BENDING STIFFNESS OF PAPER AND PAPERBOARD

Introduction
A force applied parallel to the axis of a paper strip is called a tensile
force; it elongates the strip. A force applied perpendicular to the plane of
the strip is called a bending force; it bends the strip, see Figure 1.

The

bending stiffness of paper and paperboard characterizes the resistance of

the material to such a bending force.

Accordingly, to measure bending

stiffness one typically subjects a strip of the material to a known bending

force and observes the resulting bending deformation.

In Figure 1, the

applied bending force produces a displacement of the strip's upper edge.

With a given bending force, a paper of low bending stiffness will have large
, and a paper of high bending stiffness a small .
The paper strip in Figure 2 bends under its own weight, an alternative
arrangement that can also be used to estimate the bending stiffness. Many
different instruments have been devised to measure the bending stiffness of
paper and paperboard. We will encounter two additional schemes for
measuring bending stiffness further below.

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The two instruments probably most widely used in determining the

bending stiffness of paper and paperboard are introduced here: the Taber
bending stiffness tester and the Lhomargy bending stiffness tester. As we
will see, these two instruments evaluate bending stiffness in completely
different ways.

They differ not only with respect to the measurement

scheme employed, but also in the actual quantity measured. Details follow
farther below under Tests.
Significance
Long ago, scientists have discovered that the best measure of bending
stiffness of a material is a quantity generally called flexural rigidity. It has
a sound physical basis and is related to more fundamental quantities as
follows:

where b is the width (breadth) of a paper strip, E is Youngs modulus of the

paper, and t is the caliper. A closely related quantity is the specific flexural
rigidity, given by

12

It is the flexural rigidity per unit width. As we shall see below, the Lhomargy
bending stiffness tester directly measures the specific flexural rigidity of a
sample.
Notice that caliper has a very strong effect on bending stiffness,
entering both equations (1) and (2) as t 3. Doubling the caliper means an
eightfold increase in bending stiffness. This is the main reason why thick
paperboard is so much stiffer than paper.
Papers of the same thickness are stiffer when made from highly
beaten stock than when made from lightly beaten stock. This is because
paper from highly beaten stock has higher density and therefore greater
Young's modulus E. It is this increase in E that according to equations (1)
and (2) makes for stiffer paper.
Pulps high in hemicellulose content make stiffer paper because they
have higher E. For the same reason, the addition of starch, sodium silicate,
and other dry-strength agents increases bending stiffness.

Fillers and

loading materials, on the other hand, generally decrease bending stiffness

because they lower E.
Increased moisture content also lowers bending stiffness because it
lowers E.
The addition of groundwood to a chemical pulp is very effective in
raising the bending stiffness of papers of a given basis weight. Although E
generally drops, tending to lower the bending stiffness, this effect is
overcompensated by an increase in bulk and therefore thickness.
Stiffness is the most important property in folding box boards since
the utility of the box depends upon its resistance to bulging when filled.
13

This property is also important in index bristols, typing papers, and playing
cards, where the paper must stand upright during use. A certain amount of
stiffness is desirable in bond papers where it is a factor in the handle or feel
of the paper.

Stiffness is one of the most significant properties of liner

board. The higher the stiffness the more rigid is the container made from
the board, and the greater the resistance of the container to loading or
crushing forces.
Stiffness is undesirable in some papers such as tissues, toweling, and
labels. Plasticizers are added to glassine to lower the stiffness while other
papers are often pebbled or embossed to reduce the stiffness.

Tests
First Method: Taber Stiffness Test
The Taber instrument allows one to determine only an empirical
measure of bending stiffness; it does not measure flexural rigidity.

It is

particularly useful with paperboard.

To see clearly what is being measured by the instrument, we focus
attention on the paper specimen and ignore most of the mechanical parts of
the apparatus. At the left of Figure 3 is shown how the sample is clamped.
The top clamp, fixed to the pendulum of the instrument and rotatable
around the point where the paper exits the clamp, grips the specimen firmly.
The bottom clamp consists of two rollers that must not grip the sample but
be left slightly open to permit free slippage. In a test, the sample is forced
to bend by rotating the upper clamp 15 o with respect to the straight line
connecting the two clamps; this is shown on the right of Figure 3. The roller
clamp will exert an unknown load P on the sample.
bending moment that varies along the paper strip.

This load causes a

The quantity actually

measured in the test is the bending moment at the center of rotation of the
upper clamp. This bending moment is measured under an arbitrary
14

set of conditions and in this sense represents an empirical measure of

bending stiffness.

