Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Operation and Maintenance Power Plant
Operation and Maintenance Power Plant
[Background]
Long-term operation
program
[Needs]
[Measures to
increase longevity]
increasing longevity
(prolonging life)
Maintaining operation
through the renewal of
deteriorated equipment
[Measures to
increase longevity]
[Destination]
Stable supply
Cost reduction
Repowering
Replacement
(addition)
Fig. 3.1.1: How to carry out the maintenance of aged thermal power plant (increasing longevity)
142
Maintenance of
aged thermal power
plant
Operation control
Operation
Monitoring of
operation status
Enhancement of operation control
and supervisory function
Reduction of load on equipment
Early detection of problems
Routine inspection/test
Patrol
[Example]
Monitoring of life consumption of hightemperature thick part of boiler and turbine
Diagnosis of boiler combustion
Monitoring of vibration of large rotating
machine
Trip test of safety device
Routine replacement of auxiliary machine
Vibration of auxiliary rotating machine
Operation status of auxiliary machine
Opening of control valve
Daily simplified
maintenance
Inspection & repair
program
Maintenance
Long-term
operation program
Securing of soundness of
plant equipment
Upkeep of function and
reliability level
Securing of economics
Renovation program
[Example]
High-temperature pressureresistant part of boiler and
turbine
High-speed rotor of turbine
Insulation of generator
Periodic inspection,
service, maintenance
Precise inspection,
diagnosis of plant
Improvement of
proof stress
Improvement of
function
[Example]
Renewal and renovation of
deteriorated equipment and parts
[Example]
Improvement of control
performance, strengthening of
supervisory function
Automation, improvement of control
performance
3.1.2.1 Operation & maintenance status of aged thermal power plants (from the 50s to the early 60s of
the Showa period)
Aged thermal power plants were originally designed to operate continuously (operation to cover the base load).
10 thousand kW
1992
(September)
1970 (September)
1960 (January 36)
Time
Pumped-storage
hydroelectric power
example)
Plant
Pumped-storage
power
Oil
Portion to be
inspected
Rotor
Steam
turbine
Moving blade
LNG, LPG and
other gases
Casing
Coal
Boiler
Generator
Superheater
and reheater
tube
Drum
Main steam
pipe
Reheat steam
pipe
Rotor
Transformer
Main body
Electric
motor
Rotor
Nuclear
power
Inspection method
Visual inspection with bore scope
Ultrasonic testing
Magnetic particle testing
Ultrasonic testing
Measurement of lifting amount of
stud part
Structure examination of
representative point (macro)
Ultrasonic testing (weld point)
Tube removal examination from a
representative point
Radiographic test
Ultrasonic testing
Base load operation was carried out at the initial stage of construction. However, because of subsequent changes
in the demand-supply structure, that is to say, an increase in demand (maximum electricity demand), a widening
of the gap in demand-supply between day and night, and an increase of the segment share of nuclear power
generation, base load operation handed over its role to nuclear power and large-capacity thermal machines. As a
result, the operation pattern has changed to the operation of a middle-sized thermal power plant positively bearing
adjustment between demand and supply, i.e., the operation pattern under which load change, reduction of
minimum load, frequent start up and shut down, etc. are performed.
Portion to be inspected
Boiler tube
Diagnosis portion
Destruction inspection
Superheater tube
Reheater tube
Larson-Miller method.)
Boiler header
Structural examinations
left.
Superheater header
Reheater header
Axle
Non-destructive inspection
High-pressure axle
Hardness measurement
Medium-pressure axle
Casing
hours as a guideline.)
hours as a guideline.)
Steam turbine
Major valves
MSV CV
RSV ICV
144
For the purposes of securing the reliability and performing strict demand supply adjustment operation such as
DSS (daily start up and shut down), etc. of the plant equipment designed originally based on the premise of base
load operation given that aging progresses, we have basically planned :
An operation pattern that will contribute to demand-supply adjustment sufficiently and where start-up and shutdown loss is minimized
Securing of strength and allowance of a plant sufficient to cope with thermal stress, repeated stress arising from
start up, shut down, load change, etc. and creep damage associated with secular use
Improvement of operability and enrichment of supervisory function so that the operator can cope with the
situation within limited time and simultaneous operation
Early detection and handling when there is an abnormal condition in the plant
Establishment of optimum operation pattern through operation testing
Precise inspection and remaining life assessment for plants whose cumulative operation time has exceeded
100,000 hours (Table 3.1.2.1-1, 2)
Improvement of plant durability (Table 3.1.2.1-3, 4)
Improvement of operability and controllability, enhancement of monitoring function (Table 3.1.2.1-3, 4)
Disk
Curvature
radius
Big
Processed point
Curvature
radius
Big
Small
(a)Processing example
Table 3.1.2.2-1: Examples of improvement in largecapacity machines (Constant-pressure supercritical oncethrough system)
[Improvement of plant durability]
Improvement of superheater header part of boiler (Fig. 9)
Processing of membrane-end part of boiler (Fig. 10)
Improvement of structure of surrounding wall tie-bar of boiler (Fig.
11)
Improvement of passing-through part at boiler tube wall (Fig. 12)
Improvement of support system for main piping of boiler (Fig. 13)
Reinforcement of start system valve of boiler (Fig. 14)
Reinforcement of feed water control valve of boiler (Fig. 15)
[Improvement of controllability and enhancement of supervisory
function]
Improvement of controllability to plan the improvement of
controllability at start up/shut down and when the load changes
Digitization of APC control
Automation of boiler automatic burner
Expansion of automatic start-up control range of turbine
Improvement of controllability on the drain level of feed water
heater
Bringing auxiliaries to group control (master)
Addition of life supervisory function for thick pressure-resistant part
of boiler
Automation, enhancement of supervisory function and man-machine
communication
[Before improvement]
[After improvement]
.
(a) Bringing header tube nozzle to flexible structure
Corner R processing
Nozzle
(b) Corner R processing of header tube nozzle part
Tie-bar clip
Membrane bar
Water-cooling
wall tube
Tie-bar
Tie-bar
Wall
New toe
Torque bracket
Tube leg
A-part
Improvement of structure of tube leg at wall passing-through part
Z-type valve
Angle valve
146
The following are the reasons for renewal according to the equipment of each plant, renewal rate and equipment
whose renewal due to deterioration and damage exceeds 20% extracted from such report:
(1) Boiler plant related (Fig. 3.1.2.2-8)
1 Furnace tube
Renewal rate:
About 36%
Renewal time:
From less than 40,000 hours to 200,000 hours
The renewal peak falls within the range of 100,000 to 200,000 hours.
2 Superheater 1st
Renewal rate:
About 25%
Renewal time:
From less than 40,000 hours to 200,000 hours or more
The renewal peak falls within the range of 120,000 to 140,000 hours.
Reason for renewal: As many renewals have been performed after 120,000 hours, conceivable reasons for
renewal are creep damage, external high-temperature corrosion and ash erosion.
3 Superheater 2nd to 4th
Renewal rate:
2nd About 56%
3rd About 66%
4th About 70%
Renewal time:
2nd: From less than 40,000 hours to 200,000 hours or more
The renewal peak falls within the range of 100,000 to 120,000 hours.
3rd and 4th: From 60,000 hours to 160,000 hours
The renewal peak falls within the range of 80,000 to 100,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: As there are many renewals for those whose main steam temperature is 550C or
more, for those for WSS (weekly start up and shut down) operation and for heavy
oil-fired ones, conceivable reasons for renewal are creep damage and hightemperature corrosion.
4 Superheater weld joint with dissimilar materials
Renewal rate:
About 47%
Renewal time:
From less than 40,000 hours to 180,000 hours.
The renewal peak falls within the range of 80,000 hours to 160,000 hours.
Reason for renewal: As there are many renewals for those whose main steam temperature is high and for
heavy oil-fired ones, conceivable reasons for renewal are creep damage, thermal
stress fatigue and high-temperature corrosion.
The renewal peak falls within the range of 80,000 hours to 120,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: From the fact that there are many renewals of those whose steam pressure is high for
both the 1st and 2nd reheater, and in the case of the 1st reheater, there are many
renewals of those for DSS operation, a conceivable reason for renewal is thermal
stress fatigue.
7 Valves
Renewal time:
Form less than 40,000 hours to 180,000 hours
The renewal peak falls within the range of 100,000 hours to 120,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: From the fact that there are many renewals of those with many start ups, a
conceivable reason for renewal is seat leak.
8 Electrostatic precipitator (discharge electrode, collecting plate, hammering device, charging equipment
(P/P))
Renewal rate:
Discharge electrode About 57%
Economizer tube
Furnace tube
Superheater 1st
Superheater 2nd
Superheater 3rd
Superheater 4th
Superheater Mixed fitting
1st reheater 1st
1st reheater 2nd
1st reheater Mixed fitting
2nd reheater 1st
2nd reheater 2nd
2nd reheater Mixed fitting
1st superheater inlet header
1st superheater outlet header
2nd superheater inlet header
2nd superheater outlet header
3rd superheater inlet header
3rd superheater outlet header
4th superheater inlet header
4th superheater outlet header
1st reheater inlet header
1st reheater outlet header
2nd reheater inlet header
2nd reheater outlet header
Economizer inlet header
Economizer outlet header
Main steam pipe
Main steam pipe TY piece
Reheat steam pipe
Reheat steam pipe TY piece
Degradation
damage
Damage
prevention
Regulation
Coal pulverizer
Stoker
Mill exhauster
Fuel oil tank heater
Fuel oil tank bottom plate
Forced draft fan
Induced draft fan
Gas recirculation draft fan
Gas-mixing draft fan
Discharge electrode for electrostatic precipitator
Electrostatic precipitator collecting plate
Electrostatic precipitator hammering device
Electrostatic precipitator charging equipment (P/P)
EP ash-handling ash flow pump
EP ash-handling blower
EP ash-handling ash feed pipe
Air compressor for control
Auxiliary air compressor
Air compressor for soot blower
NOx removal plant catalysis
Bottom ash-handling jet pump
Bottom ash-handling ash flow pipe
Duct expansion
Desulfurization system absorber
Desulfurization system oxidation tower
Desulfurization system G/G heater
Desulfurization system pump
Desulfurization system fan
148
Performance
upgrading
Degradation
damage
Damage
prevention
Regulation
Performance
upgrading
Renewal time:
(3)
1
Many renewals were performed within the range of 80,000 hours to 100,000 hours.
151
Degradation
damage
Damage
prevention
Regulation
Performance
upgrading
152
Degradation
damage
Damage
prevention
Regulation
Performance
upgrading
Unit interlock
Auxiliary machine interlock
Combustion control unit
Feed water control unit
Steam temperature control unit
Burner control unit
Governor control unit
Tb monitor vibration diagnosis system
TB monitor shaft vibration meter
Tb monitor shaft eccentricity meter
Tb monitor shaft position meter
Tb monitor revolution meter
Tb monitor difference expansion meter
Tb monitor cam position meter
Unit computer
Data logger computer
Environmental data-processing computer
Fuel control computer
Water quality control analyzer
Fuel analyzer
Exhaust gas NOx analyzer
Exhaust gas SOx analyzer
Exhaust gas O2 analyzer
Exhaust gas CO analyzer
Exhaust gas dust analyzer
Leak oil monitor analyzer
Flammable gas monitor analyzer
NH3 monitor analyzer
Waste water COD analyzer
Waste water PH analyzer
Feed water system actuator
Fuel system actuator
Starting bypass system actuator
Air system actuator
Exhaust gas system actuator
Air dryer for control
Air pressure-reducing system for control
Feed water flow transmitter
Main steam flow transmitter
Spray flow transmitter
Fuel oil flow transmitter
Fuel gas flow transmitter
Main steam pressure transmitter
Fuel oil pressure transmitter
Fuel gas pressure transmitter
Drum-level transmitter
Deaerator-level transmitter
Feed water flow element
Main steam flow element
Fuel oil flow element
Fuel gas flow element
Conveyor scale
due to deterioration of the signal conversion unit, indication mechanism, etc. of each
controller and increasing difficulty in procuring parts because of discontinuance of
production of similar equipment.
For the renewal due to performance upgrading, many renewals were performed due
to nationalization of imported products or due to change from an air or mechanical
system to an electric or digital type, and it is conceivable that many renewals had the
objective of conversion to APC or full automation, etc.
2 Turbine monitor
Renewal rate:
Reasons for renewal: Conceivable reasons that there are many renewals due to degradation damage are
occurrence of many failures attributable to deterioration of the control mechanism,
positioner, etc. or increasing difficulty in procuring the parts because of
discontinuance of production of similar equipment.
6 Air source for control, air dryer, air pressure-reducing system
Renewal rate:
Air dryer About 42%
Air pressure-reducing system About 17%
Renewal time:
The renewal falls within the range of 40,000 hours to 140,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: Conceivable reasons for renewal are occurrence of many failures as a result of
deterioration owing to change of the control mechanism, tower, etc. or increasing
difficulty in procuring parts because of discontinuance of production of similar
equipment.
7 Transmitter
Renewal rate:
Feed water flow transmitter About 65%
Main steam flow transmitter About 61%
Spray flow transmitter About 61%
Fuel oil flow transmitter About 50%
Fuel gas flow transmitter About 45%
Main steam pressure transmitter About 63%
Fuel oil pressure transmitter About 54%
Fuel gas pressure transmitter About 44%
Drum-level transmitter About 60%
Deaerator-level transmitter About 57%
Feed water flow element About 12%
Main steam flow element About 8%
Fuel oil flow element About 22%
Fuel gas flow element About 7%
Conveyor scale About 33%
Renewal time:
Renewals of feed water flow, spray flow, fuel oil flow, fuel oil pressure, drum level,
and deaerator-level transmitters fall within the range of 60,000 hours to 180,000
hours.
Renewals of main steam flow and main steam pressure transmitters fall within the
range of 40,000 hours to 200,000 hours.
Reasons for renewal: With respect to degradation damage and damage prevention, conceivable reasons for
renewal are occurrence of many failures due to deterioration of each sensor, signal
converter, etc. or increasing difficulty in procuring parts because of discontinuance of
production of similar equipment.
With respect to performance upgrading, conceivable reasons for renewal are
performance upgrading of equipment and shift of control equipment to the electric
type or digital type.
Side wall
Front wall
Rear wall
Boiler, front
Oil jack
Boiler steel
frame
Collector
beam
Side wall top
header
Jack down
Fig. 3.1.2.4-1
Concept in
dismantling of
furnace wall by
means of jack
down construction
method
In furnace
appear in all areas of boilers, and, for this reason, inspection and repair result in longer time and higher cost. In
particular, heavy damage is found in the metallic substance weld zone of furnace pipe walls, furnace headers and
nozzle weld zones at the reheater header due to fatigue and creep, and fundamental measures are becoming
necessary.
In the future, as these portions are important components of boilers, it is impossible to take fundamental
measures through partial renovation. In addition, from the viewpoint that cost and work will be enormous,
complete blanket renovation of furnace evaporation pipes, headers, etc. is starting to be carried out.
Generator output
Main steam temperature
Main steam pressure
Fig. 3.1.2.4-2
Outline drawing of
renovation work for
Himeji No.2
thermal power Unit
No.2 boiler.
2nd superheater
pipe (replaced)
Reheat pipe
(replaced)
Furnace
evaporation pipe
(replaced)
Steam separator
(added)
1st superheater
Control unit
r(replaced)
Change of control system
Evaporator
Furnace-side
casing
(replaced)
Fuel
Economizer
Furnace
Burner
valve
Feed water
Boiler circulation
pump (added)
Air
Together with this renovation, partial renovation of an accessory plant was performed so that such boilers also
have cutting-edge performance. Further, for the purposes of shortening the renovation construction work period
and securing safety in construction work, the development and introduction of new construction such as jack
down construction (Fig. 3.1.4.2-1) are sought.
(1) Examples of structural improvement measures associated with renovation
(1) Modify the boiler from the skin casing structure to the membrane wall structure to plan a reduction in
thermal stress.
(2) Modify the boiler from a weld construction consisting of the furnace wall and tension plate to a slide
structure to plan the reduction in thermal stress.
(3) Cause the header nozzle part to have sufficient flexibility to plan the reduction in thermal stress.
(4) Modify the furnace wall passing-through part to the double-sleeve structure to avoid a concentration of
stress.
(5) Make the root of the nozzle and weld zone at the fine end smooth to relieve the concentration of stress.
(2) Renovation work examples
In the KANSAI Electric Companys Himeji No.2 thermal power plant Unit No.2 (325 MW), a subcritical pressure
boiler that began commercial operation in 1964, from 1992 to 1993 blanket replacement of the boiler was carried
out. This unit was originally oil fired; however, in 1980, modification to convert it to LNG fired was made and
since then, this boiler has served as base thermal power. Since its start of commercial operation, this plant has
operated for about 170,000 hours (number of start ups and shut downs: 662), and in addition to normal age
deterioration, due to the fact that this plant has been used for DSS operation from 1985, life consumption due to
low-cycle fatigue advanced in all areas of the boiler, minor problems occurred frequently, and the time required
for inspection and repair increased. Then, as a result of study of a repair program according to the increasing
longevity program, as it is more advantageous to replace the furnace water wall part completely than to repeat
minor repairs in terms of cost, then it was decided to carry out total replacement. Further, together with
renovation, performance upgrading including improvement of thermal efficiency and acceleration of the time
required for start up is planned through modification from a constant-pressure to a variable-pressure operation
method. (Fig. 3.1.2.4-2).
3.1.2.5 Technology and construction method for shortening of the term of periodic inspection work
In addition to the peak in the summer season, for the purpose of responding to firm growth of demand in the
winter season, the timing of periodic inspections tends to be concentrated in spring and autumn. On the other hand,
the term of periodic inspection work tends to become longer due to the increase in the amount of repairs
associated with aging of plants, and in the future, as the aging of large-capacity machines will also proceed,
further efforts to shorten the term of periodic inspection work are sought.
As a method to plan the shortening of the term of periodic inspection work, in addition to the effective
classification and planning of repair work associated with aging, improvement of construction method that
includes the following are also pursued.
Improvement of work efficiency through mechanization and broader use of robots
Improvement of work efficiency through labor-saving tools
Cutback in amount of works through blanket replacement of large parts (service, repair, etc.)
In addition, measures will be also be implemented from the viewpoint of the plant (Table 3.1.2.5-1), including:
Earlier start of work through forced cooling stop of the turbine
Improvement of workability through scale-up of manholes
158
Table 3.1.2.5-1 Improvement examples for shortening of the term of periodic inspection work
Examples
Adoption of forced cooling system for turbine
Adopt a high-performance oil-flushing system.
Have gas turbine rotor spares.
Have steam turbine rotor spares.
Adopt a gas turbine static blade-sealing alignment system.
Adopt a casing-tightening hydraulic bolt.
Modify from MHG to EHG.
Have one set of EHG parts spares.
Additionally install an overhead traveling crane.
Making the overhead traveling crane faster.
Develop scaffolding at the furnace bottom part.
Adopt a mobile clinker hopper.
Adopt a turbine rotor dry horning unit.
Adopt a hydraulic torque wrench.
Install a lifting unit for dismantling of major valves.
Adopt a hydraulic bolt for coupling.
Improve in-furnace scaffolding.
Install a floor for carry-in of boiler materials.
Install a shutter at the boiler sound isolation wall opening.
Conduct dismantling and inspection work on the electric valve with greater efficiency.
Contrive dismantling and assembling jigs for the coil-end cover of the generator.
Adopt an ultrasonic expansion-measuring instrument
Turbine blade clearance-measuring device
Adopt a laser-type centering measuring device.
Adopt a turbine casing lifting-level supervisory unit.
Install a crane for light parts.
Rotor center hole horning unit
Adopt a hydraulic jack for dismantling of housing.
Adopt a jig for groove alignment of the boiler-cooling wall pipe.
Upsize the boiler manhole.
Develop an internal surface inspection system of the boiler header part.
Outline
Introduce the outside air into high- and medium-pressure casings through the injection of cooling
air or by means of vacuum pump to shorten the cooling time.
Use the flushing system with a fine-mesh filter.
Have the gas turbine rotor of the combined-cycle generator as a spare to replace it at periodic
inspection.
Have the steam turbine rotor for geothermal heat as a spare to replace it at periodic inspection.
Although alignment at replacement was performed at the manufacturers factory, alignment has
become available through installation of the system at site.
Change the high-pressure turbine casing-tightening bolt from the shrink-fit type to the hydraulic
tension type.
Adopt a simplified lifting unit for lifting work of the main check valve, etc. to plan greater
efficiency of work.
Tighten the coupling by means of a hydraulic tension bolt.
Change the scaffolding from steel pipe scaffolding to steel fit scaffolding.
Install an out-furnace stage for carry-in of in-furnace scaffolding and for material storage space.
Install an opening at the sound isolation wall of the boiler to facilitate carry-in of materials, etc.
Change the power supply connection of the electric valve to the connector system.
Fix the bottom cover to the jig and then cause it to rotate to facilitate removal.
Measure expansion of bolts by means of the ultrasonic measuring instrument.
Insert the sensor into the clearance between the turbine blades to perform automatic measurement to
process its data.
Measure turbine alignment by means of a laser to calculate the corrected value automatically.
Monitor parallelism of the housing to be lifted by installing an ultrasonic-type distance sensor at 4
corners to measure it.
In addition to an overhead traveling crane, install a crane for lifting light parts.
Unit that performs horning of the turbine rotor center hole automatically.
Cause the measuring sensors installed at 4 corners of the housing to synchronize with the hydraulic
jack to lift it horizontally.
Jig for groove alignment of boiler water-cooling wall pipe.
Upsize the bore of the boiler manhole to plan greater efficiency.
Insert it through the header inspection hole to make observation by means of TV and observation
with an optical microscope.
159
3.1.2.6 Support system for creating a work plan for increasing longevity
In order to continue stable operation of an aged thermal power plant after 20 years or more from its construction
and start of operation. While maintaining the economics and its function, identifying the function, performance
and soundness of equipment and presentation (recovery from deterioration) are performed more efficiently than
conventionally.
For this reason, a support system to create a work plan for increasing longevity that takes plant reliability and
economics into account has generally been introduced and made use of.
Creation of a work plan for increasing longevity is performed along each step of flow in Fig. 3.1.2.6-1.
1 Selection of critical equipment (Fig. 3.1.2.6-2)
Assuming that the service period will be 60 years, the operation time, 400,000 hours and the number of start
ups and shut downs, 5,000, select equipment for which remaining life control is believed to be necessary out of all
equipment comprising the unit. Assess the probability of the occurrence of failure, effect of failure on output when
it occurs, term of recovery work and cost, safety (social influence level), etc. comprehensively by means of the
FMEA technique.
2 Investigation of the background of accidents and failures
Collect and organize the records of accidents and failures regarding the selected critical equipment, and
investigate the failure mode, life consumption factor, etc. during a long-term service period.
3 Breakdown and defragmentation of equipment (selection of critical points)
Select critical equipment.
Investigate history of accidents and failures.
Break down and defragment equipment.
Select the critical portion.
Select remaining life calculation measures.
Calculate the unit life consumption rate.
Operation history
Future operation conditions
Marginal processing value
Calculate remaining life.
Unit price table
Create a long-term maintenance program list.
Carry out profit calculation.
Create a work program list for increasing longevity.
Fig. 3.1.2.6-1 Flow in creation of work program plan list for increasing longevity work
Equipment
Measuring device
Electric device
Boiler system
Turbine system
Effect-level assessment
Life
consumption
factor
Initial
failure
mode
Final
failure
mode
Rotor
Progression of
manufacturing
defect
Burst
External casing
Crack
Leakage
Internal casing
Crack
Leakage
Nozzle chamber
Crack
Leakage
Creep
Deformation
Axial inclination
Abnormal
vibration
High-pressure turbine
Equipment
Probability
of failure
occurrence
Effect on
output
Degree of difficulty of
recovery from failure
Term of
recovery
Recovery
cost
General assessment
Safety
Score
Critical
equipment
(100 points or
more)
Break down the selected critical equipment to the group that conceivably has the same structure, function, and
design condition, and then defragment them based on the detailed structure to select Point to which maintenance
control should be performed based on life assessment.
4 Selection of critical portion (Fig. 24)
Critical point
Critical portion
:
:
Dummy groove
Heat group groove
bottom
Initial failure mode : Crack
Life consumption factor:
Low-cycle fatigue
Low-cycle fatigue +
High-cycle fatigue
High-pressure stage
: Center hole
Critical point
Critical portion
: Control stage bottom
Initial failure mode : Crack
Life consumption factor:
Creep + Low-cycle
fatigue
:
Critical point
Critical portion
:
Initial failure mode :
Rotor body
Central part and others
Deformation
Deterioration of
characteristics
Life consumption factor :
Creep, softening,
embrittlement
Ultrahigh-pressure stage
Governor side
GEN side
Control stage
Critical point
Critical portion
Rotating blade
Outlet side
Inlet side
(a)
(b)
Future
operation
conditions
FEM analysis
Limit processing
value
Consumed life
Temperature
difference
Computer
Output
Processing
limit
Consumed life
Remaining life
Stress
Life
consumption
unit life
(Year)
Repetitions
Operation
history
161
System
Boiler related
Turbine related
Electric related
Measurement related
Total
2226
712
12
12
3002
83
85
62
1
14
15
35
35
37
2
10
83
168
77
50
74
93
268
95
406
20
789
3356
1203
828
70
5457
2008
2010
17
103
374
44
21
54
300
419
17
70
116
320
523
494
162
Non-pressure-retai
ning components
4%
Fan
10%
Valves
5%
Others
14%
Furnace
wall
31%
Ratio of occurrence
of failure for each
component of boiler
equipment
Piping
16%
Wear
5%
Corrosion
5%
Creep
15%
Cause of damage to
pressure-retaining
components
Thermal
fatigue/
corrosion
fatigue
68%
SH/RH/ECO
20%
Overheating
Swelling out
Deformation
Creep
rupture
Rupture by
spouting
Corrosion
Corrosion by low
temperature
Corrosion of the inner
surface of tank caused by
filled water
Excessive increase
in load stress
caused by the
decrease in
effective thickness
Rupture
caused by
static stress
Leakage
Wear
Erosion by ash
Wear by high-velocity air
flow within the component
Fatigue
Thermal fatigue
Mechanical fatigue
Occurrence/growth
of crack(s)
Rupture
caused by
fatigue
Corrosion
fatigue
Occurrence/growth
of crack(s)
Rupture by
corrosion
fatigue
Temperature rise at the piping wall caused by the growth of scale adhered to the inner surface of the
pipes of the furnace evaporation piping, or the growth of porous-type scale with low heat
transmission efficiency
For the accumulation of steam oxidation scale within the stainless steel piping of the super-heater, etc. and
accumulated at the U-bend, it is considered effective to suppress the scale from growing if fine-grade steel is
employed or the inner surface of the piping is shot blasted. Creep damage includes creep created over
considerably long hours because the inner-pressure stress increases by the decreased thickness caused by
high-temperature corrosion, etc. A lot of damage has been found caused by the scale adhering to the inner surface
of the pipes of furnace evaporating piping. Standard water quality control of the supply water and tank water and
implementation of proper acid cleaning is an important task. To determine the timing of acid cleaning, monitoring
of the pipe wall temperature by a pulling-out check of the pipes at the time of regular inspection or by using a
Cordal-thermocouple (embedded thermocouple) is available.
(2) Thermal fatigue
Thermal fatigue occurs by the repeated effects of high thermal stress that is generated by the temperature
differences among the member materials. The thermal fatigue generated by the start/stop operation of boiler
equipment or by load fluctuation is a type of low-cycle fatigue in general. The surface of the broken part by
thermal fatigue is uneven and rougher than that caused by mechanical fatigue where high-cycle fatigue is
accompanied by vibration, etc. The surface of the cracked part is normally open to some extent. The causes
generating thermal stress vary depending on the structure of each component of the boiler equipment. Examples
of portions where thermal fatigue occurs and measures to reduce the stress are shown in Table 3.2.2-1 in a
concrete fashion.
(3) Corrosion fatigue
In the case of the inner water supply system of furnace, economizer, etc., such corrosion fatigue as cracking
generated not only from the outside of the piping but also from the inside has been experienced. Corrosion fatigue
is a phenomenon in which fatigue cracks are generated and grow because the strength against fatigue declines
remarkably to a larger degree than the same in an air atmosphere, when the metal receives stress repeatedly in a
corrosive environment. It is basically generated on the portion where thermal stress, etc. is large.
As a typical example of the relationship between thermal fatigue and corrosion fatigue, the tension plate and
welded portion of the furnace wall are shown in Fig. 3.2.2-1.
At the portion where the tension plate has been welded directly to the furnace wall, thermal stress is generated
by the temperature difference between the tension plate and the furnace wall in the direction of the piping axis and
to right angles of the piping axis. The maximum stress is generated on the welded portion of the tension plate on
the external face of piping. Thermal fatigue cracks are generated on the toe of the weld where stress concentrates.
On the other hand, stress is generated on the rear side of the weld on the inner surface of the piping. The stress
on the inner surface of the piping is smaller in general than that on the outer surface.
164
Table 3.2.2-1 Portions where thermal stress is generated and measures to reduce the stress
Portion
Cool water
Furnace wall
Tool box
Mechanism of generation of
stress
If the boiler water temperature
should change upon boiler
start/stop operations, temperature
difference occurs between the
furnace wall and the sub-wall or
between the sub-wall and the rear
smoke duct wall, which generates
stress on the fin edge of the
furnace wall.
If the boiler water temperature
should change upon boiler
start/stop operations, temperature
difference occurs between the
furnace wall piping and the seal
box, by which stress concentrates
at the corner.
R-machining
(9) 2 A h
Arch
Tension plate
Slide
End bar
Welded portion
Piping on
the ceiling
Deformation
165
2-step-type skin
casing
End bar
Piping on
the ceiling
Generation of
high stress
Low expansion
Low expansion
Tension plate
High
expansion
High
expansion
Tension plate
Table 3.2.2-1 Portion where thermal stress is generated and measures to reduce the stress
Portion
Piping on
the ceiling
Coefficient of
linear thermal
expansion
Improved
style
SUS rod
SUS steel
Cr-Mo steel
Welded portion of
small-diameter nozzle of pipe
header
Welding-type
saddle
Deformation
(29) Pi i
ti
Piping
reaction
force
Mechanism of generation of
Measures to reduce stress
stress
Temperature difference occurs
Change the nozzles to the
between the nozzles during
flexible type.
start/stop operations, and bending
stress is generated on the welded
portion that has been locked
Flexible
between the nozzles and ceiling
hole.
Due to the difference in the
carbon content, carbon migrates
to the metal to be welded from
low-alloy steel, yielding a
decarbonized layer as a result,
and the strength on the low-alloy
side declines. By the difference in
thermal expansion between the
austenitic stainless steel to be
welded and the low-alloy base
steel, thermal stress is generated
on the portion welded. Because of
its high temperature, creep
damage also occurs.
Within a structure supported by a
spacer fixed by welding to the
hanging pipe of the
horizontal-type
super-heater/re-heater, thermal
stress is generated on the
spacer-welded portion due to the
temperature difference between
the upper and the lower pipes.
If the air vent pipe and drain pipe
of pipe header are the type of
such structure as being locked in
the housing hole, thermal stress is
generated at the welded portion of
the nozzle of pipe header.
Welding at factory
using Inconel welding
electrodes
Flexible saddle
spacer
Hole to
be fixed
166
Portion
Welded portion to fix the
anchor plate
Mechanism of generation of
stress
Due to the temperature difference
between the anchor plate and
furnace wall piping occurring by
start/stop operations of a boiler,
stress concentrates at the welded
portion of the anchor plate.
Anchor plate
Stand-off
Membrane-edge connecting
waterwall and cage walls
Membrane
Portion
where
cracking
occurs
Waterwall
pipe
Stopper
Forepart of
the tank
Welded liner of
super-heater/desuper-heater
Desuper-heater main
body
Support
Base pipe
Protection cylinder
Fitting of liner
(Welding type)
Spray
nozzle
Liner
Support
ring
Weldi
Waterwall
pipe
Improved
structure
(pin type)
Spray
nozzle
Pin
Portion where
cracking occurs
Main
piping
Membrane
Pin
Stopper
Portion where
cracking occurs
Support
lag
Thermal
insulation
material
Shear
lag
Main
piping
Thermal
insulation
material
Band
Ceiling hole
Crwon
Ceiling
piping
Ceiling
piping
Hanging loop
pipe
Sliding spacer
Pipe header
at furnace
front wall
167
(Oval lag)
Pipe header
at furnace
side wall
However, in a corrosive environment, strength against fatigue declines, which causes cracking at the inner face
within a pipe by corrosion fatigue.
As a characteristic of a cracked surface caused by corrosion fatigue, many cracks are accompanied by pits
caused by the corrosion along the cracks.
As basic countermeasures, such actions to soften the thermal stress are considered important. In such a case, it
is required to change the tension plate support to a sliding type and improve the structure so that the thermal stress
may be softened.
Examples of other corrosion fatigue are introduced below:
Ligament of the pipe header at the inlet of the economizer (Fig. 3.2.2-3)
The occurrence of cracking was experienced at the ligament of the pipe header at the inlet of the economizer
due to the same cause as above. This was also caused by corrosion fatigue.
(4) Mechanical fatigue
In the case of mechanical fatigue, the cracking is a type of transgranular cracking in general. The ruptured face
has a fine fatigue face, and no extension by rupture was detected.
Pipe header at
outside furnace
Fig. 3.2.2-3 Example of corrosion fatigue of the inner ligament of the pipe header nozzle at the inlet of the
economizer
(5) High-temperature corrosion
The surface stainless steel pipe affected by high-temperature corrosion has been damaged by corrosion in a
pockmarked fashion. The corroded portion is composed of an oxide layer a polysulfide layer a carbonized
layer base metal from the outer piping surface. From the viewpoint of microstructure, the corroded and
carbonized structure of grain boundary is found. A drop in expansion as well as a drop in strength can be
detected.
168
Creep
Fatigue
(including creep
fatigue)
Corrosion
Wear
Cause
Measures
Subject portion
Assessment of
remaining life by replica,
ultrasonic testing, TDFD,
ELFOSS, UT inspection
Restriction on
elongation by heat
Add flexibility
Sliding
Shape the stress
concentrates
R-machining, chamfering,
change of shape
Thermal shock
Dissimilar metal
welding (SUS/Cr-Mo)
Inconel solvent
Corrosion fatigue
High-temperature
fatigue, oxidation
Improvement of bearing
force of material, addition
of extra welding
Super-heater, re-heater
Furnace wall
Oxidation of steam
(SUS piping)
Super-heater, re-heater
Except the stress analysis method, it is not possible to assess the remaining life if you use only any one of above
methods. Assessment of remaining life is carried out by combining the methods.
