Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Magnetism
Magnetism
History of Magnetism
Sources of Magnetism
Bar Magnets
Magnetic Dipoles
Magnetic Fields
Magnetic Forces on
Moving Charges and Wires
Permanent Magnets
Earths Magnetic Field
Magnetic Flux
Electric Motors
Generators
Solenoids
Crossed Fields
History of Magnetism
The first known magnets were naturally occurring lodestones, a type
of iron ore called magnetite (Fe3O4). People of ancient Greece and
China discovered that a lodestone would always align itself in a
longitudinal direction if it was allowed to rotate freely. This property
of lodestones allowed for the creation of compasses two thousand
years ago, which was the first known use of the magnet.
In 1263 Pierre de Maricourt mapped the magnetic field of a lodestone
with a compass. He discovered that a magnet had two magnetic poles
North and South poles.
In the 1600's William Gilbert, physician of Queen Elizabeth I,
concluded that Earth itself is a giant magnet.
In 1820 the Danish physicist Hans Christian rsted discovered an
electric current flowing through a wire can cause a compass needle to
deflect, showing that magnetism and electricity were related.
History
(cont.)
Magnetic Dipoles
Recall that an electric dipole consists
of two equal but opposite charges
separated by some distance, such
as in
_
a polar molecule. Every magnet is a
magnetic dipole. A bar magnet is a
simple example. Note how the E field
due an electric dipole is just like the
magnetic field (B field) of a bar
magnet. Field lines emanate from the
+ or N pole and reenter the - or S
pole. Although they look the same,
they are different kinds of fields. E
fields affect any charge in the vicinity,
but a B field only affects moving
charges. As with charges, opposite
poles attract and like poles repel.
Magnetic Fields
You have seen that electric fields and be uniform, nonuniform and
symmetric, or nonuniform and asymmetric. The same is true for
magnetic fields. (Later well see how to produce uniform
magnetic fields with a current flowing through a coil called a
solenoid.) Regardless of symmetry or complexity, the SI unit for
any E field is the N/C, since by definition an electric field is force
per unit charge. Because there are no magnetic monopoles, there
is no analogous definition for B. However, regardless of
symmetry or complexity, there is only one SI unit for a B field. It
is called a tesla and its symbol is T. The coming slides will show
how to write a tesla in terms of other SI units. The magnetic field
vector is always tangent to the magnetic field. Unlike E fields, all
magnetic field lines that come from the N pole must land on the S
pole--no field lines go to or come from infinity.
F = qv B
F = force (vector)
q = charge on the particle (scalar)
v = velocity of the particle relative to field (vector)
B = magnetic field (vector)
Recall that the magnitude of a cross is the product of the
magnitudes of the vectors times the sine of the angle between
them. So, the magnitude of the magnetic force is given by
F = q v B sin
i
v1 v2 =
x1 y1 z1
x2 y2 z2
ab
It can be proven that the magnitude of
a b is given by:
| a b | = a b sin
where is the angle between
a and b.
F = q
sin
1 N = 1 C (m / s) (T)
From the formula for magnetic force we can find a relationship
between the tesla and other SI units. The sine of an angle has no
units, so
1N
1N
1T =
=
C (m / s)
Am
F
+
2.
3.
4.
5.
A - charge at R is
moving up and to the left.
6.
A + charge at R is moving
down and to the right.
7.
A - charge at R feels a
force into the page.
8.
A + charge at P feels a
force out of the page.
9.
A - charge at Q feels an
upward force.
F = qv B F = q v B
since sin 90 = 1.
S
+
N
N
5 m/s
So, F = 0.0015 N
directed out of the page.
The s represent field lines pointing into the page. A positively charged
particle of mass m and charge q is shot to the right with speed v. By the
right hand rule the magnetic force on it is up. Since v is to B,
F = FB = q v B. Because F is to v, it has no tangential component; it is
entirely centripetal. Thus F causes a centripetal acceleration. As the particle
turns so do v and F, and if B is uniform the particle moves in a circle. This
is the basic idea behind a particle accelerator like Fermilab. Since F is a
centripetal force, F = FC = m v2 / R. Lets see how speed, mass, charge,
field strength, and radius of
curvature are related:
R
B
F
+
q, m
FB = FC
q v B = m v2 / R
mv
R=
qB
............
