2102311 Electrical Measurement and

Instruments (Part II)

Bridge Circuits (DC and AC)
Electronic Instruments (Analog & Digital)
Signal Generators
Frequency and Time Interval Measurements
Introduction to Transducers

6 306
Textbook:
-A.D. Helfrick, and W.D. Cooper, Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement
Techniques Prentice Hall, 1994.
- D.A. Bell, Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, 2nd ed., Prentice Hell, 1994.

Resistor
Resistor Types
Types

Importance parameters
Value
Tolerance
Power rating
Temperature coefficient

Type

Values ()

Power rating
(W)

Tolerance (%)

Temperature
coefficient
(ppm/C)

Wire wound
(power)

10m~3k

3~1k

1~10

30~300

Wire wound
(precision)

10m~1M

0.1~1

0.005~1

3~30

Carbon film

1~1M

0.1~3

2~10

100~200

Metal film

100m~1M

0.1~3

0.5~5

10~200

Metal film
(precision)

10m~100k

0.1~1

0.05~5

0.4~10

Metal oxide film

100m~100k

1~10

2~10

200~500

Data: Transistor technology (10/2000)

picture

Color codes
Alphanumeric

Resistor
Resistor Values
Values
Color

Silver
Gold

Digit

Multiplier

Tolerance
(%)

Temperature
coefficient
(ppm/C)

10

10-1

250

10-2

4 band color codes

Most sig. fig.

of value
Tolerance
Least sig. fig. Multiplier
of value

Ex.

Black

100

Brown

101

100

Red

102

50

Orange

103

15

Yellow

104

25

R = 560 2%

Green

105

0.5

20

Blue

106

0.25

10

Alphanumeric

Violet

107

0.1

Gray

108

White

109

Data: Transistor technology (10/2000)

20

Green
Blue

Brown

Red

R, K, M, G, and T =
x100, x103 , x106 , x109 , and x1012
Ex. 6M8 = 6.8 x 106
5904 = 59.04

Resistor Values

Commonly available resistance for a fixed resistor

R = x %x
Tolerance
Nominal value
Ex. 1 k 10%

900-1100

For 10% resistor

10, 12, 15, 18,
10

12

15

R 10n
where E = 6, 12, 24, 96
for 20, 10, 5, 1% tolerance
n = 0, 1, 2, 3,

For 10% resistor E = 12

n = 0; R = 1.00000
n = 1; R = 1.21152
n = 2; R = 1.46779
n = 3; R = 1.77827

Resistance
Resistance Measurement
Measurement Techniques
Techniques
Bridge circuit
Voltmeter-ammeter
Substitution
Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter
V

A
R

Substitution
A
Supply

Unknow
resistance

A
Rx

Supply

Decade resistance
box substituted in
place of the
unknown

Voltmeter-ammeter method
Pro and con:
Simple and theoretical oriented
Requires two meter and calculations
Subject to error: Voltage drop in ammeter (Fig. (a))
Current in voltmeter (Fig. (b))
+
+

VA A

IV

Vx

VS

V V

Ix

I
VS
-

V V
-

Rx

Fig. (b)

Fig. (a)

V V + VA
V
Measured Rx: Rmeas = = x
= Rx + A
I
I
I
if Vx>>VA
Rmeas Rx
Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure
large resistance

Rx

Measured Rx: Rmeas =

if Ix>>IV

Rx
V
V
=
=
I I x + IV 1 + IV / I x

Rmeas Rx

Therefore this circuit is suitable for measure

small resistance

Ohmmeter
Voltmeter-ammeter method is rarely used in practical applications
(mostly used in Laboratory)
Ohmmeter uses only one meter by keeping one parameter constant
Example: series ohmmeter

Battery

k
45

R1
Rm

A
0

Basic series ohmmeter

75

10

Vs
R1 Rm
I

25

5k

50

VS

Meter Infinity
resistance

15k

Rx

Rx =

Nonlinear scale

Standard
resistance

Resistance to
be measured

Meter

Ohmmeter scale

Basic series ohmmeter consisting of a PMMC and a series-connected standard resistor (R1). When
the ohmmeter terminals are shorted (Rx = 0) meter full scale defection occurs. At half scale defection
Rx = R1 + Rm, and at zero defection the terminals are open-circuited.