(It is possible although fairly difficult to calculate the

specific flexural rigidity from the measured Taber stiffness and vice versa.)
Test Specimens: Cut at least five test specimens free from scores or
blemishes 1.50 in wide by 2.75 in long, parallel to, and at right angles to,
the machine direction.

The 1.5 in width is critical and should be cut

precisely; the length is not critical.

Method of Test:
1.

Description of the Taber instrument and definition of terms

1.1.

The instrument rests on three stand rods of adjustable length.

1.2.

Notice the large stationary disk with the circular scale of stiffness
units.

The zero point of the scale is at the top, and two identical

scales, one to the left and one to the right, range up to 100.
15

1.3.

The rotatable driving disk is concentrically mounted in front of the

stationary disk. Notice the degree deflection marks at the top of the
driving disk, corresponding to 0o, 7.5o, and 15o deflection.

1.4.

The operating switch is the long, black plastic switch located below
the two disks and pointing downward. When you push the operating
switch to the left side, the driving disk rotates counterclockwise; when
you push the operating switch to the right side, the driving disk
rotates clockwise.

Notice that the driving disk stops moving

immediately you release the operating switch.

1.5.

The pendulum is mounted in front of the driving disk. The pendulum

rotates on a low-friction bearing that is located in the center of the
driving disk. Notice the upper stud, the lower stud, and the upper
specimen clamp, all fixed to the pendulum.

Also notice the

pendulum mark, a fine line etched into the upper end of the
pendulum.
1.6.

The roller clamp is mounted on the driving disk and functions as the
lower specimen clamp.

The roller clamp consists of two roller

units that can be independently pulled off the driving disk. If you pull
a roller unit towards you, it will slide out, and you can observe that it is
held by a stud on the driving disk. In addition, each of the roller units
has a projecting pin at the rear. This pin fits into the hole below the
large studs on the driving disk.
1.7.

When you pull both roller units off the driving disk, you will notice
that they are different in that only one of the two bears the sliding
bottom gauge.

1.8.

To enable the sliding bottom gauge to slide freely up and down past
the roller, turn the adjustment knob fully clockwise. When you now
turn the roller unit upside down, the sliding bottom gauge will indeed
slide past the roller. Under no circumstances should the sliding bottom
gauge be bent out of the way of the roller by brute force!
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1.9.

Testing under standard conditions means that the roller unit with
the sliding bot-tom gauge is mounted on the right (rollers down);
the effective sample length between clamps is then 5 cm.

1.10. Testing under sensitive conditions means that the roller unit with
the sliding bottom gauge is mounted on the left (rollers up); the
effective sample length between clamps is then 1 cm.
1.11. Find the small grey container usually kept near the instrument.

It

contains two types of special weights. First, there is a series of range

weights inscribed 500 units, 1000 units, 2000 units, 3000
units, and 5000 units, respectively.

These range weights are

attached to the lower stud on the pendulum to extend the range of

the instrument so that relatively stiff paper and board can be tested.
When using these range weights, the rollers must be mounted
downward for standard testing conditions (see 1.9.).
1.12. Second, the small grey box contains the ten-unit compensator; it is
attached to the upper stud on the pendulum to extend the range of
the instrument so that relatively limp paper can be tested. The tenunit compensator is used only with the roller units mounted upward
for

sensitive

conditions

(see

1.10.).

Never

use

the

ten-unit

compensator under standard conditions or when a range weight is

being used.
1.13. Given that the roller units can be either up or down, that one of the
five available range weights can be used or none at all, and that the
deflection angle can be either 7.5 o or 15o, there are a total of eight
testing conditions; these are listed in Table 1.

For each sample,

depending on its Taber stiffness, one of these testing conditions is

optimal. Accordingly, the range of Taber stiffness values appropriate
with each of the eight testing conditions is listed in column 2 of Table
1.

17

TABLE 1 :
instrument.

The

eight

test

conditions

available

with

the

Taber

Each works well over the limited range of Taber stiffness

values

given in column 2.

Test

Test

Test

Rollers

Specimen

Range

10 Unit

Angle

Multi-

Condi-

Range,

of

plier

tion

gfcm

No.

Length Mount,

ed

Size,
inch

Weigh Compent

sator

cm

Deflection

0 - 10

Up

1 1

Use

15.00

0.1

10 - 100

Down

1 2

15.00

50 - 500

Down

1 2

500

15.00

100 - 1000

Down

1 2

1000

15.00

10

200 - 2000

Down

1 2

2000

15.00

20

300 - 3000

Down

1 2

3000

15.00

30

500 - 5000

Down

1 2

5000

15.00

50

1000 -

Down

1 2

5000

7.50

100

10,000

2.

