufacturers specify their rubber elements and rams as H2S resistant;
however, H 2S exposure reduces the service life of rubber products. The performance
of these products can vary significantly, depending on the extent of exposure and H2S
content.
**
Shaffer Type 70 ram blocks are not acceptable because of metallurgical and rubber
packer failures.
6-21
March 1995
Cameron
U
Cameron
QRC
Cameron
D
Hydril
GK
Hydril
GL
Hydril
GX
Hydril
HSP
Hydril
Ram
Shaffer
LWS
Shaffer
SL
Shaffer
Spherical
Koomey
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
16 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
5,000
10,000
15,000
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
18 3/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
2,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
21 1/4 in.
20 3/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
20 3/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
20 3/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
20 3/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
26 3/4 in.
26 3/4 in.
2,000
3,000
26 3/4 in.
29 1/2 in.
500
29 1/2 in.
30
1,000
30 in.
Working
Pressure
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
6-22
March 1995
Blowout Preventer
Nominal
Size
The test pressure rating of BOP equipment is a one off test, conducted on the BOP (or
valve) body at the time of manufacture to a pressure 50% greater than the working pressure.
In service, working pressure ratings should not be exceeded.
It is acceptable to use annular preventers rated at 5000 psi less than the rams for certain
10M and 15M applications.
4 Stack Configurations
Company policy regarding minimum stack configurations for all categories of land and
offshore operations is detailed in the Drilling Policy and Guidelines Manual. Figures 6.12
to 6.15 show examples of acceptable stacks for various applications. The particular details
of each well will however dictate the most suitable stack for each application.
Two ram preventers and one annular preventer in line with Company policy.
If surface pressures exceed the pressure rating of the annular preventer, the pipe
rams are closed and the blind rams changed to pipe. The upper pipe rams are closed,
the lower pipe opened and the kick circulated out through the choke line.
Annular access below the lowermost ram possible through wellhead outlet.
Lowermost ram not used for stripping operations and only used when no other ram
available for this purpose (i.e. when changing ram elements and in the event of failure
of rams above).
If casing rams are required they should be positioned in the top ram preventer cavity.
The rams should be changed out on the trip out of the hole prior to running casing,
before pulling the BHA through the stack. The bonnet seals are tested against the
test plug and the annular prior to running casing.
Three ram preventers and one annular preventer in line with Company policy.
Pipe can be stripped through annular preventer and between annular and upper
piperam.
Ram preventer combination stripping is possible if blind rams are replaced with
pipe rams, if suitable space is available between top two ram type preventers.
A line must be rigged up to the flange between the top two ram preventers to facilitate
ram combination stripping.
Annular access below the lowermost ram is possible through wellhead outlet.
6-23
March 1995
Well can be circulated either under the annular preventer or under the upper pipe rams.
Lowermost rams not used for stripping operations and only used when no other ram
available for this purpose.
If casing rams are required they should be positioned in the upper pipe ram preventer
cavity. The rams should be changed out on the trip out of the hole prior to running
casing, before pulling the BHA through the stack. The bonnet seals are tested against
the test plug and the annular prior to running casing.
Four ram preventers, two annular preventers in line with Company policy for minimum
requirements for high pressure subsea BOP stacks.
For normal kill procedure drillstring is hung off on pipe ram no. 2 and well circulated
through upper choke line.
There should be adequate space between the blind shear and pipe ram no. 2 to shear
on pipe body when the pipe is hung off on pipe ram no. 2. (This may not be possible
if the top two ram type preventers are a double.) It is important to have the facility to
shear the pipe quickly and reliably during a well control operation, especially so on
a dynamically positioned vessel.
The lower kill line is used as the kill line monitor (See Standard Techniques,
Chapter6, Volume 1).
In the event of failure of pipe ram no. 2, or the upper choke line upstream of the
failsafes, the well can be shut-in on and hung off on pipe ram no. 3 and returns taken
up the lower kill line.
In the event of failure of the choke line downstream of the failsafes, the well can be
circulated through the kill line.
The fact that there is an inlet/outlet, that can be used as a choke line, immediately
below pipe ram no. 2 and 3, means that the possibility of trapped gas, after a well
control operation, is minimised.
Variable bore rams can be fitted in the ram preventers below the blind/shear rams.
The hang off capability of these rams should be checked against maximum anticipated
string weights.
BOP gas can be removed from this stack using the technique described in Chapter6
of Volume 1, taking returns up the lower kill line as the riser is U-tubed.
The upper (primary) annular preventer can be recovered with lower riser package
for element replacement.
Lowermost ram only used when no other ram available is for this purpose. The concept
for use of this ram is similar to that of the master valve on a production tree.
The lower choke line is used primarily for pressure testing and monitoring the well.
In line with Company policy it should not be used for extended periods of circulation.
(If this line fails during the displacement of a kick there is no back-up available.)
6-24
March 1995
FLOWLINE
FILL UP
LINE
ANNULAR
BOP
BLIND RAMS
5
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
CHOKE
MANIFOLD
PIPE RAMS
SECTION A
1
CASING SPOOL
2
1. Flanged gate valves 2in minimum ID same working pressure as 'A' section. The outside valve is the
working valve during drilling operation. This valve is removed and reused after completion.
2. Tee with tapped bullplug, needle valve, and pressure gauge.
3. Flanged gate valve 2in minimum ID same working pressure as BOP stack.
4. As 3. or flanged spring-loaded type check valve 2in minimum ID same working pressure as BOP
stack.
5. Drilling spool two flanged side outlets 3in choke and 2in kill line minimum IDs.
6. Flanged hydraulically controlled gate valve 3in minimum ID same working pressure as BOP stack.
7. Flanged gate valve 3in minimum ID same working pressure as BOP stack.
Top of annular preventer must be equipped with API flange ring gasket. All flange studs must be in place or
8. holes filled in with screw type plugs.
NOTES:
Unless specified otherwise in the Bid Letter and/or Contract, the contractor will furnish and maintain all
components shown except the 'A' section and items 1 and 2, which will be furnished by the Company.
The choke line between the drilling spool and choke manifold should not contain any bend or turn in the
pipe body. Any bend or turn required should be made with a running tee with a blind flange or welded
bullplug. All connections should be flanged or welded. All fabrications requiring welding must be done by a
certified welder. Welds should be stress relieved.
WEOX02.175
6-25
March 1995
9
FLOWLINE
FILL UP
LINE
ANNULAR
BOP
BLIND RAM
OUTLET FLANGE
(USED ONLY FOR
RAM COMBINATION
STRIPPING)
UPPER PIPE RAM
KILL LINE
4
DRILLING
SPOOL
CHOKE LINE
7
CHOKE
MANIFOLD
SECTION
B
SECTION
A
1. Flanged gate valves 2in minimum ID same working pressure as 'A' section. The outside valve is the
working valve during drilling operation. This valve is removed and reused after completion.
2. Tee with tapped bullplug, needle valve, and pressure gauge.
3. Flanged gate valve 2in minimum ID same working pressure as 'B' section.
4. Flanged gate valve 2in minimum ID same working pressure as BOP stack.
5. Drilling spool two flanged side outlets 3in choke and 2in kill line minimum IDs.
6. Flanged hydraulically controlled gate valve 3in minimum ID same working pressure as BOP stack.
7. Flanged gate valve 3in minimum ID same working pressure as BOP stack.
8. Top of annular preventer must be equipped with API flange ring gasket. All flange studs must be in place or
holes filled in with screw type plugs.