Bridge Circuit
Bridge Circuit is a null method, operates on the principle of
comparison. That is a known (standard) value is adjusted until it is
equal to the unknown value.

Bridge Circuit
AC Bridge

DC Bridge
(Resistance)

Wheatstone Bridge
Kelvin Bridge
Megaohm Bridge

Inductance

Capacitance

Maxwell Bridge
Hay Bridge
Owen Bridge
Etc.

Schering Bridge

Frequency
Wien Bridge

Wheatstone Bridge and Balance Condition

Suitable for moderate resistance values: 1 to 10 M

Balance condition:

R2

R1
I1
V

No potential difference across the

galvanometer (there is no current through
the galvanometer)

I2

I4

I3
R3

R4

Under this condition: VAD = VAB

I1R1 = I 2 R2
And also VDC = VBC

I3 R3 = I 4 R4
where I1, I2, I3, and I4 are current in resistance
arms respectively, since I1 = I3 and I2 = I4

R1 R2 or
=
R3 R4

R2
Rx = R4 = R3
R1

Example
1

12 V

12 V
1

(a) Equal resistance

(b) Proportional resistance

1

10

10

12 V

12 V
2

20

(c) Proportional resistance

10

(d) 2-Volt unbalance

Measurement Errors
1. Limiting error of the known resistors
Using 1st order approximation:

A
R1
V

R2

R2 R1 R2 R3
Rx = R3 1

R1
R1
R2
R3
2. Insufficient sensitivity of Detector

R R2
Rx = ( R3 R3 ) 2

R
1
1

3. Changes in resistance of the bridge

arms due to the heating effect (I2R) or
temperatures
4. Thermal emf or contact potential in the
bridge circuit

R3

Rx

5. Error due to the lead connection

3, 4 and 5 play the important role in the
measurement of low value resistance

Example In the Wheatstone bridge circuit, R3 is a decade resistance with a specified in

accuracy 0.2% and R1 and R2 = 500 0.1%. If the value of R3 at the null position is
520.4 , determine the possible minimum and maximum value of RX
SOLUTION Apply the error equation

Rx =

R2 R1 R2 R3
Rx = R3 1

R1
R1
R2
R3

520.4 500 0.1 0.1 0.2

1
= 520.4( 1 0.004) = 520.4 0.4%
500
100 100 100

Therefore the possible values of R3 are 518.32 to 522.48

Example A Wheatstone bridge has a ratio arm of 1/100 (R2/R1). At first balance, R3 is
adjusted to 1000.3 . The value of Rx is then changed by the temperature change, the new
value of R3 to achieve the balance condition again is 1002.1 . Find the change of Rx due to
the temperature change.

R2
1
=

= 10.003
1000.3
SOLUTION At first balance:
R1
100
R2
1
= 1002.1
= 10.021
After the temperature change: Rx new = R3
R1
100
Rxold = R3

Therefore, the change of Rx due to the temperature change is 0.018

Sensitivity of Galvanometer
A galvanometer is use to detect an unbalance condition in
Wheatstone bridge. Its sensitivity is governed by: Current sensitivity
(currents per unit defection) and internal resistance.
consider a bridge circuit under a small unbalance condition, and apply circuit
analysis to solve the current through galvanometer

Thvenin Equivalent Circuit

Thvenin Voltage (VTH)
I1
VS

VCD = VAC VAD = I1 R1 I 2 R2

I2
R1

R2
D

G
R3

where I1 =

R4
B

Therefore

V
V
=
and I 2
R1 + R3
R2 + R4

R1
R2

VTH = VCD = V

R
+
R
R
+
R
3
2
4
1

Sensitivity of Galvanometer (continued)

Thvenin Resistance (RTH)
R1
C

R2

R3

R4

RTH = R1 // R3 + R2 // R4

Completed Circuit
RTH

C
Ig=
G

VTH

VTH
RTH+Rg

Ig =

VTH
RTH + Rg

where Ig = the galvanometer current

Rg = the galvanometer resistance

Example 1 Figure below show the schematic diagram of a Wheatstone bridge with values of
the bridge elements. The battery voltage is 5 V and its internal resistance negligible. The
galvanometer has a current sensitivity of 10 mm/A and an internal resistance of 100 .
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the 5- unbalance in arm BC
SOLUTION The bridge circuit is in the small unbalance condition since the value of
resistance in arm BC is 2,005 .