(1) Stress analysis method
This is a method of obtaining the life consumption by calculation based on the equipment subjected to
169
assessment, the geometric shape of the part, the operation history such as temperature, stress, etc., the strength
against creep rupture, and the properties of the materials. The finite element method using a computer makes it
possible to analyze the stress of a complex structure.
With respect to the properties of the material to be used for the analysis, it is required to include the safety ratio
in the laboratory data to some extent considering possible variations of the properties. Therefore, the assessment
result leans towards the safe side.
With respect to such operation history as the temperature, stress, etc. to be used for the analysis, calculation is
performed by dividing the operation history into several typical patterns. In order to cope with the recent complex
operation history, the remaining life is sometimes assessed by installing a life-monitoring device at the pipe
header at the outlet of the super-heater, water separator, boiler circulation pump, etc.
(2) Destructive test method
This is a method of estimating the remaining life through various types of destructive tests by taking out test
specimens from the components actually put under operation. This test method is usually employed for
components (typically, the boiler tube) from which test specimens can be easily taken out. The advantage of this
method is that the remaining life of a given material can be assessed directly, including its history at the time of
manufacture, even if the temperature or stress history of the material in the past is not made clear. The
disadvantage is that sampling is required, the portion where the test specimen has been taken out needs to be
repaired, and time and expense are required for creep rupture testing, fatigue testing, etc.
As a measure making it possible to perform destructive testing by using much smaller test specimens,
destructive testing through a miniature test is available. As shown in Fig. 3.2.3-1, its effectiveness has been
verified.
Conventional test specimen
Stress (MPa)
Conventional test
specimen
Time of rupture
Comparison of strength against creep rupture between a conventional
test specimen of 1 Cr 0.5 Mo Steel and a miniature test specimen
170
Table 3.2.3-1 Non-destructive method of assessing the remaining life of components affected by creep/fatigue damage
Subject
damage
Creep
damage
Fatigue
Method as described
Low-alloy steel
in Attachment 3 of the
Electricity Utilities
Welded
Base metal
Industry Law
portion
Steel
Base metal
Welded
portion
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Ultrasonic method
Structure-quantifying method
{
{
{
{
{
{
Creep damage
(a) Deposition intergranular distance method
This method is used for the assessment of creep damage of low-alloy steel base metal. Low-alloy steel is a
material whose strength against creep has been raised by depositions and shows ductile creep damage. When used
for many hours in a high-temperature atmosphere, the intergranular distance of this disposition becomes larger
and, at the same time, resistance against deformation declines, causing the creep to accelerate. This phenomenon
is represented by the creep distortiontime curve in general. The change depends on the temperature and stress of
the subject component. By measuring the intergranular distance between particles of disposition, the creep
distortion at the time of assessment can be obtained. Therefore, the behavior of creep distortion thereafter can be
predicted, and the creep remaining life can be assessed. The intergranular distance of disposition is obtained by
image processing of the replica taken out from the subject component using an electrolytic discharge-type
scanning electron microscope (Fig. 3.2, 3-2).
Disposition
Replica
Scanning
line
Point
Scanning-type electron
microscope
Mean free-path
Average intergranular
distance (m)
171
172
Extracted replica
Replica
Component surface
(etched surface)
Optical microscope
Scanning-type electron
microscope
Micro-crack
Creep cavity
Metal structure
Damage factors
Mechanical
damage
Microscopic
structure
Analysis electron
microscope
Deposition
distribution
Comprehensive
damage
category
Disposition
Life consumption
ratio by creep
breakage (%)
Material damaged
by creep
Material not
used yet
The creep damage of the component affected by welding heat from these steels is a type of fragile damage and
generates creep voids at the grain boundary. As the generation of voids increases, the electric resistance tends to
become stronger (Fig. 3.2.3-4). The amount of damage is assessed by using the electric resistance ratio of unused
material and the electric resistance ratio of the component being assessed, and by referring to the master curve
indicating the relationship with the amount of damage. Assessment accuracy has been improved by making it
173
easier to grasp the level of damage proximate to the surface by using an alternative current. In addition, it is
required in this method to spot weld a platinum wire to the subject component. If an electrode has once been
installed, building of a scaffold, thermal insulation, removal/restoration of the exterior plate, and polishing of the
subject component for inspection are not required thereafter. Therefore, the costs for inspection can be reduced. In
addition, it is possible to make measurement at any time during operation. This method can also be used for
monitoring the main piping, etc.
(e) Void (cavity) area ratio method
As shown in Fig. 3.2.3-5, voids are generated at the grain boundary when the HAZ portion of low-alloy steel or
9 Cr steel is affected by creep damage. The number of voids increases as the damage grows. The voids become a
crack after growing/combining (namely, the area of voids increases), and finally result in the rupture of the
component material. In this method, the ratio between the total area of voids generated within the observation
visual field and the total observation visual area is defined as a void (cavity) area ratio. Using this ratio together
with the master curve prepared by its correlation with the degree of creep damage, the life is assessed in this
method (Fig. 3.2.3-5).
Replica
Scanning-type
electron microscope
174
Crystal
grain
Direction of stress
Frequency
Direction of stress
Deformation
coefficient Sm
(standard deviation)
Frequency
Maximum
diameter
Regression curve
99% reliable section
99% reliable section of creep
damage ratio +/- 0.09
Formal
distribution
Fig. 3.2.3-7 Assessment of creep damage to Cr-Mo steel base metal through the crystal grain deformation method
incidence of ultrasonic waves from the component surface to the 1st bottom echo, and by carrying out power
spectrum analysis, the area within a certain frequency range is calculated to define it as the noise value. The
assessment flow in the ultrasonic method is shown in Fig. 3.2.3-9.
steel
HAZ-reproduced component with SR
: Application of reaction
Search
unit
Frequency
analyzer
Life assessment
Noise value
Frequency (MHz)
st
1 bottom echo
Component for
assessment
PC
Amplitude (dB)
Pulse receiver
Oscilloscope
Noise
analysis
Amplitude (dB)
Data measurement of
component for assessment
Life ratio
176
Magnetic powder
copying film
Magnetic powder
Oxidation scale
Magnetic
field
Crack detection
boundary
Crack
detection
boundary
177
W elding material
Base material
Base material
Transmitter
Surface
wave
Diffracted
wave
Receiver
Wave diffracted on
the crack top
Wave diffracted on
the crack bottom
Fig. 3.2.4-1
Classification of damage to a welded portion
Wave reflected
on the bottom
Crack
Diffracted
wave
Type III damage (damage in a rough-grain area) appears on the external surface of a pipe, whereas Type IV
damage (damage in a fine-grain area) occurs within a thick wall pipe and expands toward the surface. Impure
substances contained in the steel play an important role in Type IV cracks.
(2) Inspection method for Type IV cracks
Typical inspection methods for Type IV cracks occurring within a pipe having a thick wall are explained below.
The inspection method is used alone or jointly with other methods.
TOFD method
As an inspection technology able to assess Type IV cracks occurring from the inside of a thick wall precisely
and quantitatively, the TOFD (Time of Flight Diffraction) method has been developed and put to practical use,
which is an ultrasonic wave flaw detection method using 2 search units for transmission and receipt. A comparison
with the conventional angle beam method is shown in Fig. 3.2.4-2.
The conventional method was in principle designed so as to catch reflecting echoes from a defect. Therefore,
there were some cases where inspection was not possible depending on the direction of the crack. It was also
178
Delay circuit
Vibrator
Angle of
deflection
Focus
Electronic focusing by
delay circuit
If the activation timing of
the vibrator is
changed with the
same interval in the
right and left
directions, an
ultrasonic wave
beam focuses. In
addition, the focal
depth can be freely
set by the duration of
the timing.
179
Scanning
Portion affected by
weld heat
Deposited metal
portion
Plate thickness
direction (mm)
Deposited metal
Base material
portion
Portion affected
Portion affected
by weld heat
by weld heat
Base material
Base material
Fig. 3.2.4.-4 Image processing of flaw detection results through the ultrasonic noise method
(c)
Such impure substances cause overheating of the piping materials, generation of scaling, formation of local
cells, or corrosion due to condensed salts and lead to future swelling out or explosion of the piping.
As shown in Table 3.2.5-1, the thermal conductivity of scale largely varies depending on its chemical
ingredients. Because the size of scale is smaller than that of piping materials, adhered scale blocks thermal
conduction causing overheating or heat loss of piping materials.
Table 3.2.5-1 Thermal conductivity of metal and scale
Type
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
Mild steel
45 ~ 70
Scale containing silicate as its major ingredient
0.2 ~ 0.5
Scale containing iron oxide as its major ingredient
0.9 ~ 2.3
Fat and oil
0.1
Water
0.6
The water vapor oxidized scale generated in the steam system peels off during operation and accumulates in the
U-shape pipe of the super-heater piping, resulting in its explosion. Its fragments may fly over to the turbine and
damage the blade.
180
Coal-fired boiler
400 ~ 450
250 ~ 350
Coal/oil
90 ~ 120
75 ~ 105
60 ~ 90
mixture-fired
300 ~ 400
250 ~ 350
200 ~ 300
boiler
75 ~ 105
60 ~ 90
45 ~ 75
24 ~ 36
Oil-fired boiler
250 ~ 350
200 ~ 300
150 ~ 250
80 ~ 120
Gas-fired boiler
Same as above
Same as above
Same as above
Same as above
Note 1) The upper row in each column indicates the amount of adhered scale (mg/cm), the and lower row indicates the scale
thickness (m).
Note 2) The amount of adhered scale is the value at the flame side (180) of the inner evaporation piping.
Note 3) The amount of a once-through boiler of 18 Mpa class or smaller shall be 2/3 of the value shown in above table.
Note 4) Even if the actual values are less than above, it is recommended to carry out chemical cleaning when the boiler has been
operated for 50,000 hours or longer.
181
ZnO
Al2O3
NiO
MgO
CaO
P2O5
Cr2O3
MoO
MnO
Refractory
by acid
H
I
Cu
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
Pipe specimen
Chemical content
Fe3SO4
Boiler
Average
adhering
amount
(mg/cm2)
65.3
25.4
20.4
24.1
23.4
9.6
38.4
58.3
33.0
73.0
97.5
97.9
97.9
1.9
34.5
2.8
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
1.1
15.1
10.0
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.7
0.9
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
14.5
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
10.3
<0.1
0.8
<0.1
<0.1
13.3
<0.1
1.7
0.1
0.2
10.6
0.3
4.9
-
1.8
-
0.7
0.5
2.1
0.2
1.9
<0.1
0.7
<0.1
65.9
<0.1
<0.1
11.3
<0.1
17.8
1.5
1.7
0.3
125.0
125.3
95.4
88.1
<0.1
<0.5
<0.02 <0.1
<0.5 <0.5
<0.2
<0.5
<0.5
<0.4
<0.5
<0.5
1.8
3.3
0.9
0.8
0.4
<0.5
1.3
-
Outer
layer
Inner
layer
Base
material
With respect to boiler E, fine-grain FeO from CWT (combined water treatment) adheres to the magnetite, and
the scale has smooth surface.
(e) Boilers G, H, and I generate vapor-type scale. Cr-Mo steel (low-alloy steel) has been used for these
boilers. Two-layer scale, called steam-oxidized scale; one in the neighborhood of piping materials with a
high content of chromium and the other at steam side with a high content of iron oxide are generated as
shown in Photo 3.2.5-2.
182
Remarks
Washing with
water
Prevention of
rust by
neutralization
Final washing
with water
Cleaning with
acid
Washing with
water
{
{
Cleaning by
degreasing
Cleaning with
ammonia
During construction
Copper content: high
After
Copper content: low
operation
Copper content: none
Flushing
U
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
U
U
{
{
{
{
{
{
U
U
Before acid cleaning, ammonia cleaning is performed as pretreatment in order to dissolve the copper
content.
In lieu of the above i) and ii) cleaning, chelating cleaning is sometimes carried out. Its cleaning process is:
Ferrous removal cooling copper removal/rust prevention washing with water
(4) Planning and implementation of cleaning
Planning of cleaning includes understanding the overall structure of the subject boiler, studying the cleaning
specifications through investigation of scale, selection of a method of treating wastewater, and planning the
implementation method. The planning procedures are shown in Fig. 3.2.5-1.
183
Investigation of scale
z
z
z
z
Scale ingredients
Amount of adhered scale
Scale generation rate
Deterioration level of the material
Implementation
Inspection
z Visual inspection
z Amount of corrosion to be checked
by a test piece
z Amount of scale removed by
cleaning
Dissolution test
z Scale dissolution test
z Material deterioration test
z Investigation of customers
environmental conditions such as
wastewater standards, etc.
z Availability of wastewater treatment
equipment at customer side
z Experimental wastewater treatment
Summary
184
N2 gas
Pressure gage
Flow meter
Side wall
Front/rear
walls
Side wall
Water
supply line
Temporary construction
Temporary
level gage
Steam drum
Sampling
Thermometer
Mixing header
Mixing heater
Inspection nipple
Draw
pump
Hydrazine pump
Pure water
Circulation pump
Steam
Chemicals
injection pump
Tank
Blower
Ejector
Flow meter
Thermometer
N2H4 tank
SH Water-filling pump
Sampling
Cage
N2H4 pump
Steam
separator
Evaporator
Steam
separation
tank
Ceiling wall
Blow line
Steam
Mixing heater
Cold
water
Chemicals
tank
Ejector
Circulation pump
Chemicals
injection pump
From tank-lorry
Economizer
High-pressure supply
water super-heater
To blow line
185
Pure water
Total number
of units
30 years or 25 ~ 29
longer
years
20 ~ 24
years
15 ~ 19
years
10 ~ 14
years
5~9
years
0~4
years
Pump case
(Renewal cycle: 35 40 years)
Generation of
cracks
Motor case
(Renewal cycle: 35 40 years)
Expansion of in-low
clearance
Deformation of gasket
Uneven tightening
Warming shortage
Overlapping of thermal
insulation materials
Abnormal sound
Abnormal vibration
Steam leakage, water
leakage
Cavity abnormal
temperature rise
Heat exchanger
(Renewal cycle: 35 40 years)
Accumulation of
Cavity temperature
scale
rise
Fatigue/corrosion
Water leakage
of welded portion
Deterioration of
insulation materials
186
Insulation drop
Ground
fault/unstable life
Non-conformance events
As explained above, non-conformance events have been reduced to date, and the reliability of the circulation
pump of boiler has been largely improved. However, there still remain many plants for which no structural
improvement has been implemented so far. It is required therefore to recheck the non-conformance events in the
past and reflect their results in the completion of details of inspection items and on the plan for repair.
Non-conformance events of major parts are outlined in Fig. 3.2.6-2, which shows the deterioration phenomena
and renewal cycle of major parts (renewal cycle with addition of the effect of the bearing force improvement plan
to the past experiences).
Guideline for implementation of preventive maintenance and inspection
Inspection items are divided into general inspection items and special inspection items. General inspection
mainly involves visual inspection, whereas non-destructive testing is the main item of special inspection, which
should be started from the 10th year after the start of operation to obtain remaining life assessment data.
Concretely, the target regular inspection cycle should be set at 4 years, and a long-term plan of details for
checking/inspection items and details for repair items should be developed Items to be implemented should
be confirmed at the start of the respective regular inspection.
Concept of measures for improvement of bearing force and examples of implementation
Measures for improvement of bearing force of the circulation pump of boiler equipment are promoted under the
2 concepts below, aiming to respond to any change in the operation method of power generation plants
(conversion to WSS/DSS), extension of the inspection cycle, and prolongation of operation life:
(a)
Improvement of structure, materials, and work method
(b)
The motor stator coil has been changed to cross-linked polyethylene wire.
Coils manufactured before 1980 were made of PVC wire, which involved the issue that the rewinding
cycle was short because hardening/fragility of the insulation coat was accelerated due to reduction of
the plasticizer.
187
3.2.7 Fan
(1) Measures to improve reliability and guideline for maintenance and inspection
The present time is called a maintenance age. The number of social systems and production systems subjected
to maintenance are accumulating at a continuously increasing speed. According to a certain trial calculation, the
ratio of costs for maintenance was 10% of social capital investment during the 1970s, whereas it increased to 30%
during the 1990s and to 50% by 2020. Under these circumstances, maintenance costs keep increasing; how to
cope with this in a quantitative manner, how to improve cost efficiency keeping improvement of reliability, and
how to select the type of acceptable maintenance have become serious issues.
Because the fans installed at power generation plants are kept in operation for a long period of time from the
start of operation until the time they are disposed of, the accumulated number of units has been increasing. It is
required to make clear what inspection items are to be applied to these fans and to implement them under a
controlled cycle and implement feedback and feedforward without any reserve. Because efficiency and
rationalization of maintenance costs is directly linked to the management, it is required to develop a general image
of maintenance, determine what is presently missing, and implement these items in a well-planned manner.
Axial fan
As boiler capacity becomes larger, the rotating-type variable axial fan suitable for large-capacity boilers with
reduced power consumption under partial load has been widely used as a ventilating fan for power generation
equipment other than FDF, IDF, PAF, BUF, and high-temperature GRF. Control for improvement of reliability is
further required, because the structure of the rotating-type variable mechanism is complex and the number of parts
is larger than the same of the centrifugal fan.
As a result of measures taken for the improvement of reliability [1] with consideration paid to the problems
with axial FDF experienced over a period of 15 years since 1970, the employment of axial fans started, and the
problem occurrence ratio has been suppressed to its minimum. However, in view of the facts that the installation
of axial fans increased from 1985 onward when many thermal power generation plants were constructed, and that
its usage has expanded, it is desirable to carry out precise inspection of fans used for many years in order to
further secure their reliability.
Centrifugal fan
Although the reliability of centrifugal fan has been improved, many fans have already been in use for 20 years
or longer. It is required to plan and implement measures to improve their reliability further taking into account any
aged deterioration or any change in operation from what was expected at the start of operation.
Because the operation of thermal power generation plants corresponds to the peak power generation capacity,
the number of start/stop operations has increased, which, as a result, requires the improvement of the bearing force
of impellers, bearings, and couplings.
(a) Stress change occurs at the impeller caused by the change in RPM due to start/stop of operations.
Especially with GRF, low-cycle fatigue occurs due to repeated thermal expansion caused by temperature
fluctuation. If you start the operation of GRF at room temperature, the temperature of the intake gas
rapidly changes and the vibration becomes several times larger for some time than the vibration
experienced under stable, steady operation. This is an effect of the difference in thermal expansion
caused by the temperature difference among the components of the impeller. When the temperature of
the impeller becomes stable after continuing operation in a stable gas temperature atmosphere, the
amplification of vibration gradually lowers and the operation becomes stable. In particular, when a
riveted joint is used, this phenomenon frequently appears. Therefore, if a riveted structure has been used
for the impeller, it is recommended to change it to a welded structure and remodel the connection of the
impeller to the shaft/hub to a reaming bolt connection structure from the rivet-fixed type. Because the
effect of thermal distortion concentrates on the riveted structure, non-destructive testing needs to be
carried out for the components concerned when the fan is not in use or regular inspection is carried out.
In the case of the structure of the axisboss shrink fit, any vibration that may be caused by the decrease
in the shrink-fit margin or loosening due to the transitional difference in temperature distribution is of
concern. It may be required to increase the shrink-fit margin or change to an integrated rotor of the
axisboss.
If the level of adherence of the mating portion of the axisboss shrink-fit structure changes as the time
passes, that the vibration may become stronger or the torque transmission ability may drop are concerns.
Ultrasonic waves can be used to test the level of such adherence. Figure 3.2.7-1 shows the inspection
principles when a clearance is available for testing.
(b) Any fatigue damage that occurs to the face of the tooth at the gear coupling due to start/stop operations
is also a concern. Complete inspection is required. It is recommended to change to a tooth face with
improved bearing force or to a flexible coupling having no contact with the face of the tooth.
188
(c) Stress occurring at the impeller is strong. When carrying out non-destructive testing at regular
inspection, such a case is found where the portions and number of occurrences of damage increase as
time passes. In case there is concern that complete reliability may not be secured through regular
inspection or repair only, it is required to change to an impeller of a type whose generated stress has
been reduced by increasing its wall thickness or improving its welding quality.
Precise inspection of large-sized fan
Large-sized fans are disassembled and maintained at each regular inspection. Items subjected to precise
inspection of the respective parts of the centrifugal fan that can be implemented for such aged deterioration
phenomena as corrosion, wear, cracking, etc. are shown in Table 1. Because problems with large-sized fans can
lead to operation stop of the unit or to load limit, it is recommended to carry out full assessment at respective
regular inspection, etc.
The fan is equipped with attachment devices other than the main unit such as the lubricating device, silencer,
measuring apparatus, etc. It is required to secure the reliability of these devices as well as securing the reliability
of the main unit. For inspection of the main unit, disassembling, which requires many processes, is necessary.
Because fewer processes are required for disassembling inspection of attachment devices, it is recommended to
carry out regular maintenance once a year.
Impeller
Impeller hub
Shaft
Mating portion
Hub
Shaft
Transmitted
wave
Sensor
189
(d) Assessment of the cost for the armor system of the blade-shaped centrifugal fan that can be replaced on
site
The researches are mainly focused on the centrifugal blade-type fan, which cannot in most cases be applied
directly to the axial fan, which is the mainstream in Japan.
Axial-type IDF, many of which have been introduced in Japan from around 1985, have already been used for
10 years or longer. It is considered that such study will become necessary as the same EPRI conducted for wear.
Fatigue is divided into low-cycle fatigue caused by start/stop operations and high-cycle fatigue occurring during
normal operation. It is required to fully assess the rotating blade of the axial fan because damage to it is highly
expected. A study is required to be conducted for low-cycle fatigue if the frequency of start/stop operations has
increased in the course of the change in the operation method to more than when the unit was initially installed.
3.2.8
Corrosion of boiler equipment occurring in its water zone and countermeasures against it
Introduction
The purposes of controlling thermal power generation plants by establishing a reference value for each item of
water supply, boiler water, and steam is to prevent any problems from occurring to the equipment composing the
thermal power generation plant caused by corrosion and/or scale due to the quality of water used and to continue
the operation of the plant in a safe and smooth manner. As the pressure and temperature of the main steam rise
higher, the thermal efficiency of the plant becomes higher. However, the plant is likely to be affected by corrosion
or scale, and the level of such effect becomes higher. Therefore, water quality control is an important task that
affects the thermal efficiency and operation efficiency of the unit.
While the water treatment engineering of boiler equipment has remarkably advanced in these years, accidents
often occur from thermal power generation plants caused by the water used by aged equipment or DDS
operation. Those staff responsible for water quality and the staff in charge of operation and maintenance of the
plant are required to understand the importance of water quality control and endeavor to improve it.
Problems arising from water are roughly divided into issues of corrosion, fragility, (cracking) and scale. As
shown in Fig. 3.2.8, most of the problems relating to water occur when multiple causes are combined. Upon
occurrence of any problem, its cause must be analyzed and assessed in detail to establish adequate
countermeasures.
An outline of various types of problem and their causes, handling, and preventive measures is given below.
{ Attack by ammonia
{ Erosion of turbine
{ Inadequate materials
{ Defective design of orifice
{ Oxidization of steam
{ Clogging
{ Rise in differential
pressure
{ Adherence of scale
{ Corrosion of entire unit
{ Thermal conduction
was blocked
{ Alkali corrosion
{ Carry over
{ Leakage of seawater
Drop in efficiency
Opening by
swelling-out
breakage
{ Defective control of
combustion
190
boiler equipment at an adequate timing, it is very seldom that the evaporation piping is damaged by overheating
due to the thermal resistance of the scale itself.
[Metal]
(Scale thickness 0.33 0.49 mm)
Appearance of the portion
of leakage
191
off and lifted, and heat conduction was blocked by the steam layers generated between the scale layers. As
countermeasures against this, it is required to capture the level of scale growth by regular pipe sampling
inspection and determine the adequate timing of chemical cleaning.
Corrugated scale
At a plant where volatile matter treatment is undertaken as a method of treating supply water, there are many
experiences where the scale adhered to the inner evaporation piping of a furnace shows a corrugated pattern.
Especially with respect to the supercritical sliding-pressure once-through boiler, the average rate of flow in the
piping becomes higher. Therefore, scale with this corrugated appearance increases the break-through resistance of
the furnace, which may cause problems in operation. The cause of the generation of such corrugated scale has not
yet been clarified. The scale is considered to be generated under such a condition that chemical factors and fluid
dynamics factors have been combined. Namely, dissolution and deposition of the component materials in a
high-temperature, high-pressure atmosphere as chemical factors and cyclic structural change of turbulent
boundary layers as fluid dynamic factors are considered combined, whereby such corrugated scale was generated.
Photo 3.2.8-3 shows an example of the corrugated scale generated within a supercritical sliding-pressure
once-through boiler. In this case, the amount of adhered scale is not so great that chemical cleaning is required,
but problems in operation have occurred because the break-through resistance became stronger due to the shape of
such scale. As countermeasures, the scale is removed by chemical cleaning in order to reduce the break-through
resistance. Thereafter, it was clarified that the generation of such corrugated scale could be suppressed by
changing the supply water treatment to oxygen treatment, according to certain European literature and the
test results of oxygen treatment verification carried out in Japan . This oxygen treatment method has the
advantage of a reduction in running costs, including the prevention of such corrugated scale from being generated.
Therefore, this oxygen treatment method is currently being rapidly introduced to once-through boilers in Japan.
Direction
of flow
192
water (flow nozzle), and the high-pressure supply water system (strainer of the water supply pump, rectifying
cylinder of the high-pressure supply water heater, heater piping), etc. This scale adheres to portions where there is
no thermal load, which however is present in the evaporation piping. It is considered that the adherence of scale is
a phenomenon that occurs when chemical factors, fluid dynamic factors, and static electric factors (charged
grains) are combined.
Temperature (C)
193
Scale
Orifice
194
Oxygen treatment
Photo 3.2.8-6 Example of scale adhering to rectifying cylinder of high-pressure supply water heater
(1) Corrosion at the furnace water-wall tube of coal-fired boilers
Corrosion
It has been known from long ago that strong corrosion occurs at the furnace wall of coal-fired boilers by flame
impingement (flames hit the waterwall piping directly in the neighborhood of the burner zone).
In such a case, it is considered that the area exposed to flames is locally placed under low oxygen partial
pressure, because a lot of unburned carbon, FeS, etc. are contained in the adhered ash. As shown in the chemical
formula below, FeS contained in the adhered ash reacts with the Fe contained in the waterwall piping to yield
FeS. Because FeS contains more grid defects than such oxides as FeO, the protective capability of the coat
becomes poorer, causing strong corrosion.
Recently, many cases are found such as the 2-step-type combustion process being employed for many boilers
for power generation as a measure to satisfy low NOx yield. In such a process, the area in the neighborhood of
burner zone becomes an atmosphere of low oxygen partial pressure containing HS. Figure 3.2.8-2 shows the
impact of air ratio on the balanced structure of gas when Datong (Chinese) coal containing 0.63% S is burned at
1300. When the air ratio is 0.8 or less, it is obvious that a lot of reduced contents such as H, CO, HS, etc. is
contained in the combustion gas. In particular, when such coal containing a lot of S content is used as fuel, the
HS density becomes higher, creating a severe corrosive environment. Corrosion of the furnace waterwall piping
caused by high-temperature sulfide becomes a critical issue. Coal combustion gas is composed of CO, CO, HO,
HS, COS, N, etc. As a result, the environment has become a family of so-called C-H-O-S. The critical factors of
corrosion are oxygen partial pressure and sulfur partial pressure in the atmosphere. In an atmosphere where the
oxygen partial pressure is high, oxidation plays a leading role in the corrosion of materials, whereas in an
atmosphere where the sulfur partial pressure is high, sulfuration plays a leading role. In an atmosphere where
oxidation is the leading player, the protective characteristic of the oxidized coat becomes excellent, resulting in a
negligible level of corrosion. On the other hand, in an atmosphere where sulfuration is the leading player, the
protective characteristic of the sulfide coat becomes remarkably poor, resulting in strong corrosion.
With respect to the corrosion occurring in an atmosphere of low oxygen partial pressure and high sulfur partial
pressure, it is considered that the reaction mentioned below is the leading player.
195
Air ratio
Fig. 3.2.8-2 Impact of air ratio on the balanced structure of combustion gas at 1300
H2S + Fe Fes + H2 ...........................................................................................................(7)
2CO + SO2 + Fe FeS + 2CO2 ..........................................................................................(8)
This corrosion gradually grows to complete corrosion in general. At a portion where repeated thermal stress is
strong, the corrosion may grow in a groove shape in the direction of the circumference (which is called
elephant-hide alligator-skin cracking).
Other than the above corrosion, it has been reported that corrosion involving such vitriols as XSO, XSO
(X: Na or K), etc. contained in the adhered ash or pyrosulfate can occur when the SO density in the combustion
gas is high . However, cases of corrosion of the waterwall piping by these alkali compounds are not reported
very frequently.
In UK where coal containing lot of Cl is used, acceleration of corrosion of waterwall piping caused by HCl
contained in the combustion gas has been reported. Because the coal currently used in Japan contains a very small
amount of Cl, no corrosion caused by HCl contained in the combustion gas has been reported to date. From the
standpoint that poor-quality coal may be used in future as fuels to be used diversify, it will be required to capture
well the influence of HCl on corrosion.
196
Photo 3.2.8-8 includes EPMA photographs of corrosive scale. The scale in the outer layer is composed of FeS,
whereas the inner layer is composed of a mixture in which FeO is the main content. It is typical corrosion in an
atmosphere of low oxygen containing a considerable amount of HS. In the neighborhood of the waterwall piping
surface where strong corrosion occurred, it is indicated that the content of HS in the combustion gas was 300
ppm, H was 1.5%, and CO was 6.1%, and the air ratio at the moment of combustion was 1 or less.
An example of groove-shape corrosion of the waterwall piping is shown in Photo 3.2.8-9. The appearance of
the corrosion is similar to that occurring at heavy oil-fired boilers. The causes of such groove-shape corrosion
are considered to be follows. Namely, the oxidized coat on the piping surface has cracked by repeated thermal
stress arising from any combination of adhered substances to the inner piping (FeO), condensation of air
bubbles, or local falling off of scale from the surface of the furnace piping. It is considered that corrosive gas
entered through the cracks and that the corrosion was accelerated at this gas-entered portion .
Considerable actions to prevent corrosion of waterwall piping are as follows:
(a) Measures to be taken in the design
(b) Selection of materials
(c) Employment of surface treatment
The most effective action is the use of coal with a lower S content. Such actions as employment of low-NOx
burners, use of fined coal to promote complete combustion, increase in the oxygen partial pressure on the piping
surface by filling boundary air (to create an air curtain along the waterwall piping) over the waterwall piping
surface, etc. are also considered effective .
Photo 3.2.8-10 shows the EPMA observation result of the scale on the piping surface before and after filling of
boundary air. By filling of air, the scale mainly containing sulfide has changed to scale mainly containing oxide.
As measures against groove-shape corrosion, suppression of the generation of substances adhering to the inner
portions through thoroughgoing water treatment or prevention of air bubbles from condensation by employing
rifle pipes is considered effective .
197
S: X-ray image
C: X-ray image
O: X-ray image
K: X-ray image
Photo 3.2.8-9 Appearance of groove-shape corrosion of waterwall piping in the neighborhood of the burner
With respect to the materials, use of the double piping system composed of an outer pipe made of materials
excellent in corrosion resistance such as SUS 347 H, SUS 310 S, etc. and an inner pipe made of carbon steel is
considered . These materials have been already put to practical use where the materials are exposed to severe
combustion gas containing HS and HCl .
For surface treatment, chromizing treatment by raising the Cr density by having Cr diffuse and penetrate is
effective for prevention of corrosion also. In addition, thermal spray coating of corrosive materials by plasma
thermal spray is effective for prevention of corrosion. Thermal spray process using 50 Cr 50 Ni as its material
has been put to practical use.
In the case of thermal spray, however, entry of gas into the layer of the metal/thermal spray cannot be avoided.
This process has not yet been put to practical use as a permanent countermeasure.
198
O: X-ray image
Before filling
boundary air
S: X-ray image
After filling
boundary air
O: X-ray image
S: X-ray image
Photo 3.2.8-10 EPMA observation result of corrosive scale adhering to waterwall piping before and after filling
boundary air
199
200
PO4
45.6
23.8
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.8
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
Water Quality
Requirements
Average pH
Silica (ppm.)
Pressure (psig)
Fig. 3.3.1-1: Impact of Pressure, pH and Concentration of Silica in Water to the Ratio of Silica under the Steam
Generation Volume of 5lb/h and in Static Condition
201
Silica (ppm.)
All volatile
treatment: pH:
approx. 9.0
Pressure (psig)
Fig. 3.3.1-4: Boiler Pressure and Maximum Permissible Silica Concentration Limit in Boiler Water
202
Table 3.3.1-2: Maximum Permissible Total Soluble Solid Material in Steam (Unit: ppb)
Material
NaCl
Na2SO4
Na3PO4
NaOH
SiO2
Total
Permissible
Concentration for
Continuous Operation
400
400
60
30
8
898
Permissible
Concentration for
Conditioned Operation
2000
2000
150
60
20
4230
Permissible
Concentration for
Intermittent Operation
4000
4500
300
150
45
8995
Chestexfield
170 MW
2600 psig
7.5 ppm
0.0021 ppm
0.028%
9.4 ppm
0.057%
Ashtabula
2500 psig
10.6 ppm
0.0029 ppm
0.027%
15.3 ppm
0.047%
Referring to the above reports, the concentration of silica was set to 0.02 ppm or below.
The tolerance of silica concentration in boiler water depends on the ratio of silica distribution in saturated steam.
It also depends on pressure and pH, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-1. Based on the distribution ratio, Fig. 3.3.1-2 is drawn
and C.E used Fig. 3.3.1-3.
In Fig. 3.3.1-2, the silica concentration is 0.18 to 0.19 ppm under the pressure of 186 to 188k and a pH of 7.8 to
9. From these data, the silica concentration was set as 0.2 ppm.
As the silica concentration in boiler water tends to rise when the boiler starts operation, due to the silica scale
deposited on the turbine low-pressure blades being washed away by wet steam, a silica purge must be
implemented to raise pressure by blowing the boiler, while ensuring the silica concentration is limited to within
the designated value. This is the main cause of delays and increased load when starting the drum type boiler.
Therefore, looser values were set, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-4, for the concentration of silica when starting a boiler.
The silica-washing device installed in a drum manufactured by Babcock-Hitachi K.K. showed a remarkable
ability to reduce the silica concentration in steam, doubling the permissible concentration of silica in the boiler.