9. The ID of the bell nipple must be less than the minimum ID of the BOP stack.
NOTES:
Unless specified otherwise in the Bid Letter and/or Contract, the contractor will furnish and maintain all
components shown except the 'A' and 'B' sections and items 1 and 2, which will be furnished by the Company.
The choke line between the drilling spool and choke manifold should not contain any bend or turn in the
pipe body. Any bend or turn required should be made with a running tee with a blind flange or welded
bullplug. All connections should be flanged or welded. All fabrications requiring welding must be done by a
certified welder. Welds should be stress relieved.
WEOX02.176
6-26
March 1995
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
UPPER
ANNULAR
BOP
RISER
CONNECTOR
LOWER
ANNULAR
BOP
BLIND/SHEAR RAMS
PIPE RAM No 2
PIPE RAM No 3
PIPE RAM No 4
WELLHEAD
CONNECTOR
WEOX02.177
6-27
March 1995
KILL LINE
CHOKE LINE
UPPER
ANNULAR
BOP
RISER
CONNECTOR
LOWER
ANNULAR
BOP
BLIND/SHEAR RAMS
PIPE RAM No 2
PIPE RAM No 3
PIPE RAM No 4
WELLHEAD
CONNECTOR
WEOX02.178
6-28
March 1995
Annular and ram combination stripping is possible with this stack. Ram combination
stripping is however considered impractical from a floating rig. The lowermost ram
is not used for stripping operations.
Disadvantages:
Unless variable or suitable sized pipe rams are installed initially, the stack must be
pulled and redressed before using tapered strings. Annular preventers are not to be
considered an adequate substitute for pipe rams when using tapered strings.
The requirement to have the facility to hang off on pipe ram no. 2 and shear on the
pipe body generally means that it is not possible to use a double preventer for these
two rams.
If it is not possible to shear on the pipe body when the drillstring is hung off on pipe
ram no. 2, the drillstring should be hung off on pipe ram during well control
operations. This is undesirable and reduces the flexibility of the stack.
6-29
March 1995
Wellhead Outlets
It is recommended that wellhead spool outlets are not used for a choke and kill line
tie-ins. Each wellhead spool should have dual valve isolation on one side and valve
removal plugs (VRP) should be installed on the non-active side.
Check Valves
Traditionally, a check valve has been installed outboard of the stack valves on the
kill line. Now many rigs, particularly jack-ups, have the facility to use the kill line to
augment, or replace, the choke line. In such a hook-up, check valves are omitted.
Company policy is that check valves are not mandatory on the kill line.
Choke and kill lines are generally fabricated in line with the following specifications:
All connections should be flanged, clamped or welded. Screwed fittings, unions and
chicksans should not be used on the choke lines, although minimal use is acceptable
on kill lines.
All welding should be carried out under shop conditions with machine cut weld
preparations. All welding should be conducted by certified welders to approved weld
procedures and all welds should be suitably non destructively tested and pressure
tested prior to use.
Lines, particularly the primary choke line should be installed with the minimum
number of bends. Where bends are required, targeted tees, or block tees should be
used. Swept bends are undesirable.
Choke lines should be well braced, to withstand severe vibration. Supports should
be fitted as required, but these should not be welded to the choke line.
Subsea choke and kill lines require flexible connections at the ball/flex joint, and at
the telescopic joint.
All subsea choke and kill line valves are fail safe and hydraulically actuated.
Subsea choke and kill lines are much longer. Depending on water depth, line size
and mud properties, pressure losses in the lines might be significant.
6-30
March 1995
Choke and kill lines are tied into BOP outlets, not to drilling spools or the wellhead. Generally
BOP stacks for exploration wells should have 4 ram, and 2 annular preventers. This provides
some flexibility in case a ram or element fails during a well killing operation.
On some rigs, a hydraulically actuated cement dump valve is provided on the kill line. This
valve may be used to dump cement returns, thereby avoiding long circulation times up the
riser in deep water. It can also be used to flood the riser if it becomes evacuated and in
danger of collapsing. However, the dump valve should be treated with caution. Misuse, or
inadvertent opening, could cause considerable loss of hydrostatic head in the well.
Often dump valves are considered to be unnecessary and are omitted on most rigs.
The following points should be noted regarding the major choke and kill line components:
All valves should be failsafe. Two valves are required per outlet. Valves should be
installed as close to the BOP outlets as possible, and preferably in line with the outlets.
Side-arms and valves should be well protected by the framework around the stack.
Choke and kill connections at the lower riser disconnect should be rigidly supported by
the framework, so that they will not part when full working pressure is applied
simultaneously to both lines.
The choke and kill line across the ball/flex joint should be flexible and not restrict
movement of the joint up to its maximum designed deflection.
Riser couplings and the LMRP stab plates should be designed to withstand induced
loadings when full working pressure is applied simultaneously to both lines.
The choke and kill lines across the telescopic joint should be able to accommodate the
maximum designed travel of the joint.
Lines should be installed with the minimum number of bends. Where bends are required,
targeted tees or block tees should be used. Swept bends are not desirable.
Both the choke and kill line should be tied into the choke manifold to allow one to
replace or augment the other.
6-31
March 1995
pressures are required for compatible operations with standard BOP closing units. The
choke line valve must be operable from both the main and remote closing units. As an
optional feature, hydraulically operated valves are available with stem and handle for
manual operation (to close but not open) in case of hydraulic system failure.
Although numerous companies manufacture HCVs, Cameron Iron Works and NL Shaffer
supply the majority of remotely operated choke line valves since they are initally ordered
as a component of the BOP stack. On most rigs, the hand operated gate valves used for
the choke manifold and kill line are usually the same type as the HCV.
Cameron introduced the HCR (High Closing Ratio) as the first remotely controlled valve
for choke line service. This valve has the same basic design and operational features as
a Cameron QRC preventer. The HCR valve has been used so extensively throughout the
industry that most oil field personnel refer to any make of remotely controlled valve as
the HCR. Because the HCR is limited to 5000 psi working pressure, the advent of 10,000
psi and higher working pressure BOP required additional valve development. Currently,
Camerons type F hydraulically operated gate valve is probable the most widely used
and is available with rated working pressures from 3000 psi to 15,000 psi. NL Shaffers
choke line valve is the type DB which is rated for 5000, 10,000 and 15,000 psi working
pressures. Other reputable valve manufacturers equipment may be acceptable for choke
line service; however, prior well control reliability and experience should be verified.
NL Shaffer Valve
The operating characteristics of the NL Shaffer Model CB, bi-directional sealing
valve is governed by the selection of either a short or long sea chest. The Model CB
valve with the short sea chest and a pressure-balancing tail rod will failsafe closed at
rated working pressure regardless of water depth; however, a pressure-assist hydraulic
line is required for normal closure. When equipped with a long sea chest, the valve
requires a single hydraulic line for opening, and closure is obtained by spring action
plus limited line pressure-assist. Line pressure assists the spring closing action
because the pressure balancing tail rod is 1/4 in. smaller in diameter than the stem.