Preparing the instrument for testing

2.1.

Make sure the tip of the rear stand rod is screwed on tight.

2.2.

By pushing the operating switch, set the driving disk to zero. That is
to say, line up the zero mark on the driving disk with the zero mark of
the scale on the stationary disk.

2.3.

Close the jaws of the upper clamp on the pendulum by adjusting the
clamp screws. Make sure the line along which jaws meet is perfectly
aligned with the central mark scribed on the pendulum.

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2.4.

Level the instrument by adjusting the tips of the two front stand rods
so that the pendulum mark is directly in line with the zero mark on the
driving disk. The pendulum is now in perfect balance.

3.

Preliminary test of a new sample

3.1.

First we must obtain a rough estimate of the Taber stiffness of our

sample, for only then can we decide what are the optimum test
conditions for this sample, using Table 1. This first preliminary test
is done under standard conditions, listed in row 2 of Table 1.

3.2.

Cut a specimen to size 1 in 2 in. The width of 1 in is critical

and should be cut precisely.

If you wish to test stiffness in the

machine direction (MD), then MD must be parallel to the length

direction (2 in) of your specimen.
3.3.

Mount the rollers down for standard conditions, see 1.9. The sliding
bottom gauge must always be below, not above, the rollers.

3.4.

Insert your test strip between the jaws of the upper clamp and the
rollers of the roller clamp, with the specimen resting lightly on the
sliding bottom gauge. As you center the specimen in the upper clamp
by adjusting the clamp screws, make sure it lines up with the central
mark on the pendulum.

3.5.

Next, center the specimen between the rollers.

Move the left hand

roller toward the specimen until the roller contacts it without

deflecting the pendulum. Then bring the right hand roller into light
contact with the specimen. On the head of each of the adjustment
knobs is scribed a black line. Observe the position of this line on the
right hand adjustment knob and then back off turn. This procedure
ensures not only constant clearance in all tests but also enough
clearance so the specimen can slide between the rollers.

If this

condition is not satisfied, your measurements are meaningless.

3.6.

Push the operating switch, see 1.4., to the left side.

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This sets the

driving disk in counterclockwise rotation, and the specimen is

deflected. The end point is indicated when the pendulum mark, see
1.5., is aligned with the 15o mark on the driving disk.

These two

marks, forming one line, point to your reading on the scale.

This is your left hand reading.
3.7.

Repeat this procedure on the right hand side, obtaining your right
hand reading. Take the average of your left hand and your right hand
readings. This, the final result of your pre-liminary test, is the Taber
stiffness of your sample in units of gfcm.

4.

Final test

4.1.

Consult Table 1. If the result of your preliminary test falls in the range
0 to 10

gfcm, do the final test under sensitive conditions, i.e. the

conditions given in the first row of Table 1. This calls for the rollers to
be up and for the ten unit compensator to be attached to the upper
stud on the pendulum.

Notice that your new result obtained under

these sensitive conditions must be multiplied by 0.1, the multiplier

given in the eighth and last column of Table 1.
4.2.

If the result of your preliminary test falls in the range 10 to 100 g fcm,
then by lucky coincidence the standard conditions employed in your
preliminary test are optimal, and you can accept this result as final.
These conditions are given in the second row of Table 1. Notice that
the multiplier is 1 in this case.

4.3.

If the result of your preliminary test falls in the range 50 to 500 g fcm,
then according to row 3 of Table 1 do the final test with the 500 unit
weight attached to the lower stud on the pendulum. In this case the
multiplier is 5.

4.4.

Similar remarks apply to other ranges, and the remainder of Table 1 is

self-explanatory. Only two more aspects require comment. The first is
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that the ranges in the second column of Table 1 overlap to some

extent. Suppose, for example, that your preliminary test gave a Taber
stiffness of 60 gfcm; this falls within the range 10 to 100 (second row)
and also within the range 50 to 500 g fcm (third row of Table 1). In
such a case, use the more sensitive conditions, in this case the
conditions associated with the range 10 to 100 g fcm.

The second

question is when to change from the standard deflection angle of 15 o

to 7.5 o. This may be necessary with relatively thick board that cracks
or checks when deflected 15 o. As indicated in the last row of Table 1, a
deflection angle of 7.5 degrees requires a multiplier twice as great as
that at 15o.
Report:

Report the average Taber bending stiffness values in g fcm

for your paper and paperboard samples in the machine direction and the
cross direction.

