A abnormal high pressure

A 1) activity 2) apparent 3) atmospheric 4) air 5)

air apparent 6) Stiles mobility ratio 7) area 8)
amplitude 9) atomic weight 9) ampere 10) Avogadro's
number
a 1) area 2) areal 3) tortuosity 4) apparent 5) acoustic
6) atmospheric 7) formation factor coefficient 8) year
9) atto-10) annum
A angstrom
A/ acidizing with
a* apparent formation factor coefficient
AA after acidizing
a.a. as above
Aalenian A global age of geological time that
occurred about 180-175 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Middle Jurassic epoch.
AAMPL acoustic amplitude log
AAODC American Association of Oilwell Drilling
Contractors
AAPG American Association of Petroleum Geologists
AAPL American Association of Petroleum Landmen
Ab albite
ab above
A.B. able-bodied (seaman)
abaft 1) in a direction toward the stern or back of
an offshore drilling rig or ship 2) behind
aban abandoned
abandon 1) to permanently cease production of oil
and gas from a well followed by plugging the well
2) to not attempt to complete a well that has been
drilled. Casing can sometimes be pulled and salvaged
from an abandoned well, and a cement plug must
be put in it to prevent groundwater pollution.
Abandoning a well is in contrast to temporarily shutting
in a well that can later be put back on production.
abandoned oil crude oil that has leaked from a
pipeline or tank, and the operator has made no effort
to recover it
abandoned pressure the maximum average gas
reservoir pressure that will produce insufficient gas
to make the gas wells in that reservoir economic.
Abdandoned pressure depends primarily on the
pipeline purchase contract pressure, which is often
between 700 and 1,000 psi, and the economic viability
of compression. Pa
abandoned well 1) a well that has been drilled as
a dry hole 2) a well that no longer serves a purpose.

An abandoned oil or gas well is no longer an economic

producer of oil or gas. An abandoned water, injection,
service, or observation well no longer serves that
purpose. All abandoned wells are required by the
government regulatory agency to be properly plugged.
abd
abandonment contour the subsurface elevation in
a water-drive oil reservoir at which the rising oil/water
contact reaches the top of the pay and the well(s) is
abandoned
abandonment costs the cost incurred in
abandoning a well by plugging it and removing the
equipment
abandonment plug a cement bridge used to seal
a dry hole or depleted well
abbreviated abstract a set of summaries of all
recorded instruments concerning the title to a tract
of land. An abbreviated abstract is in contrast to a
verbatim abstract with complete copies of all the
recorded instruments. (bob-tail abstract)
ABC method a technique used in refraction seismic
to determine the effect of the irregular weathered
zone or low-velocity layer near the surface. Two
seismic shots are made at A and C and are recorded
at A, B, and C.
abd 1) abandoned 2) abundant
abd-gw abandoned gas well
abd loc abandoned location
abd-ogw abandoned oil and gas well
abd-ow abandoned oil well
AB electrodes the electrodes on the sonde used
in electric resistivity logs
A-BHC amplitude logging
abiogenic gas methane gas that was formed from
an inorganic source such as a volcano
abiogenic theory a theory that some methane on
earth was formed inorganically and is primeval gas
(abiotic theory)
abiotic theory see abiogenic theory
ABND or abnd abandoned
abnormal event an event on seismic that is not a
direct reflection. An abnormal event can be a multiple,
refraction, surface wave, or diffraction.
abnormal high pressure subsurface fluid pressure
that is higher than would be expected for that depth
with normal hydrostatic pressure alone. The normal
hydrostatic pressure increase depends on the density
of the ground water. The pressure increase is 45 psi/
100 ft for water with a salinity of 55.4 ppt and 46.5
psi/100 ft for water salinity of 100 ppt. Abnormal high
pressure usually occurs in reservoirs that are sealed
by surrounding rocks such as shales or by faults that
do not allow fluids to escape the reservoir. During
burial, the sedimentary rocks compact by expelling
fluids from the pore spaces. In an abnormally high-

abnormal low pressure absorber

pressure reservoir, the fluids have been prevented

from being expelled by the surrounding rocks, and
the rock or lithostatic pressure, which increases about
100 psi/100 ft depth, is transferred to the fluid pressure.
Abnormal high-pressure reservoirs have pressures
between hydrostatic and lithostatic pressures.
Reservoirs with abnormal high pressures have
relatively low seismic velocities and low densities and
are in contrast to abnormal high pressure reservoirs.
(super-normal pressure)
abnormal low pressure subsurface fluid pressure
that is lower than would be expected from normal
hydrostatic (fluid) pressure at that depth. Abnormal
low pressure is often caused by erosion removing
some of the overlying sedimentary rock, decreasing
the depth of the reservoir but not relieving the fluid
pressure in the isolated reservior. Abnormal low
pressure reservoirs are in contrast to abnormal high
pressure reservoirs, (subnormal pressure)
abnormal pore pressure pore pressure that is
greater or lower than normal hydrostatic pressure
for that depth.
aboard on a ship or offshore drilling rig
AB-P abnormal pressure
ABPR abandoned producer
abrasion mechanical wearing away or grinding by
friction
abrasion drilling a well-cutting method in which
abrasive particles such as sand are jetted from nozzles
to drill the hole
abrasive jet cleaning a well-stimulation technique
that uses a jetting tool with nozzles on a tubing string.
Water, sometimes carrying sand or acid, is jetted out
the nozzles of a jetting tool at pressures up to 1,000
psi to clean perforations and remove gypsum.
abrasive resistance the ability of a diamond bit to
resist scratching by the rocks it drills
abrogate to fail to fulfill a contract
abrsi jet abrasive jet
abs absent
ABSC abandoned sub commercial

absolute dogleg a dogleg angle reported for a well

that allows for the horizontal component of the
deviation along with the vertical component. If a well
changes in deviation from 2 east to 2 west in 100
feet, the absolute dogleg would be 4/100 ft.
absolute filter a filter designed to separate all
particles above a specific size. An absolute filter is
in contrast to a nominal filter.
absolute humidity the amount of water in air
measured in weight-per-unit-volume such as
milligrams of water per cubic meter of air (mg/m3)
absolute open flow potential the theoretical rate
at which a well (sand face) would flow at the wall
of the well with zero pounds pressure in the well.
Absolute open flow potential depends upon the fluid
pressure in the reservoir, reservoir permeability,
thickness of the pay and other factors. It can be
calculated in a gas well from a four-point test. AOFP
absolute permeability a measure of the ease
(permeability) in which a single fluid can flow through
the pores of a rock when only that one fluid is present
in the pores of the rock. Absolute permeability is
independent of the fluid viscosity. Usually, however,
two fluids are present in the pores of a reservoir
rock and effective permeability is applicable.
absolute porosity the ratio of the volume of all
spaces between particles (pores), both interconnected
and isolated, to the total volume of the rock. Absolute
porosity is expressed as a percentage and is in contrast
to effective porosity. (total porosity)
absolute pressure total pressure including both
atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure. Absolute
pressure is often measured in pounds per square inch
absolute (psia). Absolute pressure is in contrast to
gauge pressure.
absolute refractive index the inverse ratio of the
speed of light through a substance to the speed of
light through a vacuum. The absolute refractive index
is usually obtained from the refractive index measured
in air.
absolute temperature a temperature based on a
temperature scale in which 0 equals the temperature
(-273.15C) at which molecular motion ceases and
there is no heat. On the Kelvin absolute temperature
scale, water freezes at 273 and boils at 373. Degrees
Kelvin can be converted to degrees centigrade by
subtracting 273.
absolute viscosity the ratio of the viscosity of a fluid
measured in poises to the density of a fluid. Absolute
viscosity is expressed in units of stokes or centistokes.
(kinematic viscosity)
absolute volume volume per unit mass
absolute zero the temperature at which there is a
complete absence of heat and there is no molecular
movement. Absolute zero is -273.15C and
-459.688F, which is usually rounded off to -460F.
absorb see absorption
absorbent the material used to remove liquids from
a gasby absorption. Absorption oil is used to remove
liquids from wet gas.
absorber equipment, typically a tower, that is
designed to use absorption to remove liquids from
a gas stream. In an absorption plant, an absorber is

absorber capacity accident

used to remove liquid hydrocarbons from natural gas.
The gas flows into the bottom of the tower, and the
absorption oil enters the top. As the natural gas rises
and bubbles through the descending oil in bubble
trays, the liquid hydrocarbons are absorbed from the
gas. The liquid hydrocarbons are then removed from
the oil by distillation. A glycol absorber or TEG unit
removes water from natural gas in the field. The natural
gas is injected into the bottom of the absorber and
bubbles up through descending triethylene glycol.
The dry gas exits the top of the absorber, and the
wet glycol is reconcentrated in a reboiler. Natural
gas sweetening by iron sponge and the alkanolamine
process are also done in an absorber. Absorbers are
designed as either packed or tray-type towers.
(absorption or absorber tower) asbr
absorber capacity a maximum amount of natural
gas that can be processed by an absorption tower at
a specific absorption rate, temperature, and pressure
absorber tower see absorber
absorption 1) the removal of a liquid by the capillary,
osmotic, chemical, or solvent reaction in a substance.
The extraction is made by a physical and/or chemical
change in a sorbent material, and the molecules or
ions of one substance penetrate into the interior of
a liquid or solid. Absorption is in contrast to adsorption
which is a surface phenomon. 2) the decrease in the
energy of a seismic wave as it passes through rocks
and is converted into heat energy 3) the radiation
loss as energy passes through a material absrn
absorption gasoline the retrograde gas, natural
gasoline, or condensate removed from natural gas
by absorption oil in an absorption tower
absorption oil oil used in an absorber to separate
liquid hydrocarbons from natural gas. The oil absorbs
the liquid hydrocarbons out of the gas as it bubbles
up through the oil. The liquid hydrocarbons are then
removed from the oil by distillation.
absorption plant a facility used to remove liquid
hydrocarbons from natural gas in the field. The gas,
usually casinghead gas, bubbles through oil
(absorption oil) which absorbs the liquid
hydrocarbons. This is done in an absorber at
temperatures between 80 to 120F. An absorption plant
can remove between 40% and 75% of the propane
and up to 100% recovery of H6 and heavier
hydrocarbons. The liquid hydrocarbons are then
removed from the oil by distillation.
absorption-refrigeration cycle a type of
refrigeration system used in a natural-gas stripping
plant in which a refrigerant, usually ammonia, is
absorbed by water
absorption tower see absorber
absorptivity the capacity of a substance to absorb
incident radiant energy
absrn absorption
abst abstract
abstract or abstract of title a set of a) copies
{verbatim abstract) or b) summaries {abbreviated or
bob-tail abstract) of all the recorded instruments
concerning the title to a tract of land. It is used in
the title examination for a parcel of land and is made
by a landman or abstract company. An abstract can
be base, complemental, or supplemental, abst

abstract-based title opinion a title opinion that is

made from a complete abstract in contrast to a standup title opinion that is made from a run sheet
abstract company or plant a commercial firm that
has compiled and maintains land ownership records.
The abstract company contains tract books and card
systems recording individuals and the transactions in
that county. Other information on file includes
probates, court suits, divorces, marriages, and
bankruptcies. Some companies charge a flat rate or
hourly rate to let landmen use their facilities. Others
do not let landmen use their facility but prepare a
run sheet or other data for a fee. An abstract plant is
not a title company that insures property titles. Title
companies are usually not involved in oil and gas
properties.
abstracter a professional who makes summaries of
interests or legal ownerships of land and/or mineral
rights
abstracting service a commercial firm that makes
summaries of the interests or legal ownerships of
land and/or mineral rights
abt about
ABUN or abun abundant
abyssal the deep ocean environment greater than
3,000 ft deep
AC alternating current
A,, amplitude of compressional wave
ac acre
ACBL acoustic cement bond log
ACC annual capital charge
accelerated cost recovery system a method used
to calculate depreciation of equipment for federal tax
based on the rates and lives as defined in federal
tax law. The equipment is amortized over a short
period. ACRS
accelerated delay rental an increase in the amount
of delay rental payment during the last years of the
primary term of a lease
accelerated depreciation a depreciation method
that uses larger amounts of deductions from income
in early years with declining amounts in later years.
Two types include a) declining balance and b) sumof-the-years. Accelerated depreciation allows for a
faster tax write-off and is in contrast to the straightline depreciation method.
acceleration of gravity 980.616 cm/sec/sec or
32.172 ft/sec/sec at 45 latitude and sea level
accelerator a chemical that is used to increase
reaction rate. A cement accelerator is used to speed
up the rate of reaction between cement and water.
This results in a more rapid development of strength
and a reduction in setting and thickening time. Some
cement accelerators are calcium chloride, sodium
silicate, sodium chloride in low concentrations,
seawater, gypsum, and ammonium chlorite.
access road a road constructed from a public road
to a drillsite. The route is first surveyed and flagged
in coordination with the drilling foreman. An earthmoving contractor is used to construct the road.
accident the completion of a task that seemed
impossible