The pressure-assist feature limits the long sea chest valve to a maximum 2400m
water depth for failsafe spring closure.
Rockwell Valve
The Rockwell (McEvoy) valve has unique features of a split gate, long slip fit seats
to minimise wear in the valve body, and a sealant that is injected to complete the
seal. The seal is always on the downtream side of the gate.
6-32
March 1995
Prior to a modification made in June, 1972, the valve was marginally failsafe in
440m of water; but now a modified version, Model EDU, is available that is
independent of water depth.
Cameron Valves
Cameron has three subsea valve designs: 1) the Type A valve has a solid gate for
uni-directional sealing, 2) The Type AF valve has bi-directional sealing capability
with a ported outlet in the lower body cavity to prevent liquid locking, and 3) the
type DF valve is bi-directional with a balancing stem ported to the sea and a vertical
fluid passageway on the outer surface of the gate to prevent pressure locking. Cameron
rates the Type A and the AF valves for service in water depths to 300m. The Type DF
valve is rated by Cameron for service to a water depth of 1800m.
All valves were originally designed with a dog attached to the gate to rotate the seats
a fraction of a turn when the valve was opened, which reportedly would provide
uniform seat wear. Cameron now recommends removal of the dog since its action
can induce stresses which may cause the seat to fracture if settled baryte and/or
drilled solids prevent seat rotation.
6-33
March 1995
RATING OF BOP
STACK
APPROVED FLANGES
5000 psi wp
Installations
10,000 psi wp
Installations
MAXIMUM BOLT **
STRENGTH
MINIMUM NUT
STRENGTH
API Type
RX
ASTM Grade
B-7
ASTM Grade
2-H
API Type RX or
API Type BX w
Type 6BX Flange
ASTM Grade
B-7
ASME Grade
2-H
API Type
BX
ASTM Grade
B-7
ASTM Grade
2-H
* Acceptable material for flange ring gaskets as per API Spec 6A, Wellhead Equipment.
Sweet Oil
Type 316 stainless steel preferred but Type 304 stainless steel
acceptable except for high risk H2S wells.
6-34
2000 psi wp
and 3000 psi wp
Installations
APPROVED *
RING GASKETS
March 1995
All blowout preventers, drilling spools, adapter flanges will be furnished with the specific API ring joint flange equipment listed below:
WEOX02.180
BORE
CONNECTIONS
SIDE OUTLETS
WEIGHT (lb)
(approx)
(A)
HEIGHT (in.)
(B)
SPOOL CENTRE
LINE TO
FLANGE OR
HUB FACE (in.)
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
7 1/16 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
9 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
11 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
13 5/8 in.
20 3/4 in.
20 3/4 in.
20 3/4 in.
20 3/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
21 1/4 in.
*29 1/2 in.
*29 1/2 in.
*30 in.
*30 in.
510
525
510
500
525
1025
1075
1400
700
725
710
725
950
975
1065
1290
2190
2215
1285
1310
1710
1055
1080
1755
1780
1050
1075
3325
3355
1925
1950
2590
2615
2540
2565
1850
1800
1850
1850
1825
2380
2320
2500
2450
16.50
16.50
16.50
19.75
19.75
21.12
21.12
22.38
18.12
18.12
18.12
18.12
18.62
18.62
23.38
22.38
25.12
25.12
25.12
25.12
29.75
19.38
19.38
22.38
22.38
22.38
22.38
27.75
27.75
27.75
27.75
27.12
27.12
27.12
27.12
23.38
23.38
23.38
23.38
23.38
31.75
31.75
40.00
40.00
13.25
13.25
13.50
13.50
13.50
15.18
15.18
16.44
15.00
15.00
15.25
15.25
16.50
16.50
17.25
17.25
18.62
18.62
18.62
18.62
22.50
17.25
17.25
19.00
19.00
19.00
19.00
20.88
20.88
20.88
20.88
22.52
22.52
22.52
22.52
21.75
21.75
21.75
21.75
21.75
25.25
25.00
27.52
27.52
6-35
March 1995
API high-pressure connections are pressure sealed by means of ring-joint gaskets made
of soft iron, low-carbon steel or stainless steel. API Type RX and Type BX ring-joint
gaskets are pressure-energised seals but are not interchangeable. Rings that have been
coated with Teflon, rubber or other resilient materials are not acceptable. All flanges in
the stack and side-outlets should be fitted with new ring-joint gaskets each time they
are assembled. It is important that the ring groove in the flange be clean and dry prior to
flanging up.
API Standard 6A, Wellhead Equipment, provides specifications for flanged wellhead
fittings. API Type 6B flanges are available in the following pressure ratings: 2000 psi to
5000 psi range. API Type 6BX flanges are available for the 5000 psi to 30,000 psi
range. Figure 6.16 lists specifications for BOP flanges, ring gaskets and bolts. Bolts
must always be the right size not larger and not smaller than required for the specific
bolt holes.
Hub and clamp connectors are principally used on subsea BOP stacks to reduce the
weight and height. The bolts are designed for easier make-up, especially in cramped
quarters, because the wrench movement is downward instead of horizontal.
When clamp connectors were first used there were numerous problems with the clamp
loosening during drilling operations and creating a hazard in well control situations.
This problem has been greatly reduced by the manufacturer furnishing recommended
bolt torque make-up values and the avialability of power torque wrenches on the rigs.
Cameron Iron Works clamp connections are installed on most major manufacturers
hub and clamp preventers. When a clamp connected BOP stack is used, recommended
torque requirements should be obtained from the manufacturer and all bolts should be
made up to the required torque with power wrenches.
6-36
March 1995
A bypass line to the poorboy degasser is provided in order to be able to deal with returns
in the event of failure of the buffer tank. It is recognised that the majority of choke
manifolds installed on drilling rigs comprise a buffer tank into which all the lines
downstream of the chokes are tied. Field personnel should be aware that this design
compromise seriously reduces the flexibility/redundancy of the manifold. If the buffer
tank cuts out, the manifold is in effect rendered useless. Consideration should therefore
be given to installing split buffer tanks and separate flare lines or, as previously
mentioned, a bypass line upstream of the buffer tank. All connections should be flanged,
welded, or clamped. Field welding is not acceptable.
Company policy specifies that choke manifolds should incorporate at least two variable
chokes on offshore rigs, one of which must be remotely adjustable.
On some manifolds, mandatory in some areas, an additional outlet from the buffer
chamber is provided, so that hydrocarbons can be directed via a production separator to
a flare. An inlet to facilitate the tying-in of a specialised choke manifold during formation
testing is also provided.
On wells where there is a possibility of encountering hydrogen sulphide, all equipment
and material should be suitable for sour service.
The control panel for the chokes should be near the Drillers station, and should have
read-outs for standpipe manifold pressure, choke manifold pressure and pump stroke
counters. A pressure gauge reading standpipe pressure should be located at the choke
manifold if manual chokes are used during a well kill operation. The MAASP function,
where fitted, should not be used.
A recording chart for standby pressure and choke manifold pressure, may also be
considered. This chart can be used when testing BOPs, or when handling kicks.