............
............
............
. .I . . . . . . . . . .
............
B
Continued
(cont.)
F = qv B
Over the time period t required for the charge to traverse the length
of the wire, we have:
F = (q / t ) v t B
Since q / t = I and v t = L, we can
write:
............
............
............
............
. .I . . . . . . . . . .
............
F = IL B
where
Electric Motor
I
I
F
}d
I
Current along with a magnetic field can produce torque. This is the basic idea behind
an electric motor. Above is a wire loop (purple) carrying a current provided by some
power source like a battery. The current loop is submerged in an external field. From
F = I L B, the force vectors in black are perpendicular to their wire segments. The
net force on the loop is zero, but the net torque about the center is nonzero. The forces
on the left and right wires produce no torque since the moment arm is zero for each
(they point right at the center). However, the force F on the top wire (in the
background) has a moment arm d, so it produces a torque F d. The bottom wire (in
the foreground) produces the same torque. These torques work together to rotate the
loop, converting electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Continued
Electric Motor
(cont.)
As the loop turns it eventually reaches a vertical position (the plane of
the loop parallel to the field). This is when the moment arms of the
forces on the top and bottom wires are the longest, so this is where
the torque is at a max. 90 later the loop will be perpendicular to the
field. Here all moment arms and all torques are zero. This is the
equilibrium point. The angular momentum of the loop, however, will
allow it to swing right through this position.
Now is when the current must change direction, otherwise the torques
will attempt to bring the loop back to the equilibrium. This would
amount to simple harmonic motion of the loop, which is not
particularly useful. If the current changes direction every time the
loop reach equilibrium, the loop will spin around in the same
direction indefinitely. Although a battery only pumps current in one
direction, the change in direction of current can be accomplished with
help of a commutator, as can be seen with these animations:
Animation 1
Animation 2
I out of page,
B counterclockwise
I into page,
B clockwise
Using xs and dots to represent vectors out of and into the page,
show the magnetic field for the same wire. Note B diminishes with
distance from the wire.
B out of page
B into page
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
P
weak field
outside
strong field
inside loop,
directed into
page
strong field
into page
weak field
Solenoids
Solenoids are one of the most common
electromagnets.
Solenoids consist of a tightly wrapped
coil of wire, sometimes around an iron
core. The multiple loops and the iron
magnify the effect of the single loop
electromagnet.
A solenoid behaves as just like a simple
bar magnet but only when current is
flowing.
The greater the current and the more
turns per unit length, the greater the
field inside.
An ideal solenoid has a perfectly uniform
magnetic field inside and zero field
outside.
Wire
Sections
Direction
of B
1-3
Up & Right
Right
5-8
9-11
12
Right
13-16
Up & Right
B=0
1
P
x x x x x x x x
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Sources of Magnetism
We have seen charges in motion (as in a current) produce magnetic
fields. This is one source of magnetism.
Another source is the electron itself. Electrons behave as if they were
tiny magnets. Quantum mechanics is required to explain fully the
magnetic properties of electrons, but it is helpful to relate these
properties back to the motion of charges. Every electron in an atom
behaves as a magnet in two ways, each having two magnetic dipole
moments:
Spin magnetic dipole moment - due to the rotation of an electron.
Orbital magnetic dipole moment - due to the revolution of an
electron about the nucleus.
Note: Electrons are not actually little balls that rotate and revolve like
planets, but imagining them this way is useful when explaining
magnetism without quantum mechanics.
- -- -- -
orb
Permanent Magnets
Each atom in a ferromagnetic material
like iron is like a little magnet, and
these magnets are all aligned in tiny
regions called domains. At high temps
these domains can align in the
presence of an external field (like
Earths) leaving a permanent magnet.
This happens at the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge beneath the Atlantic Ocean.
