Natural Ventilation

Natural Ventilation
Calculation of rate of ventilation air flow
Q = H/(60 * CP * * t) = H/1.08 * t
Where
H = Heat removed in Btu/hr
t = indoor outdoor temperature difference(oF)
CP = 0.245 Btu/lb/ oF
= 0.075 lb/ft3

Natural Ventilation

Flow Due to Thermal Forces (Stack Effect)

Q = C * K* A * ( h * [ ( ti to ) / ti ] )
Q = air flow in cfm
A = free area of inlets or outlets (assumed equal) in ft 2
h = height from inlets to outlets, ft
ti = indoor air temperature, oF
to = outdoor air temperature, oF
C = Constant of proportionality =14.46
K = 65% or 0.65 for effective openings
= 50% or 0.50 for unfavorable conditions
Substituting the values for C and K the equation reduces to

Q = 9.4* A * ( h * [ ( ti to ) / ti ] )
Q = 7.2 * A * ( h * [ ( ti to ) / ti ] )

(for effective openings)

(for unfavorable conditions)

When to> ti replace denominator in equation with t o.

Assumptions:1. No significant building internal resistance
2. Equation is valid for temperatures t i and to close to 80oF

Natural Ventilation

Factors affecting flow due to

wind
Average velocity
Prevailing direction
Seasonal and daily variation of wind speed & direction
Terrain features (local)

Natural Ventilation

Calculation of Air Flow(due to

Wind)
Q = EAV
Q = air flow in ft3/min
A = free area of inlet openings in ft2
V = wind velocity in ft/min
E = effectiveness of openings
= 0.5-0.6

perpendicular winds

= 0.25-0.35 diagonal winds

V for design practice = 1/2*seasonal average

Natural Ventilation

Flow Due to Combined Wind and

Stack Effect
When both forces are together, even without interference, resulting

air flow is not equal to the two flows estimated separately.

Flow through any opening is proportional to the square root of the
sum of heads acting on that opening.
Wind velocity and direction, outdoor temperature, and indoor
distribution cannot be predicted with certainty, and refinement
calculations is not justified.
A simple method is to calculate the sum of the flows produced by
each force separately.
Then using the ratio of flow produced by the thermal forces to the
aforementioned sum, the actual flow due to the combined forces can
be approximated.
When the two flows are equal, actual flow is about 30% greater than
the flow caused by either force.
Natural Ventilation

Types of Natural Ventilation

Openings
Windows :
There are many types of windows.
Windows sliding vertically, sliding horizontally, tilting,
swinging.
Doors, monitor openings and skylights.
Roof Ventilators (weather proof air outlet).
Stacks connecting to registers.
Specially designed inlet or outlet openings.

Natural Ventilation

Natural Ventilation Rules

1.

Buildings and ventilating equipment should not usually be oriented

for a particular wind direction.

2.

Inlet openings should not be obstructed by buildings , trees,

signboards, or indoor partitions.

3.

Greatest flow per unit area of total opening is equal to inlet and
outlet openings of nearly equal areas.

4.

For temperature difference to produce a motive force, there must be

vertical distance between openings; vertical distance should be as
great as possible.

5.

Openings in the vicinity of the neutral pressure level are least

effective for ventilation.

6.

Openings with areas much larger than calculated are sometimes

desirable(e.g.hot weather,increased occupancy). The openings
should be accessible to and operable by occupants.
Natural Ventilation

Infiltration
Infiltration is air leakage through cracks and interstices,
around windows and doors, and through floors and walls
into a building
Leakage rate (houses)0.2 to 1.5 air changes /hr in winter
Infiltration through a wall
Q = C*(P)n
Q = Volume flow rate of air ft3/min
C = Flow coefficient(Volume flow rate per unit length of
crack or unit area at a unit pressure difference)
P = Pressure difference
n = Flow exponent 0.5 1.0 normally 0.65
Natural Ventilation

Pressure Difference Due to

Thermal Forces
Pc = 0.52*P*(1/To-1/Ti).
Pc = theoretical PC = pressure difference across enclosure
due to chimney effect(inches of water).
P = atmospheric pressure lb/sq.inches.
h = distance from neutral pressure level or effective
chimney height.
To = absolute temperature outside 0R.
Ti = absolute temperature outside 0R.
Apply for character of interior separations correction.

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Infiltration
Air moves in and out of buildings at varying rates

depending upon a number of factors relating to both the

structure and the local meteorological conditions. Two
terms are: infiltration and ventilation. Both are measured
as air exchange rate, or air changes per hour (ACH).
The ASHRAE defines infiltration as uncontrolled airflow
through cracks and interstices, and other unintentional
openings.
Infiltration occurs because no building is completely
airtight; wind pressures and temperature create driving
forces which push or draw the outdoor air through
openings into the building.
Infiltration is the rate of exchange of outdoor air with the
entire volume of indoor air, quantitated as ACH.