Under normal drilling conditions, valves on the choke line and manifold should be left
open up to the valve immediately upstream of the remotely operated choke that will be
used in the event of a kick. The valves downstream should be open to the poorboy
degasser and mud tanks. The remote adjustable choke(s) should be left closed. The
outer choke (HCR or failsafe) valve on the BOP stack should be closed during drilling.
It must be possible to record choke pressure when the well is shut-in with the choke
manifold lined up in this manner.
6-37
March 1995
BYPASS TO
POORBOY
DEGASSER
OR TRIP TANK
TO POORBOY
DEGASSER
TO MUD
PITS
2
4
2
3
PRIMARY
CHOKE
LINE
BOP
STACK
KILL OR
SECONDARY
CHOKE LINE
1
1
1
3
RESERVE PIT
(DERRICK
FLARE
OFFSHORE
RIGS)
BUFFER
CHAMBER
FROM KILL
PUMP
TO GAUGE
2
4
MANUAL CHOKE LINE
1.
2.
3.
4.
FROM DST
CHOKE MANIFOLD
DST LINE
BURNING LINE
(PRODUCTION
GAS SEPARATOR
OFFSHORE RIGS)
WEOX02.181
6-38
March 1995
SECONDARY
STANDPIPE
PRIMARY
STANDPIPE
ISOLATION VALVE
SAME RATING AS
CHOKE MANIFOLD
TO REMOTE
PRESSURE GAUGE
AUXILIARY
TIE-IN POINT
TO HOLE/FILL
LINE OR
TRIP TANK
TO CHOKE MANIFOLD
OR PRESSURE GAUGE
MUD PUMP
MUD PUMP
WEOX02.182
7 Diverters
If a kick is taken when conductor is set in incompetent formation, the well will not be
shut-in, but instead, will be diverted.
A surface diverter system, consisting of an annular preventer and vent lines, allows the flow
to be directed to a safe area, away from the rig and personnel.
Vent lines should be as large (12 in. minimum on offshore rigs) and as straight as practical,
so as to minimise back pressure, erosion and the risk of plugging by well debris. The lines
should be sufficiently braced to absorb severe shock loadings; sections likely to suffer erosion
e.g. bends, should be reinforced. There should be no restriction to the bore, any valves in
the lines should be full opening ball valves. Periodically, the lines should be flushed through
to ensure that they remain unobstructed.
To prevent the well being inadvertently shut in, any valves in the vent line should be designed
to automatically open when the diverter is closed. An acceptable alternative is to elevate the
vent line above the flowline, so that no valves are necessary.
If the BOP stack is installed, the control panels should be clearly marked that the well is not
to be closed in, but that the diverter is to be actuated.
6-39
March 1995
FLEX
JOINT
ANNULAR
BOP
21in HYDRAULIC
CONNECTOR
211/4in 2000
SHEAR RAM
OUTLET NOZZLE(S)
211/4in 2000 FSS SPOOL
BLIND FLANGE
C/K VALVE
30in LATCH
WEOX02.183
6-40
March 1995
The working pressures of the diverter and vent lines is not of prime importance (particularly
on floating rigs where the slip joint packing may be the limiting factor); 500 psi is a typical
rating.
Company policy states that subsea wells should be drilled riserless until a pressure
containment string is set. This is to avoid allowing shallow gas flow to the rig. If however it
becomes necessary to drill for surface casing with a riser, Company policy states that the
well will be diverted subsea in the event of a shallow gas flow.
The most likely stack up that will be used to divert subsea will comprise the following:
This will be a relatively inexpensive stack that will in most cases be made up mainly from
existing rig equipment. In the event of a shallow gas flow the dump valves will be opened
and the annular closed to divert subsea. In order to move the rig the LMRP can be
disconnected and the well allowed to flow at the seabed.
Various stacks have been custom made for diverting subsea in areas of high incidence of
shallow gas. An example is shown in Figure 6.20; the diverter stack comprising:
Flex joint
Annular preventer
Hydraulic connector
Blind/shear ram
Choke/kill line
Hydraulic connector
In the event of a shallow gas flow, the dump valves will be opened and the annular closed.
In order to move the rig off location the blind/shear rams can be closed and the connector
released.
6-41/42
6-41
March 1995
6.3
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Paragraph
Page
General
6-44
Power Source
6-44
Control Manifolds
6-46
Accumulators
6-47
Illustrations
6.21 Subsea Stack Function Schematic
6-45
6-48
6-50
6-51
6-43
March 1995
1 General
The Control System provides the means to individually close and open each BOP and valve,
conveniently, rapidly, repeatedly and at the correct operating pressure. The equipment should
be designed to operate when, in emergencies, primary rig power may not be available.
The essential elements of a control system are:
Power Source(s)
Control Manifolds
Accumulators
Detailed specifications for a particular application will be governed by the number, size
and pressure rating of BOPs. Water depth considerations will also influence the design of
subsea BOP control systems.
An example arrangement for subsea BOP systems is shown in Figure 6.21.
2 Power Source
(a) Primary Power Source
The primary power source should be an electrically driven pump (or pumps) located at
the main control manifold. For 3000 psi accumulator systems, the pump(s) should
incorporate a pressure switch set to cut in and out at 2800 psi and 3000 psi respectively.
Diesel driven pumps may be substituted for land rig applications.
The electric pump output should be twice that of the secondary air pumps. The combined
electric and air pumps should be sufficient to charge the accumulator system from
pre-charge to operating pressure in less than 15 minutes, also to close an annular preventer
(without accumulator assistance) in less than 2 minutes.
6-44
March 1995
DRILLERS
PANEL
DRILLERS
PANEL
MINI
PANEL
RIG POWER
120V ac
ACCUMULATORS
DRILLERS
PANEL
MINI
PANEL
ACCUMULATORS
RIG POWER
120V ac
RESERVOIR
MINI
PANEL
RIG POWER
120V ac
ACCUMULATORS
RESERVOIR
RESERVOIR
SOLENOIDS
RIG AIR
COMPRESSOR
3000psi PUMP
RIG AIR
COMPRESSOR
3000psi PUMP
KR
KR
YOUR RIG
RIG AIR
COMPRESSOR
3000psi PUMP
POD SELECTOR
AIR VALVE
YOUR RIG
KR
YOUR RIG
PILOT
REGULATOR
POD MOUNTED
REGULATOR
POD
SELECTOR
SPM
VALVE
KR
KR
KR
REDUNDANT POD
REDUNDANT POD
REDUNDANT POD
MALE POD
CONNECTOR
FEMALE POD
CONNECTORS
POD
LATCH
SHUTTLE
VALVE
RAM PREVENTER
CLOSING LINE
BOP
RAM PREVENTER
OPENING LINE
WELLHEAD
RAMS CLOSED
BLOCK POSITION
(RAMS CLOSED, NO PRESSURE)
3000psi Accumulator Fluid Pressure
Vent/or No Pressure
RAMS OPENED
WEOX02.184
3 Control Manifolds
The BOP control systems should ideally be equipped with 3 control manifolds or panels.
Tie-in points for accumulators, charge pumps, remote panels, and air lines.
A vent line for bleeding off accumulator fluid to the storage tank.
Controls for each BOP stack function and to adjust the manifold regulators.
Read-outs for the accumulator pressure, regulated manifold and annular pressures
and flowmeter.
A schematic of the BOP arrangement showing kill and choke line outlets, and having
ram sizes marked.