accommodation block acid additives

accommodation block the living module or

quarters deck house on an offshore rig. An
accommodation block can contain office space,
storage, catering, and recreational facilities.
accommodation platform a ship or
semisubmersible (flotel) or fixed platform that is used
to house offshore workers. The accommodation
platform is often adjacent and connected to a
production platform.
accordian display a type of 3-D seismic display
consisting of narrow, horizontal slices, one above the
other
accordion fold a fold in sedimentary rocks in which
the fold limbs are straight with uniform thickness but
there is a angular hinge line with thickening (chevron
or zigzag fold)
accredited investor an individual defined under
Regulation D of the Federal Securities Act, who has
institutional status, an insider position, or a minimum
level of income or net worth. ACI
accrued royalty royalty payments due on oil and
gas that has already been produced
accrued treasury asset the sum of all the discounted
cash flows until discounted payout. ATA
accumulation chamber equipment used in gas lift
when the volume of formation fluids produced makes
continuous gas lift impractical. The fluids are allowed
to build up in the chamber until intermittent
application of compressed gas forces the accumulated
fluids up the production tube. As the fluids flow up
the tubing, the formation is protected from the
pressure by closing of the standing valve. Two types
are insert and two packer. The insert type uses an
expanding tubing section and a dip tube, whereas
the two-packer type uses the tubing and the tubingcasing annulus.
accumulator 1) a high-pressure cylinder that is used
to store liquid or gas under pressure for a hydraulic
or air-activated system. An accumulator is used to
activate blowout preventers and tensioner systems on
drilling rigs. An blowout preventer accumulator is
located on a landing at least 100-150 ft from the
wellhead. It usually contains of hydraulic fluid stored
under pressure from compressed nitrogen. The
nitrogen is separated from the hydraulic fluid by a
floating separator or rubber diaphragm. A smallvolume, high-pressure pump compresses the nitrogen
by forcing it into steel bottles. The accumulator
provides power when the hydraulic pumps are not
working or is used to supplement the pump pressure.

accumulators (off rotary drilling rig chart)

The blowout preventer accumulators are located on

the wellhead on a subsea well. 2) a tank used to
temporarily store the continuous-process liquid used
in a gas plant
accumulator drill a test run once or more each
week on a drilling rig. The accumulator pumps are
shut off, and the initial accumulator pressure is
recorded. All the preventers are thrown at the same
time and their closing is timed and recorded. The
final accumulator pressure is recorded. The results
are reported on the Friday morning drilling report.
All the preventers should have closed within 20
minutes, and the final pressure should have been
above 1,150 psi.
accuracy the actual divided by the measured value.
Accuracy can be expressed as a percent of full scale
or percent of reading on an instrument.
acd acidize
ACDW acid water
ACEAC acetic acid
A-Cem acoustic cement
acetic acid an organic acid (C2H4O2) that is used
to acidize wells. Acetic acid is less corrosive than many
acids. ACEAC
acetylene series an unsaturated, open-chain
hydrocarbon with one triple bond. Acetylene series
molecules are highly reactive but are not naturally
common. The general formula for the acetylene series
is CnH2n-2 . An example is acetylene C2H2. (alkyne)

H-C=CH
acetylene

acetylene welding a method of burning acetylene

gas and oxygen at high temperatures to join steel
ACF autocorrelation function
ACF or acf actual cubic feet
ACFM or acfitn actual cubic feet per minute
ACFR or acfr acid fracture treatment
AC-FT or ac-ft acre feet
A CHL atlantic chlorinlog
ACI 1) American Concrete Institute 2) accredited
investor
ACI/ acidizing with
acic acicular
acicular a sedimentary particle with a length at least
three times longer than its width acic
acid acidize
acid a chemical compound that can react with a base
to form a salt. Acid contains hydrogen which
dissociates in solution to form hydrogen ions. Acids
occur from 0 to 7 on the pH scale. Hydrochloric and
sulfuric acids are examples. The most common acids
used in acidizing a well are 15% hydrochloric or HC1
(regular acid), a combination of hydrochloric and
hydrofluoric or HC1/HF (mud acid), hydrofluoric or
HF, acetic, and formic acid.
acid additives chemicals and materials that are
added to acid to change the properties of the acid

acid bottle acid soak or spot

during acidizing. Some types of acid additives are
surfactants, sequestering agents, antisludge agents,
corrosion inhibitors, alcohol, gelling agents, fluid loss
materials, clay stabilizers, scale inhibitors, acid
dispersions, mutual solvent surfactants, and formation
cleaners.
acid bottle the first well surveying tool. The 4-oz
soda-lime-glass bottle was filled half-full with
hydrofluoric acid and encased in a long cylinder called
a bomb or a clinometer case of brass or steel.
acid-bottle inclinometer a device that is used to
determine the angle (inclination) of a well during
an acid-dip survey. A glass container of hydrofluoric
acid is lowered into the well. The hydrofluoric acid
etches the level surface of the acid on the glass. From
this, the inclination of the well is read.

acid brittleness a form of corrosion on steel in

which free hydrogen ions form on a wet metal surface
as the result of corrosion. Some of the hydrogen ions
enter the steel, reduce the steel's ductility, and cause
brittle fractures, (hydrogen embrittlement or hydrogen
stress cracking)
acid-dip survey a method that uses an acid bottle
inclinometer to determine the inclination of a well.
Hydrofluoric acid etches the level of the acid on a
glass container in the well.
acid dispersion a solvent-in-acid that is used to
remove oil and paraffin from a formation during matrix
acidizing. The dispersion is a mineral or organic acid
and an aromatic solvent. Both the solvent and acid
contact the formation at the same time. Acid dispersion
is also used to remove scale.
acidfrac or acid fracturing a well-stimulation
technique used to both dissolve and fracture carbonate
reservoirs. An inert, gelled water pad is first injected
into the well to fracture the formation. An acid-in-oil
emulsion is then injected with or without proppants
to etch the fracture face. A slug of regular acid can
then be injected. AF
acidg acidizing
acid gas 1) a gas that forms an acid with water and
is corrosive. Two common acid gases are hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2). 2) natural
gas that contains nonhydrocarbon gases that, when
dissolved in water, will form an acid They include

hydrogen sulfide, mercaptains and carbon dioxide.

(sour gas)
acid inhibitor an additive used in an acid job to
retard the acid reaction rate to prevent damage to
well equipment. Acid inhibitors are either organic,
such as nitrogen or sulfur bearing compounds, or
inorganic such as copper or arsenic.
acid intensifier an additive used in an acid job to
accelerate or intensify the acid reaction. An intensified
acid is a mixture of inhibited hydrochloric and
hydrofluoric acids. The fluoride intensifies the acid
reaction rate.
acidity 1) the quality of being acidic, usually
measured on the pH scale, where below 7 is acidic
in contrast to basic 2) a measure of the silica content
of a rock Granites are acidic, whereas basalts are basic.
acidize, acidizing or acid job a method used to
increase production in a well that is producing from
a carbonate formation by using acid to dissolve the
reservoir rock. The most common acids used are 15%
HCl (regular acid), HC1/HF (mud acid), HF, acetic,
and formic. An acid inhibitor or reaction-rate retarder
can be used to delay the reaction time of a strong
acid to protect equipment in the well and allow the
acid to penetrate the formation. The acid is usually
pumped down the well and held under pressure for
a period of time. The spent acid is then pumped back
out during cleanout and the well is swabbed. Acid
volumes commonly range from 1,000 to 100,000 gals
of 10-20% acid. Matrix or interstitial acidizing is used
to etch a formation, usually a carbonate to increase
permeability in a well. Matrix acidizing is done with
pressures less than formation fracture pressure, and
the acid flows through the natural permeability routes
in the formation. A wellbore cleanup treatment uses
acid to remove cement residue, drilling mud, scale
and perforation debris from a well. There is little or
no circulation of acid during a wellbore cleanup. An
acidfrac is a hydraulic fracture job that uses an acidic
frac fluid with or without propellents. Acid additives
can be combined with the acid to reduce friction,
control clay, stabilize clays and break emulsions. Types
of acid jobs include a) uncontrolled treatment, b)
controlled treatment, and c) stage acidizing. Acidizing
was first attempted in 1895 by Herman Frasch using
HCl but did not become effective until 1932 when
inhibitors were developed, (acid stimulation or
treatment) acd, acid or acidg
acid number the milligrams of potassium hydroxide
that are neutralized by 1 g of crude oil. Acid number
is a measure of crude oil reactivity with a caustic
solution used in enhanced oil recovery.
acid pickling the use of a hydraulic or sulfuric acid
bath for steel tubulars before galvanizing
acid-reaction-rate retarder a surfactant additive
that is used in acidizing. The retarder coats the rock
surfaces and forms a physical barrier to reduce the
rate of acid reaction with the rock.
acid resistance the resistance of cement to softening
and corrosive effects of acids
acid soak or spot a well treatment in which acid,
usually regular acid composed of 15% hydrochloric
acid and water, is pumped down the tubing and
allowed to stand in the completion zone. Acid soak

acid stimulation acreage-based royalty

is used to remove scale, coatings, and sludges and

to clean the perforation tunnels. It is followed by a
backflow or return of the spent acid. Acid soak is
similar to a treatment called acid wash.
acid stimulation see acidize, acidizing or acid job
acid test the application of acid to a rock to test
for limestone or the minerals calcite or aragonite.
Carbon dioxide bubbles form when the acid reacts
with the calcium carbonate.
acid treatment see acidize, acidizing, or acid job
acid wash a well treatment in which acid, usually
regular acid composed of 15% hydrochloric acid and
water, is pumped down the tubing and past the
completion zone several times. Acid wash is used to
remove scale, coatings, and sludges and to clean the
perforation tunnels. A backflow or cleanout is used
to return the spent acid. A similar treatment is an
acid soak or spot.
ACM acid-cut mud
Acme junior or senior gas gravity balance an
instrument used to determine the specific gravity of
natural gas in the field. The balance operates on the
principle that densities of two gases at base pressure
are in an inverse ratio to the pressures that give both
gases equal buoyant forces. The Acme senior gas
gravity balance is used to test large volumes of gas,
whereas the Acme junior gas gravity balance is used
to test small volumes of casinghead gas.
acoustic basement the opaque area on a seismic
profile that is usually located below the well-layered
sedimentary rock. Acoustic basement is usually
igneous or metamorphic rock.
acoustic enclosure an enclosing structure around
machinery that is designed to reduce the noise level
acoustic impedance seismic velocity times density.
Acoustic impedance is sometimes called hardness.
acoustic location navigation using underwater
sound transmission. In the active system, the searching
vessel gives off the sound impulse which is received
on an acoustic transponder on seafloor objects to be
located. The acoustic transponder then gives off its
own answering signal. In the passive system, pingers
at specific locations on the seafloor give off sound
impulses which are received on the searching vessel.
The passive system is used in dynamic positioning.
acoustic log a sonic log
acoustic log a group of wireline well logs, each of
which records some property of acoustic wave travel
either through the rocks adjacent to the wellbore or
through the casing and cement. A sonic log measures
the velocity of a compressional wave through the rocks.
An amplitude log measures the amplitude of the waves
passing through the rocks. The character log,
microseismogram log, signature log, and others record
some aspect of the acoustic wave train. The cementbond log indicates the quality of the cement bond
behind the pipe casing. The fracture log is used to
locate fractures in the rocks adjacent to the wellbore.
The borehole televiewer images the wellbore. ACSL
acoustic plenum a sound-proof room
acoustic position reference a location system used
by drill ships to keep the drillship above the drill
site. An acoustic position reference consists of acoustic