(5) Total Soluble Solid Materials
As for the total soluble solid materials, the following reports were issued in the U.S.:
1) Fig.3.3.1-2 shows the permissible concentration for continuous operation (the maximum concentration that
does not cause significant silica deposit after operating a turbine for 8,000 hours), the permissible
concentration for conditioned operation (the maximum concentration after repeated stopping and restarting
or under such operation conditions as variable pressure operation) and the permissible concentration for
intermittent operation (the maximum concentration that does not cause any silica deposits for a relatively
short turbine operating period). The permissible concentration for continuous operation is approx. 1 ppm.
2) No significant silica deposits were observed in the concentration range of 0.1 to 0.2 ppm.
3) In order to operate a turbine without any washing for an extended period, the silica concentration must be
controlled to 0.05 ppm or below.
Experience at Himeji No. 2 Power Plant showed that deposits were rarely seen when a turbine was operated
with cationic conductivity of 0.3S or below. This corresponds to a silica concentration of 0.05 ppm.
Based on the above, the cationic conductivity and the silica concentration were determined as 0.3K-S/cm or
below and 0.05 ppm or below, respectively.
In order to determine the limit value for the total solid materials in the boiler water, the carry-over ratio of the
drum should be considered. With this in mind, the following data is issued:
1) The design value is 0.25%.
2) The value measured in the U.S. is 0.05% or so, as shown in Table 3.3.1-3.
3) The value measured in Himeji No. 3 Power Plant was approx. 0.15%.
Based on the above, the value was determined as 0.2%, taking safety into consideration, and the total solid
materials in boiler water was set as 25 ppm.
As the measurement of water quality under the all volatile treatment is 5K-S/cm, or 10K/S/cm at worst, the
total solid materials in boiler water was determined as 10 ppm.
203
Ignition
Normal values
Combined
feeding
Time (h)
Time
Time
Permittivity of
Cation-Exchange Resin
Condensate
t
Exit of WW
Entrance of ECO
Second stage low temperature
reheated steam
KC-floc used
204
(6) Hydrogen
As for hydrogen, it only indicates the corrosion condition of a tube and no measures can be taken based on it .
The generation of hydrogen can be determined as stable, because it remains commensurate with the surface
area, regardless of the volume of steam generated. Thus, it seems normal that the hydrogen concentration doubles
when the flow decreases by half.
As seen in the example where the hydrogen concentration is 2 to 4 ppb under stable operation, the chemical
reaction of iron and water continues to a certain extent, even under stable operation. This means the magnetite
coating undergoes a cycle of damage and recovery to a certain extent.
Increased hydrogen generation tells that the following events are happening:
1) The magnetite coating incurs significant damage. : E.g.: After chemical cleaning, the magnetite coating is
removed and thus hydrogen increases, returning to the normal level as the coating is formed (Fig. 3.3.1-5).
2) A new steel surface has appeared. : E.g.: Iron powder is generated by the flying apart of turbine blade; a
new metal surface appears on it, on which a chemical reaction progresses rapidly (Fig. 3.3.1-6).
3) The metal temperature has surged abnormally. : There is a report that the hydrogen concentration increased
by about 10 ppb when a reheating pipe caused creep damage for a relatively short period.
4) Organic materials (sugars) inputted have been decomposed (Fig. 3.3.1-7): There is a report that fine resin
leaked out from a condensate demineralization tower when water was introduced into it immediately after
replenishing the resin.
(7) Malfunctioning of Boilers in the U.S.
Table 3.3.1-4 indicates the result of investigations by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
on 116 boilers in the U.S. from 1950 to 1959. As stated in the table, 40% of boiler showed some pipe damage,
while 28% of boilers caused crater-shaped corrosion, which is considered alkali corrosion. Fig. 3.3.1-8 shows the
relationship between crater-shaped corrosion and hydroxy-ions, expressly showing how the concentration of the
latter may decline as pressure goes up.
205
42
49
14
8
3
36
42
12
7
3
13
21
53
26
3
11
18
46
22
3
6
33
26
28
23
5
28
23
24
20
0
15
80
21
0
13
69
18
0
68
3
46
0
59
2
39
72
36
4
4
62
31
3.5
3.5
7
4
5
7
18
28
18
11
7
8
3
6
3
4
6
16
24
16
9
6
7
3
101
15
87
13
Deaeration unit
Used
Not used
Final treatment of makeup
water
Deionizer is used.
Steam evaporator is used.
Boiler water treatment
Sodium sulfite
Hydrazine
Caustic soda
Phosphate
Potassium salt
Organics
Condensate water treatment
Morpholine
Cyclohexylamine
Ammonia
Problems
No corrosion losses
observed to pipes
Crater-type corrosions
89
27
77
23
50
66
43
57
80
41
81
111
3
13
69
35
70
96
3
11
76
12
12
65
10
10
70
60
32
28
(20 to 23% are of
fluidity
hindrance.)
Year of Operation
Before 1950
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
Economizer
Used
Not used
No. of Boiler
5
2
1
4
2
1
13
11
5
13
9
4
11
8
(Water-soluble
9)
Carry-over of silica
Acid washing
With acid washing
No acid washing
With initial acid washing
No initial acid washing
Total number of acid
washings
Once
34
82
45
37
29
71
44
(Initial acid
washing 22)
Twice
14
(Initial acid
washing 7)
Three times
21
(Initial acid
washing 13)
Four times
2
(Initial acid
washing 2)
Five times
1
(Initial acid
washing 1)
For users, chemical cleaning to prevent any damage, for manufactures, designs to avoid hot spots or fluidity
hindrances, for consultants, the removal of dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide from the
pre-boiler, curtailment of dissolving iron and copper and research into controlling the pH level are requested.
206
Concentration
Mother Water of
Boiler Water
Temperature
Concentrated
boundary Film
Number
of Cases
Year
Example
Overheat
Ash
Corrosion
Corrosion
Fatigue
Ash
Corrosion
Stress Corrosion
Brittleness against
Hydrogen
Alkali Corrosion
concentrated sodium hydroxide formed. According to an example of calculation , a 100k-class boiler containing
100 ppm of sodium hydroxide shows the temperature of inner surface of a pipe is increased by 5F when it is
heated at comparatively low heat flow rate of 25,000 BTU/ft2h, boosting the sodium hydroxide concentration by
10%.
Another report shows that the temperature of the inner surface of the pipe is increased by 30C at some hot
spots . The occurrence of such hot spots is considered attributable to film boiling that is likely to occur due to the
enlargement of heat flux in a large-sized boiler, steam blanket, lack of flow rate, inappropriate burner positioning,
contact of flame due to insufficient combustion control, biased combustion and gas flow, inclusion of slabs in the
welded parts, blow holes and lack of fusion.
Sodium hydroxide can result in corrosion of steel at a concentration of 5%. When the concentration reaches 5%
or above, it dissolved the protective oxide layer, causing the inner metal surface to become exposed and corroding
it due to the reaction of water and steel. The hydrogen generated by the reaction penetrates into and damages the
steel.
In Japan, alkali corrosion cases were also reported. As Fig. 3.3.1-10 shows, statistically speaking, this has been
responsible for the highest proportion of boiler accidents having occurred to date.
The alkali corrosion is otherwise known as a caustic attack, or in the U.S., as crater-shaped corrosion, due to its
shape. These differ from conventional caustic embitterment.
After such accidents, the injection of sodium hydroxide was stopped. Thereafter, a new finding was reported:
namely that hideout of phosphate ions causes not trisodium phosphate but 2.65-sodium biphosphate at 689F and
2.85-sodium biphosphate at 572F respectively. This means 0.35 to 0.15 of trisodium phosphate in the system is in
the form of sodium hydroxide. It thus emerged that phosphate containing sodium less than 2.6 sodium
biphosphate should be used.
However, even if such phosphate is used, it was found that pH in boiler water increased past this level due to
trisodium phosphate. The cause was identified as a leakage of sodium from a deionized water system. In order to
avoid leakage, a double-bed operation was used to place the deionized water system just after regeneration to the
latter stage. Due to the fact that the movement of the system used at the latter stage to the front stage resulted in a
more significant leakage, a mixed type system was installed at the latter stage to use it dedicated to a polisher.
Thanks to such measurements, no further alkali corrosion has been reported since 1963.
(9) Shift to All volatile treatment
The No. 2 boiler of the Karita Power Plant (a 170k forced circulation boiler) started its operation in June 1959
showed alkali corrosion to evaporator tube at the 3,700th hour. This was attributable to sodium hydroxide and the
use of the chemical was stopped. The investigation showed that powder scale was attached to its turbine blades,
especially the final stage of the medium-pressure turbine, mainly consisting of sodium bicarbonate. Gilbert
suggested the use of sodium acid phosphate to maintain the pH level of boiler water and make-up water at around
8.5 to 9.5. The phosphate ion was dramatically reduced two days after feeding phosphate ions into the drum. As
this resulted in heightened conductivity of saturated steam and carryover to the turbine, the use of phosphate ions
was terminated in February 1960.
As the volume of hydrazine was maintained, the pH level of boiler water was lower by 0.4 to 0.5 than that of
make-up water, which was well below 8.5 and maintained at that level.
Regarding the risk of leakage within the condenser, trisodium phosphate is fed and a drum blow operation is
started. After repairing the leakage, the concentration of phosphate ions decreased to 0.0 ppm.
In the U.S, all volatile treatment was used due to the heavy carryover having occurred, and an ambiguous trial
just to maintain turbine operation started. For them, there was no choice other than the use of the treatment
method.
208
Table 3.3.1-5: pH Control Methods of the Pressure Boiler of 130kg/cm2 or above by C.E.
How to Adjust pH
(1) Caustic Based
pH10.5 to 11.0
(Caustic alkali and phosphate ions are used.)
(2) Low Caustic Control
pH10.0 to 10.5
(Same as above)
(3) Cordinated Phosphate pH Control pH10.0 to 10.5
(Coordinated phosphate treatment is used and caustic alkali is not used.)
(4) All volatile treatment: pH 8.5-9.0
(Hydrazine and ammonia treatment is used and no solid chemicals are used.)
No. of Boilers
37
8
29
21
Scale Thickness
All volatile
treatment
Approx. 15%
Ingredient
strength
Approx. 80%
Approx. 10%
209
Total
125K Class
170K Class
140K Class
Year
Sodium
hydrate
Sodium
phosphate
Year
210
Table 3.3.1-6: Survey on Boilers whose Water Treatment Method was Switched from
All volatile treatment to Low Phosphate Treatment
When Phosphate
Materials for the Condenser
Treatment was
Started
Condensate water Part
Air Cooling Part
(Year/Month)
53.3
Aluminum brass
Nickel-plated
aluminum brass
48.1
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
45.3
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
51.5
Aluminum brass
Monel metal
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
53.2 (50.6PA)
53.5
Aluminum brass
Titanium
Unit
No.
Capacity
(MW)
Furnace
Type
Circulation
Method
36
375
Single
Natural
Start of
Operation
(Year/
Month)
47.11
65
66
67
70
78
156
156
350
156
156
Divided
Divided
Divided
Divided
Divided
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
39.8
41.2
44.1
39.6
48.4
86
87
250
250
Divided
Divided
Natural
Forced
42.7
43.7
49.4
52.6
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
88
250
Divided
Forced
44.1
52.2
Aluminum brass
89
90
106
108
265
265
350
265
Divided
Divided
Divided
Divided
Natural
Natural
Natural
Forced
42.5
44.9
47.2
35.10
47.5
50.10
54.1
54.11
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
BKCB
Aluminum brass
109
112
265
350
Divided
Divided
Forced
Forced
37.9
41.7
54.10
53.6
113
118
350
350
Divided
Divided
Natural
Forced
42.1
43.1
55.12
53.7
122
147
250
350
Single
Divided
Forced
Natural
45.6
44.9
54.1
53.6
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
148
168
169
181
350
250
350
400
Divided
Divided
Single
Single
Natural
Natural
Forced
Forced
45.1
46.1
48.1
52.9
55.12
51.3
53.12
56.3
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Cupronickel
Nickel-plated
aluminum brass
Nickel-plated
aluminum brass
Titanium
Titanium
Titanium
Nickel-plated
aluminum brass
Titanium
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Monel metal
Copper arsenate
Copper arsenate
Aluminum brass
Copper arsenate
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Monel metal
Monel metal
Carbon steel
Monel metal
Alloy steel
Carbon steel
Alloy steel
Alloy steel
Aluminum brass
Alloy steel
Copper arsenate
Copper arsenate
Aluminum brass
Copper arsenate
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Monel metal
Copper arsenate
Copper arsenate
Monel metal
Alloy steel
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Copper arsenate
Aluminum brass
Alloy steel
Alloy steel
Cupronickel
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Titanium
Cupronickel
Cupronickel
Titanium
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Aluminum brass
Alloy steel
Alloy steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Table 3.3.1-7: Corrosion Damage Reported in the U.S. on Drum Boilers (125k Class or above)
Periods
1955-1960
1961-1965
1966-1970
New damage
reported
48
39
27
Number of units in
operation
219
385
481
Ratio of annual
damage occurred
3.6%
2.0
1.1
just 5 to 500 ppb. In order to obtain such low concentrations, it is necessary to avoid mixing solid substances into
the feed water.
Generally speaking, the following are considered sources of solid substances into feed water :
x Solid substances derived from construction phase
x A mixture of cooling water into the system, due to leakage of the condenser
x Corrosion products derived from the feed water system
x Solid substances in supplementary feed
x Solution of resin from the deionized water system
Among them, leakage of the condenser occupies the largest part. To eliminate this, condensate purification
equipment is installed. This unit is relatively effective in removing dissolving metal.
When an equilibrium between the protective coating on the metal surface and the water contacting it is lost, due,
for example, to load fluctuation, and system start-up and stoppage, the volume of corrosion products contained in
feed water rapidly increases.
In order to maintain the stability of the metal surface during a system stoppage, the system should be carefully
protected while not in use, with the use of hydrazine water of high pH and nitrogen sealed in tubes.
At the same time, a clean-up operation should be implemented before the system restarts operation. As for the
solution of resin from the deionized water unit, resin slightly dissolves into water during the initial phase of the
unit start-up, until it reaches a stable condition, meaning fine-powdered resin mingles into the supplementary feed.
The effects thereof were not the subjects of research in 1959. In those days, it was considered that installation of a
fine pore filter before and after a condensate purification equipment was effective in removing fine powder resin.
As chemicals capable of solidifying must not be used, hydrazine, ammonia and amines should be used.
However, amines are not recommended because they decompose at high pressure.
Table 3.3.1-8: Damages to Boilers by Pressure and by the Water Treatment Method
Pressure
All volatile treatment
Sodium Phosphate Treatment
Sodium Hydroxide Treatment
Potassium Salt Treatment
Total
125k Class
5
12
41
5
63
140k Class
7
3
18
5
33
170k Class
11
8
4
23
Total
23
23
63
10
119
The No. 2 Boiler of the Himeji No. 2 Power Plant was imported from the U.S. and commenced comercial
operation in 1964. Table 3.3.1-9 shows the water quality standards, set based on actual operation performance.
This boiler uses hydrazine and ammonia injected into the outlet of its condensate purification equipment and
ammonia into the outlet of its deaeration unit.
(1) Condensate purification equipment
Condensate purification equipment normally consists of a mixed bed condensate demineralization tower and
filters placed in front of it. Some act as a polisher of supplementary feed.
The following three major objectives are associated with the use of condensate purification equipment:
1) To prevent damage to the entire system due to the leakage of a condenser
2) To purify the supplementary feed
3) To remove corrosion products from the feed water system
The secondary objectives include:
1) to purify various drain water before it enters into the system, and
2) to purify the system during the initial start-up and shutdown operations.
Contamination of ion-exchange resin by metal oxides and pressure loss of the condensate demineralization
tower impose significant impacts to the system when a high-speed ion exchange takes place. Due to this, a filter is
installed just before the tower to remove them and prevent the ion-exchange resin from deterioration.
As for appropriate materials to use for the filter, cellulose, diatomite, leaf-type and other fine pore filters are
recommended.
As for the condensate water condensate demineralization tower, although the impact of dissolved resin to the
tower has not yet been clearly identified, some say that the use of a filter, which puts after the demineralization
tower, can eliminate leakage from the tower. Himeji No. 2 Power Plant employs a combination of filters made by
United Filters, Inc. and Permutite Company. The label said the design conductivity was 0.2S/cm, and that design
silica, iron and copper concentrations were 7 ppb, 5 ppb and 5 ppb respectively, although these are not guaranteed
values.
The imported item of Himeji No. 2 Power Plant uses a horizontal leaf type pre-coat filter and Solka floc
212
BW-100 and -40 were used at a ratio of 1 to 1 as filtering agents. The agents heavily leaked out, were deposited on
the resin surface of the condensate demineralization tower caused pressure loss of the tower. The reasons for the
leakage were attributed to leaf-end gaps, the distance of leaf hubs, the non-parallel arrangement of the same,
variations in the water flow, an excessive design flow rate and the screen structure. The pressure loss exceeded the
design value, after pre-coating, it was attributable to the excessive flow rate and an overly small shaft and shaft
hole diameter. To eliminate the pressure loss, the system underwent renovation, but the loss still exceeded the
design value. So, other filter unit was added.
It is believed that the black carbon precipitated to the boiler tube when the filtering agent leaked in large
amount.
The condensate demineralization tower showed resin leakage, which was attributable to the gap of the disc
strainers, the distances between a disc strainer and the strainer plate and between the strainer plate and a bottom
plate.
In addition, sending resin to the regeneration tank led to massive amounts of residual resin accumulating at the
bottom of the tower, resulting in an insufficient regeneration process and imbalances between the cation and anion
resins. This was due to a structural defect at the bottom of the tower.
As the pressure loss of the condensate demineralization tower became abnormally high, resin with less than 60
mesh was filtrated using a filter (Permatite Q and S-1). The total annual fraction ratio came to approx. 45%, with
the ratio of damaged anion resin particularly high. As for the cause of the fractured resin, this was found to be
attributable to the relatively high design flow rate of 119m/h (51). Due to such experiences, a flow rate of 80m/h
was recommended.
However, despite such measures, the water purity showed no improvement. Even after investigation by a
Japanese condensate demineralizer manufacturer, no causes were identified. So, the staff was so desperate for help
that they used a sieve to remove small resins, whereupon the water purity showed improvement.
Table 3.3.1-9: Criteria for a Once-through Boiler
Pressure
Condensate water
Demineralized
Condensate water
Feed Water
ClO2
Electrical Conductivity
ppm
ppb
S
Subcritical
Pressure
0
40
0.2
Supercritical
Pressure
0
40
0.2
pH
9.0-9.5
9.2-9.7
O2
5
5
ppb
ppb
5-30
5-30
N2H4
0.2
0.2
Cationic conductivity S/cm
10
10
Fe
ppb
5
3
Cu
ppb
20
10
ppb
SiO2
Values not shown in the form of a range (a ~ b) are the maximum allowable values.
213
(2) Cleanup
(Inlet of an economizer in front of a
boiler unit of Himeji No. 2 Power Plant)
Time
Lowest Range
Start of switchover to a high
pressure heater (second time)
B-Line Feed Water
Highest Range
eliminated by a 0.45m filter. In Japan, as shown in Table 3.3.1-10, it was found that, when except a deaerator
tank, iron particles of 0.45m or above in size occupied more than 60% at the position requiring final assessment
and at the time measurement required just after starting up the plant.
These results were based on the plant being in continuous operation mode, with shutdown rarely occurring. The
successful results were attributable to the fact that large-sized particles detached from the boiler surface, etc., were
flown out temporarily into water in the lines when the plant started operation.
However, stopping the system frequently during the DSS operation gradually reduces the volume of such
particles of larger size. On the other hand, it was reported that the size of the needle-shaped corrosion products
generated in a condenser during plant stoppage and restart consisted of FeOOH of 0.02 to 0.1m and that other
products, such as magnetite, also detached from the boilers of which the size and shape were apparent in the form
of thin films of approx. 0.02m and square-shaped products of approx. 0.1m respectively. As the ratio of fine
particles of 0.45m in size or below newly generated from the system letup to restart tended to increase, it was
necessary to examine whether a filter of 0.45m should be continuously used or not.
Recently suggestions include, given the variability in the optical properties of FeOOH, Fe2O3 and Fe3O4, that
the color strength of these three products should be measured and quantified.
Table 3.3.1-10: Particle Diameter Distribution of Suspended Iron Oxides in System
Water when the System is Started
Specimen
Outlet of the
Condensate
pump
Sampling
Time*1
1
2
3
4
Deaerator tank
1
2
17
30
30
100
23
40
30
100
23
40
30
100
1
2
3
4
Inlet of an
Economizer
1
2
86
57
31
100
116
77
31
100
126
84
31
100
1
2
3
4
Outlet of
Furnace
1
2
86
57
31
100
116
77
31
100
126
84
31
100
1
2
3
4
* Sampling Time
[No. 4 Unit of Himeji No. 2]
1973.6
1: After boiler inspection
2: Cleanup at 117C
*2 The upper line of each column shows the concentration of iron collected by 0.45m, 0.22m
and 0.025m filters, while the bottom line shows the percentage of iron oxides of more than
0.45m, .22m and 0.025m in size relatively to the total iron.
1
2
3
1
2
3
3
37
6
73
4
54
4
50
6
73
4
63
11
73
11
83
6
88
12
80
12
87
6
96
44
94
58
95
3
72
45
96
58
96
3
72
As in the U.S. a supercritical pressure unit started operation without identifying the movement of impurities in
water under supercritical condition, many troubles of copper scales to a high pressure turbine was reported due to
the copper dissolved in steam. The troubles became a synonym of a trouble peculiar to supercritical pressure unit,
that had not been experienced in subcritical pressure units. For example, Avon No. 8 unit experienced a copper
scale deposit of 1.5 to 2.3mm in thickness and 5.5 lbs. in weight during its three-year operation, and the load of
250 MW was decreased to 216 MW.
Subsequently came the introduction of a supercritical pressure unit aiming to meet the increased power demand
during periods of high economic growth. As the new unit handles supercritical pressure, completely different from
subcritical pressure, the latest water treatment system was employed to handle the latest water treatment
technology at that time.
There remained some challenges to be overcome in water treatment after the introduction of a supercritical
pressure unit. The following are the experiences of the No. 4 unit in the Himeji No. 2 Power Plant.
(1) Copper and Condensate purification equipment
As explained above, the concentration of copper must be minimized, as it deposits on turbine blades. Referring
to experiences in the U.S, 2 ppb was determined as a target for the copper concentration.
To eliminate copper, there are two methods; namely removing copper alloys from plant and using condensate
purification equipment.
For the former, steel pipes were used for the feedwater heater in lieu of copper alloy pipes. The No. 4 unit of
Himeji No. 2 Power Plant only used copper alloy for its low-pressure heater No. 1 and 2.
There was no alternative to the use of aluminum brass and copper dissolved from a condenser can be removed
by condensate purification equipment. However the condensate purification equipment manufactured by Graver
and installed as the No.4 unit of Himeji No. 2 Power Plant met the guaranteed value of 0.3S for electrical
conductivity, while the iron, copper and total dissolved solid material concentrations of 10 ppb, 3 ppb and 35 ppb
respectively were only the target values. The condensate demineralizer used was an external regeneration system.
With this in mind, the criteria for the copper concentration of the No. 4 unit of Himeji No. 2 Power Plant was
set to 3 ppb, although the actual concentration could be contained at almost 2 ppb. All the units installed in the
Power Plant thereafter used steel pipes for all feed heaters and the criteria was changed to 2 ppb, which was
successfully met thereafter.
Temperature
Deposition
ignited. As Fig. 3.3.1-15, a result of experiments at B&W, shows, the iron starts depositing in a generating tube at
a temperature of 450F (232C). Therefore at this temperature or below, iron deposited at the inlet of an
economizer need not be considered. In actual practice, a boiler is cleaned by keeping its temperature at 350F
(177C) at the outlet of the WW to suspend foreign matter deposited on the wall of pipes, which is then removed
using a condensate purification equipment. The temperature at the outlet of the WW may be risen up to 400F. It
is reported that Breed and Philo experienced circumstances whereby most iron oxide contained in feed water went
through the boiler at an outlet temperature of 260C to 288C, and all of it was deposited on the pipe wall at a
temperature of 316C or above.
The following are the criteria for giving final approval to a boiler that cleanup be completed at a temperature of
177C:
Inlet of an economizer: Iron 50 ppb
Copper 20 ppb
Silica 30 ppb
Oxygen 10 ppb
Outlet of a WW:
Iron 500 ppb
If the iron concentration is 500 ppb or below at the outlet of WW when the deaeration feed water contains 50
ppb of iron, the contamination on the WW surface is minute. This is because it is said that experiences indicate
that iron will not separate out at the WW when the temperature at the outlet of the WW is 218C at the highest.
Experiences also indicate that the permissible level of iron concentration at the outlet of WW may be up to 500
ppb, rather than 50 ppb, without sacrificing cleanup effects or boiler performances.
Lax water quality is allowed after cleanup so that units can be installed in juxtaposition to obtain a reasonable
flow rate. Moreover, since the cleanup does not take long, slightly deteriorated water quality will not cause any
scales to be deposited.
Based on experience, when the iron concentration comes to 50 ppb, both copper and silica concentrations
satisfy the limit values, and the acceptance of cleanup is determined by measuring the iron concentration at the
inlet of an economizer only.
If the iron concentration at the inlet of the economizer reaches 50 ppb, both copper and silica concentrations at
the same location should satisfy the limit values.
After the cleanup at 177C, the temperature may be uplifted. During the temperature rise, the iron concentration
at the inlet of the economizer should be kept at 50 ppb or below. Beyond 177C, even if the spillover of the
economizer is closed, the iron concentration can be maintained at this concentration or below. In the case that the
concentration exceeds this value, the spillover should be increased, whereupon, the iron concentration can be kept
at this level till combined input.
(3) Steel Pipe Heater and pH Rise
As a result of a test , when the pH of the feed water at the inlet of the economizer was uplifted to 9.5, the iron
separated out into the feed water system was significantly reduced. As for copper, no significant change was
observed after the pH uplifted to 9.5. So the value of 9.5 was determined for pH.
The reason that the pH was limited to 9.5 was because more ammonia should be used if the value exceeds this
level and because of curtailing chemical costs due to an increase in the number of regenerations and due to a
deterioration in the water intake capacity of a desalination tank.
3.3.1.4 Advancement of Condensate purification equipments
(1) Ammonia-Type Resin
Though the cation and anion resins contained within a condensate demineralization tower do not lose the
function of removing ions such as sodium, iron and copper for the former and chloride ions and silica for the latter,
they are prone to break down due to the ammonium ion exchange caused by a pH regulator.
Based on experience, an idea was proposed to use NH4 type ions as exchanger bases for cation resin to
optimally utilize the resin functions. In the U.S, a series of simulation tests was conducted at the end of 1966,
followed by the practical implementation of the method.
At the No. 4 unit of the Himeji No. 2 Power Plant, a series of tests using an actual unit was conducted from
1969 to 1970, following an experiment using a small-sized unit.
Consequently, it emerged that this method can withstand even a leakage occurring within the condenser.
However, the findings were attributable to the fact that during the test, the unit was handled with extreme care, the
ratio of regeneration was almost 100% and that due to this, the water quality at the inlet was excellent. With this in
mind, the design of actual units required thorough consideration of various points. This consideration was made
after the test and the method was implemented.
(2) Electromagnetic Filter
217
A pre-coat filter was in use for 20 years. The shortcomings were the fact that it took 2 hours to regenerate and
that dissolving a pre-coat agent requires handling by operators, because this did not take place automatically. In
addition, the pre-coat filter requires a pre-coat agent, resulting in a high running cost, and effluent sludge needs to
be treated.
An electromagnetic filter was first used in a Kiel Power Plant (320MW). At the Power Plant, condensate water
and a low pressure drain were treated at a temperature of 130C, while the capacity of the electromagnetic filter
was disclosed in 1966, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-16. As the system water temperature rose at startup, the magnetite
volume also increased. Alongside the same, the ratio of removing foreign matter was on the rise; 90% of total iron
and 97% of magnetite were removed successfully. However, as the concentration of total iron fell to 10 ppb, the
ratio was reduced to 80%.
After an electromagnetic filter had been developed in Japan, it rapidly spread to all newly installed units. The
filter generates a high gradient magnet field by subjecting a solenoid coil to a direct high density current. It shows
high removal performances against ferromagnetic and paramagnetic iron oxides when a filler is charged into the
tower, making it an electric magnet, in combination with the mechanical filtration of the filler. The water feed
filtration velocity (LV Value) is approx. 10 times higher for an electromagnetic filter than that for a conventional
filter, and the whole unit can be miniaturized. As it facilitates regeneration relatively easily, this helps save
significant amounts of both energy and labor. Moreover, no stand-by unit is required because flushing the unit
takes as little as 15 minutes, including the preparation time. In addition, no meticulous operation control is
necessary, the volume of effluents from of the unit is modest, no filtration auxiliary agents or other chemicals are
required and the volume of sludge can therefore be minimized.
However, the shortcomings, according to a report, include its inability to remove high levels of paramagnetic
-Fe2O3 and -FeOOH of fine powders and amorphous bodies, while its capacity to remove irons is slightly
worse .
Normal Operation
(0.3m/s)
Magnetite
Total iron
Heat up of a plant
Iron (pbb)
U.S., e.g. from Europe, where methods unique to this continent are used.
In Germany, an oxygen treatment method was developed in the latter half of 1960s and registered in VGB in
1972. Due to the lack of any ammonia attack on the condensate water pipes, the iron concentration in feed water
can be retained, at least at a level equivalent to that of volatile chemicals and other benefits, and this oxygen
treatment method has penetrated all over Europe. Indeed, the former Soviet Union employed the method in the
mid-1970s for practical use. In Japan, the method has been applied to all boiling water reactors (BWR), in systems
where chemical treatment cannot be applied to the primary cooling system, and a good operational record has
been accumulated to date.
It was considered that, in order to apply the oxygen treatment method to thermal power plants in Japan, it was
necessary to more clearly identify its impacts on reducing scales, the effects of curtailing boiler differential
pressure, the influences on turbine materials, water treatment conditions when stopping and starting the system
and other aspects. For this purpose an oxygen treatment method assessment committee was established,
featuring the membership of 10 electric power companies and the Central Research Institute of Electric Power
Industry (CRIEPI). CRIEPI aimed to identify the above issues and commenced basic research into the practical
use of oxygen treatment method to a once-through boiler in April 1988. The research period was 2 years.
Joint basic research carried out by the 10 electric power companies and CRIEPI was primarily focused on the
following three examination items, and the committee was used as a venue for discussing and assessing in a
comprehensive manner.
(i) The impacts of oxygen on the anti-corrosive performance of boiler pipes against high temperature water
(ii) Impacts of oxygen on SCC and the corrosion fatigue of steam turbine materials
(iii) Assessment as to how the oxygen treatment method is used in plants outside Japan and the provision of
temporary guidance for the practical application of this method to an actual system
Various types of these tests, as well as a case assessment of how the method is used in overseas plants, were
summarized as shown below.
The oxygen treatment method was found to have at least equivalent scaling and anti-corrosion performances to
the all volatile treatment method. Case assessment showed that the oxygen treatment method had the effect of
curtailing a surge of boiler differential pressure and decreasing the generation of scales as well as no new system
reports being reported. With such affirmative results, it was confirmed that the oxygen treatment methods could
represent an ideal feed water treatment method to a once-through boiler.
3.3.1.6 Introduction of the Oxygen Treatment Method
The Chubu Electric Power Company Limited conducted an experimental research involving the application of
the oxygen treatment method to the No. 1 unit of its Chita No. 2 Thermal Power Plant jointly with Hitachi, Ltd.
(boilers) and Toshiba Corporation (turbines) in 1990. This was the first of its kind in Japan.
Some favorable results were obtained, including the curtailment of the differential pressure surge of boilers,
decreased BFP powers and prolongation of the chemical cleaning intervals of boilers. As no adverse effects of
corrosion and erosion were observed, the system was assessed as being applicable for practical use.
With such favorable assessments, the system will be introduced mainly to 18 once-through boilers of
supercritical pressure class or above.
The following chapters explain the result of the research, final assessments and introduction plans.
Application of the Oxygen Treatment
Method
Change of scale
characteristics
Curtailment of wave-shaped
scale production
Curtailment of
pressure surge at the
outlet of a feed water
pump
Curtailment of
overheating to the
generating pipes
Decreasing
power
consumption of
the feed water
pumps
Enhanced reliability
219
Enhanced cost
performance
FY1990
FY1991
FY1992
FY1993
Facility Design
and Construction
(Regular Inspection)
Feasibility Test
(Inspection of
Facility)
Analysis and
Assessment
Analysis
Intermediate
assessment
Analysis
Comprehensive
assessment
220
(Legend)
Oxygen
(Legend)
Oxygen
Outlet of a
Outlet of an Outlet of a Outlet of a Outlet of an Main
Condensate Electromagnetic Condensate Deaeration Economizer Steam
water Booster Unit
water Pump
Filter
Pump
Outlet of an Economizer
(Legend)
Chemical
cleaning
Regular Inspection
(Chemical cleaning)
Regular
Inspection
Start of CWT
Regular
Inspection
Number of Months
1-2
6.7
5.3
(Legend)
(2.5 years)
4 years
9.5 years
Fig. 3.3.1-22: Water Pipe Scale Generation Speed of the Unit used for This Research and
the No. 4 Unit of the Ulsan Thermal Power Plant
(Legend)
Upper
part
Lower
part
(Coal economizer)
Furnace Furnace
material
side
side
Furnace
side
Furnace Upper
material part
side
Lower
part
(Generation unit)
223
224
Resin
Resin
Scale
Scale
Pipe
Wall
Pipe
Wall
(Legend)
Main
Turbine
BFP
Turbine
High Pressure
Water Supply
Heater Flow
Rectification
Tower
BFP
Strainer
Rotator
at the
Inlet of a
BFP
Adjusting
Valve of
High
Pressure
Water
Heater Drain
Table 3.3.1-13: Results of Analysis on Scales Deposited on the Main Turbine (Unit: Fe: %, Others: mg/kg)
Fe
Cu
Cr
Ni
Mo
SiO2
Na
Cl
SO4
AVT
Medium-Pressure
Low-Pressure
Unit #9
Unit #15
61.1
64.1
4900
9400
12400
9000
810
1100
3100
3300
3600
13800
3300
5400
7
120
210
450
CWT-1
Medium-Pressure
Low-Pressure
Unit #9
Unit #15
62.1
64.1
4000
8200
10000
9400
2200
1500
2600
3800
4100
5900
1100
1500
4
<1
250
940
CWT-2
Medium-Pressure
Low-Pressure
Unit #9
Unit #15
61.4
62.9
800
5900
8400
9500
330
1000
2500
3600
3800
4800
500
560
24
17
93
220
An investigation was conducted on seven kinds of valves including the main steam stop valve. As a result, there
was no significant difference when compared to AVT generally.