Thvenin Voltage (VTH)

A
1000

100
R1
5V

D
R3

1000
100

VTH = VAD VAC = 5 V

100
+
200
1000
+
2005

2.77 mV

R2
C
R4
2005

200

Thvenin Resistance (RTH)

B
(a)
100
C

RTH = 100 // 200 + 1000 // 2005 = 734

1000

200

2005
B

Ig =

(b)
RTH= 734

C
Ig=3.34 A

VTH
2.77 mV

G
D
(c)

The galvanometer current

Rg= 100

VTH
2.77 mV
=
= 3.32 A
RTH + Rg 734 + 100

Galvanometer deflection
d = 3.32 A

10 mm
= 33.2 mm
A

Example 2 The galvanometer in the previous example is replaced by one with an internal
resistance of 500 and a current sensitivity of 1mm/A. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm
can be observed on the galvanometer scale, determine if this new galvanometer is capable
of detecting the 5- unbalance in arm BC
SOLUTION Since the bridge constants have not been changed, the equivalent circuit
is again represented by a Thvenin voltage of 2.77 mV and a Thvenin resistance of
734 . The new galvanometer is now connected to the output terminals, resulting a
galvanometer current.
Ig =

VTH
2.77 mV
=
= 2.24 A
RTH + Rg 734 + 500

The galvanometer deflection therefore equals 2.24 A x 1 mm/A = 2.24 mm,

indicating that this galvanometer produces a deflection that can be easily observed.

Example 3 If all resistances in the Example 1 increase by 10 times, and we use the
galvanometer in the Example 2. Assuming that a deflection of 1 mm can be observed on the
galvanometer scale, determine if this new setting can be detected (the 50- unbalance in
arm BC)
SOLUTION

Application of Wheatstone Bridge

Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)
Loop test can be carried out for the location of either a ground or a short
Power or
circuit fault.
R3

communication cable

X1

R1

short
circuit fault

R2
R4

ground
fault

Short
circuit
fault

Murray Loop Test

Let R = R1+R2

Assume: earth is a
good conductor

X2

At balance condition:

R3 R1
=
R4 R2

R3
R1 = R

R
R
+
3 4

R4
R2 = R

R
R
+
3 4

The value of R1 and R2 are used to calculate back into distance.

Murray/Varrley Loop Short Circuit Fault (Loop Test)

Examples of commonly used cables (Approx. R at 20oC)
Wire dia. In mm

Ohms per km.

Meter per ohm

0.32

218.0

4.59

0.40

136.0

7.35

0.50

84.0

11.90

0.63

54.5

18.35

0.90

27.2

36.76

Remark The resistance of copper increases 0.4% for 1oC rise in Temp.
Let R = R1+R2 and define Ratio = R4/R5

R
R1
At balance condition: Ratio = 4 =
R5 R2 + R3

Ratio
R1 =
R + R3
Ratio + 1

R - RatioR3
R2 =
Ratio + 1

X1

R4

R1
R2

R5

X2

R3

Varley Loop Test

Short
circuit
fault

Example Murray loop test is used to locate ground fault in a telephone system. The total
resistance, R = R1+ R2 is measured by Wheatstone bridge, and its value is 300 . The
conditions for Murray loop test are as follows:
R3 = 1000 and R4 = 500
Find the location of the fault in meter, if the length per Ohm is 36.67 m.

R3

Power or
communication cable
X1

R3
1000
R1 = R
= 200
= 300
1000 + 500
R3 + R4

R1
R2
R4

X2

Murray Loop Test

SOLUTION

Short
circuit
fault

R4
500
R2 = R
300
=

= 100

1000 + 500
R3 + R4

Therefore, the location from the measurement point is 100 36.67 m/ = 3667 m

Application of Wheatstone Bridge

Unbalance bridge
Consider a bridge circuit which have identical
resistors, R in three arms, and the last arm has the
resistance of R +R. if R/R << 1

A
R

Thvenin Voltage (VTH)

VTH = VCD V
R

R+R
B

RTH = R

VTH=V

Small unbalance
occur by the external
environment

R
4R

Thvenin Resistance (RTH)

RTH R

R
4R

G
D

This kind of bridge circuit can be found in sensor

applications, where the resistance in one arm is
sensitive to a physical quantity such as pressure,
temperature, strain etc.