transmitters on the seafloor and hydrophones

mounted on the hull of the drill ship. A shipboard
computer is used to accurately locate the drillship
in reference to the transmitters. Acoustic position
reference is called a dynamic positioning or ask system.
acoustic reentry the use of acoustic signals to
relocate a wellhead on the seabed
acoustic signature the oscilloscope pattern made
by a sonic cement-bond log with different cement
bondings between the casing and the well bore
acoustic survey an acoustic velocity or sonic log
measurement
acoustic transponder a device that is put on the
seafloor and is both a receiver and transmitter of sonic
energy. The acoustic transponder will transmit only
after it receives a specific signal. The signal allows
the searching vessel to accurately locate the direction
and distance to the acoustic transponder. It is used
to reposition a semisubmersible or drillship for
reentering a subsea well.
acoustic travel time the time that it takes sound
to travel from one point to another
acoustic-velocity log 1) a wireline well log that
records sound velocity through rock layers in a well.
The velocity is recorded in units of microseconds
per foot (m sec/ft) and are called interval transit time,
t or Af. The sonde has a transmitter and two receivers,
one 3 ft from the transmitter and the other 5 ft. The
compensated sonic log has two sound transmitters
on the sonde. Their values are averaged to reduce
errors due to sonde tilt or borehole size changes.
The velocities are used to determine the lithologies
and compute the porosity of the rocks. Shale strongly
affects the porosity of a formation determined by an
acoustic-velocity log, and shaly formations must be
corrected for this effect. Gas will decrease the sound
velocity and increase the apparent velocity. Porosity
measured by the acoustic-velocity log does not record
vugular and fracture pores. (sonic or velocity log) AVL
or ALC 2) see sonic log
acoustic wave a sound or seismic wave
Acoustilog a sonic log
AC PAR D acoustic parameter-depth
AC PAR L acoustic parameter-logging
AC PAR 16 acoustic parameter-16-mm scope
acquired lands United States federal lands that were
obtained by purchase, condemnation, gift, or
exchange. Acquired lands are in contrast to public
domain lands.
acquisition costs the costs of obtaining leases or
property
acre land area in the English system containing 43,560
ft2or 4,840 yd2 There are 640 ac in a section or square
mile and 23,040 ac in a township. ac
acreage land held under lease acrg
acreage attribution a term used in setting
production allowable by a government regulatory
agency. Acreage attribution is the acreage drained by
a well in excess of the normal drilling and spacing
unit.
acreage-based royalty royalty paid on a per-acre
basis. An acreage-based royalty is used for a shut-in

acreage-contribution agreement or letter actual calendar day allowable

well or time covered by the force majeure (act-ofGod) clause.
acreage-contribution agreement or letter a
support agreement between two companies. One
company gives leases or interests in leases in the area
of a well drilled down to a certain depth by the other
company in exchange for information on that well.
A variation is the cash contribution.
acreage exchange a cross assignment of interests
in leases between parties in order to pool the rights
of the parties in those leases (acreage swap)
acreage factor the acreage that is allocated to a well
in order to determine allowable production by a
government regulatory agency
acreage selection clause 1) a provision in an oil
and gas lease that allows the lessee to select acreage
after a geophysical survey. The lessee takes a shortterm lease on the land. After a geophysical survey,
the lessee then selects favorable acreage and usually
pays money to put that acreage under a longer term
lease. 2) a provision in a contract that allows the
purchaser to select the leases to be assigned
acreage swap see acreage exchange
acreage tolerance the amount of acreage, usually
expressed as a percentage, in which a specified area
can exceed for a specific purpose such as pooling
acre-foot a unit of volume that is an acre in area
and one foot deep. One acre-foot holds 7,758 bbl of
oil and is the equivalent of 43,560 ft3, ac-ft, AC-FT or
acre-ft

acre foot

acre-ft acre foot

acre yield the average production of oil and gas
from one acre of reservoir area
acrg acreage
acritarch a microfossil of uncertain biological
affinity. They are unicellar and are related to algae.
Acritarchs range from Precambrian to present.
ACRS accelerated cost recovery system
ACS American Chemical Society
AC-SCR system alternating current-siliconcontrolled rectifier system
AC SIGN acoustic signature
ACSL acoustic log
ACT automatic custody transfer
Act actinolite
activated charcoal carbon that has a high absorptive
and adsorptive capacity
activation the changing of a stable element into an
unstable isotope by bombardment with neutrons
activation energy the energy necessary for reacting
substances to make a chemical transformation
activation logging wireline well logging using

acritach

neutrons to irradiate formation in a well to create

radioisotopes. The radioisotope energy emissions and
decay times are used to identify the elements present
in the formations.
active clay a clay that reacts with drilling and
completion fluids. Active clay is in contrast to passive
clay.
active length the distance from the bit to the point
of tangency located on the drill collars in a pendulum
bottomhole assembly
active margin a plate edge that is characterized by
a subduction zone such as a deep ocean trench and/
or coastal mountain range. The other margins in plate
tectonics are passive and transform.
active pit one of the steel mud-pit tanks that holds
drilling mud next to a rotary drilling rig. It is located
on the end where the mud pumps or supercharging
centrifugal pumps suck the mud out of the tanks to
start the mud circulating. The active pit is used to
mix, condition, treat, and store the mud. (suction pit
or suction tank, mud suction tank or sump pit)
active system the total volume of drilling mud in
the well and mud tanks that is circulated while drilling
a well
active well 1) a well in production or service in
contrast to an abandoned or shut-in well 2) the
producing or injecting well in an interference test
in contrast to the observation well
act-of-God clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that states that the lessee will not have violated the
terms of the lease if prevented from fulfilling the lease
by conditions beyond the lessee's control (force
majeure clause)
ACT system automatic custody transfer system
actual calendar day allowable an allowable (the
amount of gas and/or oil production that is allowed

actual gas volume adsorption

by a government regulatory agency) calculated on a

per-day basis (calendar day allowable)
actual gas volume the space occupied by a given
amount of gas under line temperature and pressure.
Actual gas volume is measured in actual cubic feet
(acf).
actual moisture the measured water content in
natural gas
actual value profit the total accumulative net cash
flow of an investment such as drilling a well. Actual
value profit is the amount of monies made minus
the monies spent. (ultimate net profit or ultimate net
income) AVP
actual weight the weight per unit length of drill
pipe, including the upset areas and tool joints. Actual
weight is about 5-10% more than nominal weight
which is calculated from the theoretical.
actuation test a mechanical test of the working of
closing elements on a blowout preventer
actuator a mechanism used to remotely or
automatically open and close valves and stops
ACW acid-cut water
acyclic without rings
acyclic hydrocarbon a hydrocarbon molecule that
occurs as an open chain. Acyclic hydrocarbons include
the normal and branched alkane groups, the
unsaturated alkene group with double bonds, and
the unsaturated alkyne group with triple bonds. These
are in contrast to alicyclic and polycyclic hydrocarbons.
AD authorized depth
A/D assistant driller
adamantine drill a drill with steel shot set in the
cutting edge that is used for hard formations. The
steel shot revolves under the rim of a rotating table
(shot drill)
adapter or adaptor a fitting that has two different
nominal sizes, thread sizes and designs, and/or
pressure ratings and is used to connect equipment
of different nominal sizes and/or pressure ratings
(crossover)
adaptor spool a short, steel cylinder with flanged
ends that connects blowout preventers of different
sizes, thread sizes and designs, or pressure ratings
to the casinghead of a well
ADD or add additive
ADDC Association of Desk and Derrick Clubs of
North America
addition gypsum-anhydrite and water that is added
to cement clinker during manufacture
addition section a mud tank compartment located
between the removal and suction sections that is
agitated for mixing substances into the drilling mud
additive a chemical or material that is added in small
amounts to a large volume of another substance to
change its characteristics. Some examples of cement
additives include calcium chloride as an accelerator,
gypsum as a retarder, and barium sulfate as weighing
material. Mud additives are primarily mud thinners
and thickeners. Some other types include friction
reducers, clay stabilizers, and surface-tension
reducers. ADD or add

addl additional
adiabatic change a change in gas volume, pressure,
or temperature without any net loss or gain of heat
adjacent-bed effect the effect of the rock layers
above and below on the well-log response of a rock
layer. The adjacent-bed effect is amplified with thin
beds and deep investigation logs. A focused log is
engineered to minimize this effect. (shoulder-bed
effect)
ADJCK adjustable choke
adjustable choke a manual or automatic, conical
needle in a seat valve that can be changed to alter
the amount of fluid or gas flow through it. An adjustable
choke is in contrast to a fixed choke. ADJCK
adjusted posted price a contract price between a
buyer and seller of oil that has been adjusted for
the gr API, sulfur content and/or any other properties
of the oil as well as the selling and marketing costs
of the oil
adjustment-of-unit interest a reallocation of
interests in a unit agreement as more complete
information on the properties is obtained. The original
allocation could have been made before a property
covered by the unit was fully developed. Subsequent
development could have altered the original estimate
of reserves allocated to each unit. The unit agreement
allows a certain time for the participants to reallocate
the interests in the unit as more facts become known.
ADOM adomite
admix to mix one substance into another
admixture effect an intermolecular effect that causes
two volumes of different gases that are added together
to result in a volume that is not the sum of the two
separate volumes. A gallon of ethane and a gallon of
propane will mix to form less than 2 gal. However,
1 lb of ethane mixed with 1 lb of propane will result
in 2 lbs.
ADR asset depriciation range
ADS atmospheric diving system
adsorbent a solid, such as activated charcoal or silica
gel, that uses adsorption to remove liquids from gas
adsorber tower a tower in which gas flows down
through tables covered with a chemical called an
adsorbent that removes a liquid from the gas. The
reaction is a batch process and the adsorbent can
usually be regenerated by heating. Dehydration of
natural gas using activated alumina (bauxite) or silica
gel occurs in an adsorption tower. The process can
be used for a higher dew-point depression than
absorption. It can remove the water down to less
than 1/2 lbs/MMscf with a dew point of -40F.
adspn adsorption
adsorption the attraction of the molecules of a liquid
or gas to the surface of a solid. Adsorption is used
to remove fluids from either the atmosphere or
mixtures of gases and liquids. Adsorption does not
cause either physical or chemical changes in the
sorbent material which is called the adsorbent.
Activated alumina and silica gel are used to adsorb
water from natural gas. Activated charcoal or silica
gel are used to adsorb liquid hydrocarbons out of
natural gas. Zeolites are often used to adsorb acid
gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide

adsorption column
from natural gas. The liquids are then removed by
steam treatment of the adsorbent. Adsorption is in
contrast to absorption in which the molecules or ions
penetrate the interior of the substance. adspn
adsorption column a glass column in a gas
chromatograph that is packed with charcoal, silica gel,
zeolites, or polymers that adsorb gas. The adsorption
column is used to separate oxygen, nitrogen, and
methane and is in contrast to a partition or gas/liquid
column. (gas/solid column)
adsorption gasoline the natural gasoline
(retrograde gas) that is removed from wet gas by
activated charcoal or silica gel in an adsorption plant
adsorption plant field equipment that is designed
to remove water and liquid hydrocarbons from natural
gas by using an adsorbent
ad valorem charge a lease rental payment that is
based on the appraised value of the unproduced
minerals in the ground. As drilling discovers new
reserves, the value of the unproduced minerals and
amount of rental will change.
ad valorem tax the state or county tax that is assessed
on the value of property
advance payment an interest-free loan made by an
interstate pipeline to a gas exploration company to
drill gas wells in return for a) the dedication of the
discoveries to the pipeline or b) a full reimbursement
for the dry holes
advanced payment agreement a method used to
finance the development of oil and gas property. The
money is advanced for drilling and developing the
property in exchange for the right to receive some
of the oil and gas production from that property.
advanced recovery methods waterflooding and
enhanced-oil-recovery methods
advance royalty 1) shut-in royalty in certain lease
forms. Shut-in royalty is a payment made to the lessor
in order to maintain a lease when a well is not
producing. 2) a minimum royalty or payment that
must be made to the lessor. An advance royalty is
often taken out of future production.
adverse mobility ratio the mobility ratio is
computed by dividing the viscosity of crude oil by
the viscosity of an injection fluid. An adverse mobility
ratio occurs in waterfloods and enhanced-oil-recovery
projects when the viscosity of the oil is much higher
than the fluid injected into the reservoir to move it.
The pressure drop per unit distance is lower in any
injected fluid finger than in the oil bank causing the
pressure at the end of the injected fluid finger to
become higher than that in the surrounding oil. This
causes the injected fluid fingers to push ahead,
extending the injected fluid fingers and causing a
breakthrough. An effective waterflood or enhancedoil-recovery project uses a low mobility ratio.
adverse possession ownership of land that is
claimed by hostile, notorious, and open possession
against the title holder of record
AEC anion exchange capacity
A electrode the current-emitting eletrode in a welllog resistivity sonde
aeolian transported and deposited by wind such as