The maximum depth of erosion to a sub-valve of a main steam stop valve was 4 to 5 mm, which is equivalent to
that observed in AVT.
(c) Instrumentation and Control Valves
A series of investigations was conducted to 9 types of valves, including BFP overheat prevention valves.
Consequently, the drain control valve attached to a high pressure feed water valve No. 3 showed a significant
decrease in the volume of scales (while in AVT, valve sticks were observed due to the deposition of scales), of
which the thickness was one fifth or below compared to AVT (0.6 to 3.0 mm 0 to 0.5mm). The scale was soft
and easily removed and maintained.
As for corrosion and erosion performances, no significant changes emerged between AVT and CWT except for
erosion, as explained in 3.3.3.1.6-(3)-d Parts Using Stellite Materials observed on the BFP overheat prevention
valves.
Picture 3.3.1-3: Scales Deposited on the Flow Rectifying Tower of the High Pressure Feed Heater
Good
Bad
227
Carbonized Cr-W
Co-Cr-W
crystals
Damage Conditions
Carbonized Cr-W
Co-Cr-W crystals
Damage Mechanisms
229
e. Cautions in Operations
(1) How to Operate a Deaeration Unit
Based on experiences in Germany, the vent valve of a deaeration unit was kept closed from the onset of
switchover to CWT. This, however, caused an abnormal surge in the DO concentration (600 ppb or above) at the
outlet of the deaeration unit during the unit operation at low load. This was because, due to the closure of the vent
valve, the high concentration of oxygen, which was deaerated during high load operation, was stagnant in the
upper part of the unit, before expanding in volume, being scattered away and then redissolved in water due to the
decreased pressure inside the unit.
To reverse this situation, the vent valve was left open. This, however, caused deaeration and discharge of DO,
making the environment the same as AVT with low pH and causing the iron concentration at the outlet of the
deaeration unit to surge.
Due to such experiences, the vent valve was again left closed, and only reopened when the DO concentration
surged (intermittent operation).
(2) Increased Differential Pressure of the Electromagnetic Filter (EMF)
Once the use of CWF had commenced, the initial differential pressure after backwashing and regeneration of an
EMF occurred and its post-regeneration operation life was shortened (in 7 months, the operation life was
shortened to one tenth (or 2 days) compared to that used in AVT). The reasons for this are believed to include: (i)
the fact that CWT tends to have higher iron loads than AVT, (ii) an increase in fine particles of FeOOH (the
number of FeOOH particles of 1 m tripled or quadruplicated), which split into the depth of the element and (iii)
the fact that needle-shaped iron crystals reinforced the iron deposit layer, which could not be removed by a
backwash and regeneration process.
To reverse such conditions, jet washing of elements was employed and the elements were replaced with new
ones.
In order to implement permanent measures, the following items are subject to examination: (a) Decreasing iron loads at the inlet of an EMF (pH to be increased to 9.0 : effectiveness confirmed)
(b) Improvement of the regeneration methods
(c) Improvement of elements
f. How to Start and Stop the Unit
For several months after the use of CWT, the unit cleanup time tended to be longer than for AVT, due to
unstable hematite protection layers and for other reasons. This was successfully solved through measures to
improve the cleanup process, such as stabilization of the protective layers, lapping of the boiler and pre-boiler
processes and an improved flow rate and numbers of swinging, as shown in Fig. 3.3.1-14.
Fig. 3.3.1-14: Cleanup Time
Acceptance Assessment
Water
Treatment
Method under
Normal
Operation
Let-up
Time (h)
Hydrazine
Injected or
not
AVT
24.5
Injected
CWT
31.0
Injected
CWT
29.0
Not injected
-8
Deaeration
Unit
-6
-4
Pre-boiler
Circulation of Condensate
water
Circulation of
Deaeration Unit
230
-2
Boiler
Deaeration
Unit
CWT
Switchover Period
Storage
Leakage of seawater
Deaeration unit
Condensate water
desalination unit
Startup
Conventional method (AVT)
Stop
Conventional method (AVT)
An operation test without using hydrazine was conducted by stopping the unit (WSS), but no significant
differences in cleanup time and water quality were observed. However, hydrazine is a reducing substance and its
use renders the hematite protective layer unstable, which means it may be better to avoid this substance.
In addition, the unit was subject to a startup and stop test while CWT was used in DSS, and no deterioration in
water quality was detected.
The author is determined to continue studies and tests to establish optimum system operation when it is subject
to stop and startup.
Table 3.3.1-16: Problems Attributable to CWT and Measures
Problem
Damage to the BFP
overheat prevention valve
seat
Cause
Erosion caused by high differential
pressure and flow rate attributable to
the selective corrosion of carbonized
stellite
Permanent Measure
x To change to a soft seat
(However, a large-sized valve
must be developed for
Kawagoe Thermal Power
Plants Nos. 1 and 2.)
x The use of ceramic coating,
etc.
x Recoating of Cr
plating during the
regular inspection
period
x Chemical cleaning of
elements
x Increase of EMF
bypassing
x Others
Surge of differential
pressure of EMF (clogged
elements)
Emergency Measure
-
3.3.1.6.4 Assessment
Based on the results of these studies and findings in and out of Japan, an assessment was made.
As a result of the assessment, it was found that CWT can be applied to actual units, and is more reliable and
economical than AVT. The assessment details are explained below.
(1) Optimized CWT Operation Method
The author believes Fig. 3.3.1-15 shows the optimized CWT operation method. In this case, no hydrazine will
be used in startup and stop, and neither will any switchover from AVT to CWT take place.
(2) Technical Assessment Comparing to AVT
a. Corrosion of Components
231
Similarly to AVT, the author believes CWT will not have any particularly adverse impacts on the corrosion and
erosion of components.
Moreover, the author also believes that, due to the problems associated with parts using stellite, no basic issues
arise that could deny the CWT applicability. Permanent measures against foreseeable problems are shown in Table
3.3.1-16, while measures for the seat of a BFP overheat prevention valve have already been established. For other
parts, examinations are ongoing.
b. Powers to BFP, etc.
The author believes that the time course increase of steam used for driving BFP found in the acceptance
performance test of the unit using CWT (total amount of heat of low pressure and high pressure steam) can be
substantially decreased to approx. a third compared to AVT, because of the reduced differential pressure of boiler
and of scales deposited.
The author also believes that the functional loss of a high pressure feed heater can be reduced to approx. two
fifths compared to AVT, because of the reduced deposition of scale.
c. Frequency of Chemical Cleaning of Boilers
As shown below, as regards the frequency of chemical cleaning of boilers using CWT, the author believes, in
the case of the No. 1 unit of the Chita No. 2 Thermal Power Plant, that this can be extended from the current 1.5
years to 9.5 years, while for other once-through boilers of supercritical pressure or above, the current 1.5 to 4.5
year period can be significantly extended to 10 to 15 years.
In line with the extension in chemical cleaning frequency, the author believes that regular inspection periods
can be shortened and the disadvantageous transfer of loads eliminated.
(i) Assessment in terms of Boiler Differential Pressure
The interval of chemical cleaning for the unit used in this study, which uses AVT, was 1.5 years due to an
increase in the boiler differential pressure. After switching over to CWT, this increase was eliminated, which
meant the interval of chemical cleaning was extended.
Fig. 3.3.1-27 shows the trend of boiler differential pressure experienced by the Ulsan Thermal Power Plant of
Korea Electric Power Corporation after switching to CWT. The operation time till the pressure rose to the
acceptable limit was 9.5 years, whereupon chemical cleaning took place.
It is considered that the trend of the boiler differential pressure surge of the unit used in this study tends to
follow a path of gradual increase compared to that experienced in Ulsan Thermal Power Plant. However, with
certain allowances taken into consideration, it is estimated that it will take 9.5 years for the unit used by this study
to reach the allowable limit for differential pressure. The author, therefore, believes that the interval of chemical
cleaning for the unit can be extended from 1.5 to 9.5 years.
(ii) Assessment based on the Volume of Scales Deposited on Generation Pipes
The acceptance criteria for the chemical cleaning of boilers employed by this company is around 30 to
45mg/cm2 of scale deposited on generation piles unless other problems, such as abnormal boiler differential
pressure, are observed.
As indicated in 3.3.1.6-(3) Main Components of Boilers, the speed of the scales generated will be
0.5mg/cm21,000h.
Thus, the chemical cleaning intervals calculated from the scale generation speed are 10 to 15 years, based on
the conditions of the unit utilization ratio of 70% (30 to 40mg/cm2 0.5mg/cm2 x 1,000h 365 days 24 hours
0.7).
Based on the above arguments, in the case of other once-through boilers of supercritical pressure or above, for
which no boiler differential pressure need be considered, the author believes that the interval can be extended
from the current 1.5 to 4.5 years to 10 to 15 years.
d. Vibration of BFPs
In the case of the unit used in this study, BFPs were not subject to any vibration, even when using AVT, and
anti-vibration measures remained unconfirmed during the switchover to CWT. However, in the absence of any
waveform scales and the fact that the volume of scales was reduced to approx. one fifth compared to AVT, the
author believes that CWT can represent the ultimate measure against the vibration of BFPs.
e. Environmental Aspects
The use of CWT can eliminate chemicals used to treat feed water and regenerate condensate water desalination
units as well as effluents generated from the chemical cleaning of boilers, thus reducing effluent contamination
loads.
Based on these aspects, CWT can be considered an environment-friendly feed water treatment method.
232
(Legend)
The unit used in this
study
No. 4 unit of the Ulsan
Thermal Power Plant
Chemical cleaning
Time
Fig. 3.3.1-27: Differential Pressure of Boilers for the Unit used in this Study
and the No. 4 unit of the Ulsan Thermal Power Plant
233
Table 3.3.1-17: Annual Cost of the No. 1 Unit of the Chita No. 2 Thermal Power Plant
Item
Cost of Power Loss for BFPs
Cost of Functional Loss for High Pressure
Feed Heater
Cost of Installing a Boiler Chemical
cleaning System
Cost of Loss Transferred in relation to the
above
Cost of Chemicals for the Treatment of
Feed Water
Cost of Operating a Condensate water
Desalination Unit
Total
AVT
CWT
100
33
100
40
100
16
100
16
100
17
100
32
100
28
Economization
Ratio
Remarks
Incremental increase of steam used for driving the
BFPs (actual)
Deterioration of heat transfer performance (actual)
67
60
84
84
83
68
72
Daily
{
Turbidity
pH
Conductivity
Ca2+
Mg2+
Fe2+
Alkali ions
Frequency
Weekly Monthly
{
{
{
{
{
{
ClSO42HCO3-
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
Total iron
Residual chlorine
COD
Colloidal silica
Water temperature
Remarks
(CO2)
By
calculation
{
{
(Cl2)
{
{
{
shows a list of water quality monitoring items generally applied for maintaining and controlling the system, and
their measurement frequencies. The frequency must be increased whenever significant fluctuation is observed in
the quality of raw water, or a new water source is employed.
Table 3.3.2-2: Turbidity Assessment Indicators
Water Quality
Indicator
MF
MFC
Measurement Method
Characteristics
MFC = 2 ln 1 1
t2
FI
(=SDI)
PI
PN
Turbidity
SS
100 T1
1
15 T2
Phenomenon
Cause
Inappropriate use of chemicals
Coagulation agent
Coagulation auxiliary agent
pH adjuster
Incomplete regeneration of a filtration unit
Decrease in
amount of
obtaining
water
A slurry circulation type coagulation sedimentation unit requires the maintenance of slurry concentration at an
optimum level, while a sludge blanket type needs the sludge blanket to be kept stable. For both types, the key is
how to adjust the volume of chemicals used as well as that of the sludge discharged from the units. Even without
any dramatic fluctuation in the turbidity and alkali level of raw water, the water temperature varies seasonally,
with a lower water temperature leading to a deterioration in floc formation performance. Experience states that the
threshold temperature is at 10C or so. If the temperature descends from this level, an auxiliary agent should be
increased to facilitate the floc formation. In the case of a coagulation filtration unit, high water temperature
excessively increases the size of the floc formed and when this happens, the volume of the auxiliary agent should
be decreased. When a separation membrane is used for the desalination unit, the water quality, including the
turbidity and FI (Fouling Index) at the outlet of a pre-treatment unit, must be maintained within the criteria
determined for them. Table 3.3.2-2 shows some examples of turbidity assessment indexes.
In many cases, the problems of a pre-treatment unit are mainly caused by insufficient regeneration of filter
layers due to contamination, which can sometimes be the result of mad balls and mechanical failure of the unit.
When problems involving the filtration unit surface, these can be identified by a deterioration in the quality of
processed water and reduction in the cyclic sampling volume. Table 3.3.2-3 shows the major problems anticipated
to occur with the pre-treatment unit and their measures.
3.3.2.1.3 Control of Deionized Water Generation Unit for Maintaining its Performance
As makeup water for a high pressure boiler requires highly pure demineralized water, the quality of the makeup
water must be controlled. Water treatment items for this purpose include electrical conductivity and silica, and an
indicator and recorder with an alarm are installed at the anion tower of a deionized water generation unit and at
the exit of a polisher to continuously monitor these items. Table 3.3.2-4 shows some examples of water quality
criteria for makeup water used at thermal power plants. The actual values measured by each company, as indicated
in the table, are 1.0S/cm and 0.01mg/l or below for conductivity and silica respectively.
The following items are examples of daily control items, which should be monitored daily at a fixed time if the
values are measurable:
{ Operation cycles and collection volume per cycle
{ Volume of regeneration agents used and stored
{ Temperature when chemicals are injected to regenerate the anion exchange resin
{ Inner pressure of each ion-exchange resin tower (before and after regeneration)
{ Conductivity of water sampled at the inlet of a deionized water generation unit
{ Conductivity of processed water
{ Silica concentration in processed water
236
Ion-exchange resin should be controlled once a year to measure the total volume of resin replaced and volume
of neutral salt decomposed. At the same time, check the volume of ion-exchange resin remaining in each tower
and inspect whether the resin is finely-divided or not. As for the replenishment of ion-exchange resin, the volume
of resin to be replenished for cation resin is 5% -10% per year, including those finely divided, provided that no
swelling and/or contamination is observed. In the case of anion resin, the volume to be replenished comes to 10%
to 20% per year in general, because it is subject to aging besides the pulverization.
The troubles a deionized water generation unit may encounter mainly include decreased collection volume and
deterioration of the quality of processed water (incl. high conductivity and silica concentration). These problems
are often associated with pre-treatment unit troubles. Table 3.2.2-5 shows the cause of the troubles and their
measures as well as check items.
Table 3.2.2-4: Examples of Criteria set by Each Electric Power Company for
Water Quality at the Outlet of a Circulation Boiler Makeup Water Desalination Unit
Company Name
Pressure Category
(kgf/cm2)
Item
Conductivity (S/cm)
Silica (mg/l as SiO2)
A
100 Class
5 or below
0.05 or
below
130 Class
B
170 Class
100 Class
1.25 or below
0.015 or
below
130
Class
5 or below
0.01 or
below
0.1 or
below
0.05 or
below
C
170
Class
100
Class
3 or
below
0.02 or
below
5 or
below
0.1 or
below
130
Class
170
Class
1.0 or below
0.015 or below
Table 3.2.2-5: Troubles (reduced collection volume and decreased purity of processed water)
of a Deionized Water Generation Unit, Their Causes and Measures
Root Cause
Change in Raw Water
Quality
Oversampling
Incomplete
regeneration
237
Measure
{ Conduct a total analysis of the raw water and file the data every
month (Conductivity must be measured and recorded every
month).
{ Check the water sources.
{ Adjust the ratio of water intake from various water sources.
{ Compare the data with that of an instantaneous flow meter.
{ Operate by uplifting the water flow.
{ Refer to the instruction manual attached to the instrumentation
unit.
{ Compare the data with that of a portable water quality meter,
etc.
{ Connect a resistance box attached to the unit to a cable in lieu
of a communicator. If the values coincide with each other, then
the communicator is damaged.
{ Refer to the instruction manual attached to the instrumentation
unit.
{ Sampling valve is too far closed or totally closed.
{ Sampling valve is too open.
{ Damages or water leakage to the communicator case.
{ Regenerate the volume specified in the instruction manual. (Or
increase the level of regeneration)
{ Feed chemicals at an appropriate concentration.
{ Repair the damaged pipe.
{ Failure of a chemical feed pump
{ Clogs of ejectors and nozzles
{ Excessive decrease of the diluted water flow rate
{ Backwash for more than 30 minutes.
{ Check and remove clogs from the lower water collection and
dispersion unit.
Root Cause
Incomplete
regeneration
Flow-out of
ion-exchange resin
Contamination of
ion-exchange resin
Channeling
Measure
{ Measure the specific gravity of regeneration effluents
(to confirm whether the extrusion force is sufficient or not)
{ Analyze the washing effluents
(to confirm whether the concentrations of Cl of the H tower
and Na+ of the OH tower are the same as those in their inlet
position)
{ Make the total time for chemical injection and for extrusion at
least the same as those designated
{ Make the temperature of chemical injection as 355C
(if the temperature is lower than this, silica will leak out and if
it is higher, then the resin performance will be deteriorated)
{ Readjustment of chemical injection volume and slip water
volume
{ Replacement of the mixture of resins in the middle position
{ Check the backwashing speed
{ Check the water temperature
{ Repair the damaged parts
{ Conduct a functional test of resins (coarseness distribution,
etc.)
{ Check the pre-treatment unit.
{ Valve failure
Iron Solubility
Iron Concentration
the air cooling zones of a condensing unit and nickel plated copper alloy cooling water pipes are laid around the
exterior of the unit.
Solubility
Iron Concentration
in Feed Water
Temperature
Saturation solubility
of Cu(OH)2 in
deionized water
Solubility
Saturation solubility
of CuO in deionized
water
Concentration
(Iron)
(Copper)
(Nickel)
Fig. 3.3.2-3: Shift in Metal Ion Concentration due to a Change in the Feed Water pH
water is close to zero under normal operation, thanks to the upgraded performance of a deionized water generation
unit. However, in the case of seawater leakage, dissolved salts slip into the system. Depending on which materials
are used for the feed heater pipes, namely copper alloy or steel, the means used to control pH to prevent corrosion
of the materials vary. In the case of copper alloy, the pH control mainly targets copper and the value is limited to 9
or so, because dissolved copper ions accelerate the corrosion of iron. The slight volume of ammonia generated by
thermal decomposition of the hydrazine used as a deoxidizer is used to control the pH. Fig. 3.3.2-2 shows a
behavior model of iron in condensate water and feed water systems. The higher the temperature rise, the more iron
ions are generated. Around a high pressure feed heater, the iron ion concentration goes beyond the iron solubility
curve meaning ion deposits are generated. The iron is then deposited in the high temperature zones of high
pressure feed heaters, economizers, boilers and other units. In order to prevent such scales from being deposited, it
is important to minimize the iron ion volume. Fig. 3.3.2-3 shows a change in the iron ion concentration in a course
of a shift in the pH of feed water. As indicated, the pH should be kept high. Fig. 3.3.2-4 shows the solubility of
magnetite (Fe3O4), a corrosion coating. In the high temperature zone, the curve bottoms out at a pH level of
around 10. As iron ions tend to accelerate its oxidization under the existence of dissolved oxygen, hydrazine is
added to the feed water to remove oxygen, so that the generation of dissolved oxygen can be minimized.
N2H4+ O2+2H2O
A unit using steel pipes is subject to a control pH at around 9.5. Ammonia is directly added to the outlet of a
condenser or deaeration unit as a pH adjuster, and hydrazine is added at the outlet of a deaeration unit as a
deoxidizer respectively.
(3) Boiler Water
Most substances dissolved in boiler water are separated out as the temperature rises, due to the low solubility
and known as scale and sludge. This scale and sludge has low thermal conductivity, causing thermal efficiency to
deteriorate and corroding the boiler generation pipes. With this in mind, the generation of scales and sludge must
be avoided as far as possible. As shown in Fig. 3.3.2-3, the pH of the boiler water must be retained high to prevent
corrosions of generation pipes. Silica contained in boiler water flows out to the steam side and is separated out on
the turbine blades as scales, causing the efficiency of the unit to deteriorate. Therefore, silica concentration must
be minimized as far as possible.
Table 3.3.2-6: Feed Water Quality
Feed Water
Category
[Drum Type]
Max. Operating Pressure (MPa or kgf/cm2)
Evaporation Rate of the Heat Transfer Surface
(kg/(m2xh))
Types of Makeup Water
pH (at 25C)
Hardness (mgCaCO3/l)
(mg/l)
Dissolved Oxygen (mgO/l)
Iron (mgFe/l)
Copper (mgCu/l)
Hydrazine (mgN2H4/l)
Conductivity (S/cm) (at 25C)
10 - 15
(100 - 150)
-
15 20
(150 200)
-
Ion-exchange water
8.5 9.6
0
Ion-exchange water
8.5 9.6
0
0.007 or below
0.03 or below
0.01 or below
0.01 or above
0.5 or below
0.007 or below
0.02 or below
0.005 or below
0.01 or above
0.5 or below
15 - 20
(150 - 200)
20 or above
(200 or above)
Volatile
Oxygen
Substance
Treatment
Treatment
9.0 9.6
6.5 9.0
0.25 or below
0.2 or below
0.007 or below
0.02 0.2
0.01 or below
0.01 or below
0.002 or below
0.002 or below
0.01 or above
0.02 or below
0.02 or below
Feed Water
Category
[Once-through Type]
Max. Operating Pressure (MPa or kgf/cm2)
Treatment Method
pH (at 25C)
Conductivity (S/cm) (at 25C)
Dissolved Oxygen (mgO/l)
Iron (mgFe/l)
Copper (mgCu/l)
Hydrazine (mgN2H4/l)
Silica (mgSiO2/l)
Volatile
Substance
Treatment
8.5 9.6
0.3 or below
0.007 or below
0.02 or below
0.003 or below
0.01 or above
0.02 or below
240
Oxygen
Treatment
6.5 9.0
0.2 or below
0.02 0.2
0.1 or below
0.05 or below
0.02 or below
Category
Boiler Water
Treatment Method
15 - 20
(150 - 200)
-
10 - 15
(100 - 150)
-
Ion-exchange water
Ion-exchange water
All volatile
treatment
8.5 9.6
-
Sodium phosphate
treatment
8.5 9.8
-
pH (at 25C)
Oxygen consumption (pH at 4.8) (mgCaCO3/l)
Sodium phosphate
treatment
8.5 9.8
-
60 or below
2 or below
0.1 3
-
20 or below
1 or below
60 or below
20 or below
2 or below
1 or below
0.1 3
0.3 or below
8.5 9.6
-
0.2 or below
Criteria
0.3 or below
0.02 or below
Table 3.3.2-9: Facility Outline of Unit Nos. 1 to 4 Units of the Nishi Nagoya Thermal Power Plant
Unit
Output
Operation started in:
Boiler type
Turbine steam pressure
No. 1 Unit
220 000 kW
July 1970
Reheating natural
circulation type
169 kg/cm2G
No. 2 Unit
220 000 kW
December 1970
Reheating natural
circulation type
169 kg/cm2G
No. 3 Unit
375 000 kW
July 1972
Reheating natural
circulation type
169 kg/cm2G
No. 4 Unit
375 000 kW
September 1972
Reheating natural
circulation type
169 kg/cm2G
(4) Steam
Impurities contained in steam are those carried over from the boiler water, which cause corrosion of superheater
systems and the deposition of scales onto turbine blades. Such impurities include chlorine ions, sodium, silica and
copper. Fig. 3.3.2-8 shows their JIS criteria.
241
As success in steam quality control is significantly dependent on the boiler water quality, for a drum type boiler,
the conductivity of boiler water and its silica content, and - for a once-through boiler - those of feed water at the
inlet of an economizer should be carefully monitored.
To medium- and
low-pressure turbines
Drum
Deaeration unit
Flush
tank
Condenser
Conden
sate
water
pump
Flush valve
Ground
steam
condenser
Flush pipe
drain tank
Makeup
water
tank
Makeup water
pump
Flooding pipe of boiler
Sampling point
Boiler
water
Drum water
Control Item
Conductivity
S/cm
Conductivity
S/cm
pH
Conductivity
S/cm
Total iron
Total copper
Dissolved
oxygen
g/l
g/l
Conductivity
S/cm
Total iron
Total copper
Dissolved
oxygen
Total iron
Total copper
g/l
g/l
Criteria
Measurement
Method
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
Anytime
Measurement
instrument
Once a year
Once a year
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
Once a year
Once a year
g/l
g/l
g/l
pH
Conductivity
S/cm
Total iron
Total copper
Hydrazine
g/l
g/l
g/l
pH
Conductivity
S/cm
Silica
g/l
Phosphate
ion
Total iron
Total copper
Unit
g/l
All volatile
treatment
1.5 >
Phosphate
Treatment
Normal Operation
Value
ANN
Value
Same as left
0.5 1.0
1.5
U0.15
U0.5
8.6 9.0
Same as left
8.8
U0.3 >
Same as left
U0.15
U0.3
(10 >)
(5 >)
Same as left
Same as left
10
3
*
*
40 >
Same as left
10
40
12
(10 >)
(10 >)
Same as left
Same as left
10
5
*
*
Anytime
7>
Same as left
Once a year
Once a year
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
Once a year
Once a year
Anytime
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
Measurement
instrument
*
*
*
*
10
5
*
*
8.6 9.0
Same as left
8.9
8.9 9.0
U0.3 >
Same as left
U0.15
U0.3
10 >
10 >
(10 30)
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
10
5
10
*
*
*
8.6 9.0
8.6 9.5
8.7
8.6 9.5
U0.3 >
15 >
U1.5
U3
0.2 >
0.2 >
0.05
0.2
Anytime
3>
03
g/l
g/l
g/l
Once a year
*
(50 >)
20 50
*
Once a year
*
(20 >)
5 - 15
*
Measurement
Conductivity
U0.03 >
*
U0.1
U0.3
Steam at the inlet of
S/cm
instrument
Steam
superheater
Silica
Anytime
0.02 >
*
0.005
*
g/l
Note 1: The figures in parentheses refer to the values that should be maintained.
Note 2: The figures prefixed with refer to the value after the treatment of cation resins.
Note 3: The pH level of the boiler water is 8.5 to 9.0 after all volatile treatment and 8.5 to 9.5 after the injection of sodium tertiary phosphate.
243
244
Operation check
245
Startup of condenser
Water quality check
Start up of the feed pump
Start injection of hydrazine
Parallel in
Startup of turbines
Turning on of a
disconnect
switch
Saturated steam
Feed water
Boiler water
Feed water
Condensate water
Condensate water
Boiler water
Feed water
Up of vacuum
Ignition and
temperature/pressure up
Startup of turbines
Switchover of burners
vacuum up
Up loads (100MW)
Parallel in
Switchover within
the plant
Fig. 3.3.2-6: Standard Startup Command (Operation) Sheet and Startup Water Quality
[Conductivity]
(Condensate water)
When the system is subject to a parallel off, the
conductivity of the condensate water rises due to the
influence of carbon dioxide gas contained in the air, but
falls as the degree of vacuum increases.
(Feed Water)
Similar to condensate water, the level falls as the degree of
vacuum increases. However, the downward curve tends to
be moderated for about 1 hour from the parallel in point
because of contamination of the feed water, condensate
water and the whole system.
(Saturated Steam)
For about 1 hour from the juxtaposition point,
contamination of boiler water is conspicuous. Due to this,
the level of conductivity tends to peak due to a carryover
and for other reasons, before subsequently following a
moderate downward course.
[pH]
(Feed Water)
Due to the injection of hydrazine at system ignition, the pH
level rises.
(Boiler Water)
Due to the injection of hydrazine at system ignition, the pH
level of the feed water rises, as well as that of the boiler
water.
[Silica]
When turbines are started, silica scale deposited on the low
pressure blades comes off. (Part of the silica scale comes
from the dead space of the pre-boiler system.)
The silica concentration comes down as the blow
operation starts.
Pressure
up
Ignition Temperature up
[Dissolved Oxygen]
(Condensate water)
The concentration of dissolved oxygen falls alongside the
vacuum up in the condenser.
(Feed Water)
The dissolved oxygen concentration declines alongside the
surge of pressure of the deaeration unit.
Check item
Operation item
Up loads (220MW)
Load dispatching
operation
Fig. 3.3.2-11 Methods of Blow Except the Boiler Water System at Startup
Boiler water blow is implemented until water quality of the eco inlet, the boiler, and the
saturated steam is at the standard value or less, and the conductivity at the CP outlet
shows a declining trend (0.5 to 0.6S/cm).
Silica
Conductivity
Eco inlet
or less
Boiler water
or less
Saturated steam
or less
Boiler water blow stop
(ANN of silica and conductivity
Conductivity
CP outlet
0.5 or less
Shall be on a down note.
The silica concentration in boiler water sometimes exceeds the standard value (0.2mg/l) when the boiler is
sealed (steam sealing) after the unit shut down. The cause seems to be the fact that when the boiler is stopped and
sealed, silica scale separates from the turbine blades, etc., is channeled to the boiler and concentrated when it is
started. To reverse such situation, the following measure is implemented while the boilers are sealed in order to
avoid boiler blow loss and gaining load up during the early stages. When the level of water in a condenser goes up
while the boilers are sealed, the silica concentration in condensate water is measured. If the value is 0.02 mg/l or
more, water is added to the condensate water after total blowing, whereupon the system is started. Following the
implementation of the measure, no abnormal silica concentration up was reported.
(3) Water treatment at Seawater Leakage
It is essential to detect any seawater leakage at an early stage to implement measures. The means of controlling
water quality depends on the seriousness and conditions of the leakage, with appropriate water control measures
sought. For this purpose, conductivity is measured within the condenser, at the outlet of the condensate pump, the
inlet of an economizer and in the boiler water. When the value is found to be high, seawater leakage is present.
Two lines of cation resin towers are installed at the front stage of the condenser and the conductivity meter at the
outlet of the condensate pump, so that the letup time for replacing the resin can be minimized, in the case of
emergencies such as seawater leakage. How to inject chemicals and how to blow boiler water are determined as
controlling water quality in the event of seawater leakage. Also, in a leakage, a process which requires prompt and
correct action is decided. For this purpose, a seawater leakage accident control sheet (Fig. 3.3.2-7) is used to cover
such items as operation method, actions done and restoration.
(4) Water treatment Values and Monitoring
Water quality during the normal operation time is monitored and checked for each specimen, using
pre-determined control items and the measurement frequency. All measurement values can be monitored by the
CRT and recorders of the central control room, where staff members are stationed to monitor during the normal
system operation. In the case of an accident, an alarm is activated. Accidents are handled referring to the measures
defined in Water Quality ANN Messaging Procedure (Fig. 3.3.2-12).
As water quality requires monitoring of long-term trends, a daily control sheet is formed. Appropriate and
stable operations of the unit are assured and good water treatment methods are established by collecting total
measurement data of iron and copper concentration and in-house inspection results obtained from a regular
inspection and other measures to ensure that water is appropriately treated.
246
3. Causal
investigation
1. Occurrence of an
accident
Conductivity high ANN turns on.
Causal investigation
Accident handling
Point of leakage
(1) Caustic silver check
(2) Switchover of thermometer
takeout points
S/cm of
recovery
water
0.3S/cm or below
3 or below
Conductivity
(s/cm)
15 or below
4. Restoration
measures
Restoration
measures
Repair completed
As low as possible
Turbine E-STOP push button ON
Note 1:
In order to avoid any stress corrosion cracks of SH and RH pipes, boilers should be subject to vapor washing when the unit is restored from seawater
leakage (at the turbine rotation of 3,600 rpm).
Note 2: Considering the working environment while only one condenser is in operation, the vacuum is set as 690 mmHg or above (according to a test result in
1980).
Reference information: The conductivity of condensate water was once seen to surge due to pinhole damage of the exterior housing of a condenser water pump.
Table 3.3.2-12: Check Sheet for Unit Nos. 1 to 4 Water Quality When ANN is Transmitted
1. Silica and Dissolved Oxygen
* Whether silica and dissolved oxygen concentration tend to be high
or not is checked by referring to the checksheet.
Check Item
Description
Cause
Silica
concentration is
high.
Makeup water
1.5S/cm or above for the makeup
c
water
10g/l or above at the outlet of the
makeup water desalination unit
Load
Load surged
(when silica is purged)
i
Measurement
The ANN of a measurement
d
instrument
instrument is transmitted.
The dissolved
oxygen
concentration is
high.
Load
Load decreased
e
Deaeration unit
Check the inner pressure of the
f
system.
Switchover of
Check whether any O2 is leaked or
g
the condensate
not by switching the condensate
pump
pump
Drain pump
Check whether any O2 is leaked or
g
not at the drain pump seal.
Measurement
The indication does not change
d
instrument
after switching the specimen
water.
2. High conductivity/CondenserHigh conductivity/Seawater
leakage at startup
Check Item
Description
Cause
Check the
The conductivity of the
relationship of the
condensate water and water in the
following:
system suddenly surges from the
a
Condensate water, normal level, followed by feed
feed water, boiler
water, boiler water, saturated
water, saturated
water. The makeup water is intact.
steam and
The conductivity of the makeup
makeup water in
water surges, followed by others
c
the system
such as condensate water.
Chloride ions
Adding caustic silver changes the
a
water turbid in white.
Measurement
Their conductivity fluctuates
d
instrument
separately.
3. Abnormal pH Level
Check Item
Description
Feed water pH
High (or low)
High
Boiler water pH
Low
Makeup water
There is considerable conductivity of
makeup water.
Chemicals
Chemical
Chemical concentration and type
concentration
Failure of pumps
Switchover test of injection pumps
Addition of
chemicals
Stroke and valve operations
Cause and Measures
Cause
a. Seawater leakage
b. Excessive (too small)
hydrazine injection
c. Abnormal quality of
makeup water
Leakage of regeneration
agent of a desalination unit
and sampling after breakage
d. Fault of measurement
instruments
e. Decreased loads
f. Deteriorated deaeration
unit
g. O2 leakage from
condensate pump and drain
pump
h. Excessive addition of
sodium tertiary phosphate
i. Surge of loads
Cause
b d
bdh
abd
c
Measures
a. x See the section of seawater
leakage.
x See Accident Action Procedure.
b. Adjust the injection volume.
c. x In the case of abnormal quality of
makeup water, blow the water in
the makeup water tank.
d. If adjusting the flow rates and
temperature does not work,
inform Chemical G.