5 k

5 k

6V

Rv Output
signal

5 k

R v (k )

Example Circuit in Figure (a) below consists of a resistor Rv which is sensitive to the
temperature change. The plot of R VS Temp. is also shown in Figure (b). Find (a) the
temperature at which the bridge is balance and (b) The output signal at Temperature of
60oC.
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

4.5 k

20

40

60

80

100 120

Temp (oC)

(b)

(a)

R3 R2 5 k 5 k
SOLUTION (a) at bridge balance, we have Rv =
=
= 5 k
R1
5 k

The value of Rv = 5 k corresponding to the temperature of 80oC in the given plot.

(b) at temperature of 60oC, Rv is read as 4.5 k, thus R = 5 - 4.5 = 0.5 k. We will
use Thvenin equivalent circuit to solve the above problem.

VTH = V

R
0.5 k
= 6 V
= 0.15 V
4R
4 5 k

It should be noted that R = 0.5 k in the problem does not satisfy the assumption R/R
<< 1, the exact calculation gives VTH = 0.158 V. However, the above calculation still gives
an acceptable solution.

Low resistance Bridge: Rx < 1

Effect of connecting lead
R2
V

At point p:
rearrange

R3
G

R1

The effects of the connecting lead and the connecting

terminals are prominent when the value of Rx decreases
to a few Ohms

m
p
n

Rx

Ry

Ry = the resistance of the connecting lead from R3 to

Rx

At point m: Ry is added to the unknown Rx, resulting in too

high and indication of Rx
At point n: Ry is added to R3, therefore the measurement of Rx
will be lower than it should be.

R
Rx + Rnp = ( R3 + Rmp ) 1
R2
R
R
Rx = R3 1 + Rmp 1 Rnp
R2
R2

Where Rmp and Rnp are the lead resistance

from m to p and n to p, respectively.

The effect of the connecting lead will be

canceled out, if the sum of 2nd and 3rd term is
zero.
Rnp R1
R1

Rmp

R2

Rnp = 0 or
Rx = R3

R1
R2

Rmp

R2

Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001

Four-Terminal Resistor
Current
terminals

Current
terminals

Voltage
terminals

Voltage
terminals

Four-terminal resistors have current terminals

and potential terminals. The resistance is
defined as that between the potential
terminals, so that contact voltage drops at the
current terminals do not introduce errors.

Four-Terminal Resistor and Kelvin Double Bridge

R3

R2

r1 causes no effect on the balance condition.

The effects of r2 and r3 could be minimized, if R1 >>
r2 and Ra >> r3.
The main error comes from r4, even though this value
is very small.

Rb
G

Ra
R1

r3
r2
r1

Rx

r4

Kelvin Double Bridge: 1 to 0.00001

2 ratio arms: R1-R2 and Ra-Rb
the connecting lead between m and n: yoke

R2

R3

Rb
V

Vlk =

Ry

Ra

R1
o

Eq. (1) = (2) and rearrange:

The balance conditions: Vlk = Vlmp or Vok = Vonp

Rx

R2
V
R1 + R2

(1)

here V = IRlo = I [ R3 + Rx + ( Ra + Rb ) // Ry ]

Vlmp

Ry
Rb
= I R3 +
Ra + Rb + Ry

Rb Ry
R
Rx = R3 1 +
R2 Ra + Rb + Ry

R1 Ra

R2 Rb

(2)

Rx = R3

R1
R2

If we set R1/R2 = Ra/Rb, the second term of the right hand side will be zero, the relation
reduce to the well known relation. In summary, The resistance of the yoke has no effect
on the measurement, if the two sets of ratio arms have equal resistance ratios.