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Factors Affecting Air Infiltration

Type of structure and construction
Meteorology
Heating & cooling systems
Occupant activity
Structural parameters
Quality of construction
Materials of construction
Condition of the structure
Meteorological parameters
The airflow rate due to infiltration depends upon
pressure differences between the inside and outside of the
structure and the resistance to flow through building
openings

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Wind Effects

Shell and exterior air barriers.

Interior barriers to flow that cause internal pressure buildup

and thus reduce infiltration.

Lack of precise knowledge of the detailed wind pressure
profiles on building surfaces.
Influence of complex terrain, presence of trees and other
obstacles that create channeling and may increase the
magnitude of wind force and alter its direction close to the
structure.
Sheltering, urban canyon and building wake phenomena
due to surrounding buildings and other neighborhood
factors.
Fluctuating winds, rather than linear wind forces, that may
effect infiltration rates through window cracks.

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Temperature Effects

Temperature inside a structure is often different from the

outside ambient temperature.

Maximum temperature differences occur when the indoor
environment is heated.
Temperature differences cause differences in air density
inside and outside, which in turn produce pressure
differences.
In the winter when indoor air temperatures are high relative
to those outdoors, the warmer and less dense air inside
rises and flows out of the building at its top.
This air is replaced by cold outdoor air that enters near the
bottom of the building or from the ground.This
phenomenon is called the building Stack Effect.
During hot weather when air conditioning produces lower
temperatures inside than outside, the reverse process
occurs.
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Humidity Effects

Stricker in 1975 reported that homes with low infiltration

rates had high humidity.
In a study by Yarmac et al. in 1987 in 25 houses in the
southern U.S., no apparent relationship was found between
relative humidity and air exchange rate. One explanation
for this lack of association is that absolute humidity, rather
than relative humidity, may be a better measure of any
effect the water content of the air has on infiltration.

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Pressure Difference Across the

Building Envelope
P = Po+Pw-Pi
Where
P = pressure difference between outdoors and indoors at the
location
Po = static pressure at reference height in the undisturbed flow
Pw = wind pressure at the location
Pi = interior pressure at the height of the location
1. The more usual case is when both wind and indoor outdoor
temperature differences contribute to the P across the
building envelope

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Pressure Difference Across the

Building Envelope
2.Temperature differences impose a gradient in the
pressure differences which is a function of height and
the temperature difference
This effect is additive to the wind pressure expression and
is expressed by ASHRAE, 1989 as
P = Po+Pw-Pi,r+ Ps
Where
Ps= the pressure caused by the indoor-outdoor
temperature difference (stack effect)
Pi,r = the interior static pressure at a reference height (it
assumes a value such that inflow equals outflow)

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Bernoullis Equation
PV = (Cp**V2)/2
Where
PV = surface pressure relative to static pressure in
undisturbed flow,Pa
Cp = surface pressure coefficient
= density of air,kg/m3
V = wind speed in m/s
Under standard conditions (100.3 Pa or 14.7 psi) and 200 C,
this equation reduces to:
PV = (Cp*0.601*V2)

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Bernoullis Equation
Cp varies with location around the building envelope and wind
direction
The differences in air density due to temperature differences
between the interior and exterior of a building create the
pressure difference which drives infiltration
To estimate this pressure difference, Ps, it is necessary to
know the NPL
This pressure difference can be expressed as:
Ps = i*g*h*(Ti-To)/ To
Where:
Ps = pressure difference, Pa
i = density of air, kg/m3
g = gravitational constant, 9.8m/sec 2
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Bernoullis Equation
h=distance to NPL(+ve if above, -ve if below from the
location of the measurement
Subscripts:
i=inside

o=outside

It is difficult to know the location of the NPL at any one

moment, but there are some general guidelines
According to ASHRAE,1989, the NPL in tall buildings can
vary from 0.3 to 0.7 of total building height
In houses with chimneys, it is usually above mid-height,
and vented combustion sources for space heating can
move the NPL above the ceiling

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Measurement Techniques
Tracer gas
Fan pressurization
Effective Leakage Area(ELA)

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Tracer
Gas

It is a different measure of air exchange rate.

The gas concentration will decrease as dilution air flow

into the building.

The rate of decrease is proportional to the infiltration

rate.