affidavit of noncompliance

the sand in sand dunes in a desert environment

(eolian)
aeolianite a clastic sedimentary rock composed of
consolidated wind-blown sediments. An aeolianite is
typically a dune sand that is naturally cemented.
(eolianite)
aerated flow a type of fluid flow that is characterized
by liquid containing a large number of gas bubbles
aerated fluid fluid that contains entrained gas
bubbles. Aerated drilling fluids include air, natural
gas, mist, foam, and aerated mud.
aerated mud a drilling fluid formed by injecting air
or gas into the mud between the mud tanks and the
standpipe. Aerated mud is used to reduce the
hydrostatic pressure in a well and to drill low-pressure
formations. It combines the advantages of air and mud
drilling.
aerated zone see zone of aeration
aeration the injection of a gas such as air into a
liquid or solid. Air or gas is injected into drilling
mud to reduce mud weight and the hydraulic head
in the well.
aerial magnetic survey a survey that records
variations in the earth's magnetic field using a
magnetometer and an airplane. Common airborne
magnetometers used are flux-gate, nuclear-precession,
and optically pumped types. A high-sensitivity aerial
magnetic survey is measured in units of 0.1 g. Highdensity aerial magnetic survey is flown with flight lines
spaced one-third to one-half the distance from the
surface to basement. The survey is used to estimate
depth to basement and to locate structures.
aerial photograph a photograph, usually in black
and white, of the earth's surface made by a camera
in an airplane. The photographs can be taken in stereo
(at slightly different angles with an overlap) and
examined under a stereoscope in order to see relief.
Aerial photographs are used for making topographic
and geological maps.
aerify 1) to inject air into 2) to change into a gas
aerobic the presence of free air or oxygen. When
applied to water, it is water that contains enough
oxygen to support aerobic bacteria and contains
greater than 0.2 ml/1 oxygen. Aerobic is in contrast
to anaerobic. oxic
aerobic bacteria bacteria that require free oxygen
in air or water to live. Aerobic bacteria are responsible
for most organic decay. The bacteria can produce
slime that accumulates on metal surfaces of wells and
causes corrosion.
aeromagnetic magnetic readings made with an
airborne magnetometer. Two types of magnetometers
can be used. The fluxgate magnetometer is the
oldest. The commonest is the proton precession
magnetometer. An alkali-vapor magnetometer has just
been developed. The magnetic units are measured
in gammas (7).
AF 1) acid fracture 2) after fracturing
AFE authority or authorization for expenditure
affiant the party that makes an affidavit
affidavit a sworn declaration of facts in writing
affidavit of noncompliance a declaration by the

10

affidavit of production air-balanced beam pumping or pump unit

owner of land (lessor) that is filed after a lease has

been forfeited. This occurs after the lessee fails to
comply with provisions of the lease and has failed
to execute and record a release of record for the
lease.
affidavit of production a form or declaration that
the operator of a new well files for record with a
government agency to testify that production in paying
quantities has commenced. An affidavit of production
is required in certain states to extend the lease or
interest in the well. (certificate of production)
affiliated company a company that owns a
controlling or influential share of another company
affiliated producer a company engaged in the
production of natural gas which is affiliated with a
natural gas pipeline
AFIT after federal income tax
AFP average flowing pressure
A-frame 1) the A-shaped, highest portion of a
standard derrick on a drilling rig that is used to support
the crown block 2) the stationary, A-shaped structure
that supports and anchors in upright position the mast
of a jackknife rig on a drilling rig 3) an A-shaped
lifting device
aft after
aft toward the back or stern of a ship or offshore
drilling rig. Aft is in contrast to forward.
AFTA apatite fission track analysis
after-acquired rights clause a provision found in
an agreement such as a joint venture or farmout that
allows parties in an agreement to share in certain
future acquisition of interests by other parties in the
agreement
after-acquired title an interest that was acquired
by the grantor or lessor after the execution of a lease
or conveyance
after-acquired title clause a provision in an oil
and gas lease that extends the coverage of the lease
to any interest in the property acquired after the lease
afterburn the combustion of any unburned
hydrocarbons in the exhaust gas manifold of an engine
after cooler the heat exchangers that cool natural
gas after the gas has been heated by compression in
a compressor station
after flow the flow of fluid from the reservoir into
a well after the well has been shut in. (afterproduction)
afternoon tour a drilling rig shift that goes from
4:00 p.m. to midnight
afterproduction 1) the flow of fluids from the
reservoir into a well after the well has been shut in
(after flow) 2) the fluids that flow from a reservoir
into a well after the well has been shut in
AGA American Gas Association
against pressure A valve that is closed on a flowing
fluid stream
AGC automatic gain control
age 1) a time subdivision of an epoch 2) to allow
the cement in a well to cure or harden
agent an old term for a pipeline employee who
permits the flow of oil from producer's storage tanks

into a pipeline and in return gives the producer a

voucher for the quantity of oil see ganger
ager a water-filled pressure chamber that is used to
apply external pressure to gas lift valves
AGFR acid-gel frac
Agg or aggr aggregate
aggradational built up by deposition of sediments
aggregate 1) two or more particles that are strongly
bound together and cannot be broken by normal
mixing or shaking 2) inert mineral material having a
particle size generally greater than 10 mesh Agg or
aggr
aggregated solution a suspension with face-to-face
association of clay mineral platelets. An aggregated
solution causes a decrease in viscosity and gel strength
in drilling mud.
AGI American Geological Institute
aging 1) the natural or artificial curing of cement
2) the stabilization on an emulsion interface
agitator apparatus used to stir a fluid A mud-pit
agitator is used to stir the drilling mud in the mud
tanks. Two common types are electric-driven rotating
blades and centrifugal pump jets called mud, surface,
or submarine guns. One or more agitators of 10-20
hp are used per tank. Agitators are designed to move
liquids and keep the solids suspended. stirrer
Aglm agglomerate
AGP additional gas produced
AGU American Geophysical Union
A-h ampere-hour
and anhedral
AHSV anchor-handling supply vessel
AHT anchor-handling tug
AHV anchor-handling vessel
AI artificial intelligence
ai decline rate at qi in a decline curve analysis
AIChE American Institute of Chemical Engineers
AICPA American Institute of Certified Public
Accountants
AIME American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and
Petroleum Engineers
AIMME American Institute of Mining and
Metallurgical Engineers
AIOE acid/oil emulsion
AIPG American Institute of Petroleum Geologists
AIR average injection rate
air air drilling
air activated operated by the force and movement
of a gas under pressure. Air activated is in contrast
to hydraulic. (pneumatic)
air-balanced beam pumping or pump unit a type
of oil well pump that uses a piston and rod in a
cylinder with compressed air to balance the weight
of the sucker-rod string. An air-balanced beam
pumping unit is in contrast to the type of pump that
uses a counterweight to balance the sucker rods. It
is more compact and lighter that the crank
counterbalanced and beam balanced types. Because

airborne magnetometer air-injection porosity

11

walking beam

pitman

Samson
post

air drilling rig (truck mounted)

air balanced beam pumping unit

of this, the unit is often found in remote and difficult

locations or offshore.
airborne magnetometer a device carried by an
airplane that is used to measure variations in the earth's
magnetic field. Most measure total-field intensity,
although vector and vertical component are sometimes
measured. The most common types are the flux-gate,
nuclear-precession, and optically pumped
magnetometers. The magnetometer can be used to
estimate depth to basement and locate subsurface
geological structures.
air chamber a small surge chamber that is filled
with air that is connected to a reciprocating pump's
discharge line see pulsation dampener
air clutch a device that is used to engage and
disengage a power transmission. High-pressure air
acts on a diaphragm chamber to move a pressure
plate to compress a release spring that holds the air
clutch in the disengaged position. Air clutches are
common on a drilling rig.
air-cooled exchanger equipment that uses air
blowing across external fins to cool a liquid
air cut air in a liquid system
air cutting the accidental inclusion of air in a drilling
or well fluid
air drill an air or pneumatic drilling rig that pumps
air down the center of the pipe to remove cuttings
from the bottom of the well
air drilling rotary drilling that uses compressed air
instead of a circulating mud system. The air is supplied
by a skid-mounted air compressor and diesel engine
that delivers 300-500 ft3 of air per minute at 300600 psi. Three to five compressors are used. The air
is pumped down the mud line. The top of the bell
nipple is fitted with an air drilling head to prevent
the air from flowing out the top of the bell nipple.
Conventional roller cone bits are used. The air and
well cuttings come up to to the surface through the
annulus of the well and blow out through a blooey
line into a blooey pit. The circulation is controlled
by a standpipe valve on the rig floor. More weight is
put on the bit and less rpms are used compared to
drilling with mud. Air drilling is two to five times
faster and less expensive than mud drilling but cannot
effectively control abnormally high pressures or build
a filter cake to stabilize the well. It is ineffective when
too much water enters the well. The water, air, and

dust can form mud rings that stick to the bottom

hole assembly. Air drilling, however, alleviates the
problems of formation damage and lost circulation,
but there is a danger of an air-methane explosion.
air
aired up a plunger pump with a gas lock
air gap the distance from the bottom of the base of
an offshore drilling rig or ship's hull to the surface
of the ocean
air governor a device used on an air compressor
to control the unloading of the compressor at a
predetermined high-pressure setting and to restrict
the air flow at a predetermined low-pressure setting
air gun 1) a common type of marine seismic source.
The air gun or array of air guns is towed behind a
boat at a depth of about 20-30 ft and releases a very
high-pressure bubble of air (2,000-3,000 psi) into the
water. Air guns are made in different sizes and are
measured in cubic centimeters (cc) of chamber
volume. The air gun gives a seismic pulse ranging
from 0 to 250 Hz. The frequency spectrum of the
air gun depends on the volume and pressure of air
in the chamber. Different air guns in an array often
have different chamber sizes to produce a signal with
a broad frequency spectrum. Air guns can also be
used to work in swamps, tanks, or pits of water on
land. A secondary emission of a bubble pulse is a
problem with the air gun signal. 2) a hand tool that
is powered by compressed air
air hoist lifting equipment that is powered by
compressed air. An air hoist on the floor of a drilling
rig is used to lift the pipe up the V-door to the drilling
rig floor. It uses a reel of rope that goes through a
pulley near the top of the derrick.
air injection 1) an enhanced oil recovery technique
that uses injection wells to pump air into a subsurface,
depleted oil reservoir. Disadvantages of air injection
are that air injection can corrode metal equipment
in the well and form an explosive mixture. The air
can also oxidize oil in the reservoir which results in
the formation of compounds that can reduce the flow
of oil. Air, however, is cheaper to inject than any other
gas such as natural gas or inert gases. 2) a method
to inject diesel fuel into the combustion chamber of
a diesel engine by using a compressed air chamber
air-injection porosity the porosity of a rock sample
measured with a porosimeter. Air is injected into a
vacuum chamber with a sample of known volume.
Boyle's law, using pressure changes and volume, is

12

air receiver alkalinity

utilized to calculate porosity. Air-injection porosity is

the most accurate field method for calculating porosity.
air receiver a compressed air storage bottle
air shooting a seismic method using explosive
charges in sacks located 18 in. above ground on stakes.
Several charges in a pattern are shot in a nearby
simultaneous sequence by explose cord connecting
the shots.
air-tube clutch a device that engages a driven
member when a tube is inflated and disengages when
the tube is deflated
air tugger a semiportable, pneumatic winch
air weight the weight of a drillstring completely
suspended in air
AJET abrasive jet
Al andaliesite
A lab analytical laboratory
albertite a jet-black asphaltic bitumen that occurs
in veins. It has a conchoidal fracture and a specific
gravity of about 1.1. Albertite is a local term and is
found in Albert County, New Brunswick, Canada, and
in Scotland, Australia, and Indiana.
Albian a global age of geological time that occurred
from about 108-100 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Cretaceous epoch.
ALC acoustic velocity log
ALC-GR acoustilog, caliper, gamma ray log
ALC-GRN acoustilog, gamma ray, neutron log
ALC-N acoustilog, neutron log
alcohol slug process a type of enhanced oil
recovery that uses miscible flood by the injection of
a small amount of organic solvent such as isopropyl
alcohol into a depleted oil reservoir
Alexandrian a North American age of geological
time that occurred from about 425-422 m. y. ago. It
is part of the Silurian period.
ALG or alg along
Alg or alg algae
algae fossil and modern plants that range from
unicellular to colonial and have existed from
Precambrian to the present. They are aquatic, both
floating and attached. Calcareous or calcified algae
have contributed enormous amounts of limestone
to the geological record. Discoasters and
coccolithophores, types of floating algae, are good
guide fossils. Algae contain lipids that are thought to
be the precursors of crude oil. Alg or alg
algid mat a surface of algae that grows in a tropical,

algal mat

intertidal area. Algal filaments hold the underlying

micrite (limestone mud) in place. Storms wash micrite
onto the algal mat and a new algal mat is formed on
top. In this manner, great thicknesses of algal mats
can be built up. The limestone deposited can be both
a source rock and reservoir rock for petroleum.
algorithm a sequence of instructions used to solve
a problem. A computer program can be an algorithm.
aliasing the creation of a false image caused by
insufficient sampling when digitizing. The ambiguity
in frequency resolution from seismic signal sampling
is caused by aliasing. Alias or antialias filters can be
used to remove the frequencies that cause aliasing.