(MW)
(t/h)
(kg/cm2)
(C)
No. 1 Unit
600
August 1974
Reheated
once-through
type
1 900
246/42.1
538/566
LNG
No. 2 Unit
1 000
September 1975
No. 3 Unit
1 000
February 1977
No. 4 Unit
1 000
August 1979
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
3 110
246/40.1
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
3 170
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
d. Replenishment of Resins
Referring to the results of the performance check, resins are replenished to maintain the function of a
condensate water desalination unit at the appropriate level. The volume of resins replenished annually is 10% for
248
cation exchange resin and around 20% for anion exchange resin.
Table 3.3.2-14: List of Water Quality of Supercritical Pressure Through the Flow Boiler at Normal Times
Specimens taken
Makeup water
Outlet of a condensate
pump
(CP out)
Outlet of a condensate
water desalination unit
(CBP out)
Outlet of a
desalination unit
(Dea out)
Inlet of an economizer
(Eco in)
Analysis item
Conductivity
Silica concentration
Conductivity
Criteria
< 0.5 S/cm
< 30 g/l
< 0.5 S/cm
Conductivity
Sodium concentration
Total iron concentration
Total copper concentration
Dissolved oxygen
concentration
pH
Conductivity
Total iron concentration
Total copper concentration
Hydrazine concentration
Silica concentration
9.3 to 9.6
< 0.25 S/cm
< 5 g/l
< 2 g/l
< 10 g/l
< 20 g/l
Analysis item
Conductivity
Silica concentration
Iron concentration
Cooper concentration
Sodium concentration
Conductivity
Dissolved oxygen concentration
Dissolved oxygen concentration
Frequency
Once a month
Once a month
Once a month (once a week)
Once a month (once a week)
Once a month (-)
Once a month (once every three days)
Once a month (once every two weeks)
Once a month (once every two weeks)
pH
Once a month (once every three days)
Conductivity
Total iron concentration
Once a month (once every three days)
Total copper concentration
Once a month (once every three days)
Hydrazine concentration
Once a month (once every two weeks)
Silica concentration
Once a month (once every three days)
Main steam
pH
- (once every two weeks)
Conductivity
- (once every two weeks)
Silica concentration
- (once every two weeks)
Items in parentheses indicate the frequency of analysis within six months of the start of operation.
Table 3.3.1-16: List of Storage Methods when the Plant is Subject to Shutdown
Stop time
Boiler
Within 56 hours
Hot banking
Within 72 hours
More than 72
hours
(Hydrazine: 20 to 30
mg/l)
Dry storage after sealing
N2
(RH: Dry storage)
Deaeration unit
Condenser
In circulation mode
Dry storage
(Hydrazine: 20 to
30 mg/l)
Storage by sealing N2
or by filling water
(Hydrazine: >300
mg/l)
(2) Water treatment at Startup and while the Unit is not used
a. Water treatment while the Unit is not used
The most important thing in water treatment while the unit is not used is to minimize the inclusion of exterior
air inside the system to prevent corrosion. The following three measures are conducted for this purpose:
(1) Hot banking that puts a boiler under a pressurization condition to eliminate the inclusion of exterior air
(2) After a boiler has cooled down, a high concentration of hydrazine is infused to minimize the area
contacting with air, while also helping remove the dissolved oxygen from the contact area.
(3) After a boiler comes to a stop, boiler water is purged and blown out by pressurized nitrogen while keeping
the boiler temperature at 100 or above to keep it in a dry condition.
249
Fig. 3.3.2-16 shows how to store the plant when it is not in use. The table categorized the storage method by the
period of storage. In the case that the planned short time storage is subject to change in the longer storage period,
the storage method for the plant must be changed. Sampling racks are stored by closing the valves and after filling
with deionized water.
b. Water treatment at Startup
Before starting the plant, it is subject to a cleanup process by dividing the system into 3 blocks of condenser,
feed water system and boilers respectively. The controlled items for this purpose include, for a cold cleanup
process, iron and mill scales, etc., with those that are generated during the time the plant is not in use analyzed. To
check the iron concentration, two methods are used; the membrane filtration and automatic measurement methods.
The former compares the color of the filter after filtration of sample water with the standard color, while for the
latter, an iron meter of the particle counting method or the scattered light method is used. The control criteria of
the iron concentration is set as 300 g/l or below as a target, while Fig. 3.3.2-17 shows other water control criteria.
In addition, the injection of ammonia and hydrazine, etc. is possible to combat corrosion of the system and
maintain the quality of water in the systems at the appropriate level. In injecting chemicals, Mode PB on the
sampling rack is selected. Fig. 3.3.2-18 shows a worksheet of a chemical feed unit.
In the Sodegaura Thermal Power Plant, a patterned operation is used for the blowing time and chemical
injection in order to control iron concentration, etc. at the appropriate level. The pattern was formed based on the
experience of the plant. More recently, more plants have been able to automatically control and operate water
treatment and chemical injection using a computer. In the Sodegaura Thermal Power Plant, the iron concentration
of feed water at the inlet of an economizer after ignition of the plant is controlled to 50g/l or below as a target.
The criteria for collecting drain water generated by each process is, 300g/l or below for iron collected by a
condenser, and 50g/l or below for that collected by a feed water system.
250
Table 3.3.2-17: List of Water Quality of a Supercritical Pressure Through a Flow Boiler at its Startup
Startup process
Surge of condenser vacuum
Sampling at:
-
Analyzing item
-
CP out
Dea out
CP out
WW out or SH
out
Eco in
WW out
Humidified circulation
Drain water
collection
Collection by condenser
Collection by condensate
water and feed water systems
Eco in
WW out
Eco in
pH
Conductivity
pH
Conductivity
Total iron concentration
Total copper concentration
Dissolved oxygen concentration
Silica concentration
Conductivity
pH
Total iron concentration
Total copper concentration
Silica concentration
Total iron concentration
Total iron concentration
Criteria
Condenser Vacuum
> 680 mmHg
< 300 g/l
< 10 g/l
< 300 g/l
< 10 g/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 100 g/l
< 50 g/l
< 300 g/l
< 10 g/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 1.0 s/cm
< 50 g/l
< 10 g/l
< 10 g/l
< 30 g/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 1.0 g/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 1.0 s/cm
< 50 g/l
< 10 g/l
< 10 g/l
< 30 g/l
< 1.0 s/l
9.2 to 9.6
< 50 g/l
< 10 g/l
< 30 g/l
< 300 g/l
< 50 g/l
251
Circulation of
condensate water
PB process
Normal operation
Stop
Hot banking
DO: 50 ppb
or below
10 ppb or above
High
pressure
heater
Low
pressure
heater
N2H4: 10 ppm or
above
Storage method
Hot
banking
Ordinary
storage
Stop
Kick signal
Ammonia pump
Stroke length
control
Injection of a high
concentration of hydrazine
for 4 hours
Constant value control of conductivity at the inlet of a deaeration unit with the
conductivity at the outlet of a demister as a preceding signal
RPM control
Injection of a
constant volume
Stroke length
control
Constant value control of conductivity at the inlet of a deaeration unit with the
conductivity at the outlet of a demister as a preceding signal
Stroke length
control
Stroke length
control
Ammonia
Hydrazine pump
RPM control
Injection of a
constant volume
As above
In proportion to the
condensate water flow
Injection of a constant
volume (CONC)
In proportion to the
condensate water flow
Injection of a constant
volume (CONC)
Open
Open
Hydrazine
Open
Outlet of a
condensate water
desalination pump
Conductivity
(S/cm)
[Cationic
conductivity]
< 0.5
0.5 to 3.0
< 0.1
0.1 to 3.0
> 3.0
> 0.3
> 0.15
> 0.1
Chlorine
Ion
(mg/l)
Determination
of Leakage
Normal
Minute
leakage
Significant
leakage
Significant
leakage
How to Operate a
Desalination Unit
H Type:
NH4 Type:
H Type:
NH4 Type:
H Type:
-
1
2
2
1
3
252
253
From the
outlet of
CBP
To the
boiler
blow
tank
LP-HTR
Drain P
To the
startup
LP.HP HTR Drain
effluent pit
Steam A
and B
Drain tank
Fig. 3.3.2-8: Water Treatment Flow Chart of the No. 1 Unit of Kawagoe Thermal Power Plant
To the boiler
blow tank
From HP2HTR
From HPx1HTR
To the startup
collection pit
To the outlet of
HPHTR
NH4 Type
H Type
Conductivity
Sodium ion concentration
384 000
35 000
0.15
5.0
(m3)
(m3)
(S/cm)
(g/l)
e. Drain Collection
Drain is blown to the outside of the system at the same time with the startup of the feed water heater. Drain of
the low-pressure feed water heater is collected to the condenser when the iron concentration becomes 500 g/l or
less. Moreover, when the iron concentration becomes 50 g/l or less, it is collected to the condensate water pipe.
Similarly, drain of the high-pressure feed water heater is collected to the condenser when the iron concentration
becomes 50 g/l or less. When the iron concentration becomes 50 g/l or less, it is collected to the deaerator.
254
Fig. 3.3.2-21: Stoppage Patterns (Category) and How to Store each Component
Stoppage
Category
Component
Stop time
Boiler stop
condition
Condenser
vacuum
Within 72 hours
Normal stop
Forced cooling
Normal stop
72 hours to 1 week
Forced cooling
1 week or longer
Normal stop
Forced cooling
Retained
Destructed
Retained
Destructed
Retained
Destructed
Retained
Destructed
Boiler body
Hot bank
When the pressure is
decreased
Pressurized sealing of
N2
Same as left
Pressurized sealing
of N2
Same as left
Hot bank
After decreasing the
pressure, the boiler is
filled with 100mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Hot bank
After decreasing the
pressure, the boiler is
filled with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Pre-boiler
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Like the case of a
boiler, the pre-boiler is
filled with 100mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Same as left
Like the case of a boiler,
the pre-boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Deaeration unit
Hot bank
When the pressure is
decreased
Pressurized sealing of
steam or N2
Same as left
Pressurized sealing
of N2
Same as left
Hot bank
Like the case of a
boiler, the pre-boiler is
filled with 100mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Hot bank
Like the case of a boiler,
the pre-boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Like the case of a
boiler, the pre-boiler is
filled with 100mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Same as left
Like the case of a boiler,
the pre-boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Cleanup
Circulation continued
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Like the case of a
boiler, the pre-boiler is
filled with 100mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Storage after
filling 100mg/l
of hydrazine
Same as left
Like the case of a boiler,
the pre-boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for storage.
Retained under
vacuum condition.
Valve is closed like
during normal
operation.
Pressurized
sealing of N2
Same as left
Retained under
vacuum condition.
Same as left
Pressurized
sealing of N2
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
After decreasing
the pressure, the
boiler is filled
with 200mg/l of
hydrazine for
storage.
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
Same as left
255
Condensate
water
Blowing
Circulation
Deaeration
unit
Boiler
Outlet of a
condensate
pump
Outlet of a
condensate
pump
pH
9.8
9.4
to
9.7
0.15 or
below
Outlet of a
deaeration
circulation
pump
Outlet of a
deaeration
circulation
pump
Pre-boiler
cleanup pipe
9.5
to
9.7
0.50 or
below
9.5
to
9.7
0.50 or
below
9.5
to
9.7
0.50 or
below
Circulation
Pre-boiler
cleanup pipe
9.5
to
0.7
0.50 or
below
Blowing
Outlet of a
water separator
0.50 or
below
Circulation
Outlet of a
water separator
9.5
to
9.7
9.5
to
9.7
Blowing
Circulation
Pre-boiler
Water quality
measurement
point
Blowing
0.50 or
below
0.200
0.050
(Outlet of a
condensate water
booster pump)
0.500
0.10 or
below
0.200
0.050
0.500
0.10 or
below
0.200
0.050
0.500
0.10 or
below
0.200
0.050
Scope of
cleanup
Remarks
From a
condenser
to the inlet
of a low
pressure
feed water
heater
From a low
pressure
feed water
heater to a
deaeration
unit
From the
outlet of a
deaeration
unit to a
high
pressure
feed water
heater
From the
outlet of a
high
pressure
feed water
heater to a
boiler
Sampling
Sampling
valve
Resin tower
Conductivity
meter
Flow meter
Resin tower
Sampling
Sampling
valve
Return valve
Condensate water
pump
For this reason, when seawater leakage is detected, its remaining capacity is checked immediately. During normal
operation, an ammonia type sampling is switched to H type sampling, on a par with the volume of leakage, and
the standby tower starts operation. With these measures, loads are reduced as soon as possible to contain the
volume of seawater slipping into the system. Table 3.3.2-14 shows the actions taken for a 1,000MW class boiler.
Lower than
6
Rated
load
Lower
than3
6 or above
3 or
above
10 or
above
5 or
above
20
10
Actions Taken
Actions for Operation
1. To strengthen
monitoring by
monitoring
instruments
2. Determination of the
location and degree of
leakage
3. Examination for
starting operation and
inspection plans
1. One condenser
operation
(To stop damaged
condenser and to
operate the intact
condenser
continuously at the
1/2 load)
2. To confirm that the
conductivity at the
outlet of CP, etc., has
decreased
1. Reduction or stop of
the spray flow rate for
a superheater and
reheater
2. To reduce load
1. To stop the unit in
principle
Chemical Injection
1. Continuous blowing
a. To be done
immediately after
detecting seawater
leakage
b. Intermittent blowing
depending on the
leakage conditions
(manual inspection,
etc.)
2. Blowing of condensate
water
a. To be done
depending on the
leakage conditions
1. Continuous blowing
To be done
continuously
2. Rapid blowing
To be done in the case
that water quality check
revealed it necessary
(Openness: 10% to
15%)
3. Blowing of condensate
water
To be done
continuously
(Fully open in
principle, but subject to
adjustment depending
on conditions)
1. Total boiler blowing as
necessary
1. Chemical injection
to boilers
a. To inject 10l of
sodium tertiary
phosphate to the
drum when
continuous
blowing starts
b. To inject an
appropriate
volume of sodium
tertiary phosphate
so that the pH
level of boiler
water can be
maintained at
around 9.5
2. Chemical injection
to feed water
a. To switch
hydrazine
injection from
automatic mode
to manual mode
(Target: pH of
feed water to be
around 8.8)
* As seawater
elements causes
an uplift of
conductivity, it is
not possible to
control the pH
level by adjusting
it.
Others
1. To close the
condensate water
return valve
connected to a
distilled water
tank
2. To conduct a
water-pressurized
leak check
1. To check and
repair the
damaged
condenser while
operating the
intact one
(Inspection using
a vinyl sheet)
Cl-Concentration
of Condensate
water
0.3 ppm or
above
0.5 ppm or
above
1. To check and
repair the
damaged
condenser
1.0 ppm
which water heated up in a heat exchanging process is evaporated in a cooling tower to be cooled by discharging
evaporative latent heat for use in recycling, and a closed circulation type, in which heated water is cooled down in
a cooling water cooler using seawater. A large capacity power generation plant in Japan uses the closed circulation
type, which can then be categorized into systems where bearing cooling water tanks are installed and those using
stand pipes. Recently, the latter has been frequently used because of the ease of water treatment.
These component cooling water systems incorporate an oil cooler that cools down the lubricants used for
turbine rotors, etc., a hydrogen cooler that is used for cooling generator and a coolant cooler. These units are made
of aluminum brass. Controlling the water quality of such component coolants should involve consideration of the
selection of an appropriate coolant circulation method and the use of steel, copper and copper alloys. Based on
such views, the water treatment of component coolants involves the introduction of anti-corrosion agents into the
coolants, in order to prevent the corrosion of the heat exchanger cooling pipes as well as other pipes, in turn, to
prevent scale deposits on the heat exchanger and avoid deterioration of its heat exchanging function.
Chemicals Used
Water Quality
Treatment Periods
Results of Effects using a Test
Piece
Result of a Regular Inspection
20,000 m3/h
13,000 m3
8C
2.5 times
Initial injection:
Anti-corrosion agent:
Kurizetto S370 (polymer phosphate series)
400mg/l
Anti-scaling agent:
Kurizetto T225 (polymer series)
200mg/l
Normal operation:
Alkali treatment agent:
Kurizetto S113 (phosphate - polymer series)
40mg/l
Chlorine treatment:
0.5 to 1.0mg/l(Cl2) 3 h/day
Slime control agent:
Polyclin A496 (nitrogen compounds - polymer series)
50mg/l x month
Sand filtration:
3% (against circulation water volume)
Makeup water
2
8.1
350
170
180
20
31
7
Turbidity (degree)
pH (at 25C)
Conductivity (S/cm)
Calcium hardness (CaCO3 mg/l)
M alkali level (CaCO3 mg/l)
Chloride ion (Cl-mg/l)
Sulfate ion (SO42-mg/l)
Silica (SiO2 mg/l)
7 years
Corrosion rate (SPCC) [mdd]
Circulation water
5
9.0
1 000
380
400
63
79
18
3 to 4
A small volume of scales and sludge was observed in several low speed heat exchangers, but other heat
exchangers were in good condition without any corrosion scales, slime and sludge damage.
Unlike highly hard water, water with low calcium hardness tends to require an increased concentration of
anti-corrosion chemicals and it is necessary to raise the concentration of anti-corrosion agent to 10 to 15
mg/l(T-PO4) under the calcium hardness of around 100 mg/l(CaCO3) and 15 to 20 mg/l(T-PO4) in the case of 50
mg/l (CaCO2). This is because the phosphate series anti-corrosion agent is influenced by dianoinic metals, such as
calcium ions, and because the combined use of phosphate and zinc salts with a strong coating forming
performance can achieve good anti-corrosion performance, even if the concentration of anti-corrosion chemicals
is kept to a low level. In a low hardness cooling water system, scales such as calcium phosphate can be formed in
a high temperature zone, and anti-scaling agents, such as acrylic acid series polymers and maleic acid series
polymers, are generally used in combination with these chemicals. In an open circulation type cooling system,
operation under a high concentration of chemicals to save the volume of water can thicken nutrients contained in
the water and within such an environment, microbes can pullulate and slime be formed relatively easily. In order
to prevent this, measures are taken by sterilizing the microbes and adding anti-slime agents that are effective in
curtailing the reproduction of the same. For such purposes, the hypochlorites and cyanurates previously used have
been recently replaced by carbonyl series compounds with no corrosion effects. Tables 3.3.2-24 and 3.3.2-25 show
examples of water quality treatment at open circulation type cooling systems.
Table 3.3.2-26 shows the water quality analysis items and frequency of analysis that are usually used for the
operating control of an open circulation type cooling system, while Table 3.3.2-27 shows the significance of these
water quality analysis items.
Table 3.3.2-25: Example of Water Quality Treatments to a Low Hardness Cooling Water System
Operation Condition of Cooling
Tower
Chemicals Used
Water Quality
Treatment Periods
Results of Effects using a Test
Piece
Result of a Regular Inspection
5 000 m3/h
2 400 m3
12C
3 times
400mg/l
100mg/l
Normal operation:
Anti-corrosion agent:
Kurizetto S603 (phosphonates, phosphates and zinc salts)
50mg/l
Anti-scaling agent:
Kurizetto T225 (polymer series)
30 mg/l
Chlorine treatment:
Polyclin A411
0.3 to 1.0mg/l(Cl2) 3 h/day
Sand filtration:
3% (against circulation water volume)
Makeup water
2
7.2
100
24
23
5
6
6
Turbidity (degree)
pH (at 25C)
Conductivity (S/cm)
Calcium hardness (CaCO3 mg/l)
M alkali level (CaCO3 mg/l)
Chloride ion (Cl-mg/l)
Sulfate ion (SO42-mg/l)
Silica (SiO2 mg/l)
8 years
Corrosion rate (SPCC) [mdd]
Circulation water
7
7.9
254
72
47
18
15
15
3 to 5
Corrosion, scale and slime were hardly observed and the result was very good.
Table 3.3.2-26: Water treatment Items and Analyzing Frequency for Operation Control of an Open Circulation
Type Cooling System (Standard)
Analysis Item
Turbidity
pH
Conductivity
M alkali level
Calcium hardness
Chloride ion
Sulfate ion
Silica
Total iron
Residual chlorine
CODMin
Anti-corrosion agents
Frequency of Analysis
Makeup Water
Circulation Water
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a day
Once a week
Once a day
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a week
Once a month
Once a month
Once a day
(degree)
(at 25C)
(S/cm)
(CaCO3 mg/l)
(CaCO3 mg/l)
(Cl-mg/l)
(SO42-mg/l)
(SiO2 mg/l)
(Fe mg/l)
(Cl2 mg/l)
(O mg/l)
(mg/l)
There are several ways to monitor the effectiveness of an anti-corrosion agent, the representative methods of
which include (1) measuring the corrosion speed of a test piece, (2) measuring the corrosion speed using a
corrosion measurement device using a polarization resistance method (an electrochemical method), (3) confirming
the conditions of corrosion and erosion depth on the heat transfer surface of a pipe using a heat exchanger for
260
monitoring purposes. The use of a test piece or a corrosion measurement device to measure the corrosion speed
cannot confirm the corrosion conditions on the heat transfer surface, in which case a heat exchanger for
monitoring purposes can be used. However, this method is not generally used, because the conditions of pipes
cannot be confirmed during test periods (normally 1 to 3 months) and because it requires significant plant and
operation control costs.
Table 3.3.2-27: Significance of Each Water Quality Analysis Item
Item
pH
(at 25C)
Conductivity
(S/cm)
Turbidity
(degree)
M alkali level
(CaCO3 mg/l)
Calcium hardness
(CaCO3 mg/l)
Chloride ion
(Cl-mg/l)
Sulfate ion
(SO42-mg/l)
Silica
(SiO2 mg/l)
Ammonium ion
(NH4+/l)
Consumption of oxygen
[CODMin ]
(O mg/l)
General microbe count
(pcs/ml)
Total iron
(Fe mg/l)
Concentration of
anti-corrosion agents and
anti-scaling agents
(mg/l)
Significance
Measured to obtain the trend of corrosion behavior and scale formation of water. The pH level of circulation water
is normally controlled at 7.0 to 9.0. Where the level is decreased to 6.5 or below, it must be raised by the addition
of alkali agents. In this case, the appropriate pH level is 8.0 to 9.0.
Measured to determine the trend of salt concentration dissociated into water as ions. Generally speaking, water
quality with high conductivity tends to be bad and is frequently a cause of corrosion damage.
Measured to determine the volume of suspended matter in water. Since the presence of such suspended matter in
the system can cause deterioration of efficiency and erosion damage to a heat exchanger, the turbidity of the
circulation water should be retained as low as possible.
There is a certain degree of connection between pH and the degree of alkali. The M alkali degree is an indicator of
the trend of calcium carbonate forming scales.
This indicator is important to control the concentration of circulation water and to determine the trend for the
formation of scales by calcium and other compounds such as calcium carbonate.
This is generally used as an indicator for controlling the concentration of circulation water. For a system where
chlorine treatment is performed, this indicator is used in combination with others, such as conductivity, calcium
hardness and silica concentration, etc. Water containing high chloride ions tends to have strong corrosive
performances.
Water containing a high concentration of sulfate ions tends to have a strongly corrosive performance. As for HAVC
coolants, the inclusion of sulfur acid gas contained in the air into the system causes a high concentration of sulfate
ions and decreases the pH level, forming a highly corrosive environment.
Silica is one of the causes of scale formation.
Water containing a high concentration of ammonium ions is highly inclined to generate slime. For a system using
copper series materials, ammonium ions and copper react with each other to form a complex ammonium ion salt,
which is a cause of corrosion.
A system with a high consumption of oxygen tends to cause slime, meaning appropriate slime control measures
must be implemented.
It can be an indicator to know the generation of slime. It can also be used to judge the effectiveness of the
microbicide.
The total iron content in the circulation water includes iron ion and colloidal ion derived from the makeup water as
well as other iron generated by corrosion of the system. The existence of iron can cause secondary corrosion,
meaning the total iron concentration must be kept as low as possible.
It is necessary to constantly maintain the concentrations of anti-corrosion and anti-scaling agents at an appropriate
level. In the case of significant fluctuations, effective anti-corrosion and anti-scaling performances cannot be
expected.
also used in a one-off manner for this purpose. As nitrate salt anti-corrosion agents cannot expect anti-corrosion
performance equivalent to that of polymer phosphate series agents, a special agent to prevent corrosion to copper
must be used in combination. In addition, as nitrite salts can cause decreased concentrations, due to the act of
microbes (nitrification due to action of oxidative bacterium against nitrate salts such as nitrobactors), it is
necessary to use an inhibitor in combination with the agents or to use deionized water containing less uncertain
elements. In the case of the nitrate salt series agent, after the initial injection of 200 to 300ppm of this agent, the
concentration is kept at a level of 60 to 130 ppm. In the case of hydrazine, the initial concentration is 20 ppm,
following which the concentration is maintained at 5 to 10 ppm when the concentration reaches a stable stage,
whereupon a good anti-corrosion performance can be obtained. The frequency of administering anti-corrosion
agents ranges from once a week to once every two weeks to obtain good water treatment.
Table 3.3.2-28: Outline of Anti-Corrosion Agents for a Closed Circulation Type Cooling System
Anti-Corrosion
Agent
Polymer Phosphate
Series
Corrosion Rate
Molybdate
Polymer Series
Remarks
As this agent facilitates the discharge of corrosion products
outside the system, a corrosion speed of 5 to 20 mdd may
be acceptable.
Use polymer agents in combination with it to reduce the
generation of scales on heat transmission surfaces.
As this agent does not allow the easy discharge of corrosion
products outside of the system, a chemical that ensure
favorable anti-corrosion performance must be used.
As the maximum temperature of bearing coolants is 40C
or below, which is within the optimum growing
temperature for microbes oxidizing nitrate salts (generally
15 to 30C), it is necessary to use its inhibitor in
combination with it.
When this agent is used in a system in which no or
insufficient anti-corrosion treatment is performed, iron
oxides existing in the system can be washed away turning
the color of the coolant red. In such systems, it is necessary
to flush it before starting injection of this chemical.
262
263
3.4.1.4
Special Maintenance
Accumulated operating hours of many of the then new and advanced thermal power plants in Japan that were
the motive power for the rapid development of the Japanese economy are reaching one hundred thousand hours or
more. It is time for them to be thoroughly inspected in a systematic manner.
Desirable items to be inspected are listed below.
(1) Rotors of high, medium and low pressure turbines
a. Center hole......................... Visual inspection by means of a bore scope, magnetic particle test, liquid penetrant
test and ultrasonic test
b. Surface of the rotors .......... Hardness test at the designated points, structural examination by means of a
microscope, liquid penetrant test of general surface, magnetic particle test, hardness
test
(2) Blades
a. Embedded portion.............. Inspection to check whether the roots of the first and second stage rotors of the high
and the medium pressure turbines that are exposed to high temperature have lifted
Ultrasonic test of the rotating blades in each of the high, and the medium pressure
stages
b. Shroud tenon...................... General inspection to check whether it lifted and how it lifted
(3) Main steam check valve... Liquid penetrant test of the inside and outside surface, magnetic particle test,
ultrasonic test, hardness test and structural examination by means of a microscope
(4) Turbine casing.................. Penetrant test of the inside and outside surface, magnetic particle test, structural
examination by means of a microscope
3.4.1.5
Content of the Periodic Inspection
Content of the periodic inspection for a steam turbine is summarized as follows.
264
Legend
Operation : Inspection
No.
1
Place to be Inspected
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
100% inspection
Remarks
Usual inspection
(1) Casing
a. Corners and the inside
surface of each pipe
seat
VT, MT
The inside
of a pipe
seat
A corner
b. Nozzle chamber
(a) The inner and the
outer surfaces
100% inspection
MT, UT
100% inspection
(c) Profile
Dimensions
(Deformed amount)
100% inspection
Dimensions
(Clearance)
100% inspection
(e) Vane
Dimensions
(Eroded amount)
100% inspection
A welded
connecting part
MT, UT
Measuring point
Eroded amount
265
Operation : Inspection
No.
Place to be Inspected
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
100% inspection
Remarks
VT, MT
VT, MT,
Dimensions
100% inspection
MT, Dimensions,
Shape of the screw
threads
100% inspection
f. Balance tube
g. Welded part
h. Key
MT, UT
(Wall thickness)
VT, MT
100% inspection
100% inspection
VT, Dimension
(Clearance)
100% inspection
VT, MT
100% inspection
Hole Plug
Inner Casing
Inner
Casing
100% inspection
266
Outer
Casing
Operation : Inspection
No.
Place to be Inspected
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
Remarks
(3) Rotor
Rs
VT, MT
100% inspection
b. Shoulders of the
grooves in the rotor of
the medium pressure
turbine where the
blades are embedded
VT, UT
100% inspection
Dimensions
VT, MT, UT
100% inspection
VT, MT
100% inspection
A crack
Erosion
Lifted amount
100% inspection
(2) Measurement of
the eroded
amount of the
tenon
100% inspection
VT, PT
100% inspection
Measurement of the
eroded amount
100% inspection
267
Tenon
Shroud
Tenon
Shroud
Rotating
direction
Cross-section
of a blade
Operation : Inspection
Place to be Inspected
d. The blade root area of
the side entry blade
Inspection Method
VT, MT, UT
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
100% inspection
Remarks
Both for the blade and the disk, the highest
stress is experienced at the corner on the first
tooth. The inspection is to be effected by
means of MT and U.T according to necessity.
However, in case the inspection has to be
carried out in a limited space such as the high
or medium pressure stage, P.T will be used.
VT
100% inspection
PT
100% inspection
RT (or U.T)
When recoated
100% inspection
The blade
base metal
Erosion
Measurement of
eroded amount
Silver
solder
Separation
A crack
An image taken during R.T showing
incomplete fused spray of stelite
Erosion
Blade Ring
No.
VT, MT
100% inspection
VT, MT
100% inspection
268
Operation : Inspection
No.
Place to be Inspected
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
Remarks
c. Valve Seat
VT, MT (PT)
100% inspection
Hardness
Representing
points
VT
100% inspection
MT (Fluorescent
magnaflux)
Hardness
UT
100% inspection
Hammering test
100% inspection
Dimensions
About two
representing
bolts per area
Checking of the
thread profile
- ditto -
269
Actual profile
Standard profile
Operation : Inspection
No.
2
Place to be Inspected
Inspection Method
Number of
Tested Samples
Inspection
Frequency
Remarks
Once at 100,000
hours in service
and every ten
years thereafter
Once at 100,000
hours or so in
service
Blades
Rotor
Caulking Piece
A crack
A crack
Rotating Blade
VT, UT,
Measurement of
lifted amount
100% inspection
Stopper Pin
A crack
Lift
b. Portion representing
the profile
(Blades near the main
steam and the reheat
steam inlets)
Measurement of
hardness
(by means of X-ray
diffraction or other
methods)
Several
representative
rotors
270
Rotor
Measurement of
hardness of the surfaces
representing the profile
Operation : Inspection
No.
Place to be Inspected
(3) Stationary blades
(Blades near the main
steam and the reheat
steam inlets)
Inspection Method
Measurement of
inclination amount
of a blade row
Number of
Tested Samples
100% inspection
Inspection
Frequency
8th to 10th year
and every four
years thereafter
Remarks
It is a matter of concern that creep deformation
occurs to the stationary blades in the 1st stage
of the high or the medium pressure turbine
after prolonged exposure to steam of high
temperature and high pressure so that
difference in elongation between the rotor and
the casing is constrained.
Steam
Amount of inclination
Destructive test
One or two
representative
bolts per material
271
3.4.2
Maintenance of Condensers
3.4.2.1
Inspection and Measures
Table 3.4.2-1 shows content of the maintenance and inspection to be effected at the periodic inspection.
Table 3.4.2-1: Content of the Maintenance and Inspection to be Effected at the Periodic Inspection
Item
Timing of
Maintenance
Purpose or Method
Inspection
Method
Countermeasure/Improvement
VI
ET
VI
VI
VI
PHT
VI
PT
VI
PT
WT
Connecting piece
the rubber
expansion joint
Inspection of deterioration of
the rubber expansion joint by
viewing from the inside of the
body
VI
ST
WT
The extraction
steam pipe
expansion joint
VI
PT
VI
PT
3.4.2.2
Cleaning of the Water Chamber and the Surface of the Pipe Plate
Negligence in cleaning of the water chamber and the surface of the pipe plate allows marine creatures to
adhere to them and strongly propagate on them so that the cooler pipes are so persistently clogged, requiring too
much labor to remove them. Therefore, cleaning of the water chamber and the pipe plate shall also be scheduled
whenever a planned shutdown or opening of the water chamber is expected.
272
3.4.2.3
Cleaning of the Inside of the Cooling Pipes
Cleaning of the inside of the cooling pipes is important to maintain the performance of the condenser, and
Table 3.4.2-2 shows the method of cleaning. However, it is necessary to check the properties and condition of
the scale deposited on the inside wall and to select an effective method since it may be different according to such
properties and condition. When the pipe is clogged with foreign matter, remove it first, and then carry out the
cleaning.
Table 3.4.2-2: Cleaning Methods for the Inside of a Cooling Pipe
Cleaning Method
Algae-containing
scale
Feed the nylon brush through the pipe by pressurized water from a pressure
feed-type water gun.
The water gun pressure should be about 0.6 ~ 0.8 MPa.
Attach a rubber guide to the tip of the water gun in order not to damage the tip
of the cooling pipe.
Wet the nylon brush in advance.
Feed the nylon brush against the direction of the flow of the cooling water.
Take a precautionary measure using a protective sheet so that the brush does
not directly touch the rubber lining in the water chamber on the opposite side.
Slimy scale
Feed by pressurized water several granulated balls per pipe that are used by a
ball cleaning equipment through the pipes with a water gun.
Feed the balls against the direction of the flow of the cooling water.
Cleaning with a
rotary tube cleaner
Scale containing a
small amount of algae
Cleaning with a
chemical detergent
Hard scale
3.4.2.4
Leak Test of the Cooling Pipes
In the event that leakage from a cooling pipe is found, it is necessary to exactly identify from which pipe
among thousands or ten of thousands of pipes the leakage is occurring. Figure 3.4.2-1 shows the methods of
checking.
Point of leakage
Point of leakage
Rubber
plug
Wrapping sheet
Point of leakage
Manometer
Black light
Rubber
plug
Rubber packing
Point of leakage
Point of leakage
Transparent
acrylic resin
Foam
cap
Rubber packing
Point of leakage
Application of
soapy water
A vacuum meter
Rubber plug
Vacuum-breaker
Vacuum pump
(an ejector)
Compressed air
273
3.4.2.5
Checking of air leakage
Too much air leakage to the condenser lowers the steam-condensing capability and the degree of vacuum,
resulting in inability to limit the load on the steam turbine or in inability of operation. Checking of air leakage
can be effected with flon or helium gas as shown in figure 3.4.2-2. But flon is a regulated material from an
environmental protection viewpoint. This method is suitable for checking of the many parts of the unit including
the turbine and the piping. In the event that the degree of vacuum is lowered before or after the periodic
inspection, parts dismantled and repaired in the meantime and connecting parts such as flanges should mainly be
checked. The water-filling method explained above may be used when the checking is just for the condenser
system.