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Assumptions

The tracer gas mixes perfectly and instantaneously

The effective volume of the enclosure is known
The factors that influence air infiltration remain
unchanged throughout the measurement period
Imperfect mixing occurs when air movement is
impeded by flow resistances or when air is trapped
by the effects of stratification
This causes spatial variation in the concentration
of the tracer gas within the structure, this may
cause bias in sampling locations

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Assumptions (contd)
Fans are often used to mix the tracer gas with the building

air.
Effective volume is assumed to be the physical volume of
the occupied space.
Areas which contain dead spaces that do not communicate
with the rest of the living space will reduce the effective
volume.
Variations in conditions during the measurement
period,such as door openings or meteorological changes,
will cause a departure from the logarithmic decay curve
and the equation on which infiltration is calculated will no
longer hold.
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Types of Gases of Used As

Helium,Nitrous oxide, Carbon dioxide,Carbon monoxide,
Tracers:
Sulfur hexaflouride, and perfluorocarbons
Non-toxic at concentrations normally used in such studies,
non-allergenic, inert, non-polar, and can be detected easily
and at low concentrations

Most frequently used are SF6 and Perfluorocarbons

Carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide can be used if initial
concentrations are substantially above background but well
below concentrations of health concern

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Tracer Gas Dilution: SF6

Specific instructions for this method can be

found in the American Society of Testing
Materials (ASTM)Standard Method for
Determining Air Leakage Rate by Tracer Dilution
(E741).
The basic apparatus for this method includes:
tracer gas monitor, cylinder of tracer gas, sample
collection containers and pump, syringes,
circulating fans, and a stopwatch.
Meterological parameters which are recorded
include: wind speed and direction, temperature
(indoors and outdoors), relative humidity
barometric pressure.
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Tracer Gas Dilution: SF6

For SF6 concentrations in the range of 1-500 ppm, a

portable infrared gas analyzer is used.

For SF6 concentrations in the ppb range/a gas
chromatograph(GC)with an electron capture detector is
used.
A field GC is preferable so that the concentration of SF 6
can be immediately verified and optimum sample
integrity maintained.
If it is injected in undiluted form, SF 6 may tend to sink and
accumulate in low areas.
Documenting various structural parameters and occupant
activities which may be occurring during the sampling
time as well as the meterological parameters.

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Tracer Gas Dilution: SF6

Structural parameters include: windows (number, location,

type), noticeable leakage paths, wall construction, location

of chimneys, vents and other direct indoor-outdoor
communication points, and type and capacity of the
heating and/or air conditioning systems.
Occupant activity such as opening and closing of doors
(interior or exterior) or vents will affect the infiltration rate
as well as the distribution of the tracer gas within the
structure.
Operational status of the heating or cooling system should
also be recorded.

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Calculation of Air Exchange Rate

C=Co-It
Where:
C = tracer gas concentration at time t
Co= tracer gas concentration at time =0
I = air exchange rate
T = time
This relationship assumes that the loss rate of the initial
concentration of tracer gas is proportional to its
concentration
If the ventilation system recirculates a fraction of the indoor
air, then the above assumption may not hold
Above equation then can be rearranged to yield the expression
I = (1/t)*Ln(Co/C)

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Fan Pressurization
It is sometimes also called depressurization.
It is not a direct measure of infiltration.
It characterizes the building leakage rate
independent of weather conditions.
Measurements are made by using a large fan to
create an incremental static pressure difference
between the interior and the exterior of the
building.
The air leakage rate is determined by the
relationship between the airflow rates and
pressure differences.

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Fan Pressurization (Contd)

The fan is usually placed in the door, and all
direct openings in the building envelope,
e.g.,windows, doors, vents, and flues, are sealed
off.
The airflow rate through the fan is determined
by measuring the pressure drop across a
calibrated orifice plate.
The resulting leakage occurs through the cracks
in the building envelope, and the effective
leakage area can be calculated from the flow
profile.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of

Fan Pressurization

Advantages:
It does not require sophisticated analytical
equipment as do the tracer techniques
It allows for a comparison of homes based on their
relative leakiness irrespective of the prevailing
weather conditions at the time of measurement
It can be used to measure the effectiveness of
retrofit measures
Disadvantages:
This is an indirect measure of infiltration and hence
approximates the actual process through an
inherently artificial process, pressurization or
depressurization
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General Steps
Note the physical characteristics of the
building.
Close all normal openings (e.g.,windows,
doors, vents, and flues).
Record meteorological conditions and indoor
temperature and relative humidity, and install
the blower assembly.
The blower should run at such speeds as to
induce pressure differences of 0.05 to 0.3 in.
water (12.5 to 75 Pa).

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Effective Leakage Area(ELA)

Another indirect method to estimate air
infiltration.
It can be interpreted physically as an
approximation of the total area of physical
openings in the building envelope through which
infiltration occurs.
The empirical model used to estimate air
exchange is based on pressure differences.
The method involves measuring the dimensions
of each opening and converting this value to a
leakage area equivalent value.

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Calculation of ELA
ELA = Q4/(2*P/ )0.5
Where
ELA = effective leakage area,m2
Q4

= airflow at 4 Pa(m3/sec)

P = the pressure drop causing this flow,I.e.,4

Pa

= density of air,1.2 kg/m3

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