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P.7 Kaufmann
P.7 Kaufmann
Topic
Author
Presenter
Organization
Country:
Germany
Abstract:
The capture of CO2 from power plants, its transportation through pipeline systems
and its long term deposition in suitable storage reservoirs both on and offshore
appears to be an effective method for preventing CO2 from entering the atmosphere,
allowing to mitigate adverse greenhouse gas effects due to anthropogenic activities.
Depending on the process or power plant application, three main approaches to
capturing the CO2 generated from a primary fossil fuel (coal, natural gas or oil), biomass, or mixtures of these fuels are presently considered: Post-combustion capture
systems, Pre-combustion capture systems and Oxyfuel combustion capture systems.
The production of SO2 or H2S as unintended and potentially dangerous by-products
is also considered.
While existing CO2 pipelines in U.S.A. with predominantly relatively pure CO2
streams are running generally through sparsely populated areas, CO2 pipelines from
projected fossil-fuelled power plants containing H2S and SO2 as impurities may
need to cross densely populated areas, for instance in Western Europe.
The availability of reliable calculation methods for the most relevant CO2 properties
(density and viscosity), for the influence estimation of impurity concentrations on
phase behavior and calculation methods for determination of the optimum technoeconomic pipeline diameter, are therefore a pre-requirement for a safe, environmentfriendly and economic pipeline design.
A potential new pipeline route has to be examined within the frame of a risk analysis
to identify hypothetical hazard scenarios and to estimate potential consequences with
regard to severity and estimated frequency. The examination covers the hypothetical
case of leakage, evaluates the time-dependent CO2 leak rate (source term),
estimates the CO2 outflow / jet formation in the immediate vicinity of the leak, and
estimates the dispersion of cold CO2 clouds depending on atmospheric and
topographic conditions like hilly terrain, depressions and big buildings.
The integrated approach which is partially an iterative process starts with the
investigation of a suitable route avoiding exposed areas and close proximity to
inhabited areas, under consideration of the special CO2 and impurity related
properties and local conditions. The study continues with selection of appropriate
P.7 Kaufmann Contact + Abstract + Paper
1/28
pipe material, wall thickness (design factor), burial depth and optimized number and
locations of valve stations, increased quality control during pipe manufacturing, weld
control and supervision during construction works. The study additionally refers to
measures for leak detection and fast pipeline shutdown including quick closure of
sectionalizing valves, as well as implementation of an integrated leak response plan
in order to minimize the potential consequences of a hypothetical CO2 leakage to
people, environment, assets and project reputation. These measures will be
completed by integrated procedures and training measures for the pipeline operators
and by pipeline maintenance measures including running of so-called intelligent pigs.
Nevertheless, there remain some challenging engineering tasks like comparison of
dispersion models versus CO2 test release results, definition of measures to avoid /
reduce potential rupture propagation, investigations referring to potential influence of
H2S and H2 impurities on stress cracking promotion, potential interaction of coabsorbed H2S and SO2 (S2 generation) and investigations (based on reported
transportation system failures) to minimize the remaining pipeline risk to a level as
low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION
10
12
15
5.1 Dehydration
15
15
16
17
7.1 Overview
17
18
18
19
20
21
23
25
27
REFERENCES
27
3/28
INTRODUCTION
Approximately 60% of the global carbon dioxide emissions (about 23.5 Gt in
year 2000) is attributed to large stationary sources (Power Plants). The main
clusters of emissions are located in North America, Europe (northwest
region), East Asia (east coast of China) and South Asia (Indian subcontinent) /1/.
The capture of CO2 from power plants, its transportation through pipeline
systems and its long term deposition in suitable storage reservoirs both on
and offshore appears to be an effective method for preventing CO2 from
entering the atmosphere, allowing to mitigate adverse greenhouse gas
effects due to anthropogenic activities. The distances between CO2 sources
and sinks can vary considerably and in some cases will amount to several
hundreds of kilometres.
Demonstration projects are underway worldwide to investigate the feasibility
of commercial scale carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology. Some
major carbon capture facilities already exist for example in Sleipner
(Norway), Weyburn (Canada), In Salah (Algeria) and two projects in
Germany (RWE IGCC & Ketzin).
Pipeline systems for the safe transportation of oil, gas and speciality products
are already widely accepted around the world as a means for the long
distance transfer of large quantities of these products. It is also noted that
there exists commercial scale pipeline systems for the transportation of CO2
mainly from enhanced oil recovery (EOR) projects in U.S.A. (approx. 2,600
km in 2002) which have been operated for about 30 years /1/.