6-46
March 1995
Visual and/or audible warning devices for low accumulator pressure, air pressure, or
fluid levels.
A schematic of the BOP arrangement showing kill and choke line outlets and having
ram sizes marked.
Visual and/or audible warning devices for low accumulator pressure, air pressure or
fluid levels.
4 Accumulators
The hydraulic fluid required to operate the BOP functions is stored in accumulators,
pressurised against a nitrogen inflated bladder. The accumulators should be located near the
main control manifold location.
The purpose of the accumulators is to provide a store of hydraulic energy and a high rate
supply of hydraulic fluid to the BOP functions. The response time of the BOP functions is
therefore independent of the output of the pumps.
For subsea installations, at least two accumulators should be isolated from the main bank to
provide pilot line pressure. Also, to ensure acceptable response times, additional accumulators
should be mounted on the BOP stack.
Accumulator bottles should be used as surge dampeners on annular preventers for stripping
operations on both surface and subsea BOP stacks.
(a) Accumulator/Precharge
Operating pressure of accumulators is generally 3000 psi. The optimum bladder inflation,
or precharge pressure, is governed by the minimum acceptable pressure remaining in
the accumulators after operation of the preventers. About 1200 psi is required to hold
some annular preventers closed. A precharge of 1000 psi will retain a small liquid reserve
in the accumulator when pressure in the system falls to 1200 psi.
6-47
March 1995
The following is an example of the technique that can be used to size accumulators for
a surface stack (comprising one Hydril GL 18 3/4 in. 5M annular and 3 Hydril 18 3/4 in.
10M ram preventers):
Volume to close:
1 Annular
1 Ram
1 HCR valve
= 44 gal
= 17.1 gal
= 0.6 gal
ANNULAR PREVENTERS
GALLONS OF FLUID REQUIRED TO OPERATE AN OPEN HOLE
NL Shaffer
Hydril
Size and
Working Pressure
GL
GK
Inches
psi
Close
Open
6
6
7 1/16
8
8
10
10
11
11
12
13 5/8
13 5/8
13 5/8
16
16
16 3/4
16 3/4
16 3/4
18
18 3/4
20
20
20
21 1/4
30
30
3,000
5,000
10,000
3,000
5,000
3,000
5,000
5,000
10,000
3,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
2,000
3,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
2,000
5,000
2,000
3,000
5,000
5,000
1,000
2,000
2.9
3.9
9.4
4.4
6.8
7.5
9.8
Close
Open
Close
Open
2.2
3.3
4.6
4.6
3.2
3.2
3.0
5.8
5.6
8.0
7.2
11.1
11.0
18.7
5.0
8.7
6.8
14.6
25.1
11.4
9.8
23.5
14.7
18.0
34.5
17.5
21.0
14.2
24.3
12.6
14.8
19.8
19.8
8.2
23.6
47.2
17.4
37.6
28.7
19.9
33.8
33.8
17.3
33.0
25.6
21.1
14.4
44.0
44.0
20.0
48.2
32.6
37.6
17.0
58.0
58.0
29.5
61.4
47.8
6-48
March 1995
Spherical
Balancing
March 1995
psi
4 1/16
6
6
7 1/16
7 1/16
8
8
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
13 5/8
13 5/8
13 5/8
13 5/8
13 5/8
13 5/8
13 5/8
16
16 3/4
16 3/4
16 3/4
16 3/4
18
18 3/4
20
20
20
20
21 1/4
21 1/4
21 1/4
21 1/4
21 1/4
21 1/4
26 3/4
26 3/4
10,000
3,000
5,000
10,000
15,000
3,000
5,000
3,000
5,000
5,000
10,000
10,000
15,000
3,000
3,000
3,000
5,000
5,000
10,000
10,000
15,000
2,000
3,000
5,000
5,000
10,000
2,000
10,000
2,000
2,000
3,000
3,000
2,000
2,000
7,000
7,500
10,000
10,000
2,000
3,000
QRC
U
Close
Open
Close
Open
1.22
1.22
1.22
1.22
1.17
1.17
1.17
1.17
0.81
0.81
0.95
0.95
3.31
3.31
4.23
3.31
4.23
5.54
5.54
3.16
3.16
4.03(S)
3.16
4.03(S)
5.42
5.20
5.54
6.78
5.54
6.78
11.70
5.42
6.36(S)
5.42
6.36(S)
11.29
10.16
10.16
12.03
12.03
9.45
9.45
11.19(S)
11.19
2.36
2.36
2.77
2.77
4.42
6.00
6.00
24.88
8.11
23.00
7.61
8.11
9.35
8.11
9.35
20.41
23.19
26.54
30.15
10.50
10.50
7.61
8.77(S)
7.61
8.77(S)
17.78
20.20(S)
21.14
27.42(S)
9.84
9.84
Cylinder
Size
LWS
2.70
2.70
3.18
3.18
5.10
Close
Open
Inches
0.59
0.52
1.19
6.35
6.35
2.58
2.58
1.74
2.98
0.99
5.89
5.89
2.27
2.27
1.45
2.62
6
6.5
6.5
14
14
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.5
8.23
7.00
5.50
4.50
7.05
Hydril
SL
Close
E
Open
Manual (a)
Close
Open
2.75
2.75
2.3
2.3
2.75
2.75
3.25
3.25
Close
Open
1.9
3.7
1.8
3.4
5.2
5.2
5.4
11.5
5.4
11.5
11.8
11.8
4.9
11.2(S)
4.9
11.2(S)
11.8
11.8(S)
Auto (a)
Close
Open
12.0
5.9
12.0
12.9
12.9
5.9
4.9
11.2(S)
4.9
11.2(S)
11.8
11.8(S)
2.3
2.3
2.7
2.7
10
14
14
8.5
10
9.45
9.40
7.00
8.10
5.44
4.46
10
14
14
5.44
11.00
9.45
4.46
10.52
7.00
14
8.5
11.56
10.52
10
14
14
6.07
11.76
14.47
4.97
10.67
12.50
15.6
14.1
14.55
13.21
17.1
15.6
3.55
2.9
3.55
2.9
3.65
3.0
7.05
5.07
7.80
5.07
16.88
4.46
6.68
4.46
15.35
14
8.5
10
8.5
14
14.42
16.05
12.65
13.86(P)
14
14
6-49
Inches
NL Shaffer
Cameron
Size and
Working Pressure
RAM PREVENTERS
GALLONS OF FLUID REQUIRED TO OPERATE ONE SET
Therefore:
P1 = 1000 + 15 = 1015 psi
P2 = 1200 + 15 = 1215 psi
P3 = 3000 + 15 = 3015 psi
Z1 = 1.00
Z3 = 1.06
Z3 = 1.06
T = 80F
V1 = 10 gal (11 gal bottle minus
1 gal bladder
replacement)
P1
P2
P3
V1
V2
V3
Z
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1215 X V2
1.02
3015 X V3
1.06
V2 = 8.52 gal
V3 = 3.57 gal
The useable volume per bottle is given by:
V2 V3 = 8.52 3.57 = 4.95 gal/bottle
Therefore there is a requirement for:
92.55
4.95
= 19 bottles
Response Improvement
With increasing water depths, the speed with which subsea preventers may be operated
decreases. This is caused by expansion of the fluid supply hoses and pressure losses
in the lines. (Note that response time will be a function of the hose length and not
water depth). Response times can be improved by mounting accumulators directly
on the BOP stack.