Breakable diaphragm
Turbine casing
Flon or
helium gas
Rubber expansion joint
Low-pressure
feedwater heater
Connecting piping
Connecting piping
Gas detector
Connecting
piping
Connecting piping
Air-cooling section
Vacuum pump
3.4.2.6
Eddy Current Test (9)
The built-in-type eddy current test is a checking method to find damage to the cooling pipes. This checking
should be effected at every periodic inspection, and the data should be compared and arranged in good order
according to the passage of time. The eddy current test is a detection method that utilizes electromagnetic
induction. There are two methods: synchronized detection and phase analysis. Both or only the latter should be
effected. As shown in Figure 3.4.2-3, passing an alternative current through a coil situated near a metallic
material causes an eddy current in it due to electromagnetic induction. Such defects as cracks or any variation in
the material properties would change the eddy current, changing the impedance of the coil.
The cooled pipes
The AC coils
Synchronized
detection method
Synchronized
detection method
Phase analysis
method
Phase analysis
method
Synchronized
detection method
Synchronized
detection method
Phase analysis
method
Phase analysis
method
3.4.2.7
Replacement and Blocking of a Cooling Pipe
Replace and block a cooling pipe from which leakage is found. Figure 3.4.2-5 shows the procedure for
effecting the methods.
(1) Crimping of the end of the pipe
Pipe
plate
Old
pipe
Pipe
plate
Rubber plug,
brass rod, etc.
Copper rod
Pipe
plate
Old
pipe
Expander
Pipe
plate
A rubber plug
New pipe
3.4.2.8
Checking of a Connecting Piece Rubber Expansion Joint
The service life of a rubber belt is about ten years. So, the following checking and measurement shall be
effected once a year after five years since the start of operation, and replacement shall be prepared after ten years.
(1) Visual inspection
Check whether or not any cracks,swells, or irregularities due to aged deterioration are found.
275
3.4.2.9
Repair of the rubber lining
Figure 3.4.2-6 shows a typical method and procedure for the repair. Cut the damaged part off and grind the
appropriate part and the surroundings with a grinder. Apply adhesive over it, attach a vulcanized rubber sheet,
and shape them with pressure using a roller or some other tool. Make sure by visual check or by using a pin hole
tester that there are no irregularities.
Application of an adhesive
Vulcanized rubber
Metal part
Water chamber
(3) Removal of
the copper alloy pipes
The stakes
Welding of the
titanium pipe
(5) Insertion of
the titanium pipes
Supporting plate
Figure 3.4.2-7: Procedure for Replacing of the Aluminum Brass Alloy Pipe Condenser by the Titanium Pipe
Condenser
2.4.2-1
Maintenance of the Feed water Heater
Table 3.4.2-3, 3.4.2-4, and 3.4.2-5 show examples of the main failures occurring in the feed water heater, those
of aged deterioration, and the main items of maintenance, respectively.
These items of maintenance and their frequency are just for reference, and they depend on the kind of a plant.
Therefore, it is necessary to obtain information on other plants and to operate a plant in cooperation with the
supplier.
276
Table 3.4.2-3: Examples of Main Failures Occurring in the Feed water Heater
Part Name
Item of Failure
Monel metal
Brass
Heating
Steel pipe
Stainless
Fatigue damage
Deterioration of Materials
Deterioration of
Function
Item
Content
Deteriorated function of the desuperheating system, the draincooling system, and the vent
system
Deterioration of the
diaphragm of the cylindrical
water chamber made of
forged steel
277
Maintenance
Frequency
Operation Mode
In service
Once a day
In service
Once a day to
once a month
In service
Once a month to
once a year
In service
Once a year
3.4.2-2
Maintenance of the Deaerator
Table 3.4.2-6 and Table 3.4.2-7 show an outline of the main failures and aged deterioration that may occur in
the deaerator, respectively. Maintenance during operation is required in order to prevent and relieve these
failures and deterioration and to enhance reliability.
Table 3.4.2-6: Examples of Main Failures of the Deaerator
Part Name
Item of Failure
Spray nozzle
Welded part
Deterioration of
Materials
Deterioration of
Function
Item
Content
Table 3.4.2-8 shows the main items of maintenance. These items of maintenance and their frequency are just
for reference, and they depend on the kind of the plant. Therefore , it is necessary to obtain information on other
plants and to operate a plant in cooperation with the suppliers in the same manner as explained later on the causes
of and measures against representative examples of failures listed in Table 3.4.2-6.
278
Maintenance
Frequency
Operation Mode
In service
Once a day
In service
Once a month
In service
Once a month to
once a year
In service
Once a year
3.4.2-3
Maintenance of the Cooler
3.4.2-3.1 Maintenance and Control during Operation
The following maintenance and control shall be effected during operation of a power plant.
(1) Monitoring of the attached instruments and the measured data
Monitor the data on the temperatures at the outlet and the inlet of the cooler measured by temperature meters
or some other instruments to make sure that no irregularities related to function and performance occur.
Especially for seawater coolers, the pressure of the outlet and inlet of the cooler and, the opening angle of the
temperature control valve (the lower the performance, the wider the opening) on the cooling water side shall also
be monitored because its performance may be deteriorated due to deposited marine creatures clogging it and also
because the cooling pipes may be corroded.
(2) Checking of the appearance of each cooler
Check whether or not any leakage from the flanges is found and some other items.
(3) Inspection of the attached equipment
If an electrochemical protection device supplied with off-device electricity is used, make sure that the
corrosion control current and the corrosion control potential during operation are within the specified ranges. If
a seawater strainer (seashell filtering device) is installed, check the pressure difference, washing frequency, etc.
(4) Water quality control
When iron or chlorine is injected into seawater, the concentration of the solution to be injected and frequency
of injection shall be controlled.
(5) Storing of a device whose operation is suspended
If there is a spare seawater cooler or oil cooler, or in the event that the condenser cooler is bypassed in the
summer season, its operation is suspended for a long time. In this case, seawater in the seawater system of the
cooler shall be completely discharged, and the cooler shall be completely dried out for storing.
Table 3.4.2-9: Maintenance Items to be Effected during Scheduled Suspension of Operation and Periodic
Inspection
Name of Equipment
Seawater cooler
Condenser cooler
Oil cooler
Inspection Item
Method
Frequency
Countermeasures
Inspection of corrosion
of the cooling pipes
Inspect corrosion of
both the inside and the
outside of the pipes
using ECT.
Once a year
Inspection of leakage
from the expanded part
and other parts of the
cooling pipes
Inspection of the
surface of the pipe plate
Visually inspect
corrosion of the pipe
plate surface (V.I.).
Inspection of the
galvanic anode plate
Once a year
Inspection of corrosion
of the cooling pipes
Inspection of leakage
from the expanded part
of the cooling pipes
ECT:: Eddy current test W.T.: Pressure test (Water, Air, or Oil pressure)
It is necessary to effect an eddy current test (ECT) at every periodic inspection for a cooler using seawater.
However, the frequency of ECT for a condenser cooler and an oil cooler may be somewhat reduced provided that
the water is appropriately treated to reduce the causes of cooling pipe corrosion.
A stop plug must be fitted in a pipe whose wall thickness is found by ECT to be too greatly reduced or when
such a pipe must be replaced with a new one. Figure 3.4.2-8 shows the procedure for fitting a stop plug in a pipe.
Pipe plate
Cooling pipe
280
3.4.3
3.4.3.1
Effects
Creep
A creep deformation
A creep rupture
Time
Temperature
Aged deterioration
(Aged deterioration
of quality)
Fatigue
Low-cycle fatigue
High-cycle fatigue
Material deterioration
Embrittlement
Stress
Environment
Start and stop
Load fluctuation
Corrosive
Corrosion
Corrosion fatigue
Stress corrosion
cracking
Erosion
Solid particle attack
Drain attack
Strength reduction
Performance down
Increased
possibility of
damage
Increased
operating cost
Softening
Abrasion
1.1 Creep
A material that is subjected to a load under high temperature gradually deforms and finally cracks and breaks.
This phenomenon where a material gradually deforms is called creep, and the cracking or the breaking is called
creep rupture.
(1) Creep deformation
Deformation due to creep can be a cause of aged bending of the steam turbine rotor, aged deformation of the
wheel casing, and aged lifting of the rotating blade.
(2) Creep rupture
When creep enters an acceleration zone, the strain increases and the material finally breaks.
A design to prevent creep rupture and cracking life assessment are effected based on creep rupture
characteristics (time taken until a rupture occurs under a certain temperature and stress).
Macroscopic deformation of a material caused by creek can be detected by measurement of the dimensions and
lifted amount of the rotating blade and the shroud.
(3) The mechanism of a creep rupture
The assumed process of a creep rupture is as follows. (1) A microscopic crack or a small void appears at the
grain boundary during a creep deformation. (2) Such cracks or voids grow and combine. (3) Finally an intergranular rupture occurs. Figure 3.4.3-2 systematically shows this process.
281
Inter-granular slide
A start of a
microscopic crack
Growth of a
microscopic crack
A void is formed
1.2 Fatigue
Figure 3.4.3-3 systematically shows the process of formation and diffusion of a fatigue crack.
The direction of
repeated stress
A crack in the slip
zone appearing at
the initial stage
A crystal grain
The outside
(The inside)
A cleavage crack
The direction of growth
The inside
(The outside)
A ductility striation
A brittle striation that appears mainly
under a corrosive environment
The final slant
The second stage
separation fracture
The
first
stage
(Formation)
(Diffusion of a crack)
1.3 Embrittlement
Materials used for steam turbines are exposed to high temperature during operation for a long time, and their
toughness and ductility are reduced. Brittleness is the result of this process and is progressive as time passes.
The turbine wheel casing, the rotor, the main valve, etc. that are used under high temperature are liable to
suffer from this phenomenon.
Generally speaking, brittleness that appears after heating at high temperature for a long time is caused by
segregation of such trace elements as phosphorus (P) and tin (Sn) reducing the grain boundary strength.
Figure 3.4.3-4 systematically shows the process of aged brittleness occurring to the materials used in steam
turbines.
282
Diffusion of trace
elements
Condensation and
bulkinization of carbides
Precipitation of grain
boundary carbides
Acceleration of bulkinization
and embrittlement
1.4 Corrosion
The stage of a turbine near the dry-wet alternating area that becomes wet with a heavy load and dry with a
light load is an area where corrosion must be especially observed. In such an area, a phenomenon occurs where
traces of corrosive substances dissolved in water droplets sometimes condense due to the alternation between a
wet condition and a dry condition caused by load fluctuation or by starting and stopping.
And corrosion and pitting occur more or less in a steam turbine that has been operated for a long time because
when the steam turbine stops, steam becomes droplets that attach to the metal surface even near the last stage
where wet steam flows and in the higher stage where the temperature is higher.
(1) Corrosion fatigue
Corrosion fatigue occurs when corrosion and repeated stress exist concurrently.
The fatigue strength of a material is lowered under a corrosive environment. This phenomenon is
conspicuous especially in the case of high-cycle fatigue. The tenons and the shroud for the rotating blades in the
wet area are liable to be affected.
In the case of corrosion fatigue, the higher the concentration of the corrosive substances and the longer the
exposure to corrosive substances, the more the fatigue strength is lowered. The fatigue limit is outstandingly
lowered compared with that in a dry environment.
(2) Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
The type of stress corrosion cracking is either a crystal grain boundary fracture or a transgranular fracture
depending on the material, the stress, and the environment.
The feature of SCC is a delayed fracture under a specific stress, and it can occur under a stress that is only a
fraction of the stress with which a material fracture occurs under a non-corrosive environment.
Under the same corrosive environment, SCC is more likely to occur with higher stress, and with the same
stress, it is more likely to occur to a material with higher strength.
1.5 Erosion
Erosion that occurs to materials used in a steam turbine is mainly caused either by solid particles or by drain
(water droplets).
(1) Erosion by solid particles
Small solid particles of oxidized scale flying in steam from the boiler are in some cases the main cause of
erosion of the nozzles and the rotating blades in the high- and medium-pressure stage. Erosion often occurs
especially to the nozzle plate in the first stage, where stress working on the rotating blades in the first stage is
increased, affecting the reliability of the rotating blades in extreme cases.
In the event that the area of the nozzle throat is increased or the profile of the effective part of a rotating blade
is changed by the influence of erosion, the efficiency of the turbine is reduced.
(2) Drain (wastewater) attack
Erosion occurs mainly to the rotating parts by wastewater produced in the wet area.
283
1.6 Softening
The necessary strength and ductility of the materials used for the parts exposed to high temperature are
maintained by heat treatment. However, various mechanical properties related to the strength are deteriorated
due to the effects of temperature and stress caused by operation under high temperature for a long time. One of
these phenomena is softening.
The higher the temperature and the stress, the more conspicuous the softening.
Softening of a material used in a turbine can be detected by measurement of hardness.
1.7 Abrasion
Although the gasket installed between the rotor and stationary parts such as the nozzle is a non-contact type,
light contact between them may occur due to deformation of the wheel casing during a thermal transitional period
such as the start-up of the turbine.
Gaskets are gradually abraded due to light contact resulting in increased leakage of steam between two stages
to cause aged deterioration of efficiency.
Journals of the rotor and bearings can suffer from abrasion and sliding scratches after prolonged operation.
2. Object Components and Areas in a Steam Turbine to be Assessed and Damage to Them
2.1 Object Components and Areas to be Assessed in a Steam Turbine
The rotor, the wheel casing, the rotating and stationary blades, and the main value are the objects of periodic
maintenance and life control because they are the main components of a turbine.
Figure 3.4.3-5 to 9 show the object components and areas of each item of main equipment for which life
assessment must be effected.
The high-pressure
rotating blades
A rotor
The center hole
Figure 3.4.3-5: Object Components and Areas of the High- and Medium-pressure Rotor (reaction type)
for Which Life Assessment Must be Effected
The place of the tenon
A disk
A disk
The profile
The medium-pressure
rotating blades
A disk
The dub tail type
An enlarged view of the blade groove
Figure 3.4.3-6: Object Components and Areas of the High- and Medium-pressure Rotor (impulse type)
for Which Life Assessment Must be Effected
284
The profile
The low-pressure
rotating blades
A disk
A corner R portion
A bolt
The flat
portion
Section A - A
Figure 3.4.3-8: Object Components and Areas of the High-pressure Wheel Casing
for Which Life Assessment Must be Effected
A bolt
The valve rod
Figure 3.4.3-9: Object Components and Areas of the Main Valve (Steam-adjusting Valve)
for Which Life Assessment Must be Effected
285
The disk
{
{
The low-pressure
rotating blades
UT
MT
PT
VT
The profile
The profile
{
{
The nozzle
The profile
Abrasion
Softening
Erosion
Embrittlement
Place/Component
Corrosion
Fatigue
Equipment
Test
Creep
Remaining life
assessment
The bolt
The bolt
{
{
MT: Magnaflux Flaw Detection Test PT: Penetrant Flaw Detection Test
{
{
Photo 3.4.3-1: Creep damage to the Tenon for a medium-pressure rotating blade
286
(2) Fatigue cracking damage to the base part of the high- and medium-pressure disk
Photo 3.4.3-2 shows an example of low-cycle fatigue cracking damage occurring to the base part of the highand medium-pressure rotor due to repeated thermal stress caused by starting and stopping of the turbine.
Thermal stress occurs due to temperature difference between the inside and the surface of the disk. This is
caused by the large heat capacity of the rotor, leading to disagreement in temperature between steam and the
metallic part when the steam is introduced and also to inability of the inside of the disk to follow the rapid
increase in temperature afterwards.
Moreover, since stress concentration occurs around the corner and the groove parts of the rotor surface, plastic
deformation is repeated every time the turbine is started and stopped, leading to accumulated fatigue and finally to
cracking.
Photo 3.4.3-3: Corrosion Fatigue of the Part of a Rotor Where Blades are Embedded
(4) Erosion of the nozzle of the first stage (1)
Chipped parts are often found on the first-stage nozzle of the high- and medium-pressure turbine, and Photo
3.4.3-4 shows an example of the chipped part. This is assumed to be caused by oxidized scale that has been
separated from the boiler pipe flying into the turbine and finally crashes into the nozzle at high speed. This
phenomenon is called solid particle erosion (SPE). Since there is concern that the developed erosion would
reduce the internal efficiency and have a bad influence on the first-stage rotating blades, repair needs to be
effected in a timely manner.
Creep
Fatigue
Embrittlement
Assessment Method
Parameters to be detected
Instruments/Measuring Method
Measurement of hardness
Hardness
Hardness
Electric resistance
An electric resistance-measuring
device
By A parameters
Creep void
Creep void
Creep void
Carbides
Measurement of microscopic
cracks
Measurement of hardness
Hardness
Hardness
Half-value width
Polarization
Current density
Chemical etching
288
Before heated
Temperature
(C)
450
500
550
550
Heated
Materials that
material received creep
with no load
damage
{
U
{
S
{
Materials
that received
creep
damage
[Cr-Mo-V steel]
Figure 3.4.3-10: Relation between the Temperature Time Parameter and Hardness
The hardness test method assesses the creep damage rate by means of the amount or rate of hardness drop
measured in actual steam turbines. Figure 3.4.3-11 shows the relationship between creep damage rate c and
drop in hardness Hv (difference in hardness between a material with a load applied and another with no load
applied), and the creep damage rate is obtained from the measurement of hardness making use of the figure.
CrMoV forged iron
Figure 3.4.3-11: Relation between Creep Damage Rate and Drop in Hardness
(ii) A method of using hardness measurement together with analytical calculations (1)
This method assesses the creep damage rate by means of creep rupture characteristics after deterioration that
are obtained from hardness measured in an area that received thermal aging (an area exposed to high temperature
but only to low stress), as well as by means of the analytical calculations. Figure 3.4.3-12 shows the summarized
test results of creep rupture characteristics represented by hardness and temperature time parameters. And creep
rupture characteristics after aged deterioration are obtained from measurement of hardness on actual steam
turbines and the calculation result of temperature and stress by Formula (1) that is induced from the figure.
T(C+logtr)={ai(log)i-1Hv+bi(log)i-1 ........................................................................... (1)
where tr: Creep rapture time
T: Absolute temperature
C: Material constant
Hv: Vickers hardness
: Working stress
aibi: Approximation constants
289
Stress (kg/mm2)
(Estimation according
to the formula (1))
Values obtained by
experiments
Figure 3.4.3-12: Comparison between Data on Creep Rupture Characteristics Obtained from Experiments and its
Estimation Based on Measured Hardness
Figure 3.4.3-13: Relation between Creep Damage Rate and Dropped Amount of Electric Resistivity Ratio
(3) The structure-observing method
The structure-observing method is where a metal structure is observed by means of a replica, and the extent of
damage is assessed by the degree of structural change. Since the change in the structure due to creep damage
itself can possibly be grasped, it is an important technique. Concretely speaking, the structure is transferred to a
replica film after the portion of metal to be assessed is polished and etched. The vapor deposition of gold is
applied to the replica, and the replica is observed by a scanning electron microscope.
Figure 3.4.3-14 and Photo 3.4.3-5 show the procedure for picking up of the replica and an example of
observation of a creep void (a cavity), respectively.
290
A crack or a void
The replica
Loading condition
A material used for 140,000 hours
A virgin material
Figure 3.4.3-15: Relation between the Fatigue Damage Rate and the Maximum Microscopic Crack Length
291
3.2.3 Embrittlement
(1) The polarization method (1)(12)(15)(16)
The polarization method assesses the degree of embrittlement by means of the relationship between the voltage
and the current (polarization curve) appearing when electrolysis is caused in the electrolysis solution using a part
whose embrittlement is to be calculated as the anode, as well as by means of the phenomenon where the natural
electric potential varies according to advancement of embrittlement.
(2) The chemical etching method (17)
The chemical etching method detects advancement of embrittlement by means of measurement of the depth of
the grain boundary corroded groove (roughness and width of the grain boundary groove) to know the amount of
segregation at the phosphorus grain boundary following selective corroding of a certain grain boundary by picric
acid.
Photo 3.4.3-6: A Device for Remaining Life Assessment of the Rotor Center Hole [MACH-I]
Figure 3.4.3-17(1)(18) shows the result of remaining life assessment of a high- and medium-pressure outer wheel
casing. (The cumulative operation hours is about 160,000 hours, the number of starts and stops is 370, and the
temperature of the part to be assessed is 538C.)
292
[1]Operation history
Number of starts and stops: 370 Operated time: 161,000 hours Steam temperature: 538C
Fatigue damage f
The part to
be assessed
[2] Result of
the life assessment
Safe zone
Creep damage c
Symbol Mark
Figure 3.4.3-17:
An Example of Actual
Application of Remaining
Life Assessment of a Highand Medium-pressure Outside
Wheel Casing
Observation result by a scanning
electron microscope (SEM)
(1000)
Inspection Item
Electric resistance
measurement
Hardness measurement
Microscopic crack
measurement
Electric resistance
measurement
Hardness
measurement
Microscopic crack
measurement
The data of
the R portion of
the steam chest
Formation of a void in the steam
chest
(Combined voids)
(The initial
stage)
The creep
damage rate and
A void is
the creep strain
formed
(an image
on the
replica).
Figure 3.4.3-18: Situation of the Creep Damage Rate, the Creep Strain, and the Void
293
3.4.3.2
Heat Exchangers
1. Outline
Various kinds of heat exchangers are used in thermal power plants. In this chapter, we discuss measures for
improvement including a new technology to enhance future reliability of the major types of heat exchangers.
Table 3.4.3-3 shows the main failures that occurred to the condensers, the feed water heaters, the cooling water
coolers, the oil cooler and the gland steam condensers due to their aged deterioration, as well as the content of
improvement and countermeasures. For typical examples among them, causes and their countermeasures are
explained below.
Table 3.4.3-3: Improvements of the Plant Equipment and Countermeasures against Malfunctions
Improvements of such major heat exchanging equipment as the condenser, the feed water heater, the oil cooler, the
cooling water cooler, and the gland steam condenser and countermeasures against major malfunctions
Name of
Equipment
1. Condenser
2. Lowpressure Feed
water Heater
Purpose
Method of
Inspection
ET
Reinforcement of temperature-proof
capability (To prevent cracking due to aged
deterioration)
PT
PT
DI
VI
PT
HT
VI
ET
VI
UT
PT
PT
VI
VI
4. Oil Cooler
ET
VI
5. Cooling
Water Cooler
ET
VI
6. Gland
Steam
Condenser
VI
3. Highpressure Feed
water Heater
Meaning of the acronyms: ET (Eddy Current Flaw Detection Test) PT (Penetrate test) DI (Dimension Inspection) VI (Visual Inspection) HT
(Hardness Test) UT (Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Test)
2.
Plant
Output
(at the
opening of
the plant)
250 MW
(1967)
250 MW
(1974)
350 MW
(1970)
600 MW
(1973)
Operation
Mode
Name of the
Base
Time of
Damage
Occurrence
Damage Situation
Original Shape
A crack of 105 mm in
the body and another
crack of 30 mm in the
nozzle
Cracks
(hatched area)
DSS
High-pressure Seventeen
Drain
years after
Manifold
the operation
(150 A)
started
A crack of 115 mm in
the body and another
crack of 70 mm in the
nozzle
Cracks
(hatched area)
DSS
MediumTwelve
pressure Drain years after
Manifold
the operation
(100 A)
started
At a constant
load
(entered in an
emergency)
At a medium
load
SSR steam
inlet
(150 A)
Turbine Lead
Pipe Drain
Inlet
(50 A)
Nineteen
years after A crack of 178 mm in
the operation the body
started
Ten years
after the
operation
started
Three cracks of 80
mm max. length in the
peripheral direction
occurred on the
welded part of the
thermal sleeve and the
body
Countermeasures
Fillet welding
Fillet welding
Groove
welding
Cracks
Cracking can be prevented by the countermeasure where the hot side, the nozzle, and the cold side, the body,
are connected through the thermal sleeve and the point of injection is chosen so that the hot fluid does not point
the body to relieve steepness of the temperature gradient between the nozzle and the body.
295
3.
Feed water
Leakage
An inserted pipe
(SUS304TB)
A flow-smoothing bell mouth
(1.25Cr0.5Mo Steel plate)
An inserted pipe
(SUS304TB)
A flow-smoothing bell mouth
(1.25Cr0.5Mo Steel plate)
3.6 Damage to the Diaphragm in the Cylindrical Water Chamber of the High-pressure Feed Water
Heater
There is a structure where a diaphragm is used to obtain water tightness of the water chamber of the highpressure feed water heater (Figure 3.4.3-20). In this structure, the high pressure in the water chamber is
supported by a water chamber cover made of a thick plate and is sealed by the diaphragm. The diaphragm is not
often damaged.
The outlet for the feedwater
The body
The partition
cover
The diaphragm
The heating pipe
297
= Countermeasures =
It is required to replaced the diaphragm every two years taking the DSS mode of operation into consideration.
The old one should not be used but should be replaced it with a new one at such an opportunity as opening of the
water chamber when the old one is broken.
3.7 Erosion of the Inside of the Low-pressure Feed water Heater Body
Reduction in the wall thickness of the parts located inside the heater such as the body plate and the pipesupporting plate due to aged deterioration has often been experienced recently.
A study revealed that the places where reduction in wall thickness had been experienced are those where the
flow of steam is relatively fast in the heater or places where there was movement of wastewater and where erosion
is liable to be induced. This attack is a phenomenon due to erosion and corrosion occurring in a specific
temperature range.
The corrosion speed of an iron or steel material is greatly influenced by the environmental temperature, and
there is a tendency for a material to increase its corrosion speed at a specific temperature. The number of cases
of the phenomenon where plates inside the body of the low-pressure feed water heater are corroded and their wall
thickness is reduced around the above-mentioned temperature range has increased.
= Countermeasures =
Such measures as padding by welding on the area whose wall thickness has been reduced, backing the area by
a metal stripe and/or partially replacing with a newly fabricated part made of SUS material are effected.
4.
The nozzle
5.
298
3.4.3.3
Pump
1.
Inspection Items
Abnormal noise and vibration/Leakage from the piping, the gland and the coupling/Vibration of the small-size
piping/Opening angle of the sealing water control valve/Differential pressure of the strainers
Operation Record
Inspection Items
Abnormal noise and vibration/Leakage from the piping/Abnormal noise and vibration/Leakage from the
gland/Differential pressure of the strainer/Abnormality in the bearing lubricating water
Table 3.4.3-6: The Content of the Inspection on the Periodic Inspection of BFP
Item
The sliding ring
The main shaft
Rotating
Component
Casing
The impeller
Others
299
Table 3.4.3-7: The Content of the Inspection on the Periodic Inspection of CWP
Item
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The impeller
1. The bearing
1. The pumping-up
pipe of the
discharging body
Rotating
Component
Bearing
Casing
3.
Table 3.4.3-8: Measures Taken to Strengthen the Deterioration-proof Capability of the Boiler Feed water Pump at
Hitachi, Ltd.
No.
Phenomenon that
Occurred
Cause
Cavitation erosion
Increased vibration
Increased vibration
Corrosion damage
to the chrome
plating
301
Table 3.4.3-9: Measures Taken to Strengthen the Deterioration-proof Capability of the Circulating Water Pump at
Hitachi, Ltd.
No.
Phenomenon that
Occurred
Cause
Reduction in wall
thickness of the
loose flange due to
corrosion
Corrosion of the
mating surface of
the intermediate
coupling
A malfunction of
feeding of the seal
water
Abrasion of the
shaft-sealing device
Corrosion of the
flange surfaces of
the bearing bracket
and the column pipe
Corrosion of the
bolts, the nuts, and
some others
Reduction in wall
thickness due to
corrosion of such
parts as the casing,
the column pipe, etc.
302
Figure 3.4.3-22: A Structural Drawing of the Feed water Pump of the Mitsubishi MDG 267 Boiler
This life assessment method(Figure 3.4.3-23) is an analytical method, and they are studying the replacement of
the component when cracking due to fatigue has occurred, development afterwards, and when the maximum
allowable depth of a crack has been reached.
FEM
Stress analysis
(Cracking in NDI)
Development of a crack
Max. allowable crack
depth according to the
crack development
curve for stainless steel
Number of Occurrences
of Cracking N
Depth of a Crack
Life assessment
Stress S
The max.
allowable depth
Remaining Life
Number of Starts
and Stops N
Predicted future
operation mode
Remaining life
assessment
Part Name
Consumed
Fatigue Life
Remaining Life
4.0%
More than
30 years
2.5%
More than
30 years
2.4%
More than
30 years
Name of Portion
304
Parts
The rotor
1Cr-1Mo-1/4V steel
12Cr-Mo-V-Ta-N steel
12Cr-Mo-V-Nb-N steel
12Cr-Mo-V-W-Nb-N steel
The blade
The nozzle
12Cr-Mo-V-W steel
12Cr-Mo-V-Nb-N steel
12Cr steel
Ni-based superalloy
The casing
The steam valve
1Cr-1Mo-V steel
1Cr-0.5~1Mo steel
11/4~21/4Cr-0.5~1Mo steel
12Cr steel
1Cr-1Mo-V steel
12Cr-Mo-V-W steel
12Cr-Mo-V- Nb-N steel
Ni-based superalloy
The rotor
3~3.5Ni-Cr-Mo-V steel
The blade
The nozzle
12Cr steel
12Cr-Mo-V steel
12Cr-Ni-Mo-V-N steel
17-4PH
Titanium
The casing
Carbon steel
3.4.4.1
Corrosion in the High Temperature Zone and its Countermeasures
For corrosion in the high temperature zone exceeding 400C, it is usually only a question of an oxidation
reaction of the target substance with a gas phase substance, and there is no involvement of a liquid phase. In a
thermal power plant, especially for the boiler, this countermeasures for the high temperature corrosion is an
important issue. This phenomenon is related to the decrease of thickness in many cases, therefore, the selection
of materials and setting of corrosion control such as coating are decided from this perspective.
As for the materials for the components of a turbine, problems directly related to the high temperature
corrosion have not often occurred. However, issues to be considered such as sticking of the major valves like the
main steam stop valve caused by products of corrosion deposited on the valves and erosion occurring due to the
flowing in of oxide particles still remain.
High chromium steel such as 12Cr steel is effective to improve corrosion resistance. And hardening of a
material by applying nitride treatment to the material surface and cladding welding of stelite that is a cobalt base
alloy are effective measures to strengthen corrosion resistance too.
305
Erosion is a phenomenon where decrease of thickness occurs due to high speed fluid and the reduction is
accelerated when solid substances included in the fluid abrade the wall. For example, we experienced a
phenomenon whereby the nozzle plate in the control stage at the turbine inlet is eroded by oxide particles. This
phenomenon mainly occurs at the start-up of a turbine, damaging the end part of the steam outlet of the nozzle
finally resulting in lowered turbine efficiency. Boronizaion treatment is one measure to prevent this erosion from
occurring. This treatment diffuses boron(B) applying its vapor deposition to the surface of the material to harden
it.
Figure 3.4.4-1(2) shows the effect of the treatment. This is the data of effectiveness of the boronization
treatment applied to an actual turbine unit. We obtained the result whereby the nozzle plate with a thickness of
80 m of the treated layer could realize such durability that almost no erosion occurred in an operation even
exceeding 15000 hours. And also another measure is one in which the shape of the nozzle is structurally
changed to enhance erosion resistance.
With no treatment
With boronization
treatment (thickness of
the surface layer: 80m)
Time (h)
Figure 3.4.4-1: Erosion Resistance of the Nozzle Plate with Boronization Treatment
3.4.4.2
Corrosion in a Low Temperature Zone and its Countermeasures
Corrosion in a turbine usually means corrosion under a wet steam environment at 200C or lower. Corrosion
in this temperature zone includes stress corrosion cracking (SCC), corrosion fatigue, and erosion corrosion. The
SCC and the corrosion fatigue are generally considered to be caused by condensed water in the space between
turbine components where impurities such as Cl- and SO42- contained in steam are dissolved and condensed. In
fact, these types of corrosion often occur around the boundary zone between dry steam and wet steam in a low
pressure turbine.
The SCC is cracking that occurs in a material when corrosion happens under a static tensile stress. This
cracking suddenly causes a brittle fracture, therefore, it presents a serious problem for a structural component.
On the other hand, corrosion fatigue is a rupture of a material when an alternate stress is imposed on a material,
being caused by a phenomenon whereby the fatigue strength is lowered in a corrosive environment. For a low
pressure turbine, it occurs at the base of the blade and in the tenon in some cases.
And in the wet steam zone, erosion occurs in some cases. The erosion is caused in a process such that a water
film formed on the surface of the stationary blade is carried away by steam flow to become droplets and they
crash onto the rearmost rotating blades. Stelite welding or some other measures are applied to the rearmost
rotating blades to prevent this from happening.
3.4.4.2.1 SCC Sensitivity of a Material Used in a Thermal Power Plant
Here, some recent studies on the influence of impurities ions and dissolved oxygen on the SCC of materials
used in a thermal power plant are introduced.
The influence of impurities ions on SCC under an AVT (Volatile Matter Treatment) environment is being
studied. The test conditions were 90C and pH 9.5 with deairing (7 ppb or lower O2) achieved. Figure 3.4.42(11) shows the results of investigation on the influence of Cl- concentration on the depth of the maximum crack
that occurred in a constant strain SCC test.
306
3.5NiCrMoV steel
12Cr steel
17-4PH steel
Figure 3.4.4-2: Influence of Cl- Concentration on Behavior of Various Types of Steel Related to SCC
For the 3.5 NiCrMoV steel, pitting occurs at 100 ppm of a Cl- concentration and SCC with 1000 ppm of a Clconcentration. While, for 12Cr steel and 17-4PH steel, no SCC occurs when Cl- is increased up to 1000 ppm.
SO42- has so little acceleration function compared with Cl- that no SCC occurs when the Cl- concentration is
increased up to 1000 ppm though pitting occurs at the same Cl- concentration. And for Na+, neither pitting nor
SCC occurs up to 1000 ppm of Cl- concentration. However, the SCC occurs both in 12Cr steel and 17-4PH steel
where the concentration is as high as 10% at a temperature of 200C or higher.