Despite this, there are two significant differences between existing CO2
pipelines installed in U.S.A. and those foreseen for projected carbon capture
and storage projects elsewhere:
a)
b)
CO2 streams from natural CO2 storage fields (within the frame of EOR
projects) in U.S.A. are predominantly relatively pure CO2 streams, while
CO2 streams from projected fossil-fuelled power plants will contain
small amounts of co-absorbed components like H2S and SO2.
4/28
CO2 Storage
Head Station
Pipeline Sections
Line Valve Stations
Intermediate Transport
Station(s)
Terminal Station
CO2*)
to Stack
Coal
Gas
Biomass
Selective Catalytic
Reduction
(NOx Removal)
Particulate
Collection and
Cooling
Flue Gas
Desulphurization
Ash
CaSO4
to Disposal
Air
ILF
5/28
Depending on the process or power plant application, there are three main
approaches to capturing the CO2 generated from a primary fossil fuel (coal,
natural gas or oil), bio-mass, or mixtures of these fuels:
a)
Post-combustion systems
b)
Pre-combustion systems
c)
Figure 2-2 shows the basic scheme of a typical post-combustion CO2 capture
process with co-absorption of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in a common liquid
solvent process. CO2 and SO2 impurities are compressed to pipeline
transportation pressure, dehydrated e.g. by triethylene glycol (TEG) in an
intermediate compression stage, and injected into the CO2 pipeline. The CO2
stream contains SO2 and O2 /12/ as major impurities.
Figure 2-2: Basic Scheme of a Typical Post-Combustion CO2 Capture
Process with Co-Absorption of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
N2, O2, H2O
to Stack
CO2 Pipeline
(co-absorbed SO2)
Alternative 2:
Without SO2 Removal Upstream the
CO2 Absorption
CO2-Absorber &
Regenerator,
(SO2 co-absorbed)
CO2 Compression
(SO2 co-absorbed)
TEGDehydration
Flue Gas
Coal
Gas
Biomass
Selective Catalytic
Reduction
(NOx Removal)
Particulate
Collection and
Cooling
(probably required)
Air
Ash
ILF
Figure 2-3 shows the basic scheme of a typical pre-combustion CO2 capture
process with co-absorption of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in a common liquid
solvent process.
Primary fuel is processed to generate synthesis gas (H2, CO2, CO), which is
reformed to mainly CO2 and H2; while H2 is used for power and heat
generation, the CO2 including H2S impurities are compressed to pipeline
transportation pressure, dehydrated, and injected into the CO2 pipeline. The
CO2 stream contains H2S as major impurity (also H2 has to be considered in
terms of how the properties of CO2 are affected /12/). The CO2 stream leaves
the process at above atmospheric pressures which saves on compression
investment costs and energy expenditure.
6/28
(co-absorbed H2S)
CO2 Compression
(H2S co-absorbed)
N2 , O 2 , H2 O
to Stack
TEG-Dehydration
CO2 + H2S
Coal
Biomass
Gasification
(H2+CO2+CO)
Reformer + Acid
Gas Separation
(CO2 & H2S)
H2
O2
Steam
Gas, Oil
Air
ILF
Elaborated / Simplified from IEA GHG Report (8/2004) and mod.: only O2 blown into process (A. Brown)
Finally, Figure 2-4 shows the basic scheme of a typical oxyfuel process with
CO2 capture with co-absorption of sulphur oxides (SOx) and of nitrogen
oxides (NOx).
Primary fuel is combusted in oxygen-rich atmosphere, flue gas is recycled
from down-stream the particulate collection to combustion inlet. The CO2 with
SOx and NOx impurities at above atmospheric pressures, which saves on
compression costs and energy expenditure, is compressed to pipeline
transportation pressure, dehydrated, and injected into the CO2 pipeline.
7/28
Figure 2-4: Basic Scheme of a Typical Oxyfuel Process with CO2 Capture
with Co-Absorption of Sulphur Oxides (SOx) and of Nitrogen
Oxides (NOx).
Typical Oxyfuel Combustion Process
Alternatives:
Alternatives with NOx/SOx separation to be evaluated
95-99% O2
CO2 Compression
Cryogenic Air
Separation
Unit (ASU)
CO2 Compression
(SOx, NOx coabsorbed)
CO2 Pipeline
(co-absorbed SOx,
NOx)
TEGDehydration
CO2 (+ SOx + NOx)
Coal
Particulate
Collection
Cooling and
Water KO
Ash
Elaborated / Simplified from IEA GHG Report (8/2004)
ILF
If not anyway required, all the carbon capture processes mentioned above
can have additional steps to adsorb the impurities like H2S and SO2,
however, from the economic point of electrical energy production, it is
advantageous to co-absorb these components into the CO2 stream /2/.
The following Figure 2-5 shows the maximum level of impurities that migh be
produced in captured CO2 streams.