Space and weight constraints will limit the number of accumulators which can be
stack-mounted.
6-50
March 1995
2.2
0F
2.1
2.0
100F
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
1.9
200F
1.8
300F
1.7
400F
500F
1.6
600F
700F
800F
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
PRESSURE
POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH ABSOLUTE
16000
18000
WEOX02.187
Emergency Use
All floating rigs are generally equipped with an acoustic back-up control system.
For dynamically positioned rigs and rigs to be used in hazardous (e.g. ice flow)
areas this is essential equipment. In such installations, stack-mounted accumulators
should be at least capable of closing one set of rams, one annular preventer and
releasing the riser disconnect upon receipt of a command from the acoustic system.
The accumulators should be manifolded at the stack, so that fluid is not lost should
the supply lines from the rig be severed. The acoustic system and accumulator system
should be tailored to the stack configuration.
For subsea stacks, a tie in should be provided for diver or ROV assistance. This will
ideally be for shear ram activation and will also include LMRP disconnect and
wellhead connector disconnect.
6-51
March 1995
Surge Dampening
Surge vessels should be provided for subsea annular preventers to facilitate stripping,
according to manufacturers recommendations. Some preventers require surge vessels
on the opening as well as closing sides. Nominal 10 gal capacity accumulators should
be used.
44 gal
17.1 gal
2.4 gal (See Figures 6.22 and 6.23)
=
=
=
=
1000
1747
1200
3000
6-52
March 1995
T1 = 80F
T2 = 40F
T3 = 40F
= constant (T in R)
So in this case:
1747 X 10
1.01 X 540
1947 X V2
1.02 X 500
3747 X V3
1.06 X 500
V2 = 8.23 gal
V3 = 4.66 gal
The useable volume per bottle is given by:
V2 V3 = 8.23 4.66 = 3.57 gal/bottle
Therefore there is a requirement for:
63.5
3.57
= 18 bottles
Company policy (after API RP53) recommends that the system ensures ram and
small annular preventers (less than 20 in.) close within 30 seconds and larger annular
preventers within 45 seconds.
Control lines should be seamless steel tubing of 1 in. minimum nominal size and
ofa pressure rating at least equal to the working pressure of the control system
(usually 3000 psi).
Unions and swivels should be used in the BOP stack area to preclude stressing of
thelines.
BOP closing and opening lines should be routed so as to minimise the risk of damage
in the event of a fire or falling debris. Flammable hoses should not be used on surface
installations.
A simple hook-up is impractical for subsea applications too many individual lines to be
handled easily and the pressure drop through the length of line would be too great for
acceptable reaction times. Instead, hose bundles are employed, which contain one high
capacity (1 in.) conduit (to transfer the hydraulic fluid required to operate all functions and
recharge the subsea accumulators) and up to 64 pilot (3/16 in.) lines (to direct and control
the flow of fluid to a particular function). The bulk line is teed with the subsea accumulators
and terminates at a regulator which reduces the accumulator pressure to operating pressure.
The output of the regulator is manifolded to the pilot valves. The pilot lines terminate in
function dedicated pilot (SPM) valves which respond to accumulator pressure when a function
is selected. Each then allows regulated fluid to flow, via a shuttle valve, to a particular
function. The displaced fluid from the opposite function is vented at its pilot valve.
6-53
March 1995
The pilot valves and regulators are housed in a wireline retrievable pod, which is
duplicated to provide complete redundancy. A shuttle valve located at each function
allows control by either pod.
When considering a subsea system, the following should be noted:
Company policy (after API RP53) recommends that the systems ensure ram preventers
close within 45 seconds and annular preventers within 60 seconds of surface actuation.
Electro-hydraulic systems will be required where water depths preclude satisfactory
closing times with all hydraulic systems.
Systems should be duplicated in all hydraulic and electric lines from the main control
panel to the BOP stack functions, i.e. there should be 100% redundancy. The Drillers
panel and the remote panel should be designed to select and operate either system.
Dynamically positioned vessels and rigs operating in hazardous areas should have
an acoustic back-up system to secure the well and release the riser.
Any unused functions (such as when the low pressure stack in a two stack system is
run) should be blanked off to ensure that fluid is not vented by inadvertent operation
of that function.
6-54
March 1995
6.4
ASSOCIATED EQUIPMENT
Paragraph
Page
6-56
6-57
Drillstring Valves
6-60
Rotating Heads
6-62
Illustrations
6.25 Typical Trip Tank Hook-up on a floating rig
6-57
6-59
6-63
6-55
March 1995
A float for the PVT system. It should be possible to isolate other floats when the trip
tank is in use.
A remote ladder-type scale, visible from the Drillers station for the trip tank. A
small wireline can be used to connect a float in the tank to the scale on the rig floor.
6-56
March 1995
TRIP TANK
LEVEL
INDICATOR
REMOTE
CONTROL VALVE
RIG FLOOR
OVERBOARD
ROTARY TABLE
DIVERTER
RETURNS TO
SHAKERS
HOLE FILL
UP LINE
FLOWLINE
TELESCOPIC
JOINT
FROM
MISSION PUMPS
RISER
CHECK
VALVE
DRAIN
TRIP TANK PUMP
WEOX02.188
6-57
March 1995
Basically, there are two types of mud gas separators: Atmospheric and Pressurised. The
atmospheric type separator is standard equipment on virtually all rigs and is referred to in
the field as a gas buster or poorboy separator. The main advantage of this type of separator
is its operational simplicity which does not require control valves on either the gas or mud
discharge lines. A pressurised mud gas separator is designed to operate with moderate back
pressure, generally 50 psi or less. Pressurised separators are utilised to overcome line pressure
losses when an excessive length of vent line is required to safely flare and burn the hazardous
gas an extended distance from the rig. The pressurised separator is considered special rig
equipment and is not usually provided by the contractor. This type of separator is installed
on rigs drilling in high risk H2S areas and for drilling underbalanced in areas where high
pressure, low volume gas continually feeds into the circulating fluid.
During well control operations, the main purpose of a mud gas separator is to vent the gas
and save the drilling fluid. This is important not only for economic reasons, but also to
minimise the risk of circulating out a gas kick without having to shut down to mix additional
mud volume. In some situations the amount of mud lost can be critical when surface volume
is marginal and on-site mud supplies are limited. When a gas kick is properly shut in and
circulated out, the mud gas separator should be capable of salvaging most of the mud.
There are a number of design features which affect the volume of gas and fluid that the
separator can safely handle. For production operations, gas oil separators can be sized and
internally designed to efficiently separate gas from the fluid. This is possible because the
fluid and gas characteristics are known and design flow rates can be readily established. It
is apparent that gas busters for drilling rigs cannot be designed on the same basis since the
properties of circulated fluids from gas kicks are unpredictable and a wide range of mixing
conditions occur downhole. In addition, mud rheological properties vary widely and have a
strong effect on gas environment. For both practical and cost reasons, rig mud gas separators
are not designed for maximum possible gas release rates which might be needed; however,
they should handle most kicks when recommended shut-in procedures and well control
practices are followed. When gas flow rates exceed the separator capacity, the flow must be
bypassed around the separator directly to the flare line. This will prevent the hazardous
situation of blowing the liquid from the bottom of the separator and discharging gas into the
mud system.