Thus, we show the influence of dissolved oxygen. Figure 3.4.4-3(12) shows the situation in the case of
3.5NiCrMoV steel. This test was conducted in conditions such as a temperature of 90C, a Cl- concentration of
10 ppm and range of dissolved oxygen concentration between 7 ppb or less and 1.63 ppm. The test results show
that the SCC occurs when the dissolved oxygen concentration exceeds 10 ppb and 10 ppm Cl- concentration.
Our results showed that the SCC sensitivity to the dissolved oxygen has the same tendency as that of the low alloy
steel as shown in Fig. 3.4.4-4(12) in the case of 12Cr steel used in the material for blade, but the speed of crack
development is slow. And the SCC resistance of the 17-4PH steel is more superior than the two types of steel
mentioned above as shown in Fig. 3.4.4-5(12).
Figure 3.4.4-3: Influence of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on Behavior of 3.5NiCrMoV Steel Related to SCC
Figure 3.4.4-4: Influence of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on Behavior of 12Cr Steel Related to SCC
307
Figure 3.4.4-5: Influence of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on Behavior of 17-4PH Steel Related to SCC
Temperature (C)
3.5%NiCrMoV steel
3.4.4.3
Properties of Steam
All the types of corrosion damage explained above are greatly influenced by impurities contained in the steam.
Therefore, it has become a very important issue to completely grasp the properties of the steam quantitatively.
308
3.4.5 Corrosion of Heat Exchangers and Piping of Turbine Systems and its Countermeasures
3.4.5.1
Introduction
The system configuration of a thermal power plant using steam turbines has become more complicated due to
improvement in the steam condition and increase in the capacity of a single unit. Figure 3.4.5-1 shows as an
example the main system diagram(1) of a power plant having steam turbines of the 1000 MW class. The main
facilities of the power plant are classified as follows.
(1) The turbines and generators
(2) The water treatment unit for water for the condenser and feedwater
(3) The condenser unit
(4) The feedwater heater unit
(5) The feedwater pump
(6) The piping unit for each component system
Approximately
3000 tons/h
The boiler
The generator
The high
pressure
turbine
The medium
pressure turbine
The condenser
The make-up water
The
condenser
pump
The turbine
The
demineralizer
for the
condenser
The
deaerator
Approximately
280C
The drain
pump
Gland steam
condenser
The condensate
booster pump
Among these main facilities, equipment and components, of which corrosion is one of the main concerns, are
the low pressure turbines, the condenser in the condensing and water feeding system, the deaerator, the feedwater
heater and the piping, all of which are placed under wet conditions during operation of the turbine, is well as other
components and piping that utilize seawater for cooling fluid, all of which handle or use water. In this chapter,
we discuss corrosion occurring in the heat exchanger and the piping for the turbine system and also its
countermeasures.
3.4.5.2
Examples of Corrosion Occurring in the Heat Exchangers and the Piping used in the
Turbine System and its Countermeasures
1
The Heat Exchangers Used in a Power Plant Using Steam Turbines
1.1 The Condenser
Figure 3.4.5-2 shows types of corrosion occurring in the condenser cooling pipes and protective measures
against it(2).
309
The inside
of a pipe
Protective measures
Inlet attack
An electrochemical protection
device
Deposit attack
Sand erosion
Abnormal
impingement damage
Corrosion by polluted
seawater
A shell remover
Corrosion of and
leakage from a
copper alloy pipe
The outside
of a pipe
Ammonium attack
Erosion by
drain
Protective measures
Galvanic
corrosion
The inside
of a pipe
Full-titanium pipes
Hydrogen
absorption
Corrosion of/
leakage from
a titanium pipe
The outside
of a pipe
Erosion by drain
Figure 3.4.5-2: Corrosion and Leakage of Condenser Cooling Tube and Its Countermeasures
Here in this chapter, we introduce the types of corrosion occurring in the cooling pipes facing the outside
(steam side) and the protective measures.
(1) Ammonium attack of the copper alloy pipes.
Part of the ammonium that is used as a feedwater treatment agent is discharged in the form of non-condensed
gas to the outside of the circulating system through the condenser cooler unit by the air extraction device. The
air cooler and the surrounding area are always exposed to ammonium concentrated in the condensed water and
especially the pipes near the supporting plate along which the condensed water drips down suffer from corrosion.
Photo 3.4.5-1 shows an example of the above mentioned corrosion. The countermeasure is replacement of
the existing pipes by titanium types that have superior corrosion resistance.
310
A group of the
cooling pipes
Eroded
portion
The connecting
body
Eroded portion
Eroded portion
Eroded portion
Figure 3.4.5-3: Erosion of the Outer Surface of a Condenser Cooling Pipe (at a place where erosion occurs)
311
A bundle of pipes
A bundle of pipes
The protection pipes
The supporting plate
Figure 3.4.5-5: Prevention of Droplet Erosion by Installation of Pipes to Protect the Peripheral Portion of the
Bundle of Pipes
1.2 Deaerator
In some cases, the inner surface of the deairing chamber body is partly damaged in a plant where the pH of the
boiler feedwater is smaller than 9.0 and the water includes a relatively large amount of dissolved oxygen. The
area receiving the damage is limited to the area on which the feed water drops from the deairing tray or against
which the dropping water is blown by the influence of heating steam. The cause of the damage is erosion
corrosion caused by the feedwater that drops from the deairing tray, is accelerated by heating steam entering from
the bottom center part of the tray which directly collides with the deairing chamber body. And when there is a
certain distance between the deairing tray and the body wall, erosion corrosion is sometimes caused by free fall of
the feedwater regardless of the existence of the heating steam.
Figure 3.4.5-6 shows an example of the damage. The protective plates made of stainless steel having strong
erosion corrosion resistance are attached to the inner surface of the deairing chamber body as shown in Fig. 3.4.57 to prevent erosion corrosion damage of the deairing chamber body.
Deaerating chamber
The tray
Heating steam
Erosion
Figure 3.4.5-6: Example of Corrosion Inside the Main Body of the Deaerating Chamber
312
The tray
Heating steam
Protection plate (SUS304)
Figure 3.4.5-7: An Actual Measure Against Erosion of the Inner Surface of the Deairing Chamber Body
Photo 3.4.5-4: Stress Corrosion Cracking in an Aluminum-brass Pipe Dipped in the Cooling Water.
This is considered to be caused by the following two factors combined.
1) Existence of a corrosive catalyzer in the cooling water (ionized ammonium, ionized sulfur, etc.)
2) Existence of residual stress (those in the raw material itself, generated during the operation or
generated during assembling process)
Prevention of pitting is possible especially for the oil cooler whose operation is suspended (in a stand-by
situation) by providing a fluid speed fast enough (faster than 0.3 m/s) to equalize the difference in the local
concentration of ions that may form a corrosion battery. However, since it is not possible to nullify a corrosive
catalyzer, it is necessary to select and add an appropriate corrosion inhibitor from a practical view point.
As for measures against stress corrosion cracking, firstly, add the most appropriate corrosion inhibitor to
suppress pitting, the starting point of cracking. Secondly, reduce the residual stress in the cooling pipe as much
as possible. For this purpose, improvement of the processing method such as expansion of the cooling pipe and
assembling is important.
313
2
Piping for the Turbine Plant
2.1 The Steam Pipes
The damage to a main steam pipe or a hot reheat steam pipe is creep damage caused by the effect of internal
pressure during the steady operation and erosion and low cycle fatigue damage due to repeated thermal stress
caused by load fluctuation due to start and stop or some other factors.
Places where wall thickness reduction is liable to occur are the main stop valve (MSV), the governing valve
(CV), the lower outlet of the drain valves located before and after the valve seat of the combined stop and control
reheat valve (CRV), the elbows, the caps and the orifices. Leakage due to reduction in the wall thickness was
experienced in these places and components. Figs. 3.4.5-8 and 3.4.5-9 show the location of the damage and the
actual damage to the drain pipe elbows before and after the valve seat of the CRV, and the actual damage to the
main steam lead pipe warming orifice, respectively.
Flow
Figure 3.4.5-8: An Example of Damage to a Drain Pipe Elbow Before and After the Valve Seat of the MSV Valve
From the lead pipe
To the high pressure
casing
To the condenser
Leakage
Figure 3.4.5-9: An Example of Damage to the Main Steam Lead Pipe Warming Orifice
These types of erosion are caused by the collision of the drain jet and flowing- in of the oxidized scale existing
in the main pipe. The countermeasures are periodic measurement of the wall thickness of the places in the
system where reduction in wall thickness is liable to occur and replacement of those components for which
reduction in wall thickness has been advanced.
And the orifice used to be replaced by one that had a shape more favorable in terms of erosion resistance.
Carbon
steel
Ni-Cr-Cu steel
Cr-Mo steel
Temperature: 171C
Velocity: 200 m/s
O2 concentration: 16 ppm
Carbon steel
Ni-Cr-Cu steel
Cr-Mo steel
Temperature: 150C
Velocity: 90 m/s
Wetness fraction: 11%
Figure 3.4.5-12: Relation Between Erosion vs. Corrosion Advancing Speed Ratio and Content of Alloy Elements
: Carbon steel
: Cr-Mo steel
Velocity: 90 m/s
Wetness fraction: 11%
O2 concentration:
16 ppm
Photo 3.4.5-5: An Example of Reduction in Wall Thickness of the BFP Booster Pump
Photo 3.4.5-6: An Example of Reduction in Wall Thickness of a Curved Pipe at the Outlet of the Boiler Feedwater
Pump
The short
pipe
The reducer
Figure 3.4.5-14: The Typical Piping Form Around the Heater Drain Pipe Adjusting Valve
316
3.4.6 Corrosion in the Equipment of the Seawater System and the Piping and its Countermeasures
3.4.6.1
Preface
Seawater is considered to be a typical substance that produces a strong corrosive environment since it contains
large amount of strong corrosive chloride ions and has high electric conductivity. Therefore, the equipment and
the piping used in a seawater system and their components often suffer from noticeable corrosion damage unless
they are used based on specific technologies of each component and material. This report explains these
situations of damage, their features, and countermeasures.
3.4.6.2
Corrosivity in a Seawater Environment
Generally, the temperature, pH, and concentration of dissolved oxygen of clean natural seawater are 20C or
colder, approximately 8, and 5 to 10 ppm, respectively. They are approximately the same level as those of
freshwater.
However, the fact that it includes a concentration of 19,000 ppm of chloride ions, which corrodes metal
surfaces, and its electrical conductivity is 27 cm (both are 100 times or more those of freshwater) has important
meaning.
In other words, since a layer of rust formed on the material surface becomes porous in the presence of a high
concentration of chloride ions, the corrosion rate of carbon steel, cast iron, and niresist cast iron (austenite Ni cast
iron) in seawater increase approximately linearly (3) when the flow speed increases to 5 to 15 m/s although the
gradients of the speed increase are different from each other. This is decisively different from the behavior of
carbon steel in freshwater where the corrosion rate rapidly decreases due to a delicate film forming with a flow
speed of 1 m/s or faster (2)(4). This is one of the strongest reasons why carbon steel cannot be used for seawater
hydraulic machines and equipment without any surface treatment. However, since some niresist cast iron (type
III) and copper alloys (BC2, BC6, AlBC2, etc.) are low in corrosion rate as well as in flow speed dependency,
these materials show superior corrosion resistance unless they are used in high-speed flow or in polluted seawater
(3)
.
The next fact is that highly concentrated chloride ions electrochemically destroy a passive state film. And
this makes the solution in this area acidic by pitting, hydrolysis of metallic ions dissolved inside the structural
crevice, and concentration of chloride ions. As a result, active dissolution occurs to a metal used as a raw
material like stainless steel and copper alloys and continuously advances so that various kinds of local corrosion
such as pitting, crevice corrosion, selective corrosion, intergranular corrosion, stress corrosion crackling, hydrogen
embrittlement, etc. are caused.
Figure 3.4.6-1 shows an example (5) of the relationship between the corrosion of stainless steel and the
environmental conditions. It may be understood that pitting and stress corrosion cracking that do not easily
occur in freshwater (the concentration of chloride ions is 100 ppm or lower) can occur in low-temperature zones
in solution of richly concentrated chloride ions carried by seawater.
Temperature (C)
Concentration of C1- of
seawater equivalent
Figure 3.4.6-1: Each corrosion damages on SUS304 stainless steel in solution of neutral chloride
317
The next fact is that high electric conductivity of seawater has an important influence on the occurrence and
progression of corrosion damage. In other words, corroding action caused by an electrochemical mutual action
called bimetallic corrosion (also called galvanic corrosion) occurs when component and materials that have
different corrosion potential from each other (for example, a noble metal Cu and a base metal Zn) electrically
make contact and are immersed in a solution. This phenomenon is corrosion damage that a base metal dissolves
at first (as a sacrifice) against noble metal (anodic dissolution). In this case, higher electric conductivity means a
longer distance over which an electrochemical mutual action can occur. In seawater, where the affected area is
simply calculated as the square of 100 times that in freshwater, the speed of corrosion damage is accelerated
according to the increase in the affected area.
Therefore, special care is necessary to prevent this galvanic action (selection of materials and design of parts
configuration) in order to decrease corrosion damage to hydraulic machines and some others that consist of
various components and materials (1).
In certain cases, the corrosivity feature of seawater environment works moderately to the same degree as
freshwater does depending on the material used and the environmental conditions. On the other hand, cautious
observation is required because it is not unusual for a new kind of corrosion phenomenon to appear, greatly
increasing the speed of corrosion propagation and often leading to severe corrosion damage when the
environmental conditions change or a particular material is used(6)(7).
3.4.6.3
Corrosion Damage to Various Parts and its Countermeasures
1
Parts Made of Stainless Steel
Figure 3.4.6-2 shows an example of a configuration and materials of parts of a seawater pump(8).
The casing
(Carbon steel coated heavy corrosion control)
rubber bearing
Level of seawater
shaft casing (SUS316)
shaft (SUS316)
impeller (SUS14)
rubber bearing
bell casing (SCS14)
runner ring (17-4PH)
bell mouth
(Cast iron coated heavy corrosion control)
Figure 3.4.6-2: Structure of a Vertical Shaft-type Seawater Pump and Examples of Materials Used in the
Components
Such local corrosion as indicated below likely occurs in seawater that contains a high concentration of chloride
ions although stainless steel is used for various parts as shown in the figure. We explain the corrosion damage
listed below and countermeasures.
(1) Pitting
(2) Crevice corrosion
(3) Selective corrosion along metallographic structure
(4) Intergranular corrosion
(5) Stress corrosion cracking and hydrogen embrittlement cracking
(6) Cavitation erosion
(7) Corrosion fatigue
318
1 2 3 yr
type
type
Two phase type
304C (color developed)
304HL
Figure 3.4.6-3: Relation between the Pitting Index of Various Stainless Steels Dipped in Actual Seawater and the
Maximum Pitting Depth
However, it is necessary to be careful when seawater is polluted. Figure 3.4.6-4 (a) and (b) show these
examples. Figure 3.4.6-4 (a) shows that the pitting potential (the critical value of the electric potential to cause
pitting) is reduced by some hundreds of mV and makes the material more liable to be corroded when
concentration of hydrogen sulfide in seawater increases. In the result, the average corrosion rate under this
environment is found to rapidly increase with the increase the concentration of hydrogen sulfide.
SUS316
Seawater
Dissolved oxygen:
Open to atmosphere
pH: 4.8
Seawater
50C
pH: 5.5
Flow speed: 40 m/s
Figure 3.4.6-4: Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steel in Polluted Seawater Containing Hydrogen Sulfide
Although natural seawater containing such highly concentrated hydrogen sulfide does not actually exist, it
implies that such severe corrosion damage can occur in the event that formation of a local polluting environment
due to attachment and decomposition of marine creatures or a micro-polluting environment due to dissolution of
non-metallic impurities such as MnS in the steel occur.
For parts with thin wall thickness, it is very necessary to use the high-quality steel indicated above. For the
condenser pipes, the two-phase stainless steel SUS329J1 or the recently developed super stainless steel
SUS329J4L is used (12)(13).
319
Crevice corrosion
The
impeller
Crevice
corrosion
Sediment
A bolt
Crevice corrosion
A shaft
Marker paint
Pitting
A shaft
Zone being
washed by
the tide
Figure 3.4.6-5: The places of a Structure Made of Stainless Steel Used for a Seawater Pump Where Pitting
Corrosion Occurred
For the impellers of pumps with a lot of downtime, dust is accumulated at the lower part by the force
of gravity and becomes the starting point of corrosion.
2) For bolts in hollow parts, mats made from marine creatures have accumulated and become the starting
point of corrosion as (1) above.
3) When a part number is written on the shaft by a marker, the ink film becomes a crevice and occurs
crevice corrosion.
4) For pump shafts of pumps with a lot of downtime, corroded pone occurs at the point of a lot of floating
dust floats in the zone of the tide.
In these cases, the degree of corrosion damage is so small as to seldom cause a functional problem even in
long-time operation.
Thus, the occurrence of crevice corrosion strongly depends on the structure of the crevice and existence of
attached substances.
The next matter to be discussed is the influence of environmental conditions on the crevice corrosion shown in
Figure 3.4.6-6. The results indicate that the observed maximum corrosion depth increases according to the
increase in the free surface area as well as the DO concentration, and this increase in the amount of cathode action
around a crevice decides the speed of anode action.
Maximum Crevice Corrosion Depth
(mm)
1)
Concentration of
Dissolved Oxygen
Figure 3.4.6-6: Relation between the Outside Free Surface Area and the Concentration of Dissolved Oxygen
Influencing the Maximum Depth of Crevice with crevice corrosion of SUS304 Dipped in Seawater
320
This phenomenon explains that structures where the area of the crevice working as the anode is small but the
area of the free surface working as the cathode is large are liable to suffer severe corrosion damage.
The next exhibit is Figure 3.4.6-7 (15) that shows the condition of metal materials related to crevice corrosion.
In the same manner as that of Figure 3.4.6-3, it indicates that an alloy element (here, the content of Mo)
considerably increases the critical creive corrosion temperature. And the fact that the critical crevice corrosion
temperature is lower than that causing pitting by about 40C shall be observed.
Crevice corrosion
Pitting
No crevice
corrosion occurred.
No pitting occurred.
Pitting
Crevice corrosion
occurred.
occurred.
Temperature (C)
Figure 3.4.6-7: Relation between Critical Temperature of pitting and Crevice Corrosion and Mo Content in
Various Stainless Steels
Next, it explains measures to prevent crevice corrosion. As described above, since crevice corrosion damage
is basically relatively light two-dimensional damage and change over time in depth is slow, it is not necessary to
be overly concerned. However, in the event that a thin material is used or in the case of a part whose air (water)
tightness is critical, it is recommended to see that the structure to prevent dust from adhering, that the device of
the structure is designed so as to prevent corrosion damage from concentrating in a limited area, and that the
appropriate operation is carried out.
Regarding the selection of materials, Figures 3.4.6-3 and 3.4.6-7 should be referenced and Table 3.4.6-1 can be
referenced when there is much freedom of material selection. In other words, the crevice corrosion resistance of
stainless steel is ranked as the lowest, thus utilization of niresist cast iron, or copper alloy is effective when full
corrosivity can be sacrificed to a certain extent.
Table 3.4.6-1: Crevice corrosivity of various materials to use for seawater structures
Crevice corrosion resistance
Major materials
Hastelloy C
Ti*
Inconel 625
90Cu-10Ni
70Cu-30Ni
Bronze
Inconel 823
Brass
Carpenter 20
Carbon steel
Monel
Copper
A paste containing metal zinc grain to prevent crevice corrosion can be available in the market(18).
Application of the paste to crevices in structures can prevent crevice solutions from becoming acidic and can then
suppress crevice corrosion. Also, welding alloy known as prevention of crevice corrosion ressistance.(19).
321
1.3 Selective Corrosion along the Metal Structure and its Countermeasures
First, Photo 3.4.6-1 shows corrosion damage of the threads of a SUS 304 steel bolt and screw used for
seawater hydraulic devices along the non-metallic inclusion. Corrosion dissolution occurs in the shape of many
tunnels along the longitudinal direction of the bolt and the edge is dissolved along Mns non-metallic inclusion.
The longitudinal direction of the bolt
non-metallic
inclusion
Photo 3.4.6-1: Corrosion Damage on the screw of a SUS 304 Steel Bolt along Non-metallic inclusion
Based on this knowledge, in countermeasures against this kind of damage, it is decided not to use bolt
materials produced through too much rolling and to obsreve the S content where possible. As a result, the
occurrence frequency of damage has been reduced.
Next, we explain the relationship between cutting conditions and corrosion resistance.
The difference in corrosion resistance quality between the best stainless steel and the poorest is a 3-digit
number at maximum even if all of them conform to the JIS standards because the conditions of the formation of
machining-induced martensite phase change greatly depending on the alloy composition and the cutting
conditions.
Figure 3.4.6-8 shows the results of tests where a part of a specimen is dipped in actual seawater for 16 months
in total with the content of Cr as well as the content of Ni changed by a few steps within the JIS standard and also
with the cutting conditions variously changed.
Symbol
Material
Cutting Conditions
Corroded Evaluation
Area Ratio
Fair
Excellent
Good
Figure 3.4.6-8: Advancement of Pitting in SUS 316 Dipped in Seawater with Varying Cutting Conditions
Based on the above-mentioned knowledge and information, it is understood that the corrosion resistance of
stainless steel dipped in seawater cannot always be grasped only by the average chemical composition but is
strongly influenced by minute impurities, metallographic structure, and attached scale (25).
322
Deposited metal
(a) A Hole Made due to Grain Boundary Corrosion of an Area Influenced by Welding Heat and the Surrounding Area
It is basically important to reduce the influence of heat caused by welding to prevent this damage from
occurring, and using a metal of high quality is not always effective.
Next, information on selective dissolution is presented in Figure 3.4.6-9(29)(30). This figure shows the result of
a test where deposited metal and the base metal of SUS 304 stainless steel were tested in a corrosive environment.
It also shows the fact that the deposited metal is inferior to the base metal over wide conditions of heat treatment
in terms of corrosion resistance. As measures to prevent this damage, cancellation of alloy segregation by resolution treatment at 900C or higher, utilization of hyper-low C steel to prevent sensitization, or prevention of
alloy segregation by using 9% Mo- or N-added steel are considered effective (29)(30).
{: Deposited metal
U: Base metal
As welded
As received
Two-hour hold
One-hour hold
Figure 3.4.6-9: Influence of Heat Treatment on Pitting Corrosion Resistance of the Deposited Metal of SUS 304
Steel
323
1.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen Embrittlement and Their Prevention
Generally, in our experience, chloride stress corrosion cracking of austenite-group steel does not occur in
seawater at normal temperature.
This material easily cracks due to the rich concentration of magnesium chloride in special seawater
environments where the temperature becomes 60C or higher(33) to (35) or in the event that it is exposed to an
oceanic climate in a dry atmosphere whose relative humidity is as low as 30%(36) to (38).
Next, Figure 3.4.6-10(39) and Figure 3.4.6-11(40) show the hydrogen embrittlement of 17-4 PH steel that is used
for the sliding parts of a seawater pump. According to the information obtained from these figures, cracks occur
to materials whose hardness is more than 320 Hv, and the apparent advancing speed of a crack increases more for
steels of higher hardness.
{: Solution treatment at 850C
U: Solution treatment at 1050C
Numeral: Cracked specimens/
Total specimens
Figure 3.4.6-10: Behavior of the Sliding Part Material Made of 17-4 PH Steel Dipped in 3% Saltwater at Room
Temperature Related to Hydrogen Embrittlement
Isolated dipping
Figure 3.4.6-11: Behavior of 17-4 PH steel Dipped in the 3% Saltwater at Room Temperature Related to
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Figure 3.4.6-11 shows that a material with higher strength has more crack sensitivity. And crack sensitivity is
higher in the case where the material makes contact with Zn (electrolyted protection) than in the case of isolated
dipping.
Next, Figure 3.4.6-12 shows the influence of environmental conditions on hydrogen embrittlement cracking.
For behavior in this type of cracking, seawater and freshwater are considered to have the same effect. In other
words, pitting at the starting point occurs at first, and then a crack may occur when the dynamic conditions are
satisfied. This point represents a large difference from chloride stress corrosion cracking
Temperature (C)
Austenite steel as
a deposited metal
Martensite steel
Cast iron
cast iron
Nickel equivalent
Figure 3.4.6-13: Relation between the Amount of Damage due to Cavitation Erosion and Hirayamas Nickel
Equivalent
325
Figure 3.4.6-13 shows that each curve representing a hardness value of 2~7Cr steel or 13Cr steel shows a
downhill tendency against the Ni equivalent, while each curve representing a hardness value of 18~30Cr-7~20Ni
steel shows a uphill tendency.
This fact makes us recognize that there is a big difference in cavitation erosion resistance among some types of
steel even belonging to the same standard due to even slight differences in their alloy composition.
Therefore, when you engage in the design of an actual hydraulic machine or selection of a material to be used
for repair of damage, you should calculate the nickel equivalent of the material to be used and check the place to
be repaired in the drawing. In some cases, extension of damage life can be expected by a slight change to the
metal composition.
Figure 3.4.6-14 and Figure 3.4.6.15 indicate that it is preferable to choose a material whose strain energy is as
large as possible among types of steel whose corrosion resistance is almost the same.
Hirayamas Ni equivalent
A zone
C zone
B zone
Figure 3.4.6-14: Relation between Amount of Damage due to Cavitation Erosion of18Cr-6Co Stainless Steel and
Hirayamas Ni Equivalent Using the C Content as a Parameter
C content (weight %)
Figure 3.4.6-15: Relation between Material Hardness Just under the Surface Subjected to a Cavitation Erosion
Test of 18 Cr-8Ni and 18Cr-6Co Stainless Steel
326
Copper Alloy
Photo 3.4.6-3 shows dezincification corrosion of a part made of brass.
Dezincification
corrosion
Material
Copper
Silicone bronze
Admiral brass
Aluminum brass
90/10 cupro nickel
90/30 cupro nickel
Monel 400
316 steel
Incoloy 825/Carpenter20Cb
Inconel 625/Hastelloy C
Titanium
0.9
0.9
1.5
2.4
3.1
3.6
No limitation to the max. flow speed specified
No limitation to the max. flow speed specified
No limitation to the max. flow speed specified
No limitation to the flow speed specified
No limitation to the flow speed specified
On the other hand, in the case of a stainless steel pipe, since a slow flow speed (1 to 2 m/s or slower) allows
marine creatures to easily accumulate causing local corrosion, a faster flow speed is preferable if pressure loss can
be ignored.
Pitting of a copper alloy pipe used for a seawater heat exchanger can occur when the seawater is polluted (67).
Injection of ferric sulfate (Fe2+) into seawater whose concentration is brought to 0.01 ppm is considered
effective. The mechanism according to which this works is explained as follows. FeOOH that is produced by
oxidization of Fe2+ is attached to the inner surface of the pipe, forming a protective film there (68)(69).
However, the industry has recently been restrained from using this method in some cases from an
environmental protection viewpoint because the seawater is slightly colored when this method is used. And this
method is not very effective when the seawater is polluted (70)(71).
327
3
Heavy Corrosion Protection Coating and the Lining Parts
3.1 Steel Plates to Which Heavy Corrosion Protection Coating is Applied
Table 3.4.6-3 shows examples of causes of corrosion that occurred to parts to which heavy corrosion protection
coating was applied. This table reveals that the damage was caused in various production processes such as
assembly operation, painting operation, design, and maintenance operation.
Table 3.4.6-3: Causes of Corrosion Damage to Parts in a Structure Exposed to a Flowing Seawater Environment to
Which Heavy Corrosion Protection Coating Was Applied and the Their Classification
No.
A-1
-2
B-1
Cause of Damage
Separation of a paint film caused by tightening of bolts or nuts
Separation of a paint film caused by contact and/or impact by a wire rope
Assembling operation
-2
-3
-4
C-1
Classification
-2
Improper detailed shape of the base part (corner of the end portion)
D-1
E-1
Painting operation
Design work
Maintenance operation
It is required to choose such a coating material that will not cause problems in each process (for example, a
material with mechanical flexibility) as shown in the Table 3.4.6-3 in the case where the heavy protection coating
under discussion provides a film thickness of hundreds of m. Coal tar epoxy paint that is widely used is
considered to be reasonable from a practical viewpoint (70)(71).
328
Table 3.4.6-4: Examples of Methods of Reducing Galvanic Corrosion Damage in a Structure Used in a Seawater
Environment
No.
Method
Description
Actual Case
b)
A spacer
a)
Coating
A-1
A-2
Methods of relieving
interaction between
the materials
A-3
Carbon steel
b)
a)
A2/A1 = small (wrong)
Stainless steel
Carbon
steel
B-1
B-2
B-3
Methods of relieving
corrosion damage
even if interaction
exists
a)
b)
Paint film
Local corrosion
occurs (wrong)
Even corrosion
occurs (correct)
Paint film
You should understand that the word corrosion potential series that often appears when discussing galvanic
action just means an order and has no relation to the speed of galvanic action. For example, it is a well-known
fact that if the speeds of consumption of a zinc plate are compared between two cases, one where a zinc plate is
made to contact a stainless plate whose area amount is the same as that of the zinc plate (the potential difference is
1.0 V or less) and the other where the zinc plate is made to contact a carbon steel whose area amount is the same
as that of the zinc plate (the potential difference is 0.5 V or less), the speed of consumption of the zinc plate in the
latter case is faster by as much as 30 times at maximum than the former case.
4.2 The Electrochemical Protection Method
The cathode corrosion prevention method where the surface electric potential is made to be the base potential
is the most popular among electrochemical protection methods in the seawater environment. The anode
corrosion protection method where the surface potential is made to be the passive state potential is not practically
used because this method sometimes dangerously accelerates anode dissolution in crevices in a complex structures.
There is the impressed current method and the galvanic anode protection method (the sacrificial anode
method), but the former is relatively rarely used. For the impressed current method, it is necessary to install an
insoluble electrode (graphite or magnetic iron oxide electrode) at the fluid surface and to connect the lead wires
extended from the outside power source with each part. For this method, it is necessary to devise a special fixing
measure so that the fixed parts do not interfere with the fluid flow. And since corrosion damage to parts that are
made of stainless steel sometimes occurs during suspension of operation (installation, periodic inspection, etc.)
when the flow in the equipment also stops, in some cases, unexpected damage occurs because electricity is not
supplied during these periods. And an inappropriate design may cause overprotection in certain cases, resulting
in separation of the paint film or the lining due to the large amount of hydrogen gas generated at the cathode.
Also, in certain cases, severe corrosion damage may occur due to chlorine gas with strong oxidizing power in
equipment whose valve is left completely closed.
On the other hand, this kind of bad effect seldom occurs in the case of the galvanic anode protection method
because the current amount is relatively small. Aluminum (current efficiency: 80%) or zinc (current efficiency:
95%) rather than iron or steel should be used for the anode to be attached because they are cheaper and their selfelectrode potential is lower than iron or steel (71). Mg, when attached, provides too low an open circuit potential
and lower current efficiency (fast consumption), causing overprotection in certain cases.
It is necessary to periodically replace the anode because the anode is consumed when the galvanic anode
protection method under discussion is used. When a replacement period longer than that of the periodic
inspection is desired, it is important to reduce the value of the [protected area/area of the anode]. However, it
becomes important to pay as much attention as possible to the reliability of the heavy corrosion protection coating
when it is difficult to attach many anodes. You should expect very fast consumption of the anode when a carbon
steel part with a large area is exposed to fast-flowing seawater.
329
2.
Concerning dielectric breakdown that is peculiar to electric power generators in particular, active studies are
made including the sampling investigation of actual coils.
331
Inspection
During
operation
Deterioration of
creep strength
Abnormal operation
Asynchronous
operation
Unbalanced operation
High-frequency
operation
Overexcitation
operation
Excessive speed
operation
Short circuit accident
Re-close operation
Hightemperature
tank
Reverse phase
current
High-frequency
current
Deterioration of
low-cycle fatigue
strength
Accumulation
of starts and
stops
Centrifugal
stress during
operation
Electric
corrosion trace
Cracks
Superimposed
start/stop and
high-temperature
creep
Progress of
cracks
Serious
accident
Periodical nondestructive
inspection
Reverse phase magnetic field
Cross slot
Polar surface
Teeth
(iron core)
Wedge
Damper ring
Field coil
Retaining ring
Rotor-rotating direction
Probe
Wedge
Ultrasonic
Shaft
Wedge
Defect
Coil
Coil slot
Wedge ultrasonic
flaw detector
(Continuous operation)
1970s.
In the remaining life evaluation, the presence of thermal influence is checked by confirming wedge hardness.
Defects are detected by ultrasonic flaw detection or magnetic powder flaw detection. The crack size is evaluated
by the superimposed creep and fatigue from the actual stress.
Periodical inspection
Retaining ring
External UT External PT
No defects
Periodical inspection
Retaining ring
Eternal SCC found
Internal SCC defect depth about 10mm
3 years
SCC progress speed 2.5~3.3 mm/year
After removing 6 mm
SCC defects during deletion
333
Retaining ring
Insulation
cylinder
Polar connection
conductor
section
Lead conductor
Rotating span
Rotor shaft
Stopped span
Polar connection conductor
Retaining ring
Insulation cylinder
Retaining ring
(Insulation cylinder side)
#7 coil
#6 coil
Centering ring
Polarity crossing
Retaining ring
Rotor coil
Polarity crossing
Flexible section
Shape of polarity crossing
334
No centrifugal force
Movement of
coil in slot during
low-speed
turning
Surface roughness
Copper powder
to the insulator and deformation of the conductor without disassembling the lead wedge.
Coil
Retaining ring
Centering ring
Inspection
Insulation plate
Lead wedge
Lead conductor
(Flexible)
Retaining ring
Centering ring
Fan boss
Inspection
Lead conductor
rise section
Lead conductor
(Solid)
Fiber scope
Terminal stud
3.2 Stator
3.2.1 Transition in insulation method
The capacity of the turbine power generator has been increased and the size has been reduced mainly by
improvement of the cooling method and development of the insulation system. Stator coil insulation of the
rotating electric machines including the turbine generator mainly consists of mica with superior corona resistance
and impregnated resin for holding the mica.
As shown in Fig. 3.5.1-11, the impregnated resin of natural resin (shellac resin, asphalt compound, etc.) was
used. Along with development of synthetic resin with superior heat resistance, polyester resin and epoxy resin
came to be used. Polyester resin has been used from the middle of the 1950s, and epoxy resin has been used
from the late 1950s.
No.
c
d
e
f
g
Mica base
Flake mica
Flake mica and
laminated mica
Laminated mica
Impregnated resin
Natural resin
Polyester resin
Epoxy resin
Year
1960s. At present, flake mica and laminated mica are used depending on the voltage level, coil dimension, etc.