8/28
Component
Hydrogen Sulfide
Sulphur Dioxide
Oxygen1)
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Concentration
mole-%
3.4
H2 S
SO2
2.9
O2
1.9
H2
1.8
N2
0.6
Component
Water
Carbon Monoxide
Nitrogen Oxides
Argon
Methane2)
ILF
Concentration
mole-%
H2 O
0.3
CO
0.2
NOx
0.14
Ar
0.05
CH4
traces
b)
c)
d)
e)
9/28
200
180
Pressure (bar)
160
solid
liquid
140
supercritical
120
100
80
Triple Point
-56.6 C
5.18 bar
60
40
Critical Point
30.98 C, 73.77 bar
20
gas
0
-80
-50
-20
10
Temperature (C)
40
70
100
ILF
10/28
1,000
800
10 C
400
20 C
30.98 C
600
0 C
Density (kg/m)
1,200
40 C
60 C
50 C
200
0
20
50
80
110
140
170
200
Pressure (bar)
0 C
10 C
20 C
30.98 C
40 C
50 C
ILF
60 C
DEW
B UB
P IP E
20 C
0.05
10 C
0.10
0 C
Viscosity (mPas)
0.15
30.98 C
40 C
50 C
60 C
0.00
20
50
80
110
140
170
Pressure (bar)
0 C
10 C
20 C
30.98 C
40 C
50 C
60 C
200
ILF
DEW
B UB
P IP E
11/28
Figure 3-4: Increase of the Critical Pressure of CO2 Streams with Impurity
Concentration
Increase of Critical Pressure of CO2 Streams with
Impurity Concentration
(Basis: Seevam/Race/Dow nie: J. Pipel. Engng., 3rd. Qu. 2007, pp. 140-141)
Pressure Increase
(bar)
25
Impurity
20
N2
15
H2
10
NO2
5%N2+5%NO2
5%N2+5%CH4
0
0
2.5
7.5
10
ILF
12/28
Remark: For compression of CO2 from 1 bar to approx. 80 bar (ca. 275 kJ/kg),
approx. 11.5 /t energy cost and approx. 2 /t annuity cost are to be added
Pipeline
Diameter
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0 MTA
5 MTA
10 MTA
15 MTA
20 MTA
25 MTA
Throughput (MTA)
16 Inch
20 Inch
24 Inch
28 Inch
32 Inch
30 MTA
ILF
36 Inch
40 Inch
The following Figures 4-2 and 4-3 show the pressure and temperature
profiles as well as the density and elevation profiles of a hypothetical landbased CO2 pipeline system able to transport 1,200 tons per hour of CO2 over
a distance of 300 km.
13/28
60
50
40
30
20
50
100
150
200
10
0
300
250
Temperature (C)
Pressure (bar)
Length (km)
ILF
Figure 4-3: Density and Elevation Profile of a 24 (DN 600) CO2 Pipeline
System
CO2 Pipeline Density and Elevation Profile
Density (kg/m)
800
600
400
200
0
0
50
100
150
Length (km)
200
250
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
300
Elevation (m aSL)
1000
ILF
Pipeline inlet conditions were assumed to be 130 bar and 40 C; if the CO2
had to be compressed from atmospheric conditions to the pipeline inlet
pressure, the power requirement for a four-stage compression plant would
amount to approximately 130 MW shaft rated power; the optimum number of
compression stages (4-7) has to be determined during the more detailed
design. The maximum allowable inlet temperature into the pipeline system
has to be reviewed project-specifically with respect to environmental and
authority requirements.
14/28
5.1
Dehydration
Due to the high corrosion potential of CO2, it is not considered to be
practicable to transport wet CO2 in low-alloy carbon steel pipeline systems.
However, once dehydration has been performed, corrosion is not considered
a major issue for transport of CO2 streams /2/.
The review of different literature showed maximum admissible water
concentrations in the CO2 stream between 0.039 g/m /5/ and 0.48 g/m /2/,
but these dehydration requirements for CO2 streams can be met by glycol
dehydration which is typically performed at an intermediate stage of
compression (approx. 50 bar) /2/. However, potential hydrate formation at low
temperature must be considered /12/.
5.2
15/28
The installation of mechanical crack arrestors is not the only option for
fracture-propagation control, considering the capability of modern pipe
mills to produce high-toughness linepipe steel /7/.
CO2 (relative density to air: 1.52) is a colorless, odorless, noncombustible gas, non-toxic at moderate concentrations
Hydrogen Sulphide
Sulphur Dioxide
Component
Unit
Concentration
CO2
H2S
SO2
vol-%
ppm
ppm
100
500
500
16/28
From the results shown in Table 6-1, the following can be concluded:
In order to avoid, that the impurity components H2S and SO2 dominate
the health-related impact in case of a leakage, the maximum allowable
concentrations of these components in the CO2 stream must be limited
to certain values which were preliminary estimated to be in the order of
magnitude of 500 ppm for H2S as well as for SO2.