Figure 6.26 illustrates the basic design features for atmospheric mud gas separators. Since
most drilling contractors have their own separator design, the Drilling Foreman must analyse
and compare the contractors equipment with the recommended design to ensure the essential
requirements are met.
The atmospheric type separator operates on the gravity or hydrostatic pressure principle.
The essential design features are:
A target plate to minimise erosion where inlet mud gas mixture contacts the internal
wall of the separator, which provides a method of inspecting plate wear.
6-58
March 1995
GAS OUTLET
8in ID MINIMUM
GAS BACK PRESSURE
REGISTERED AT
THIS GAUGE
(Typically 0 to 20psi)
STEEL TARGET
PLATE
INLET
INSPECTION
COVER
SECTION A-A
TANGENTIAL INLET
30in OD
A
4in ID INLET-TANGENTIAL TO SHELL
FROM CHOKE MANIFOLD
BRACE
10ft MINIMUM
HEIGHT
INSPECTION
COVER
HALF CIRCLE
BAFFLES ARRANGED
IN A 'SPIRAL'
CONFIGURATION
TO SHAKER HEADER
TANK
MAXIMUM HEAD AVAILABLE
DEVELOPED BY THIS
HEIGHT OF FLUID
eg: 10ft HEAD AT 1.5 SG
GIVES 6.5psi MAXIMUM CAPACITY
10ft APPROX
8in NOMINAL
'U' TUBE
4in CLEAN-OUT
PLUG
Figure 6.26
2in DRAIN
OR FLUSH LINE
WEOX02.189
The height and diameter of an atmospheric separator are critical dimensions which affect
the volume of gas and fluid the separator can efficiently handle. As the mud and gas mixture
enters the separator, the operating pressure is atmospheric plus pressure due to friction in
the gas vent line. The vertical distance from the inlet to the static fluid level allows time for
additional gas breakout and provides an allowance for the fluid to rise somewhat during
operation to overcome friction loss in the mud outlet lines. As shown on Figure 6.26, the
gas-fluid inlet should be located approximately at the midpoint of the vertical height. This
provides the top half for a gas chamber and the bottom half for gas separation and fluid
retention. The 30 in. diameter and 16 ft minimum vessel height requirements have proven
adequate to handle the majority of gas kicks. The separator inlet should have at least the
same ID as the largest line from the choke manifold, which is usually 4 in. Some separators
use tangential inlet, which creates a small centrifugal effect on the gas-fluid mixture and
causes faster gas breakout.
6-59
March 1995
The baffle system causes the mud to flow in thin sheets which assists the separation process.
There are numerous arrangements and shapes of baffles used. It is important that each plate
be securely welded to the body of the separator with angle braces.
A 6 in. minimum ID gas outlet is recommended to allow a large volume of low pressure gas
to be released from the separator with minimum restriction. Care should be taken to ensure
minimum back pressure in the vent line. On most offshore rigs, the vent line is extended
straight up and supported to a derrick leg. The ideal line would be restricted to 30 ft in
length and the top of the line should be bent outward about 30 degrees to direct gas flow
away from the rig floor. If it is intended that the gas be flared, flame arresters should be
installed at the discharge end of the vent line.
As previously mentioned, when the gas pressures in the separator exceeds the hydrostatic
head of the mud in the U-tube, the fluid seal in the bottom is lost and gas starts flowing into
the mud system. The mud outlet downstream of the U-tube should be designed to maintain a
minimum vessel fluid level of approximately 3 1/2 ft in a 16ft high separator. Assuming a
1.44 SG mud and total U-tube height of 6 ft, the fluid seal would have a hydrostatic pressure
equal to 3.7 psi. This points out the importance for providing a large diameter gas vent line
with the fewest possible turns to minimise line frictional losses.
The mud outlet line must be designed to handle viscous, contaminated mud returns. As
shown in Figure 6.26, an 8 in. line is recommended to minimise frictional losses. This line
usually discharges into the mud ditch in order that good mud can be directed over the shakers
and untreatable mud routed to the waste pit.
In recent years, there have been a number of serious accidents caused by the failure of mud
gas separators during well control situations. Primarily these have resulted from drilling
contractors not updating their separator design and personnel training standards to handle
high pressure gas kicks for deeper drilling operations. It is important that drilling personnel
understand the limitations of all well control equipment and are trained to take remedial
action before pressure or capacity limitations occur. The key initial decision that must be
made is the pump rate at which the kick will be circulated out. Large influx, high pressure
gas kicks should always be pumped out at low rates (generally 1 bbl/minute or less) to
minimise the gas release rate at the surface where rapid gas expansion occurs. Circulating
out at a slow rate reduces the risk of exceeding pressure limitations for the well control
equipment and provides additional decision reaction time.
3 Drillstring Valves
Drillpipe valves are used to close in the well on the drillpipe bore and to protect surface
equipment. The valves may be permanently in place, or installed at surface when required
and may be of a manual shut-off or automatic check valve type.
Drillstring valves should be rated to the same pressure as the BOP and tested at the same
frequency.
Some of the drillstring valves impose restrictions on future operations when installed. For
example, both the inside BOP and drop-in valve, when in place, prevent access below them
to the drillstring bore.
6-60
March 1995
The valve can be flapper or plunger type with facility to lock open whilst running
inhole.
The valve requires regular inspection to check for damage, due to fluid erosion,
whilst downhole.
The valve will prevent U-tubing, that may be required to free differentially stuck
pipe. It should not be used whilst drilling highly overbalanced permeable sections
without due consideration.
Use of the valve may make reading of drillpipe pressures difficult when a kick has
been taken, especially when handling gas migration.
If a ported float is used when drilling from a floating rig, it will be necessary to
install a further valve in the string when hanging off in the BOP stack.
The valve will have limited ID which may plug, preventing further circulation and
continuation of control procedures.
When in place, prevents access to the drillstring bore below it, but may be retrieved
by wireline with some designs.
The valve is not subject to erosion prior to use, as would be the case with a
permanently installed flapper valve, as it can be held on surface until required.
6-61
March 1995
All the items in the drillstring above the landing sub must have sufficient ID to
allow the check valve to pass. This includes kelly cocks, mud savers etc.
4 Rotating Heads
When used, rotating heads are installed above the BOP stack. They provide a seal on the
kelly or drillpipe. A drive unit, attached to the kelly, locates in a bearing assembly above the
stripper rubber.
Some applications for rotating heads are:
Drilling with air or gas, to divert the returns through a Blooey line.
To keep gas away from the rotary table. This is especially important where Hydrogen
Sulphide can be expected.
Realistic working pressures for rotating heads are 500 to 700 psi. It is recommended that
they are not installed for routine gas cap drilling (unless sour gas is expected) since their use
precludes observation from the rig floor of annulus fluid level.
Figure 6.27 shows a schedule of the Grant Rotating Head.