Domains
Bar Magnet
Temp
Melting
point
Earths Magnetic
Field
11.5
NM
NG
N
orb
Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux, informally speaking, is a measure of the amount of magnetic field
lines going through an area. If the field is uniform, flux is given by:
B = B A = B A cos
The area vector in the dot product is a vector that points
perpendicular to the surface and has a magnitude equal
to the area of the surface.
Imagine youre trying to orient a window so as to allow
the maximum amount of light to pass through it. To do
this you would, of course, align A with the light rays.
With = 0, cos = 1, and the number of light rays
passing through the window (the flux) is a max. Note:
with the window oriented parallel to the rays, = 90
and B = 0 (no light enters the window).
The SI unit for magnetic flux is the tesla-square meter:
T m2. This is also know as a weber (Wb).
I = /R
itself depends on the rate at which the flux inside the loop is changing. If
the flux is changing at a constant rate,
= - B / t
The greater the change in flux the greater, the greater the induced emf, and
greater the induced current.
....
....
....
B increasing
B decreasing
........
........
........
B very large
but constant
B increasing
B decreasing
B increasing
x
Loop motion: 1. Left
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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2. Right
3. Up
4. Down
5. In
6. Out
Electric Generators
In a motor we have seen that a current loop in an external magnetic field produces
a torque on the loop. In a generator well see that a torque on a current loop inside
a magnetic field produces a current. In summary:
Motor:
Electric
Generator
(cont.)
Animation
Iinduced
As a turbine turns (due to some power source like coal) a current loop (purple) is
rotated inside a magnetic field. The field is static but as the loop turns as the
number of field lines poking through it changes. Thus we have a changing flux and
a corresponding induced emf and current. The pic shows a loop just after it was
horizontal (perpendicular to the field). The flux is decreasing since the loop is
becoming more vertical. Since fewer field lines are entering the loop, the induced
current is in a direction to produce more field lines downward. Just prior to this, as
the loop was approaching horizontal, the number of field lines inside it was
increasing, so the current was in the other direction to oppose this change. The
current changes direction twice with each turn--whenever the loop is horizontal.
The result here is AC, but (direct current) DC motors exist as well in which current
only flows in one direction.
q, m
at all:
+ + + + + + + + + +
Fnet = 0 FB = FE
E
qvB = qE v =
B
- - - - - - - - - - -
Credits
How speakers work http://www.geo.umn.edu/orgs/irm/bestiary/index.html
Bestiary of magnetic minerals http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/demobook/chapter5.htm
History of magnets http://www.webmineral.com/data/Magnetite.shtml
Magnetite http://pupgg.princeton.edu/~phys104/2000/lectures/lecture4/sld001.htm
Slide show http://www.physics.umd.edu/deptinfo/facilities/lecdem/demolst.htm
Best ever site for pictures, simple explanations, etc. http://www.trifield.com/magnetic_fields.htm
Another good site for how magnets work http://bell.mma.edu/~mdickins/TechPhys2/lectures3.html
Equations and such http://schools.moe.edu.sg/xinmin/lessons/physics/default.htm
See also:
http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/index.html
http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/detector/
How a metal detector works http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/compass/
How a compass is oriented magnetically http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/faraday2/
How Faraday did his current experiment http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/harddrive/
How a hard drive works http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/magneticlines/
How magnet lines is working http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/magneticlines2/
How two magnets repel and attract
http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/nmr/populations/index.html
Nuclear spin up/down http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/pulsedmagnet/
Pulsed magnets http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/speaker/
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/elemag.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/16600/intermediate/magnetism.shtml
http://www-geology.ucdavis.edu/~gel161/sp98_burgmann/magnetics/magnetics.html
http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/index.html
http://www.ameslab.gov/News/Inquiry/spring96/spin.html
http://www.wondermagnet.com/dev/images/dipole1.jpg
http://webphysics.davidson.edu/Applets/BField/Solenoid.html
http://cfi.lbl.gov/~budinger/medTechdocs/MRI.html