Because CO2 itself has no smell, a small leak can remain undetected.
For comparison, methane (as natural gas) is also without odour, so in
the UK ethyl mercaptan a foul-smelling odourising compound is added
at a concentration of about 5ppb. Allowing some H2S to remain in the
CO2 will allow early detection of any leaks, as H2S is initially detectable
by smell at levels <1ppm in air /12/
If the level of H2S in CO2 is set as low as possible, then the potential
exists to end up with a plant that is technologically excellent but
commercially unaffordable /12/.
7.1
Overview
The hypothetical leakage of a CO2 pipeline represents the major risk of CO2
transportation in pipelines.
In case of a leak, the CO2 will be released at a very low temperature (the
therodynamic phase diagrams predict approx. -78.5 C) as mixture of cold
gas and fine solid particles into the environment.
While in case of smaller leaks, the CO2 clouds formed just disperse after
short time, in case of larger leaks, the cold gas/solid mixture forms dense-gas
clouds which move (driven by the wind and by the own weight) slowly over
the terrain and can gather at low points (depressions, low-situated rooms in
buildings), displacing hereby the ambient air (danger of asphyxiation, toxic
effects at higher concentration).
The cooling effect in the CO2 rich plume can cause localized condensation of
atmospheric water into fine aerosol droplets which create regions of very low
visibility that can drift with the prevailing wind. Whilst this is a distinct
advantage in the early identification of a large scale release, it can also
represent e.g. a driving hazard in an extreme scenario.
17/28
Cooling down of the pipeline material due to the leakage could result in local
embrittlement of the pipe material potentially forming the starting point of long
running ruptures.
7.2
7.3
The leak frequency decreases with increased pipe wall thickness (> 10
mm) dramatically
formation of a cold CO2 - air mixture cloud (density higher than air)
dispersion / dilution of the CO2 - air mixture cloud after some time to
non-dangerous concentration
adjacent line valves close quickly to minimize the CO2 mass loss
18/28
7.4
the length and diameter of the pipeline section affected by the leak
the location of the leak inside the pipe section affected; in worst-case,
the leak would be assumed to occur at the lowest point of the pipe
section considered
The following Figure 7.4-1 shows the calculated leak flow rate as function of
time for a hypothetical leak situation at a 24 (DN 600) pipeline section of 3
km length, start conditions 150 bar, 30C with an assumed leak diameter of
50 mm.
Figure 7.4-1: Calculated Leak Flow Rate as Function of Time (Source Term)
CO2 Leak Flow Rate as Function of Time
Pipeline Section 24" (DN 600), Length 3 km, Start Pressure 150 bar, Start Temp. 30 C
Leak Diameter 50 mm
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Time (Minutes)
140
160
180
200
ILF
19/28
7.5
20/28
Figure 7.5-2: Typical Results of the CO2 Dispersion Calculations, Top View
(3 Dim. Model of IBS /9/)
21/28
49 CFR, Part 195: Law applies for hazardous liquids and CO2;
ASME B31.4 / B31.8
UK:
BS EN 14161:2003: UK recommends combination with PD 18101:2004 (defining the minimum distance for routing purposes
between the pipeline and occupied buildings); CO2 classified as
Cat. C (same as N2, Argon, Air); HSE guidance in UK is that,
until the source terms are better defined (and maybe not even
then) bulk transport of high pressure CO2 such as that in CCS
applications should be class E /12/
22/28
23/28
ILF
Distance
Range to
Pipeline Axis
Range 1
Range 2
Range 3
Total
ILF
24/28
7.8
b)
General
CO2 Pre-Processing
c)
d)
e)
Pipe Routing
Consideration
of
throughput
extension
strategies
by
implementation of additional loops lines and transport stations.
Pipe Material
f)
25/28
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
Pipe Manufacturing
Pipeline Construction
26/28
l)
9
/1/
REFERENCES
IPCC 2005: IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage;
Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change [Metz, B., O. Davidson, H. C. de Coninck, M. Loos, and L. A. Meyer
(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, NY, USA, 442 pp.
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/2/
/3/
/4/
/5/
James M. West, Chevron Oil Company: Design and Operation of a Supercritical CO2 Pipeline-Compression System, SACROC Unit, Scurry County,
Texas, SPE 4804, Permian Basin Oil and Gas Recovery Conference, March
12, 1974 (11 pages + 4 figures)
/6/
/7/
/8/
/9/
/10/
Span, R., Wagner, W.: A new equation of state for carbon dioxide covering the
fluid region from the triple-point temperature to 1100 K at pressures up to 800
MPa; J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 25 (1996), 1509-1596
/11/
/12/
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