6-62
March 1995
KELLY BUSHING
SWING-BOLT
CLAMP ASSEMBLY
DRIVE BUSHING
ASSEMBLY
SHOCK PAD
BOWL
STRIPPER RUBBER
OUTLET FLANGE
INLET FLANGE
WEOX02.190
6-63/64
6-63
March 1995
6.5
EQUIPMENT TESTING
Paragraph
Page
General
6-66
6-66
6-67
Test Frequency
6-71
6-71
Illustrations
6.28 Choke Manifold Schematic
6-68
6-69
6-70
6-72
6-65
March 1995
1 General
The consequences of a failure of BOP equipment under operating conditions can be far
reaching. Rigorous BOP testing procedures are required in order that problems may be
identified under test conditions, and rectified before an emergency arises.
Equipment should be tested at the time of installation on the wellhead and at regular intervals
thereafter, in accordance with Company standard policies and guidelines (unless contradicted
by local policies). Common causes of failure include:
Casing wear.
The recommended procedures in this section cover BOP stack installations at surface
andsubsea.
6-66
March 1995
After latching a subsea stack, a tensile test should be applied to ensure connectors are
properly latched before any pressure testing. A pressure test should be carried out to the
pressure rating of the wellhead or connector, on initial installation of the stack; thereafter,
the connector will be tested during BOP tests to the pressure that the BOPs will be
tested to. Also, the control system should be function tested on both pods.
6-67
March 1995
Gauge
Transmitter
2in 2202
Weco Female
18
31
32
30
19
26
13
From Mud
Manifold
33
From Kill
Pump B
Gauge
Transmitter
27
23
20
14
Choke
Line
2
28
24
21
15
10
7
From Kill
Pump A
Auto
Choke
Manual
Choke
29
25
Kill Line
Auto
Choke
Manual
Choke
16
11
17
12
2in 1502
Weco Female
35
34
To
Production
Test Facility
36
22
To
Mud Gas
Separator
To
Drain
To
Diverter
Overboard
From
Cement
Pump
WEOX02.191
The test pressures used for each test are determined to be in line with Company policy
for pressure testing of well control equipment.
On landing the BOP, only one full working pressure test need be made against one pipe
ram. This is to confirm the integrity of the wellhead connector.
All subsea pressure tests will be conducted using openbore test tools.
6-68
March 1995
All tests will be carried out using a suitable test plug with only the specified
drillcollarweight below; i.e. test plugs will not be run on top of a bottomhole assembly
except when testing the blind/shear rams agains a backed-off test plug, if tested on a
separate run.
When pressure testing blind/shear rams against casing consideration should be given to
pressure differential that already exists due to any difference in the weight of the mud
inside and outside of the casing.
When testing blind/shear rams against a backed-off test plug, monitor volumes
pumpedclosely .
TEST
2, 30
2, 30
3, 6, 11, 13
1, 7, 8, 26, 28
6-69
March 1995
KILL
CHOKE
KILL
CHOKE
KILL
UPPER
ANNULAR
LOWER
ANNULAR
TEST
VALVE
TEST
VALVE
TEST
VALVE
TEST
VALVE
LOWER
ANNULAR
TEST
VALVE
LMRP
CONNECTOR
LMRP
CONNECTOR
LMRP
CONNECTOR
BLIND SHEAR
RAM
BLIND SHEAR
RAM
BLIND SHEAR
RAM
UPPER
PIPE
UPPER
PIPE
MIDDLE
PIPE
MIDDLE
PIPE
MIDDLE
PIPE
LOWER
PIPE
LOWER
PIPE
LOWER
PIPE
CONNECTOR
CONNECTOR
CONNECTOR
KILL
CHOKE
KILL
UPPER
ANNULAR
TEST
VALVE
CHOKE
UPPER
ANNULAR
LOWER
ANNULAR
CHOKE
KILL
UPPER
ANNULAR
TEST
VALVE
TEST
VALVE
LOWER
ANNULAR
CHOKE
UPPER
ANNULAR
TEST
VALVE
TEST
VALVE
LOWER
ANNULAR
LMRP
CONNECTOR
LMRP
CONNECTOR
LMRP
CONNECTOR
BLIND SHEAR
RAM
BLIND SHEAR
RAM
BLIND SHEAR
RAM
UPPER
PIPE
UPPER
PIPE
MIDDLE
PIPE
TEST
VALVE
TEST
VALVE
MIDDLE
PIPE
LOWER
PIPE
LOWER
PIPE
CONNECTOR
CONNECTOR
CONNECTOR
WEOX02.193
6-70
March 1995
4 Test Frequency
Pressure testing of BOP equipment should be carried out according to Company policy,
however in general:
After installation of the wellhead component and BOP stack and prior to drilling out
each casing string.
Results of pressure tests should be recorded on IADC reports, and on the BOP test form. An
example of a typical BOP test form is presented as Figure 6.31.
The following additional points should be considered:
Annular and ram (pipe) preventers should be operated on each trip into the hole with
the bit at the shoe (perhaps as part of a kick drill).
Blind (but not blind/shear) rams should be operated each time the bit is out of the hole.
Choke line pressure should be monitored before re-opening the rams.
Choke and kill valves should be operated daily, and lines pumped through.
Initial Test
Normally, the casing should be tested to prove the strings integrity when bumping the
top plug, following cementing. Applied test pressure should be the maximum wellhead
pressure anticipated before the next casing string is set (i.e. casing design pressure).
However, if the additional tensile loading caused by the pressure test risks parting the
string, the plug should be bumped with a nominal pressure and the full test pressure
applied after the string has gained support from the cement prior to drilling out the shoe
track.
Subsequent Tests
Where significant casing wear is possible, a ditch magnet should be installed to monitor
metal returns. If severe casing wear is suspected, actual wear should be measured by wireline
calliper tools and then the casing tested to the minimum acceptable pressure.
6-71
March 1995
BOP STACK
PRESSURE TEST
Unit
Type Size WP
Pressure applied
Remaining Pressure
Test Duration
Annular
Annular
Blind Shear Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
UL Choke Line
CL Inner Valve
CL Outer Valve
UL Kill Line
KL Inner Valve
KL Outer Valve
Remote Kill Line
Diverter
CASING
PRESSURE TEST
Casing in hole:
Pressure Applied
Pressure Remaining
Test Duration
Mud Weight:
3
CHOKE MANIFOLD
PRESSURE TEST
CHARGE PUMPS
Packer Depth:
Pressure Applied:
YES NO
All valves tested
Pressure applied
Accumulator pressure:
Manifold pressure:
Filters checked
U Annular pressure:
L Annular pressure:
ACCUMULATOR
PERFORMANCE
CHECK
YES NO
Test Duration:
YES NO
Time to
Close
Volume
Pressure
Initial
Final
Accumulators only
Time to
Close
Volume
Pressure
Initial
Final
Annular
Annular
Blind Shear Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
Pipe Ram
CL Inner Valve
CL Outer Valve
KL Inner Valve
KL Outer Valve
6
EQUIPMENT
CHECK TEST
Are the following items on the rig, in good operating condition and pressure tested?
YES NO
YES NO
YES NO
Circulating head
Trip tank
DP Safety Valve
Hang-off tool
Gas buster
Inside BOP
De-gasser
Gas detector
FAULTY
EQUIPMENT
Mention here leaks experienced in testing parts used, faulty or missing equipment and remedial action
SIGNATURES
Driller:
Toolpusher:
6-72
March 1995