High Resistance Measurement

Guard ring technique:

Volume resistance, RV
Surface leakage resistance, Rs
Guard
ring

A
High
voltage
supply

Is

Iv

(a) Circuit that measures insulation volume

resistance in parallel with surface leakage
resistance

Rmeas = Rs // Rv =

V
I s + Iv

Is
High
voltage
supply

Iv

Material
under test

Is

(b) Use of guard ring to measure only volume

resistance

Rmeas = Rv =

V
Iv

High Resistance Measurement

Example The Insulation of a metal-sheath electrical cable is tested using 10,000 V supply
and a microammeter. A current of 5 A is measured when the components are connected
without guard wire. When the circuit is connect with guard wire, the current is 1.5 A.
Calculate (a) the volume resistance of the cable insulation and (b) the surface leakage
resistance
SOLUTION

(a ) Volume resistance:

IV =1.5 A
RV =

V 10000 V
=
= 6.7 109
IV
1.5 A

(b ) Surface leakage resistance:

IV+ IS = 5 A
RS =

IS = 5 A IV = 3.5 A

V 10000 V
=
= 2.9 109
IS
3.5 A

MegaOhm Bridge
Just as low-resistance measurements are affected by series lead impedance, highresistance measurements are affected by shunt-leakage resistance.

RA
E

RC
the guard terminal is connect to a bridge
corner such that the leakage resistances
are placed across bridge arm with low
resistances

R1 // RC RC
R2 // Rg Rg

RA

RB

since R1 >> RC
since R2 >> Rg

RB
R2

Rx

G
R1

RC
Rx RA
RB

RC

Capacitor
Capacitance the ability of a dielectric to store electrical charge per
unit voltage
Area, A

conductor

Dielectric, r
thickness, d

A 0 r
C =
d

Typical values pF, nF or F

Dielectric

Construction

Capacitance

Breakdown,V

Air

Meshed plates

10-400 pF

100 (0.02-in air gap)

Ceramic

Tubular

0.5-1600 pF

500-20,000

Disk

1pF to 1 F

Aluminum

1-6800 F

10-450

Tantalum

6-50
500-20,000

Electrolytic
Mica

Stacked sheets

0.047 to 330 F
10-5000 pF

Paper

Rolled foil

0.001-1 F

200-1,600

Plastic film

Foil or Metallized

100 pF to 100 F

50-600

Inductor
Inductance the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage
when the current varies.
N turns

L =

o r N

o = 410-7 H/m

r relative permeability of core material

Ni ferrite:
r > 200
Mn ferrite:
r > 2,000
L

Air core inductor

Re

Cd
Equivalent circuit of an RF coil

Iron core inductor

Distributed capacitance Cd
between turns

Quality Factor of Inductor and Capacitor

Equivalent circuit of capacitance
Cp

Cs

Rs

Rp
Parallel equivalent circuit

Series equivalent circuit

Equivalent circuit of Inductance

Ls

Lp

Rs

Rp
Series equivalent circuit

Rs2 + X s2
Rp =
Rs

Rs2 + X s2
Xp =
Xs

Parallel equivalent circuit

Rs =

R p X p2
R +X
2
p

2
p

Xs =

X p R p2
R p2 + X p2

Quality Factor of Inductor and Capacitor

Quality factor of a coil: the ratio of reactance to resistance (frequency
dependent and circuit configuration)
Inductance series circuit:

Q=

Inductance parallel circuit: Q =

X s Ls
=
Rs
Rs
Rp
Xp

Typical Q ~ 5 1000

Rp

Lp

Dissipation factor of a capacitor: the ratio of reactance to resistance

(frequency dependent and circuit configuration)
Capacitance parallel circuit:

D=

Capacitance series circuit:

D=

Xp
Rp

1
C p Rp

Rs
= Cs Rs
Xs

Typical D ~ 10-4 0.1

Inductor and Capacitor

RP2
LS = 2
LP
RP + 2 L2P

RS

2 L2P
I
RS = 2

R
P
RP + 2 L2P
Q=

RS2 + 2 L2S
LP =
LS
2 L2S

LP

LS

RS2 + 2 L2S
RP =
RS
RS2

RP
V

LS

ILS

RS

V/LP

V/RP

Q=

RP
LP

IRS

CS =
RS =

1+ C R
CP
2CP2 RP2
2

2
P

1
RP
1 + CP2 RP2

RS

V
CP

LS

RP

D = CS RS

2
P

IRS
I/CS

I
VCP

CP =

1
CS
1 + 2CS2 RS2

1 + 2CS2 RS2
RS
RP =
2CS2 RS2
D=

V/RP

1
CP RP

AC Bridge: Balance Condition

B
Z2

Z1
I1

I2

all four arms are considered as impedance

(frequency dependent components)
The detector is an ac responding device:
headphone, ac meter
Source: an ac voltage at desired frequency