Also report 95% confidence intervals. In your Record of

Test Data, form PT-2, be certain to indicate clearly the test conditions used.
Reference
TAPPI T 489

Second Method: Lhomargy Bending Stiffness Tester

As has already been pointed out, this instrument measures the specific
flexural rigidity.

We saw earlier that this is the only measure of bending

stiffness with a sound physical basis.

A strip of paper or paperboard is held vertically in a clamp vibrating at
a fixed frequency. The free length of strip projecting above the clamp will
undergo forced vibration.

This free length is adjusted for resonance, a

condition visually recognizable as maximum vibrational amplitude of the

21

strip's free end. The free length at resonance, called resonance length, is
determined. The specific flexural rigidity is calculated from this resonance
length and the known basis weight.
Whereas the Taber instrument is limited in application to fairly stiff
paper and paperboard, the Lhomargy stiffness tester can cover a much
wider range of stiffness values and is effective even with tissue paper, down
to basis weights of about 25 g/m 2.
Patterns of Vibration: Let l be the free length of strip projecting above
the vibrating clamp and L the resonance length. As l is varied in relation to
L, a sequence of vibrational patterns will be observed, and a few typical
patterns are shown in Figure 4. The vibration with l = L is the fundamental
vibration that should be utilized; avoid the irrelevant overtone vibration with
l 2.5 L. Figure 4 also indicates that, starting with the fundamental l = L,
the amplitude of vibration decreases sharply when l is either lowered or
raised.

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Test Specimens:

Cut 5 test strips 15 mm wide for both machine

direction and cross-machine direction.

Actually, the test results do not

depend on sample width but it is essential that the width be uniform.

The strip length required for a measurement depends on the specific
flexural rigidity of the specimen and must, of course, exceed the resonance
length.

A length of 20 cm should be adequate for most grades.

Only

extremely stiff board will have a resonance length greater than 20 cm.
Whereas the specimen length is not critical, it is important that the
ends of the strip are cut cleanly and at a right angle to their length.
Method of Test:

Figure 5 is a schematic representation of the

instrument and indicates the manner in which the test strip is held by the
two clamps, the upper vibrating clamp and the lower "pulling clamp".
Hold the strip with one hand and open the spring-loaded jaws of the
vibrating clamp with the other hand. Insert the strip, making sure it is as
nearly vertical as possible. Also, the strip

23

Figure 5: Schematic drawing of the Lhomargy tester with sample.

should be as far back in the clamp as possible, making contact with the back
plate of the clamp. Open the jaws of the pulling clamp, insert the lower end
of the strip, and tighten the clamp.
With the knurled knob at the right side of the apparatus, lower the
strip until it is exactly level with the top surface of the vibrating clamp.
Carefully adjust the zero of the vernier scale to the zero of the stationary
scale.
Turn on the instrument with the toggle switch at the bottom of the
unit.
Open the vibrating clamp and raise the strip by means of the knurled
knob. Close the vibrating clamp. Slowly pull the strip downward, thereby
continuously shortening the strip's free end.

Observe the vibrating strip

edge-on from the front and notice the different vibrational patterns
discussed earlier. Obtain an estimate of the resonance length at the point of
maximum amplitude in the fundamental mode. To determine the resonance
length more precisely, proceed as follows. Make the free strip length slightly
longer than the estimated resonance length. Use the horizontally mounted
lens to focus the stroboscopic light coming from the top of the instrument
onto the top edge of the vibrating paper strip and use the second lens for
observation. You should see four lines: two outer lines corresponding to the
extreme points of vibration, and two inner bright lines due to the
stroboscopic light. As you carefully shorten the length of the vibrating strip,
the two bright inner lines will move outward and suddenly merge with the
two outer lines. This is the most precise way to pinpoint resonance. Read
the resonance length from the scale in mm.
Determine the resonance length of five specimens and find the
average in mm.
Calculation of the Specific Flexural Rigidity:

Calculate the specific

flexural rigidity from the resonance length, L, and the basis weight, W m,

according to the equation

In equation (3), the conversion factor 210- 9 (units omitted) assures that the
specific flexural rigidity is obtained in mNm provided the resonance length,
L, is inserted in mm and the basis weight, W m, in g/m2.

For example,

suppose you found that L=4.35 cm and W=50 g/m 2. Then,

specific flexural rigidity = 210 - 9 43.54 50 mNm
= 0.358 mNm
Notice that L was inserted not in cm as given but in mm as required.
Report:

Report the mean specific flexural rigidity in mNm for the

machine direction and the cross-machine direction.

Also report 95%

confidence intervals.
Reference
TAPPI T 535
(Note: In TAPPI Standard T 535, the area moment of inertia is
incorrectly referred

to as "angular impulse".)