Because it has become difficult to obtain flake mica of good quality recently, the use of insulation systems with
laminated mica is increasing.
It is necessary to eliminate the void in the insulation layers of the stator coil to the extent for the prevention of
corona. For this purpose, impregnated resin is used. The resin impregnation method is generally classified into
two: the vacuum pressure method (VPI method), and the resin-rich method. The vacuum pressure method of
the coil was used for synthetic resin mica insulation at first. In the middle of the 1960s, the resin-rich method
came into practical use. In this method, semi-cured mica tape is used, and an insulation layer is formed by
pressurization and heating after taping. At present, both the vacuum pressure method and resin-rich method are
used depending on the voltage level, power generator dimension, or the production facilities of the maker.
Mechanical deterioration
Regular voltage
Surge voltage
Regular voltage
Environmental deterioration
Deterioration of insulation
resistance due to moisture
absorption and pollution
wedge.
edge. Inspection of wedge looseness at periodical inspection and re-insertion of the wedge, if necessary, are
also effective measures to prevent these phenomena.
Item
Contents
Megger
AC
Table 3.5.1-3: List of dielectric breakdown judgment standards of wires on high-pressure rotating machine
Company name
Diagnosed rotating
machine
6.6~11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
11 kV
Power generator
<12
NG
<12
NG
Insulation resistance R1
(M)
Polarization index
(PI=R10/R1)
1.5
1.5
OK
OK
tan0 (%) at 2 kV
(6.6 kV: at 1 kV)
1.5
OK
10
OK
at 1.25E/ 3
1.5
2.0
OK
2.0
OK
2.0
0.3~3
OK
10
OK
1.0
Caution
needed
NG
2.5
NG
2.5
NG
2.5
OK
Caution
needed
NG
1.5
Caution
needed
6.5
NG
>6.5
NG
at 1.25E/ 3
NG
>5
NG
at E
12
NG
>12
NG
10,000
Caution
needed
NG
at E
6.5
tan+C/C0 (%) at E
<12
1.5
OK
0.8
Caution
needed
NG
OK
10,000
at E/ 3
<10,000
OK
30,000
qmax
(pC)
OK
2.5
tan
(%)
1
(%)
1.5
Caution
needed
NG
10,000
30,000
Caution
needed
NG
30,000
<5
OK
<10,000
OK
10,000
>10,000
at 1.25E/ 3
NG
30,000
22,000
at E
Nq
qmax
NG
2.0
30,000
at 1.25E/ 3
Insulation resistance
required for operation
2E+1 kV
Caution
needed
NG
2E+3 kV
Surface
discharge is
dominant.
2E+1 kV
2E+1 kV
339
2E+1 kV
2E+1 kV
2E+1 kV
2E+3 kV
Method
Outline
NY map
Operation condition
Equivalent operation time
D map
340
Number of starts/stops X1
(10P3P times)
Fig. 3.5.1-15: Relation between remaining withstand voltage and operation conditions
[3] Remaining life estimation method from equivalent operation hours
Sample coils of epoxy resin insulation are collected from machines, and the destructive voltage test is
performed. From the result, the following formula to estimate the remaining breakdown voltage (% indication,
taking BDV at production to be 100%) using the equivalent operation hours is obtained. The equivalent
operation hours are the operation hours calculated equivalently, regarding that one start/stop is equivalent to 20
operation hours.
BDVav = (-4 10-5)YE + 100
BDV3 = (-6 10-10)YE2 + (-6 10-5)YE + 77.276
Here,
YE: Equivalent operation hours
(Equivalent operation hours) = (Operation hours) + 20 (Number of starts/stops)
The relation between the equivalent operation hours and remaining breakdown voltage is shown in Fig. 3.5.116.
Average
Average - 3
Average
Data range
Average - 3
341
Discharge parameter
(=B2B+B1B) (%)
Remaining breakdown
voltage
Average by least
square
Insulation life control curve
Estimated value of remaining breakdown voltage
Vp (%)
{: Single polyester insulation coil
z: Coil of polyester insulation power generator
: Single epoxy insulation coil
Fig. 3.5.1-18 Relation between estimated value Vp and measured value VR by D map method
[2] Estimation from max. discharge charge amount
The investigation result of the relation between Q max and breakdown voltage VR is reported. Here, Q max
is of the coils sampled from 10 power generators of polyester insulation at the rated voltage. The result is shown
in Fig. 3.5.1-19. Both have a good correlation. Deterioration judgment standard (40% of initial destructive
value) = 22000 pC at the 99% reliability lower limit is proposed.
Remaining breakdown
voltage VBRB (%)
QBmaxB (Coulomb)
342
Withstand
insulation
required for
operation
Power
generator
Model
[3] Estimation by the multiple regression method from nondestructive electric test
In the following formula, the statistical correlation between the destructive voltage collected from the sampling
coil of the epoxy resin insulation and the insulation diagnosis data is calculated, and the remaining breakdown
voltage (% indication, taking BDV at production as 100%) is estimated.
BDV (%) = 91.1 0.767 (I12) 0.151 (tan12) 1.7810-6 (qmax12)
BDVav (%) = 42 29.2 ln((BDV 99.4)/(-56.1))
BDV3 (%) = BDVav ((95.3 0.395 Y) (57.9 + 0.474Y 0.0405 Y2))
Here,
BDVav (%): Average remaining withstand voltage
BDV3 (%): Remaining breakdown voltage of variance 3
Y: Operating years
The relation between the estimated destructive voltage and measured value is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-21. The
correlation coefficient is as high as 0.61. An example of the relation between the operating years estimated by
this estimation method and the breakdown voltage is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-22. This estimation method uses the
actual insulation diagnosis data and operating years. The remaining life reflecting the actual dielectric
breakdown condition can be estimated.
343
BDV(%)
Batch average
Batch lower limit 3
Stator core
Wire
Clip
Penetration
Insulation layer
Brazing
section
Absorption
+
Temperature
Hygrothermal aging
Insulation layer
Connection piece
Wire
Ground fault
Fig. 3.5.1-23 Structure of clip section and water penetration to insulation layer
If the cooling water penetrates into the insulation layer, the insulation characteristics drastically lower due to
hygrothermal aging. It is necessary to confirm formation of the water path (leak path) and penetration of the
cooling water into the insulation layer.
Presence of a leak can be confirmed by the coil pressure storage test, vacuum storage test, and tracer gas test,
etc. To judge the absorption degree of the insulation layer, the method of measuring the capacitance of the
insulation layer, which focuses on the difference in the relative permittivity between the water and the insulator, is
put into practical use, and is effective. A schematic diagram of measurement is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-24.
A large difference in relative
permittivity between the wire
insulation layer and water
(1:20) is used.
Coil
Upper coil
Pressing force
3-phase batch short circuit
Electrode
Lower coil
Principle
Capacitance meter
Measurement method:
344
There is another method of estimating the remaining life by obtaining the dielectric breakdown speed by
hygrothermal aging from the capacitance and destructive voltage of the absorbed insulation layer. As shown in
Fig. 3.5.1-25, it is used for examination of the maintenance program. It is important to execute the leak test and
capacitor measurement test periodically. It is important to execute the leak test at each periodical inspection and
to consider the number of years from the initial water supply in the capacitance measurement test.
Aged deterioration by operation
Absorption start point
Capacitance measurement point
Insulation resistance lowering rate = PU/year
Dielectric
breakdown by
hygrothermal
aging
Stator wedge
Slide
Ripple spring
Upper coil
Lower coil
Ripple spring
Ripple spring
Stator wedge
Filler
Upper coil
Lower coil
between the coil surface and the slot wall is accelerated, and the insulation layer is damaged. There is a
possibility of a ground fault accident.
Consequently, when the rotor is pulled out, it is necessary to check adhesion of the insulator powder of the
wedge to the iron core visually. It is also necessary to check the hitting sound by the test hammer and the
deformation of the ripple spring under the wedge. If the wedge does not satisfy the judgment standard, proper
measures must be taken.
Power generators are frequently started and stopped recently. The insulators tend to become loose, compared
to the base load machines. It is necessary to inspect and control the machines based on the operation condition.
Flow of hydrogen
gas
Indication,
alarm
radiation
source
Ionization room
3.5.1-30. The search coil output voltage corresponding to the coil with the layer short circuit is lower than usual.
By comparing waveforms, the presence of layer short circuit and coils with short circuit are judged.
Stator core
Rotor
Search coil lead wire
Probe
Search coil
Probe details
Lead wire
Stainless pipe
N pole
Impedance ()
In another method, layer short circuit is detected from the tendency of the changes in the rotor wire impedance
due to the turning speed. If layer short circuit occurs, the inductance of the coil decreases. An small AC
current is supplied to the rotor wire by a constant current generation device. The rotor voltage is measured, and
the rotor impedance at each rpm is measured to judge the presence of layer short circuit. The rotor impedance
characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.5.1-31. The impedance characteristics of the coil with layer short circuit
change drastically. By comparing characteristics, the presence of layer short circuit is judged(18).
347
Detection of phase
difference
Waveform
smoothness
Average stress
Rotation change
unit
Static vibration
ingredient
1st
Detection of strain
amplitude
Peak count method
Damage calculation
(Fatigue life
consumption)
Display request
Display device
c Monitor TV
d Oscilloscope
e Digital printer
Power generator
current
Power generator
voltage
Delay unit
5th
Modal conversion
constant
multiplication
Data
recorder
Stress
waveform
Additive
synthesis
Abnormal stress
detection
Alarm
Monitored point
Rotation gap
period
Number of loosened
wedges: f (t)
Initial
[Bathtub curve]
5.
348
3.4.5.2
High-pressure motor
In thermal power plants, high-pressure motors are used for various devices for driving accessories. Highpressure motors are sometimes one of the important devices in a plant. To secure the reliability of the systems of
thermal power stations, preventive maintenance including periodical maintenance, exchange of parts, and
estimation of remaining life by deterioration judgment are performed for the motors of accessories.
Here, the high-pressure basket-type inductive motor is taken as an example, and an outline of preventive
maintenance and remaining life diagnosis is given.
1. Structure and deterioration form of each section
1.1 Structure
A cross-section view of the basket-type motor is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-34. The motor consists of three
sections: the fixed section, rotation section, and bearing section.
Stator frame
Stator core
Rotor core
Stator wire
Rotor wire
Shaft
Internal fan
External fan
Bearing bracket
Bearing
Heat exchanger
Note) The failure is located at the stator and the coil end.
Fig. 3.5.1-35: Transition in cumulative failure rate of each failure of 3 kV basket-type motor
1.3 Control items, deterioration form, and diagnosis method of major sections
Deterioration of major sections of the motor is classified as follows:
[1] Thermal cause
[2] Electric cause
[3] Physical cause
[4] Mechanical cause
[5] Chemical cause
Deterioration is accelerated by a combination of these causes, and failure occurs. The causes of deterioration
are shown in Fig. 3.5.1-36. Examples of control items, deterioration form, and diagnosis method are shown in
Table 3.5.1-5.
349
Electric cause
Thermal cause
Surge
Partial discharge
Physical cause
Heat cycle
Swelling,
Overload
contraction,
Cooling failure deformation,
Thermal
distortion
deterioration
Absorption Degradation of
Dewing
lubrication oil
Dust
Surface
insulation
failure
Deterioration
Start, stop,
vibration,
shock,
overcurrent
Fatigue,
wear,
deformation,
distortion
Mechanical cause
Chemical cause
Control
locations
Appearance
Operation
condition
Related to bearing
No.
Slide
bearing
Roll
bearing
Rotor
Stator
Control items
Deterioration form
Diagnosis method
Visual
Pollution
Discoloration
Visual
Visual, hitting
Sound
Vibration
Odor
Odor judgment
Smoke
Visual
Voltage
Voltage monitoring
Current
Current monitoring
Temperature
Thermometer
Lubrication oil
Oil ring
Deformation
Visual
Oil scraper
Wear
Visual
White metal
Vibration
Abnormal noise
Hearing
Visual
Grease
Separation, discoloration
Visual
Duct piece
Loosening
Visual
Iron core
Loosening
Brazing section
Crack
Short-circuit ring
Deformation
Visual
Rotor conductor
Loosening
Visual, hitting
Duct piece
Loosening
Visual
Iron core
Loosening
Insulation section
Wedge
It is understood that daily inspection is very important for early detection and countermeasures against
deterioration. Examples of the standard inspection intervals are shown in Table 3.5.1-6.
Table 3.5.1-6: Standard inspection interval of motor
Initial inspection
350
Continuance inspection
Insulation
method
Rated
voltage
Judgment
II
III
IV
Compound
Compound
Varnish
Resin
Resin
3.3 kV
6.6 kV
3.3 kV
3.3~4.4 kV
6.6~11 kV
3.3~11 kV
OK
OK
OK Caution needed NG
OK
OK
OK
~100~10~
R [M]
>E+1
RC [F]
>10
log (Rd/Rw)
<3
P.I
>1.5
>1.5
tan0 [%]
tan [%]
>2.0
~20~30~
<10
<0.9
at 1.25E/ 3
at E
~1.5~1.0~
<0.7
<6.5
~0.7~1.1~
tan+C/C0 [%] at E
pi [kV]
[%]
Vi [kV]
<12
P11
P12
>E
>3.3
~4.6~3.0~
<2.5
at 1.25E/ 3
at E
>6.6
<4.0
<8.5
~4.0~5.9~
q>500 pC
~1.9~1.3~
q>1000 pC
>E
N [Pcs/half cycle]
at E, q>500 pC
~50~100~
<10000
at E/ 3
qm [pC]
at 4.5 kV
at E
<10000
<5000
~1000~1400~
sample is used to obtain some heat analysis values using the heat analysis device.
The correlation between the physical characteristic values and heat analysis value is examined to obtain the
best relation. This is called the master curve. It is obtained for each insulation material. The master curve is
the principle of this test method. An example of a master curve is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-37.
TG 3/1 reduction rate
Chemical
characteristics of
sampled material
Mechanical
strength
Lamination
plate, etc.
Resin
Varnish
Small
Over 75%
Under 2.5%
Under 10%
Medium
50~75%
2.5~5.0%
10~20%
Large
Under 50%
Over 5.0%
Over 20%
3.2 Bearing
3.2.1 Roll bearing diagnosis machine
The bearing is an important part of the rotating machine. As mentioned before, the failure rate is rather high.
It is very important to detect the failure before fatal errors occur.
The life of the roll bearing is particularly short among structural parts of the motor. The life is defined with
99% reliability. The life is mainly judged by the occurrence of flaking. Flaking is fatigue breakdown on the
surface caused by repeated stress on the rolling contact section. Due to this fatigue, the surface peels off in
flakes.
To detect this kind of abnormal phenomena, bearing vibration is detected by acceleration and enveloped. By
this method, according to the enveloped vibration acceleration data, the calculation circuit that is weighed
according to the failure type is passed, and the presence of failure is numerically converted to facilitate judgment.
3.2.2 Diagnosis of slip bearing
The life of the slip bearing is longer compared to the roll bearing. However, due to various causes,
temperature increase, wear, white metal fatigue, peeling, and cracks occur, leading to the life of
the bearing diminishing.
By the thermometer element that is buried in the bearing, the bearing temperature during operation is
monitored throughout the year. The measurement result is used for tendency control. If any temperature out of
the tendency is detected, it must be noted because the lubrication surface might have some errors.
Investigation of the lubrication oil is one of the methods to detect bearing failure. By sampling a small
amount of lubrication oil from the bearing for fluorescent X-ray analysis, the amount of metal materials that form
the white metal ingredients in the lubrication oil can be clarified. If this investigation is performed periodically,
the tendency is controlled to judge the presence of failure.
Afterword
An outline of the preventive maintenance and remaining life diagnosis of the high-pressure motor is introduced
here.
It is desirable to continue a close relationship between makers and users for future development and
improvement of these technologies.
354
3.5.1.3
Electric facilities in the plant
Many thermal power plants in Japan were built between the 1950s and 1970s. More than 70% of units have
been operated for 15 years or more. The number of plants used for 15 years or more will increase in the future.
In addition, for stable supply of electricity and economical merits of extension of life, recent themes of study are
to diagnose the aged facilities properly and effectively execute life control and preventive maintenance based on
the diagnosis result.
From this point of view, as a typical device of the electric facilities of thermal power plants, an outline of
remaining life diagnosis and preventive maintenance of the static devices (including the main transformer,
transformer in the plant) and high-/low-pressure switch gear (including the metal clad, power center, and control
center) is given here.
1.
Transformer
Transformers in thermal power plants include the main transformer for increasing the power generator voltage,
starting transformer for supplying the plant-starting power source, and the transformer in the plant for supplying
the power source during normal operation. Based on the concept in Table 3.5.1-9, daily inspection and
periodical analysis investigation of the insulation oil-dissolved gas are performed for these transformers. In
addition, internal detailed inspection and overhaul are performed at the time of exchange of parts with relatively
short life and at periodical inspection of the plant to secure reliability(1)-(7).
Table 3.5.1-9: Maintenance and overhaul of transformer
Inspection cycle and updating schedule
Remarks
Oil-sealing section
Mechanical
protection relay
Gauges
Oil-cooling device
All devices are replaced if the bearing issues abnormal noise after 5~10
years.
Tap-switching
device for load
Paint
The main body is inspected by gas analysis of the oil once every 6 months
or 1 year. It is decided whether the internal inspection is required
depending on the result.
Along with the increase in the number of devices that have been used for 20~30 years, it is important to
execute deterioration diagnosis of oil-immersed transformers and estimate the remaining life from the view points
of effective use of devices and securing reliability. The oil-immersed gas analysis is widely used to diagnose
device failure. The method is widely known as the Electric Technology Research Association method(1) (5).
Here, we focus on remaining life diagnosis mainly by deterioration.
355
Table 3.5.1-10: Maintenance control value of insulation oil after starting operation
Voltage level
Water
(ppm)
Dielectric
breakdown
voltage
(kV)
Volume
resistivity
(cm)
(80)
Total
oxidation
(mgKOH/g)
11~77 kV
500 kV
110~275 kV
Tap switcher
Standard value
Test frequency
Standard value
Test frequency
Standard value
Test frequency
Standard value
Test frequency
<40
Once/3 years
<30
Once/3 years
<20
Once/3 years
40~50
Once/year
30~50
Once/year
20~30
Once/year
>50
Countermeasures
>40
Countermeasures
>30
Countermeasures
>30
Once/3 years
>40
Once/3 years
>50
Once/3 years
>20
30~40
Once/6 months
40~50
Once/6 months
<30
Countermeasures
<30
Countermeasures
<40
Countermeasures
20
>11012
Once/3 years
>11012
Once/3 years
>51012
Once/3 years
Once/year
>11011~>11012
Once/year
>11011~>51012
Once/year
Once every 3
years or once
every 50,000
times of
operation if a
hot-line washer
is provided; once
every 20,000
times of
switching
operation if it is
not provided.
Take measures if
the voltage is 20
kV or less.
d >11011~>11012
e
<11011
Countermeasures
<11011
Countermeasures
<11011
Countermeasures
<0.2
Once/3 years
<0.1
Once/3 years
<0.1
Once/3 years
0.2~0.5
Once/year
0.1~0.5
Once/year
0.1~.5
Once/year
>0.5
Countermeasures
>0.5
Countermeasures
>0.5
Countermeasures
1.1.2 Insulator
The temperature of the insulating paper that is wound on the wire is the highest. The insulating paper tends
to be affected by degradation of characteristics caused by deterioration. Oil-immersed dielectric breakdown
strength, which is an important characteristic of the insulating paper, is not lowered by deterioration, in the same
way as the insulation oil. No problems normally occur even after the long-term operation of the transformer.
Tensile strength, which is another important characteristic of the insulating paper, is degraded due to deterioration,
and problems might occur when operation is continued. For example, when a system ground fault accident (2wire ground fault, etc.) occurs, external ground-fault or short-circuit current is applied. The tensile stress
functions to the wire coating due to the magnetic mechanical strength that occurs on this occasion. When the
strength of the insulating paper lowers below the strength, the insulating paper is torn or broken. This is the end
of the life of the insulating paper. It is in fact impossible to exchange the wire insulating paper of the transformer.
If the transformer is continuously used, the wire must be exchanged.
According to the above, the life of the transformer depends on the tensile strength of the insulating paper that
is wound on the wire.
Fig. 3.5.1-38: Relation between remaining rate of average degree of polymerization and transformer operation
years
the insulating paper(5) (7). The average degree of polymerization indicates the length of the molecule that
constitutes the insulating paper. If the paper material is deteriorated, the average degree of polymerization
becomes smaller. The initial average degree of polymerization of the insulating paper of the wire is around 1000.
In JEM1463-1993, the following evaluation standards of the average degree of polymerization of the insulating
paper for transformers are defined:
Life level:
450 or less
Dangerous level: 250 or less
Fig. 3.5.1-39: Relation between remaining rate of average degree of polymerization of insulating paper and
CO2+CO generation amount
Condition
No addition
10%
Oxygen addition
Water addition
Fig. 3.5.1-40: Relation between remaining rate of average degree of polymerization of insulating paper and
furfural generation amount
2.
Switchgear on switchboard
Switchgears on the switchboard (hereafter called switchgears) are classified into two: the metal-clad
switchgear that has a 6 kV-class magnetic circuit breaker, SF6 gas breaker or vacuum breaker, and the power
center that has a 600 V-class air circuit breaker.
The switchgear consists of structural parts and control accessories. Structural parts include the breaker,
protection relay, measurement transformer, and bus bar. Control accessories include the lamp, fuse, auxiliary
relay, and timer.
For extension of the life of equipment and evaluation of soundness, it is important to take proper measures for
the major devices and insulators by remaining life diagnosis in the appropriate time. Concerning the control
accessories, it is rational to update them in a well-planned manner, referring to the estimated usable years.
Remaining life diagnosis technology and preventive maintenance of major structural devices and parts of the
switchgear are introduced below.
2.1 Remaining life diagnosis technology
Remaining life diagnosis technology (deterioration diagnosis and life evaluation method) of the switchgear can
be classified into two: by the [Soundness evaluation method], it is judged whether the switchgear maintains the
specified performance at each point in time, and by the [Remaining life evaluation method], the remaining life is
evaluated by evaluating the field products quantitatively.
It is practical to use both methods to evaluate the switchgear life. An example of the remaining life
evaluation method of the structural parts of the switchgear is shown in Table 3.5.1-11. Each item is explained
below.
2.1.1 Soundness evaluation
Whether the field switchgear and its structural devices, parts, and accessories function normally is investigated
and evaluated. If there is no failure as a result of diagnosis, it is judged that they can be used without problems.
Lubrication items are added to this judgment method, and this is the periodical inspection that is widely performed.
(1) Visual inspection (VI)
Parts and accessories are inspected visually to see visual defects (damage, pollution, and discoloration).
Dimension measurement might be included.
(2) Operation test
Structural devices are actually operated to check functions. The lubrication condition of the operation
structural sections is also judged at the same time. A characteristics test is performed in some cases.
358
Metal clad
PT, CT
Cause of
deterioration
Temperature
Humidity,
pollution
Dielectric
Humidity,
breakdown
corrosion
Operating failure Wear
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Material characteristics
investigation
Partial discharge
characteristics
Material characteristics
investigation
Elevating
structure
Auxiliary switch Operating failure Temperature,
humidity,
pollution
Control line
Operating failure Temperature
VI
Operation test
VI
Conductivity
check
VI
MBB
bushing
Dielectric
breakdown
Temperature,
humidity
Partial discharge
characteristics
MBB
arc shoot
Breaker
malfunction
Humidity, wear
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Operation test
Insulation
resistance, VI,
operation test
VI
Operating
characteristics
MBB
Operating failure Wear, fatigue
operating
structure
Operating motor Operating failure Wear
Main circuit bus Damage
Temperature
wire
Insulation
Damage
Temperature
support
Insulation failure
Power center
Soundness
evaluation
Contact
resistance
measurement
Material characteristics
investigation
Withstand voltage limit
test
Material characteristics
investigation
Actual interrupting test
Main circuit
disconnecting
section
Auxiliary relay
Wear
Heat
deterioration
Operating failure Wear, corrosion
ACB
Pull-out
structure
ACB
Insulation base
Damage
Wear
Operating failure
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Conductivity
check
VI Conductivity Partial discharge
check/Insulation characteristics
resistance
measurement
VI Operation
Operation test
check
Damage
Temperature,
Operating failure fatigue
VI Operation
check
ACB
Arc shoot
Breaker
malfunction
VI
Insulation
resistance
measurement
VI
Operation test
Damage
Superheating
Humidity, wear
ACB
Operating failure Wear
Overcurrent trip
device
ACB
Operating failure Temperature,
Loading trip coil
humidity,
corrosion
VI
Resistance
measurement
VI: Visual
inspection
Operation
characteristics
test
Layer test
Accelerated deterioration
test
AE amplifier
Coupling
capacitor
AE sensor
RF output
Electrode
Digital oscilloscope or PC
measurement system
Applied voltage
Partial
discharge
measurement
device
18 years 20 years
15 years
(Stress at switching +
Internal stress)
Figure 3.5.1-42 The change of the strength of MBB phenol bushing over time
(3) Accelerated deterioration test
The aged deterioration of insulators is accelerated by the heating conditions, and equivalent evaluation is
360
Temperature
Break strength
(kg/mmP2P)
performed by the check in a short period of time. An example of the characteristics of tensile strength to the
same insulator is shown in Fig. 3.5.1-43. The parameters are T (heating temperature) and t (heating time).
If the used temperature can be seen from the characteristics, the life of the standard strength can be estimated.
Standard strength
Time
Contents
Exchange of parts
Only the parts of the magnetic contactors or magnetic relays with relatively short life are
updated.
Exchange of units
The deterioration is in progress generally with devices or wires in the units, for example. It
is necessary to check that bus wires and insulation wires in the panel are in good condition.
Update of panel
The bus wires and insulation wires in the panel are deteriorated, but are planned to be used for
more 5~10 years.
361
To select the range, future operating hours, economic efficiency, and time required for updating need to be
comprehensively compared. In the case of parts exchange, if the control center type is old, it might be difficult
to acquire parts because of model change by makers or it takes a long time for exchange. It might sometimes be
necessary to remodel existing panels to use a new incompatible part. Unit exchange might be more economical
than parts exchange.
Afterword
Many electric facilities in plants have been used for 25 years or more. Reliability has been maintained by
periodical inspection, exchange of parts with short life, or horizontal development of nonconformity. In order to
use these aged facilities for a longer period in the future, it is strongly desirable to establish life diagnosis and
evaluation technology of wires that are the major structural parts, like transformers.
For this purpose, cooperation between the maker and users is effective. We need the understanding and
cooperation of related parties.
362
Stress corrosion of
holding ring
1 . Stator frame
3 . Stator coil
4 . Bushing
5 . Lead box
6 . Rotor
7 . Rotor coil
363
Fig. 3.5.2-2: Relation between dissolving oxygen concentration and corrosion progress speed
Corrosion amount ()
The experiment result of the air dissolved condition in Fig. 3.5.2-3 clearly indicates this. The corrosion
amount increases linearly in the case of air of 5 m/s. It saturates in the case of hydrogen or nitrogen.
Concerning the difference in the corrosion amount depending on the speed, the corrosion amount is small in
general if the speed is low. There is no large difference at 1.6 ~ 0.16 m/s.
Dissolved gas: Air
Temperature: 75C
Water specific resistance:
1 M or more
Period (year)
364
Copper DC
0.1 mA/cm2
Copper DC
0.025 mA
/cm2
SUS27
DC 1.28 mA/cm2
SUS27
DC 0.32 mA/cm2
Time (Day)
365
Creep
Fatigue
(including creep
fatigue)
Corrosion
Wear
Cause
Countermeasures
Inspection by replica,
ultrasonic testing,
TOFD method
Restriction on
elongation by heat
Add flexibility
Sliding
R-machining, chamfering,
change of shape
Thermal shock
Change of shape,
improvement of material,
improvement of the shapes
of the seat and piping
Dissimilar metal
welding (SUS/Cr-Mo)
Inconel solvent
Corrosion fatigue
High temperature
fatigue, oxidation
Improvement of the
bearing force of material,
addition of extra welding
Oxidation of steam
(SUS piping)
Superheater, reheater
Corrosion fatigue damage on the inner face of the furnace wall piping occurs when the strength against fatigue
is reduced due to corrosion by the inner fluid. In view of the fact that corrosion fatigue damage also occurs at the
portion where a fixture is mounted on the external side, it is assumed that thermal stress is the major cause. An
effective countermeasure is to reduce the thermal stress by improving the structure of the attached fixture on the
external side.
366
Table 3.6.1-2 Example of measures for improving the bearing force of the boiler equipment
No.
1.
2.
Name of portion
Furnace wall
Wall boxes such as
burners, OAPs,
inside TVs, soot
blowers, etc.
Conventional structure
Chamfering and
R-machining of the
corner portion
Steam type
Steam type
Water cooling type
Current type
3.
367
No.
Name of portion
4.
5.
6.
Dissimilar metal
welded joint under
high temperature
Conventional structure
Honeycomb
Honeycomb
(Flat shape)
(Half-oval
shape)
MT or PT
Half-oval shape of
honeycomb
Tie rod
Sliding
spacer
(Single lag)
Hanging
loop pipe
Portion passing
through the ceiling
(Oval lag)
7.
R-machining
Attached
fixtures
Crown
Ceiling piping
368
Additional
sleeve
Ceiling piping
No.
Name of portion
8.
Conventional structure
Flow nozzle
Venturi pipe
or
The welded portion should
have a flat surface of the
same thickness.
Swing type
nozzle
(single-hole
type)
9.
3-faces joining
corner of the panel
10.
Inner-casing on the
ceiling
Corrugated expansion
Pipe header on
the forepart wall
of the furnace
Pipe header
on the
furnace wall
369
Table 3.6.2-1 Preventive maintenance and technologies for improving the bearing force of steam turbine (outline)
High/medium
pressure rotor
Others
Erosion
Corrosion
Fragility
Damage
by fatigue
Portion subject to
countermeasures
Damage
by creep
Cause of damage
{
{
{
{
{
High/medium
pressure rotating
blade
Low pressure
rotating blade
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
High/medium
pressure nozzle
Low pressure
stationary blade
High/medium
pressure
internal/external
casing
Main valve casing
{
{
{
{
Forged valve
Employment of high toughness casing
material
Alteration of valve rod and bushing material
{
Main valve rod
370
3.6.2
Preventive maintenance and technologies for improving the bearing force turbine equipment
Due to continuing operation of aged thermal power generation plants under severe conditions, aged
deterioration of steam turbine equipment has accelerated.
In view of the extension of regular inspection interval and enforcement of self control of the equipment under
the above-mentioned operation conditions, preventive maintenance and measures for improvement of bearing
force have become more important.
Table 3.6.2-1 outlines the preventive maintenance and measures for improvement of bearing force of steam
turbine that have been developed and employed.
(1) Turbine rotor
Measures against creep damage and fragility
As measures against damage caused by high temperature creep or fragility of high/medium pressure rotors,
rotor material is employed that has higher strength against high temperature creep than conventional rotor material,
with low speed fragility and that corresponds to operation changes such as DSS, etc.
Integrated rotor
371
Medium pressure
shaft
Fig. 3.6.2-1 Expansion of stress softening grooves/flattening of 1st step rotating blade grooves
Conventional blade
(Tenon crimped type)
ISB blade
(Shroud integrated type)
Water drop
Erosion shield
Cover structure
J-type Stellite
Lightening cover
Full arc 1 ring
Without cover
Face contact
Blade rigidity
Tie wire
Tie wire structure
Blade type
Material
Transonic speed
blade type
12Cr-Nb
Stainless steel
12Cr
Stainless steel
Strength increased to
1.1 times
372
Forged valve
(6) Examples of preventive maintenance and technologies for improving the bearing force
Measures against fatigue damage of high/medium pressure rotors
Examples of measures against aged fatigue damage of high/medium pressure turbine rotors are shown in Fig.
3.6.2-1. Its purpose is to improve the bearing force against fatigue by skin-cutting the fatigue deteriorated layer of
stress softening grooves and 1st step rotating blade grooves and further expanding the R of stress softening
grooves and flattening the 1st step rotating blade groove bottom.
Measures against creep damage of high/medium pressure rotating blades
A tenon crimping structure was used for reaction step rotating blades in the past. However, it was found that
creep damage occurred to the tenon portion where the shrouds centrifugal force was applied by high/medium
pressure rotating blades exposed to high temperature steam. As countermeasures, ISB (integral shroud blade) in
which the blade and shroud are integrated together has been employed. ISB has other effects in improving
vibration characteristics by full arc tracing structure and by improving the sealing structure.
373
Casing
Stationary
blade
Drain catcher
Stationary blade ring
Rotating
blade
Trace of
water drop
Rotor
Drain
Slit
Stationary
blade
Drain
Best angle for water drops to collide (reduction of erosion damage ratio)
374
In addition to the aged erosion of low pressure rotating blades, not only decreased efficiency but also crack
damage may be caused by corrosion or erosion.
In order to prevent such damage, Stellite plates are bonded to the front edge of rotating blades and hardening
treatment is applied. In addition, by employing a hollow stationary blade with a slit and drain catcher and by
promoting drain discharge aggressively, the erosion of low pressure rotating blades can be largely suppressed.
Measures
against erosion
Measures
against erosion
Improvement of
ease of
maintenance
Improvement of
ease of
maintenance
Fig. 3.6.2-5 Measures against erosion of high/medium pressure 1st step nozzles
An example of improvement of drain discharge from low pressure blades is shown in Fig. 3.6.2-4.
Measures against erosion of high/medium pressure 1st step nozzles
Erosion phenomenon (SPE: Solid Particle Erosion) caused by oxidized scales flying from boiler, etc. can be
detected on the 1st (initial) step nozzles of high/medium pressure turbines, which creates various issues with
respect to performance, reliability, regular inspection interval, maintenance and control, etc.
Several measures against erosion in this respect are shown in Fig. 3.6.2-5.
In case of high pressure 1st step nozzles, erosion is generated at the outlet end of the nozzle by solid particles
flowing into the steam path. The erosion can be suppressed by such diffusion penetration treatment as boron
treatment (to have B (boron) make diffusion penetration on the metal surface and form a very hard and fine
chemical compound (Fe2B) layer on the nozzle plate), which strongly adheres to the base metal and forms an ultra
hard coat.
The medium pressure initial step nozzle can be damaged when solid particles passing through the nozzle
rebound from the rotating blades. As measures against this, bearing force is improved by forming on the back of
the nozzle a 250 300 m thick plate hardened coat against high temperature and stable thermal spray metal of
the carbon family mainly composed of chromium carbide by high velocity gas flame metal spraying method
(HVOF).
375