Z3

Z4

Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedance of bridge arms

At balance point:

I1 =

General Form of the ac Bridge

Complex Form:
Polar Form:
Z1Z4 ( 1 + 4 ) =Z2 Z3 ( 2 + 3 )

EBA = EBC or I1 Z1 = I 2 Z 2
V
V
and I 2 =
Z1 + Z 3
Z2 + Z4
Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

Magnitude balance:
Phase balance:

Z1Z4 =Z2 Z3

1 + 4 = 2 + 3

Example The impedance of the basic ac bridge are given as follows:

Z1 = 100 80o (inductive impedance)

Z3 = 400 30o (inductive impedance)

Z 2 = 250 (pure resistance)

Z 4 = unknown

Determine the constants of the unknown arm.

SOLUTION The first condition for bridge balance requires that

Z4 =

Z 2 Z 3 250 400
=
= 1, 000
Z1
100

The second condition for bridge balance requires that the sum of the phase angles of
opposite arms be equal, therefore

4 = 2 + 3 1 = 0 + 30 80 = 50o
Hence the unknown impedance Z4 can be written in polar form as

Z 4 = 1, 000 50o
Indicating that we are dealing with a capacitive element, possibly consisting of a
series combination of at resistor and a capacitor.

Example an ac bridge is in balance with the following constants: arm AB, R = 200
in series with L = 15.9 mH R; arm BC, R = 300 in series with C = 0.265 F; arm CD,
unknown; arm DA, = 450 . The oscillator frequency is 1 kHz. Find the constants of
arm CD.
B

Z1
I1

Z1 = R + j L = 200 + j100

I2

SOLUTION

Z2

Z3

Z4

Z 2 = R + 1/ j C = 300 j 600
Z3 = R = 450
Z 4 = unknown

D
The general equation for bridge balance states that

Z4 =

Z1 Z 4 = Z 2 Z 3

Z 2 Z 3 450 (200 + j100)

=
= j150
(300 j 600)
Z1

This result indicates that Z4 is a pure inductance with an inductive reactance of 150
at at frequency of 1kHz. Since the inductive reactance XL = 2fL, we solve for L and
obtain L = 23.9 mH

Comparison Bridge: Capacitance

R1
Vs

Measure an unknown inductance or

capacitance by comparing with it with a known
inductance or capacitance.

R2

At balance point:

D
C3

Rx
R3

Cx

Z1 Z x = Z 2 Z 3

1
1 =R1 ; Z 2 = R2 ; and Z 3 = R3 +
j C3

1
1
R1 Rx +
= R2 R3 +

C
j

C
x
3

where Z

Unknown
capacitance

Diagram of Capacitance
Comparison Bridge
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields:

R2 R3
Rx =
R1

and

C x = C3

Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.

R1
R2

Comparison Bridge: Inductance

R1
Vs

Measure an unknown inductance or

capacitance by comparing with it with a known
inductance or capacitance.

R2

At balance point:

L3

Lx
R3

Rx

where

Z1 Z x = Z 2 Z 3

Z1 =R1 ; Z 2 = R2 ; and Z3 = R3 + j L3

Unknown
inductance

Diagram of Inductance
Comparison Bridge
Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields:

R1 ( Rx + j Lx ) = R2 ( RS + j LS )
R2 R3
Rx =
R1

and

Lx = L3

Frequency independent
To satisfy both balance conditions, the bridge must contain two variable
elements in its configuration.

R2
R1

Maxwell Bridge
R1

Measure an unknown inductance in terms of

a known capacitance

R2
C1

R3

Z x = Z 2 Z3 Y1

At balance point:

D
Lx
Rx

where

Unknown
inductance

Diagram of Maxwell Bridge

1
Z 2 = R2 ; Z3 = R3 ; and Y1 = + j C1
R1
1

Z x = Rx + j Lx = R2 R3 + j C1
R1

Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields:

Rx =

R2 R3
R1

and

Lx = R2 R3C1

Frequency independent
Suitable for Medium Q coil (1-10), impractical for high Q coil: since R1 will be very
large.