H
1
1
H C CH

1
H -

alicyclic
(cyclobutane)

alicyclic a group of saturated, closed-ring

hydrocarbons with the formula CnH2n. An example
is cyclobutane C4H8. (cyclopamffin series,
cycloalkanes, or nathene series)
alidade a surveyor's instrument that consists of a
telescope with a ruler along its base. An alidade is
used on a plane table to measure angles between a
base line and points that are surveyed.
alignment angle of stabilizer the angle between
the center line of a stabilizer used in drilling a deviated
hole and the center line of the well
aliphatic organic compounds that are not aromatic
and nonpolar. Aliphatic compounds include alkanes,
alkenes and alkynes. The term originally described
fatty.
alk alkalinity
alkali a base or hydroxide that has very alkaline or
basic chemical properties in contrast to acidic
alkaline having the properties of an alkali
alkaline flooding an enhanced oil-recovery process
in which alkaline chemicals such as sodium hydroxide
are injected into the reservoir. The alkaline chemicals
react with oil in the reservoir to form surfactants.
The surfactants and oil flow better through the
reservoir because of reduced interfacial tension,
spontaneous emulsification, and changes in wettability.
A slug of polymer-thickened water is then injected
into the reservoir to produce a more uniform sweep
of the surfactants and oil. This is followed by injection
of fresh and then saline waters to drive the oil toward
producing wells, (caustic flooding)
alkalinity the number of equivalents of acid that a
substance will react with to form a salt. Alkalinity is
the sum of carbonate, bicarbonates, hydrocarbonates,

alkalinity control allowable penalty

borates, silicates, and phosphates in water. Alkalinity
is determined by acid titration. alk
alkalinity control the adjustment of drilling mud
pH by the addition of sodium hydroxide or lime
alkane a hydrocarbon molecule formed by a
saturated (no double or triple bonds between carbons)
chain. Three types of alkanes are a) normal alkanes
that form straight chains, b) branched alkanes which
have limbs, and c) cyclic alkanes that form a circle.
Alkanes include the normal alkanes of methane,
ethane, propane, butane, and pentane and the higher
alkanes starting with hexane, heptane, octane, and
larger molecules. Alkane boiling points increase
regularly with molecular weight. Alkanes have low
chemical activities but are important fuels. Long-chain
normal alkane molecules (C]7+) are solids and are
known as waxes. Crude oils generally contain 5-80%
alkanes, and almost all of the hydrocarbons in natural
gas are alkanes.
alkanolamine a family of organic compounds that
include monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine
(DEA), and triethanolamine (TEA) that are used to
remove acid gases from natural gas
alkanolamine sweetening or processing the
removal of acid gases such as hydrogen sulfide and
carbon dioxide from natural gas. The process uses
an alkanolamine solution of monoethanolamine,
diethanolamine, or triethanolamine to absorb the acid
gases in a continuous process in an absorber. The
sour gas goes into the bottom of the tower through
an inlet scrubber where the liquids are removed. It
bubbles up through bubble traps of solution that are
descending in the tower. The sweet gas exits the tower
through a scrubber that removes any solution. A
reboiler uses heat treatment to strip the acid gases
from the absorbent solution.
alkene a hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon double
bonds and the formula CnH2n. The structure of the
molecule can be normal, branched, or cyclic. Only
minor amounts of alkene occur in sediments and
petroleum. An example is propylene C3H6. (olefin)
alkylation a refinery process that combines light
hydrocarbons to form high octane gasoline
alkyne an unsaturated, open-chain hydrocarbon with
one triple bond. Alkynes are highly reactive but are
not naturally common. The general formula for an
alkyne is CnH2n_2, and an example is acetylene C2H2.
(acetylene series)
alligator grab a wireline fishing tool that is lowered
into a well with its jaws pinned open. The jaws which
are held by a coiled spring and snap together when
the fish is contacted.
all-inclusive clause a provision in an oil and gas
lease that protects the lessee from errors in the
description of the land under the lease by including
all the land owned by the lessor in that area (catchall, cover all or Mother Hubbard clause)
Allo allochem
allocation see allowable
allochem a relatively coarse carbonate particle in a
carbonate rock that was transported and deposited
as a whole particle Allo
allochemical rock a rock composed of allochems.

13

Allochemical rock is in contrast to orthochemical and

autochthonous rocks.
allochton a rock mass that has been moved from
its original site by tectonic forces such as thrust faults
allochthonous formed somewhere else than where
it is located now. An example would be sedimentary
grains that were transported and deposited, (allogenic)
allodapic limestone a limestone deposited by
turbidity currents
allogenic something that formed somewhere else
than where it is located now. An example would be
sedimentary grains that were transported and
deposited, (allochthonous)
allogenic grain a sedimentary particle that was
transported and deposited (detrital grain)
allonge an attachment that specifies details on an
agreement. On a lease, an allonge is a separately listed
provision, (rider or exhibit)
allophane an amorphous clay mineral that is
composed of Al2O3SiO2nH2O. Allophane occurs in a
variety of colors as incrustations and seams in rocks.
allotted land Indian land that is designated for a
specific individual's use but the title is held by the
United States
allow allowable
allowable the maximum amount of gas and/or oil
that a well, lease, or field is permitted to produce
per given time by a government regulatory agency.
An allowable is often given in barrels of oil/day (BOPD)
for a certain number of days each month. The
allowable can be based on depth (depth yardstick)
and spacing. The right of a state to regulate production
is called prorationing and is done on the basis of
market demand. Not all states impose allowables.
(permitted production) allow
allowable allocation formula the instructions
issued by a government regulatory agency to divide
the amount of petroleum that the agency allows to
be produced from each well or leasehold per unit
of time (allowable) among all operators in the field.
The formula can be based on acreage, number of
wells, and acre-feet of pay.
allowable days the number of days in a month that
oil and/or gas can be produced under order by a
government regulatory agency (scheduled allowable
days)
allowable depletion the money that a specific
producing party can deduct from its taxable income
during a year. Allowable depletion is the greater of
either cost or percentage depletion.
allowable dry holes a measure of the economic
viability of drilling an exploratory well. Allowable dry
holes are the net present value of the successful well
(production revenues minus costs discounted for
time) divided by the cost of the exploratory well if
it was a dry hole. This gives an indication of how
many exploratory dry holes can be drilled to justify
the return.
allowable overpull the difference between the yield
strength of a tubular such as casing and the load carried
by that joint
allowable penalty A reduction penalty in the normal

14

allowable period amorphous

allowable or amount of production permitted by a

government regulatory agency for a well because of
a location exception in the drilling of the well
allowable period the time period during which an
allowable or permitted amount of production can be
produced
allowable rope load the nominal breaking strength
of a rope divided by a design factor
allowable stress the maximum stress that a structure
is designed to withstand for safe operations
alloy a metallic substance formed by a solid solution
of two or more elements, one of which has metallic
properties
all-thread nipple a short pipe with threads all along
its length
alluvial sediments deposited by a stream or river
alluvial fen a fan-shaped deposit of sediments
formed by an intermittent river flowing onto a plain
such as a desert. The upper fan deposits tend to be
mud-flow deposited, whereas the lower fan deposits
are stream deposited. Potential reservoir rocks can
be deposited in an alluvial fan environment.
aloe rope a rope made from aloe plant fiber used
in cable-tool drilling
along-track scanner a scanner used in remote
sensing with a linear array of detectors that is oriented
normal to the flight path
ALP articulated loading platform
a 1) angle 2) spontaneous potential (SP) reduction
factor 3) alternative coefficient 4) dip 5) absorption
coefficient 6) azimuth 7) alpha particle 8) angle of
well inclination from vertical
alpha pseudostate spontaneous potential divided by
static spontaneous potential
alpha or a map an isopachous map of clean sand
thickness in a formation The distribution of the clean
sands is calculated from the spontaneous potential
measurement of the reservoir and is based on the
observation that shale in the formation will decrease
the spontaneous potential response. The static
spontaneous potential (SSP) valve for a clean sand is
calculated and an arbitrary cutoff of alpha such as
50% (a50) or 75% (a75) is selected based on regional
production histories. The thickness of the reservoir
with a spontaneous potential response greater than
the alpha cutoff is measured and plotted.
Alpha I artificial lift equipment that balances the rod
string driving the rod pump in the producing well
with a hanging counterweight of cast iron weights
in an adjacent, shallow well. The Alpha I system
consists of a winch, cable, and rotary cam mechanism.
The cable connects the rod string with the
counterweight and the polished rod is replaced with
a polished tube. The Alpha I system gives long (3040 ft), slow pumping strokes that decrease peak load
on the rods and yields a higher fluid output than
other pumping units, (winch and cable or winch-type
pumping unit)
alpha particle an atomic particle that is positively
charged and consists of two protons and two neutrons
and has a mass of 4 on the atomic weight scale. The
alpha particle travels at a speed of about one-tenth

that of light. An alpha particle can be emitted from

an atomic nucleus during radioactive decay of uranium
238. a
alpha ring a guarded electrode
alt 1) altered 2) alternate
alternating current an electric current that
regularly reverses its flow of direction. Alternating
current is described by its frequency, the number of
cycles per second, or hertz. A direct current flows
in one direction. AC
alternator an electric generator or dynamo that
produces an alternating current
altg alternating
a,,, descending wave particle motion amplitude
A-mast an A-shaped assembly, usually of steel, used
for lifting
amb amber
ambient temperature the surrounding
temperature
Amerada pressure gauge a mechanical, selfcontained instrument that is used to measure
bottomhole pressures. The gauge contains a pressure
sensitive, helical Bourdon tube that rotates a stylus
on a circular chart. A clock drives the chart and depth
is correlated with time.
a^ mud filtrate activity
AMI area of mutual interest
amine an organic compound that is made by
substituting one or more hydrogen atoms in ammonia
with an organic radical. Amines are used to remove
hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from natural
gas.
amine/gas absorber tower a vertical bubble-tray
tower used in sour gas sweetening with the
alkanolamine process. The bubble trays contain
monethanolamine, diethanolamine, or
triethanolamine (TEA). The sour gas inlet is on the
bottom and the sweet gas outlet on the top of the
tower. The process is called alkanolamine sweetening.
amine unit a type of natural gas treatment
installation that uses organic bases (amines) to absorb
H2S, carbonly sulfide (COS) and CO2 from the natural
gas. The units are often portable, see alkanolamine
sweetening
Amm ammonite
ammeter an instrument that measures electrical
current
ammonia water or ammonium hydroxide a
chemical (NH4OH) that is used to neutralize hydrogen
sulfide during drillstem and wireline tests
ammonite an extinct type of cephalopod belonging
to the order Ammonoidea that existed from the
Devonian to Cretaceous period. They were similar
to squids and lived in coiled, chambered shells in
the ocean. Ammonites are guide fossils to the Mesozoic
Era when the sutures on their shells became very
ornate. Amm
amor amorphous
amorphous a substance such as a rock that lacks
crystal structure amor

amortize anchor contractor

ammonite

amortize the deduction of an expense over a fixed

period of years from the income
amp ampere
Amp amphbolite
ampere the System International (SI) unit for electric
current. An ampere is the amount of current produced
by an electromotive force of one volt acting through
a resistance of one ohm. A current of one ampere
has 6.28 x 1018electrons flowing by a point each
second. One ampere equals one coulomb per second
(C/s). A or amp
amphibole a common, dark-colored (black to light
green) mineral found in igneous, metamorphic, and
immature sedimentary rocks. Amphiboles are a group
of calcium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum silicates
that form long, prismatic, six-sided crystals.
Hornblende is the most common amphibole.
amphipathlc slug Injection a type of enhanced oil
recovery. A volume or slug of alcohol or other fluid
that is miscible (mixes) with both water and oil is
pumped down injection wells. Water is then injected
into the reservoir to drive the chemicals and oil toward
producing wells.
amphiphatic a balance in the interfacial tension of
oil and water in an oil-base drilling mud
amphoteric surfactant an organic molecule with
a water-soluble group that can be either + or
charged or uncharged. An amphoteric surfactant is
in contrast to an anionic, cationic, or nonionic
surfactant.
amplifier an instrument that increases the amplitude
of a signal such as voltage, current, or power
amplitude height measured vertically from base to
top A
amplitude anomaly a seismic reflection with an
unusually high or low amplitude such as a bright or
dim spot
amplitude log a wireline well log that records the
amplitude of the wave train that has passed through
the rocks adjacent to the wellbore or casing. Cementbond acoustic logs and fracture logs are examples.
amplitude ratio the amplitude of an anomalous
seismic wave divided by the normal or background
seismic-wave amplitude. Rs
amplitude shadow a decrease in the amplitude of
reflections below a hydrocarbon deposit on a seismic
profile
amplitude time an acoustic wave train display mode
in which the amplitude of the acoustic wave train is

15

plotted against time. Amplitude time is in contrast to

intensity-modulated time or variable density.
amplitude versus offset a seismic exploration
technique in which long offsets (source-to-receiver
distances) from 1.2 to 1.5 times the target depth are
shot. The reflections from a subsurface reflector will
have different amplitudes with varying offsets as a
function of lithologies. AVO
AMPS S-wave amplitude
AMT, Amt or amt amount
AMTV active mud tank volume
A-MUD aerated mud
An anorthite
an annulus
anaerobic the absence of free oxygen in contrast
to aerobic. The environment does not have enough
oxygen to support aerobic bacteria.
anaerobic bacteria bacteria that do not need free
oxygen to live. Anaerobic bacteria obtain their oxygen
from the reduction of oxygen-containing compounds.
This is in contrast to aerobic bacteria. Under certain
conditions in a well, anaerobic bacteria can cause
scale formation in water systems and the formation
of hydrogen sulfide from sulfates. Pyrite in sediments
is indicative of anaerobic bacteria.
anal analysis
analog computer a computer that stores
information in a manner that varies uniformly between
specific limits. A slide rule is an example. Modern
computers are digital.
analog recording a recording of a variable by
recording another variable that has a direct
relationship. Early seismic was analog recorded by
burning a trace on paper. The greater the seismic
energy or amplitude of the reflection of a seismic
event, the darker the burn on the seismic recording.
Today seismic is usually digitally recorded.
analog-to-digital converter the electronic
equipment used in seismic exploration to convert the
seismic signal to a binary code number with 16 bits
anastomosing stream a stream formed of
numerous, intertwining channels separated by sand
and gravel bars. The coarse-grained sand and gravel
deposits can become potential reservoir rocks.
(braided stream)
anchor 1) an object or device that secures
equipment. Anchors are used to secure downhole
equipment in wells. Ground anchors are used to
secure guy wires for masts and derricks. Anchors are
also used to hold a boat or semisubmersible in
position. 2) The tubing that extends below the working
barrel of an insert pump. 3) An extension below a
drillstem test tool that supports the weight applied
to the tool to set the packer. The anchor normally
sets on the bottom of the well or on a cement plug.
Straddle packers use steel prongs called dogs instead
of an anchor.
anchor buoy a floating device that is used to position
or to mark the position of an anchor on a drillship
or semisubmersible, spread mooring pattern
anchor contractor a service company that builds
and buries anchors used to attach the guy wires used

16

anchor pattern angular unconformity

on a guyed rig. The same anchors are also used for

the completion rig and any workover rigs used on
the same well.
anchor pattern the pattern of microscopic
irregularities on a metal surface that has been treated
with sand blasting, chemical etching, or some other
technique to improve its adhesiveness for surface
coatings
anchor piling a pile that is cemented into a shallow
borehole on the seafloor and is used to moor a drillship or semisubmersible
anchor pipe the section of perforated pipe below
a packer in a drillstem test. Formation fluids flow
into and up the anchor pipe (tailpipe)
anchor spread the pattern of anchor lines and
anchors on a semisubmersible or drillship. There are
usually 8 or 10 anchors deployed symmetrically by
anchor-handling boats.
anchor string a short length (string) of casing that
is run into the seabed to anchor the wellhead
equipment on the seabed (foundation pile or outer
conductor)
anchor washpipe spear a fishing tool that is
attached to a washover pipe. The washover pipe uses
a jet of drilling mud to clean around a tubular fish
at the bottom of hole. The spear is then released to
stab into the fish to retrieve it.
ancient document an instrument of writing that was
recorded in a county or parish courthouse 30 or more
years before it was offered in evidence. An ancient
document can include a map, survey, or plot.
An Cpt Ser analog computer service
and andesine
andesite a dark-colored volcanic rock that is
aphanitic (very small crystals) and has plagioclase
feldspar mineral grains, but no quartz. Andesite has
a matrix density of 2.70 gm/cc. Andesite volcanoes
are common along plate margins.
ANG angular
ang angle
angiosperm pollen the dust-sized reproductive
particles given off by a flowering plant. Angiosperm
pollen are often carried great distances by the wind
and are common in sediments. Flowering plants have
existed from the Cretaceous period to the present,
and their pollen are used to determine the age and
depositional environment of sedimentary rocks.
ANGL angle
angle azimuth indicator an acoustic or electric
instrument that is used to determine the angle on
the flex joint below a semisubmersible drilling rig
or drillship (riser angle indicator)
angle-build assembly see fulcrum assembly
angle-build motor a high-speed, low-torque or lowspeed, high-torque positive displacement motor with
one or more bends built into the motor transmission
or bearing area that is used to deflect a well with an
almost constant hole curvature rate between 6 and
20 per 100 ft
angle-build rate the change of inclination in a
deviation well measured in 7100 ft (radius of
curvature)

angle-build section the portion of a deviated well

in which the deviation angle is increased
angle buildup see angle of buildup
angle control section the grooved portion of the
drawworks drum on a drilling rig that guides the
wire rope to a new wrap on the drum (crossover)
angle dropoff the change in 7100 ft or 10 m of
the inclination of a well section as the inclination is
decreasing toward vertical. Angle dropoff is in contrast
to angle of buildup, (angle of dropoff)
angle of attack the angle between the direction of
the well inclination and the direction of the dip
inclination
angle of attack of bit the angle between the center
line of a deviated well at the location of the bit and
the center line of the bit. The angle is positive when
the bit points above the well and_negative when it
points below the well.
angle of buildup the change in 7100 ft or 10 m
of the inclination of a well section as the inclination
is increasing from vertical. Angle of buildup is in
contrast to angle dropoff, (angle buildup)
angle of deviation the angle between a crooked
or deviated hole and vertical (deflection, drift, drift
angle, hole deviation or inclination)
angle dropping assembly see pendulum assembly
angle of dropoff see angle dropoff
angle of incidence, reflection, or refraction the
angle between a wavefront and an interface
angle of twist the azimuth change through which
the drillstem must be turned to counter the downhole
motor torque
angle of wrap the length in degrees that a brake
band wraps around a brake flange
angle sub a small length of bent drillpipe that is
used to kick off a deviated well. An angle sub is run
between the mud or turbine motor and the lowest
drill collar. One of the connecting threads is machined
with an angle to the axis of the sub. This gives the
sub a Vf-2V-i bend. A Vi" angle sub will give an
angle change of 2c-37l00 ft and a 2 bent sub will
give 6-87l00 ft. The angle sub can have a muleshoe
orientating sleeve and key to determine the actual
orientation of the bottomhole assembly in the well.
A bent sub can also be used as part of a fishing string
to give the right approach angle to the fish for the
fishing tool, (bent, crooked or offset sub)
angle valve a valve with a 90 turn in the base
angstrom a unit of measure in the metric system
equal to 108 cm. A
angular a property of a sedimentary particle such
as sand having sharp angles. Angular particles indicate
that the particle has not been transported very far,
since erosion rounds particles. ANG
angular frequency the ordinary frequency times
2ir ip
angularity test a test that determines how much a
well deviates from vertical (slope test)
angular unconformity a buried erosional surface
with the rock layers below the unconformity tilted
at an angle. Angular unconformities can form
stratigraphic petroleum traps.

anh

angular unconformity

anh anhydrite
anhedral a mineral grain that lacks crystal faces or
has been rounded by erosion. Anhedral is in contrast
to euhedral. ahd
ANHY, Anhy, or anhy anhydrite
ANHYC anhydritic
anhyd anhydrite
anhydrite 1) a common salt evaporite mineral or
rock composed of CaSO4. Anhydrite is gypsum without
water in the crystal and readily alters to gypsum.
Anhydrite occurs as white to slightly colored beds
or seams in sedimentary rocks. Anhydrite has a matrix
density of 2.977 gm/cc, a matrix velocity of 20,000 ft/
sec, and an interval transit time of 54 (tsec/ft. ANHY,
Anhy, anhy, anh, or anhyd 2) a substance formed
by the removal of water from another substance For
example, CaO is the anhydrite of Ca(OH)2
anhydrous without water
ani anisotropic
aniline point the lowest temperature, usually
expressed in F, at which equal amounts of the
chemical aniline and an oil will completely mix. The
aniline point is an indication of the character of the
oil and the oil's deteriorating effect on materials made
of natural or synthetic rubber. The lower the
temperature, the more severe the effect. The aniline
point gives an evaluation of the oil's use in an oilbased drilling mud. The lighter or more paraffinic
the oil, the lower the aniline point.
anion a negatively charged ion. Examples of anions
are Cl~ and SO4" ~. An anion is in contrast to a cation.
anion surfactant an organic molecule with a
negatively charged, water-soluble group. An anionic
surfactant is in contrast to a cationic, nonionic, or
amphoteric surfactant.
Anisian a global age of geological time that occurred
from about 245-240 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle
Triassic epoch.
anisotropic uneven in composition and/or texture
in contrast to isotropic ani
anisotropy a substance that is anisotropic and is not
uniform in any direction
ankle buster a drilling rig with peddle clutches
annealing to heat or temper a substance and then
cool slowly. Annealing forms a very thin and hard
surface to steel that resists corrosion. Sucker rods
are annealed.

annular packoff

17

annelid a worm-like invertebrate with a segmented

body and belonging to the phylum Annelida. Annelids
have existed from the Precambrian Era (?) to the
present but are rare as fossils because they lack of
hard parts. Indirect evidence (trace fossils) such as
burrows and tracks are more common.
Annie Oakley clause a provision in an agreement
such as a joint operating agreement in which a nonoperator has the right to challenge the operator by
offering to conduct operations on a more favorable
basis. The operator then has the right to meet the
challenge or forfeit the right to continue to operate.
(challenge clause)
anniversary date the effective date of a lease. The
anniversary date is the date on which payment must
be made to the lessor for delay rental or shut-in in
order to maintain a lease.
annual acreage rental see delay rental
annual capital charge a method for ecomonic
evaluation of a discounted cash flow. Annual capital
charge is the net cash flow sufficient for an adequate
rate of return and the recovery of full capital costs.
annual production decline rate one minus (the
production rate at the end of any year divided by
the production rate at the beginning of the year).
The annual decline rate is expressed as a decimal
or percentage, d
annubar a device that is used to measure fluid
velocity. An annubar averages pitot tube
measurements at four impact pressure points.