Hay Bridge
Similar to Maxwell bridge: but R1 series with C1

R1
R2

C1
V

At balance point:

where

Lx
R3

Z1 = R1

Z1Z x = Z 2 Z3

j
; Z 2 = R2 ; and Z3 = R3
C1

1
+
R
1
( Rx + j Lx ) = R2 R3
j C1

Diagram of Hay Bridge

L
(1)
R1 Rx + x = R2 R3
C1
Lx jRx

+ j Lx R1 = R2 R3
which expands to R1 Rx +
C1 C1
Rx
(2)
= Lx R1
C1
Rx

Unknown
inductance

Solve the above equations simultaneously

Hay Bridge: continues

Lx

2C12 R1 R2 R3
Rx =
1 + 2C12 R12

and

R1

Rx

1
C1

Lx =

R2 R3C1
1 + 2C12 R12

X L Lx
tan L =
=
=Q
R
Rx
X
1
tan C = C =
R C1 R1
tan L = tan C or Q =

Phasor diagram of arm 4 and 1

Thus, Lx can be rewritten as
For high Q coil (> 10), the term (1/Q)2 can be neglected

1
C1 R1

R2 R3C1
Lx =
1 + (1/ Q 2 )

Lx R2 R3C1

Schering Bridge
C1

Used extensively for the measurement of capacitance

and the quality of capacitor in term of D

R2
R1

Z x = Z 2 Z3 Y1
where Z = R ; Z = 1 ; and Y = 1 + j C
2
2
3
1
j C3
R1
At balance point:

C3

Cx
Rx

Unknown
capacitance

Rx

j 1

j
j

C
= R2
+

1
Cx

C
R
x 1

Diagram of Schering Bridge

which expands to

j
R2C1
jR2
Rx
=

C3 C3 R1
Cx

Separation of the real and imaginary terms yields:

Rx = R2

C1
C3

and

C x = C3

R1
R2

Schering Bridge: continues

Dissipation factor of a series RC circuit:

D=

Rx
= Rx C x
Xx

Dissipation factor tells us about the quality of a capacitor, how close the
phase angle of the capacitor is to the ideal value of 90o
For Schering Bridge:

D = Rx Cx = R1C1

For Schering Bridge, R1 is a fixed value, the dial of C1 can be calibrated directly in D
at one particular frequency

Wien Bridge
R1

Unknown
Freq.

R2

C1

Measure frequency of the voltage source using series

RC in one arm and parallel RC in the adjoining arm

Z 2 = Z1Z 4 Y3
1
1
Z1 = R1 +
; Z 2 = R2 ; Y3 =
+ jC3 ; and Z 4 = R4
jC1
R3
At balance point:

Vs

D
R3
R4

C3

Diagram of Wien Bridge

which expands to R2 =

j 1
R2 = R1
R
j

C
+
4
3

C
R
1

RC
R1 R4
jR4
+ j C3 R1 R4
+ 4 3
R3
C1
C1 R3

Rearrange Eq. (2) gives

f =

1
2 C1C3 R1 R3

R2 R1 C3
=
+
R4 R3 C1

C3 R1 =

(1)

1
C1 R3

(2)

In most, Wien Bridge, R1 = R3 and C1 = C3

(1)

R2 = 2 R4

(2)

f =

1
2 RC

Wagner Ground Connection

C
C5

R1

Rw
A
Cw

C6

R2

1
2

C1

C2

Rx

C3
R3

Wagner ground

Cx
D

C4

Diagram of Wagner ground

One way to control stray capacitances is by

Shielding the arms, reduce the effect of stray
capacitances but cannot eliminate them
completely.
Stray across arm
Cannot eliminate
Wagner ground connection eliminates some
effects of stray capacitances in a bridge circuit
Simultaneous balance of both bridge makes the
point 1 and 2 at the ground potential. (short C1
and C2 to ground, C4 and C5 are eliminated from
detector circuit)
The capacitance across the bridge arms e.g. C6
cannot be eliminated by Wagner ground.

Capacitor Values
Ceramic Capacitor

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Film Capacitor

Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor

Capacitor Values
Tantalum Capacitor

Capacitor Values
Chip Capacitor