annular blowout preventer

annular blowout preventer or annular

preventer a closing device at the top of the well
above the ram preventers on a blowout preventer
stack that will close the well with either a kelly, pipe,
or wireline in the well, or with an open wellbore.
The annular preventer uses a reinforced oval-shaped
elastomer or hard-rubber packing element that is
squeezed with a piston activated by hydraulic pressure
from accumulators to close the well. The closing
pressure on the rubber seal can be eased to allow
drillpipe to be removed in a process called stripping.
The annular preventer has a lower pressure rating
than the pipe rams and a higher risk of failure under
high pressure, (spherical blowout, sleeve blowout, or
bag preventer)
annular packoff 1) a sealing mechanism that
contains the annular pressure between a suspended
tubular or hanger and the head or spool through
which the tubular passes or the hanger is suspended

18

annular space antifoam, antifoamer, or antifoaming agent

2) the decrease of the diameter of the original drilled

wellbore by well cuttings and/or the drilled
formations. This can include a) cave-in, b) landslide,
c) creeping, swelling, or heaving formations, d) settling
of solids, e) salt precipitation, and f) mud rings.
annular space see annulus
annular stream pattern a stream drainage pattern
that is characterized by several concentric, ring-shaped
streams. An annular stream pattern is formed by the
erosion of a dome to expose alternating layers of
soft and resistant formations.
annular velocity the rate at which a fluid such as
drilling mud is rising or falling in the annulus of a
well. Annular velocity is about 100 ft/min and depends
on the pump rate and volume of the annulus. AV

annulus 1) the space between a) the drillpipe and

the wellbore. b) the tubing and casing, or c) the casing
and the wellbore. (annular space) an or ANUL 2) a
ring of interstitial water caused by mud filtrate invasion
of a hydrocarbon-bearing formation
annulus pressure-responsive safety valve a valve
that is sensitive to the pressure in the annulus in a
well and will automatically open to relieve excess
pressure in the annulus. The annulus pressureresponsive safety valve can be adjusted to any pressure
threshold at the surface. APR safety valve
annunciator an audio-visual alarm or indicator
anode an electrode at which oxidation occurs. It is
the positive terminal of an electrolytic cell or the
negative terminal of a battery. An anode corrodes.
Anode is in contrast to a cathode.
anodic protection a method that retards
electrochemical corrosion on large, marine, and
buried structures such as offshore platforms and
pipelines. A low-voltage direct current of 25-60 volts
and several hundred amperes is generated between
anodes that are usually permanent steel, titanium, or
magnetite fittings and the structure. Anodic protection
is similar in principle to cathodic protection but does
not rely on sacrificial anodes, (impressed current
protection)

anomaly a general term for something such as a

measurement, a group of measurements, or a structure
that is significantly different than its surroundings. An
anomaly is a local variation in a normal or regional
pattern. Geological examples might include a gravity
anomaly of higher or lower gravity values on a gravity
survey or a structure such as a dome on a seismic
profile.
anoxic a chemically reducing environment
anoxic basin a water-filled basin in which the bottom
waters are oxygen deficient. Because of the lack of
oxygen in the water, organic-rich sediments can be
deposited on the bottom of the basin.
ANSI American National Standards Institute
Anthr anthracite
anthracite the highest rank coal Anthracite has the
greatest heat and least volatile content and is formed
by intense heat and pressure, (hard coal) Anthr
anthrozoan an aquatic invertebrate that belongs to
the class Anthrozoa in the phylum Coelenterata.
Anthrozoans include corals, both solitary and colonial,
and have existed from the Ordovician period to the
present. Anthrozoans are important reef builders and
guide fossils.
anticlinal nose a plunging anticline without closure
(nose or structural nose)
anticlinal theory an early and correct theory that
petroleum accumulates in the high area of reservoir
rocks in anticlines. The anticlinal theory was first
popularized by I.C. White in 1882.

anticline

anticline a large, long arch of rocks that have been

bent upward. An anticline has rocks becoming older
in age toward the core. The top of the anticline is
called the crest, and the center is called the axial
surface. Anticlines in reservoir rocks were one of the
first types of petroleum traps recognized. Anticlines
can be either buckling folds formed by tangential
compression forces parallel to the bedding with stratal
shortening, or they can be bending folds formed by
differential movement perpendicular to the bedding.
A plunging anticline has an axis that dips in one
direction, whereas, a doubly plunging anticline dips
in opposite directions. Anticlines are in contrast to
synclines.
anticlinorium a series of anticlines and synclines
of regional extent
antifoam, antifoamer, or antifoaming agent an
additive that prevents foaming. Antifoam is often a

antiform apparent grain density

silicone, alcohol, or organic phosphate that greatly
increases surface tension. Polyethylene glycol is
commonly used as an antifoam agent in cement.
antiform a fold that is concave upward. Antiform is
in contrast to synform and a neurtal fold.
antifriction bearings the bearings that rotate in a
circle around the journal on a leg of a roller-cone
bit to allow the cone to turn. The bearing arrangement
can be either a) roller-ball-roller or b) roller-ballfriction.
antigall treatment the conditioning of threads on
tubulars such as drillpipe to receive and retain
lubricants. Antigall treatment is a coating of iron
manganese phosphate or copper sulfate.
antileasing provision a special provision in a
farmout that prevents a farmee from leasing in the
area of farmout acreage
antisludge agent an additive that is used during
acidizing a reservoir containing heavy asphaltic oil.
An antisludge agent is a surface-active chemical that
prevents the formation of a thick sludge that could
reduce formation permeability.
antithetic faults

antithetic fault relatively minor fault that is parallel

to a major fault but has displacement opposite that
of the major fault. Antithetic faults are in contrast to
synthetic faults and are a type of secondary faults
anti-top-lease provision a special provision in an
agreement such as a farmout that prevents the parties
from top leasing the land included under the
agreement
ANUL annulus
ANYA allowable not yet available
AOCS American Oil Chemists Society
AOF absolute open flow
AOFP absolute open flow potential
AOGA Alaska Oil and Gas Association
AOS automatic oil skinner
AOSC Association of Oilwell Servicing Contractors
ap appears
apatite fission track analysis a method that
uses the length of ionization tracks from U238
disintegrations in the mineral apatite that is inversely
proportional to the temperature of the mineral to
analyze the thermal history of the rock. AFTA
A-PEL aluminum pellets
aph aphanitic

19

aphanitic an igneous rock texture with mineral

grains too small to be seen by the naked eye. Aphanitic
texture includes microcrystalline and cryptocrystalline
textures and is in contrast to phaneritic. aph
API American Petroleum Institute
A.P.I. the expected
API cement class an oil well cement classification
by the American Petroleum Institute. It includes
Classes A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J and is based
on depths, corrosive environments, strength and
pressures, and temperatures for which the cement
is recommended.
API gamma ray unit a standard unit of gamma ray
measurement that is calibrated in the American
Petroleum Institute's test pits at the University of
Houston. The average Mid-Continent shale has about
100 API gamma ray units.
API gravity a scale reflecting the density of a fluid
such as crude oil, water, or natural gas. It is computed
by dividing the specific gravity of the fluid at 60F
into 141.5 and subtracting 131.5. Fresh water has 10
API. Crude oils generally range from 6 (very heavy)
to 60 (very light). Average oils range from 35 to
25 API. Light oils range from 35 to 45 and heavy
oils are less than 25 API. API is the preferred term.
CAPI or gravity)
API log grid the standard format used for recording
wireline well logs. The depth column has one track
on the left and two tracks on the right. Each track is
2lA in. wide, and the depth column is 3/4 in. wide.
The tracks can have either a linear or logarithmic
scale.
API neutron unit a standard unit used for neutron
logs that are calibrated in the American Petroleum
Institute's neutron test pit at the University of Houston
API sand solid particles in drilling mud that are larger
than 74 \x.
API well number a 12-digit number that is assigned
to each well drilled in the United States. Digits 1 and
2 are codes for the state, Digits 3 through 5 are for
the county, parish, or offshore, Digits 6 through 1Q
identify the individual well, and Digits 11 and 12 record
a property of the well such as sidetracking.
APO after payout
APOA Arctic Petroleum Operators Association
app appearance
apparent bed thickness the thickness of a
sedimentary rock bed not measured perpendicular
to the bedding plane in contrast to true bed thickness
apparent dip the angle that a plane such as a bedding
plane or fault plane makes with horizontal, provided
that it is not measured perpendicular to the strike
or horizontal direction of that plane. The
perpendicular measurement is called true dip. The
apparent dip will vary from almost zero when
measured at a low angle to the strike of the plane,
to a maximum value that approaches the true dip at
an angle near perpendicular to the strike.
apparent grain density a parameter used on a MID
plot. Apparent grain density is equal to * _ /" f in
which pb is bulk density from density log, <(>ra is
apparent total porosity, p^ is pore fluid density, p^^

20

apparent liquid density Archie's equation or formula

apparent liquid density the mass of gas divided

by the volume of gas dissolved in a liquid at 14.7
psi and 60F
apparent matrix transit time a parameter
used on a MID plot. Apparent matrix transit time
At <$>laAtf

is equal to

1 - ' time-average relationship and

A? field-observed relationship in which A? is
sonic log interval transit time, $ta is apparent total
porosity, A^ is pore fluid transit time and c is a constant
equal to about 0.68. tnmaa or t,,^
apparent resistivity the recorded resistivity on a
resistivity well log. Apparent resistivity differs from
true resistivity because of borehole effects, adjacent
beds, the invaded zone, and the drilling mud.
apparent velocity the apparent wavelength times
the frequency. Va
apparent viscosity 1) the viscosity of a fluid flowing
through a porous rock that it shares with another
fluid (effective viscosity) 2) the viscosity of a fluid
measured in an instrument at a stated rate of shear.
It is measured in centipoises (cp) from a direct reading
viscometer at 600 rpm and is a function of the fluid's
plastic viscosity and yield point.
apparent wavelength the distance between similar
points on a wave measured at an angle to the wavefront.
The true wavelength will be smaller than the apparent
wavelength and is measured at 90 to the wavefront.
appd approved
apple a small object such as a nut or bolt that falls
to the drill floor of a rig
apple butter belt dressing
apportionment the division of royalties between
interest owners of the land
apportionment account an account that
accumulates expenses for a period with the account
being credited for activities on some predetermined
basis
apportionment rule a rule in some states that
royalties from a lease on property that was subdivided
after the lease was granted are to be divided
proportionately between the property owners
appraisal curve a graph used to predict the ultimate
recovery of wells producing from the same reservoir
but with different initial productions. The ultimate
cumulative percent oil production per well is plotted
versus the first year's production per well to yield
an average, maximum, and minimum cumulative
production percentage curve. An ultimate production
per well is plotted versus daily production of oil per
well during the first year to give an average, maximum,
and minimum ultimate production curve.
appraisal well a well drilled after a discovery well
to gain more information on the producing reservoir
such as the elevation of the oil-water contact. Appraisal
wells are often cored. An appraisal well is a step-out
or delineation well.
approx or apprx approximately
APR annulus pressure responsive
apr apparent
apron ring the lowest section of metal plates on a
tank

APR safety valve automatic pressure responsive

safety valve
APRT advance petroleum revenue tax
APRX approximate
APT additional profits tax
Aptian a global age of geological time that occurred
about 115-108 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Cretaceous epoch.
aq aqueous
Aquagel a type of bentonite used to condition
drilling mud and to lubricate the bit
Aquapulse a sleeve exploder that is used as a
marine seismic source. A propane and oxygen mixture
is exploded by a spark plug in a thick rubber bag
that is called a sleeve. Multiple arrays are often used.
aquasorption process a water washing process in
a contact tower that is used to sweeten natural gas
aqueous from water
aquifer a porous and permeable rock that contains
water
Aquitanian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 25-23 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Miocene epoch.
aquitard a rock that is impermeable and does not
allow fluids to pass. Examples are shale and salt layers.
An aquitard is in contrast to an aquifer.
AR acid residue
Ar argon
A,, relative amplitude
Arag or arag aragonite
aragonite a common mineral that has the chemical
formula CaCO3, the same as the mineral calcite. Their
properties are similar but aragonite is slightly harder
and denser and has a different crystal structure and
is less stable than calcite. Aragonite is white, yellowish,
or gray and is common in coral and mollusk shells
and oolites. Arag or arag
arc cutter a downhole assembly used to deviate a
well
arch 1) a long uplift An arch is an anticlinal fold of
regional scale. 2) see sand arch
Archean rocks formed during Archeozoic time
Archeo Archeozoic
Archeozoic a subdivision of the Precambrian era
of geological time. It occurred about 4500-2500
m. y. ago. Archeo
Archie's equation or formula an empirical
formula used in well-log analysis to evaluate the
hydrocarbon content of a reservoir. It states that:

5W is water saturation. F is the formation resistivity

factor. F can be calculated from the formula F =
1.0/$m, where 3> is porosity of the reservoir rock,
and m is the cementation factor for the reservoir rock
which varies from 1.0 to 30, but is commonly 1.6 to
2.2. Ru, is the resistivity of the formation waters that
is usually obtained from water samples in nearby wells
or is calculated from the spontaneous potential log.

Archimidean screw aromatic

Rt is the true formation resistivity. It is measured from
the resistivity log. The saturation exponent n ranges
from 1.8 to 2.5, but is commonly 2.0. Hydrocarbon
saturation is calculated by solving for Su, and
subtracting 1. The formula is accurate only with clean
sandstones and carbonates; shaly formations give
erroneous results. The equation is named after George
E. Archie who first presented the equation in 1941
and published it in 1942.
Archimidean screw a type of artificial lift in which
a spiral activated by a rotating sucker-rod string driven
by a motor at the surface lifts the oil
arc-plasma torch an underwater cutting and
welding torch that feeds gas through a nozzle in a
copper anode. An arc of ionized gas occurs between
the copper anode and the hard metal cathode.
arc weld a method used to join metals by an electrical
current discharge in an arc between a welding rod,
which is an electrode, and the metal. The heat
generated by the arc melts both the welding rod and
the metal to form the bond.
area of mutual interest a specific area that has been
denned by two or more parties where each party, at
their option, can proportionally share in the costs
and ownership of acreage acquisitions with the other
parties. The area of mutual interest is often defined
in a contract such as a farmout, joint operating
agreement, or seismic option. An area of mutual
interest is sometimes confused with a working interest
area in which the parties share in the development
of the net lease acreage. AMI
area rate clause A provision in some gas contracts
that allows for an increase in gas price if permitted
by a government regulatory agency.
area rental monies paid in installments during a
period of production licence in the United Kingdom
and Norway
areal sweep efficiency The fraction of the area that
is effectively swept by injected fluids during enhanced
oil recovery. E^, EA, or Ea
areawide pricing a regional wellhead price ceiling
for interstate gas producers. Areawide pricing was
used by the Federal Power Commission in the 1960s.
AREN or aren arenaceous
arenaceous sandy AREN or aren
arene see aromatic
Arenigian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 490-485 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Ordovician epoch.
arenite sand-sized sediments with a diameter
between 40u, and 2 mm. Arenites are in contrast to
rudites and pelites. (psammite)
areometer a tube-shaped instrument that is made
of glass with a weighted lower end and a scale printed
on its upper end. It is designed to float in a liquid.
The height to which the areometer floats depends
on the density of the liquid, which is read off the
scale. One API oil gravity areometer is used to measure
crude oils 10-45 API gravity and another 45-90.
A mudwater hydrometer is used to determine drilling
mud density, (hydrometer)
ARG or arg argillaceous

21

argillaceous shaly. ARG or arg

argillite or argillyte 1) a hard, compacted shale
or mudstone that has fewer laminations than shale,
no fissility that is found in shale and no slaty cleavage
2) a shaly rock that has been naturally cemented by
calcite (pelite) argl
argillites very fine-grained sediments with a
diameter less than 2 \i. argl
argl argillite
argon a colorless, odorless inert gas. Argon is
sometimes found with natural gas. Ar
ARK, Ark, or ark arkose
ARKIC arkosic
arkose a pink-to-buff colored sandstone derived from
the erosion of a granite. An arkose contains a large
percentage of quartz grains but also has more than
25% feldspar minerals and some minor clay minerals
and cement. The grains are angular to subangular
and sorting is poor to moderately well sorted. An
arkose is the result of rapid erosion and deposition.
(granite wash) ARK, Ark or ark
arkosic a term used to describe sandstones, arenites,
graywackes, conglomerates and limestones with
relatively large amounts of the mineral feldspar.
ARKIC

arm 1) to prepare a perforating gun ror firing 2)

the lever or bow spring on a wireline sonde that is
used to either centralize or press the tool to the
opposite side of the borehole. The arm is opened
by electric motor and held against the wall by spring
tension.
armor the steel wire surrounding the insulated
electrical conductors on a survey cable
armature the coils of wire a) into which an electrical
current is induced in a generator or b) that produce
a torque in an electric motor
arm's-length transaction a transaction between
unaffiliated companies
ARO at the rate of
arom aromatics

H
I
C

H
C

II
c
C
I
H

c
I
c

aromatic
(benzene)

aromatic a type of hydrocarbon molecule found in

crude oils that is formed by an unsaturated, closed
ring. The principle aromatic hydrocarbons are the
BTX group (benzene, toluene, and xylene), cumene,
styrene, and ethylbenzene. Crude oils rich in this type
of molecule have a sweet, fruity smell. The original
definition of aromatic implied fragrant compounds.

22

arpent ASGMT or asgmt

Simple aromatic compounds in crude oil cause

fluorescence of the oil. The general formula is
CnH2n_6. An example is benzene (C6H6). (arene or
benzene) arom
arpent a French unit of length used in southern
Louisiana that varies with location but is generally
191.833 ft
array 1) the pattern of a group of geophones or
shotpoints 2) a group of 6 to 24 geophones about
100 ft across that are attached to a single recording
channel. The array is used to attenuate horizontal
waves. Most arrays are in line but some are areal. 3)
a group of shotpoints that are fired at the same time
4) the configuration of electrodes on a wireline sonde
used in well logging
arrestor see surge chamber
Arrhenius equation an equation that relates
chemical reaction rates to the temperature. The
equation is k = Ae~E/RT in which k is the rate constant,
A is the Arrhenius constant, E is the activation energy
of the reaction, R is the universal gas constant and T
is the temperature in "Kelvin. The equation implies
that the reaction rate doubles for every 10 C (18
F) increase in temperature.
arrival the appearance of a new wavetrain or event
on a seismic display
arrival time the time difference between the shot
and the arrival or appearance of a wave train or event
on a seismic display. Arrival time can be with or without
corrections.
arrow plot a type of dipmeter display
artesian ground water under hydrostatic pressure
artesian well a well in which the fluid flows to the
surface under its own pressure. The recharge area
for the aquifer is higher in elevation than the wellhead.
arthropod an advanced type of invertebrate with a
segmented body and external hard parts that belongs
to the phylum Arthropoda. They include insects,
crustaceans, and trilobites. Arthropods have existed
from the Cambrian period to the present.
articulate brachiopod a type of marine invertebrate
with two shells (bivalved) that are dissimilar. The
articulate type of brachiopods have hingement with
teeth and sockets for movement of the shells and
have existed from the Lower Cambrian epoch to the
present. They are guide fossils for the Paleozoic era.
articulated pipe drillpipe in 1-ft sections that form
interlocking segments with up to 2 flexibility between

the connections. Articulated pipe is used in drilling

horizontal wells.
articulated platform an offshore platform with the
lower end fixed to the seafloor and the upper end
free to move. The lower end can be fixed with a
universal joint to a concrete and steel base on the
seafloor. Buoyancy tanks keep the structure floating
vertically. An articluated platform is used primarily
for flaring gas and to moor and load tankers.
artificial intelligence a computer process that
simulates human thinking. Instead of working through
programmed steps to solve a problem, it uses creative
solutions. The process utilizes a knowledge base and
can learn from mistakes. Petroleum exploration with
its many factors that affect decisions, such as drilling
an exploratory well, is a possible application of
artificial intelligence. AI
artificial island a shallow-water drilling platform
made with gravel or boulders
artificial lift a mechanical method that is used to
assist in lifting crude oil in a well to the surface. The
most common methods are a) sucker-rod pump, b)
hydraulic pump, c) gas lift, and d) electric submersible
pump. Ninety-four percent of oil wells in the United
States use artificial lift.
Artinskian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 275-270 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Permian epoch.
arrival time the time that it takes a particular wave
phase of seismic energy to travel from the shot to a
reflector and back to the detector that records it during
seismic exploration. Arrival time can be with or
without static and dynamic corrections.
AS after shot
A, amplitude of shear wave
ASA American Standards Association
ASAP as soon as possible
asbestos a generic name for a group of naturally
occurring, fibrous silicate minerals. Asbetos is used
as a drilling mud additive to improve carrying capacity.
asbestos felt pipe coating material made of asbestos
saturated with asphalt
asbr absorber
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASGAS associated gas
ASGMT or asgmt assignment

artesian well

ash asphaltene

GAS LIFT

23

SUCKER ROD PUMP

ELECTRIC
SUBMERSIBLE
PUMP

artificial lift

ash the noncombustible residue left after burning a

substance such as a hydrocarbon
Ashgillian a global age of geological time that
occurred from about 450-425 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Upper Ordovician epoch.
ask system a method used to keep a drillship on
station. The early ask systems used the angle on a
taut wire secured by a clump weight. The system is
still used but not in deep water where a hydro-acoustic
position system is used. Transponders or beacons are
positioned on the seabed. The signals are picked up
by hydrophones (usually four) on the
semisubmersible or drillship and sent to a computer
for processing. If the ship drifts off the drillsite because
of waves, currents, or wind, a computer aboard the
drillship detects it from the seabed sound
transmissions and uses the ship's thrusters to put the
drillship back on station. The thrusters have controlled
pitch propellers to adjust the position of the drillship. Another system uses prepositioned radio
transmitters on fixed structures such as production
platforms that transmit signals to the antenna on a
vessel. This is used to determine range and bearing.
(dynamic positioning, positioning system or
stationing)
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASNT American Society for Non-Destructive Testing
ASOFR acid sand/oil frac
ASOBL associated oil
ASP 1) acoustic scope picture 2) apparent
spontaneous potential
ASPH asphaltic oil
Asph or asph 1) asphalt 2) asphaltic
asphalt a dark brown to black, solid or very viscous
liquid that is composed almost entirely of
hydrocarbons. Asphalt has very high molecular weights
and melts above 20C (70F), which distinguishes it
from heavy oil. It has a specific gravity between 1.0
and 1.1. Asphalt is composed of bitumen and is soluble
in carbon disulfide and insoluble in normal heptane.

It is found in most crude oils. Pure asphalt is formed

naturally by a variety of processes that affect crude
oil and by refinery processes that remove the lighter
fractions from crude oil. Natural asphalt deposits are
formed by degradation of crude oil by evaporation,
water washing, and/or evaporation. Asphalt is used
in oil-base drilling fluids, lost circulation material,
emulsifiers, fluid-loss agents, and wall-plastering
agents. Asphalt in the United States is the same as
bitumen in England. Solid asphalt is known as
asphaltite.
An average asphalt chemical analysis by % weight
C
H
S
N

80.0-85
8.5-11
2.0-8.0
00.0-2.0

Asph or asph
asphalt-base crude oil a crude oil that contains little
or no paraffin but has an asphalt residue upon
distillation. When burned it leaves a tar-like residue.
Asphalt-base crude oil is dominated by the napthenic
hydrocarbon compounds. The oil is black in color
and tends to have low API and a low pour point.
Asphalt-base crude oil represents about 15% of the
world's oil supply. Most of the world's oil is mixedbased or is paraffin-base, (naphthene-base crude oil)
asphalt enamel pipe coating made of ground mica,
clay, soapstone, or talc with asphalt that is applied
hot to pipes before they are buried to prevent
corrosion
asphaltene a general term that includes any solid,
dark brown to black bitumen that occurs either
dissolved or dispersed in crude oil or by itself in
sediments. Asphaltines are soluble in carbon disulfide
but not in normal heptane or paraffin naptha. They
have high molecular weights (500-1,500) and are
composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen with
lesser amounts of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. The
basic structure of asphaltenes is aromatic rings with
3-10 or more rings per molecule. Asphaltenes can
be precipitated by bubbling gas through an oil

24

asphaltic Atokan

reservoir and can form a tar mat at the oil/water contact.

Resins are similar to asphaltenes.
asphaltic containing significant amounts of asphalt
asphaltic bitumen a low-temperature reservoir
bitumen that formed by the degradation of liquid
hydrocarbons by evaporation, water washing, and/or
microbial activity into asphalt and pitch. Asphaltic
bitumen is soluble in organic solvents.
asphaltic sands a sandstone that is cemented
together with a natural, soft asphalt
asphaltine a bitumen that melts above 110C.
Asphaltine is black to dark brown in color and is
soluble in CS2 and chloroform but only partially
soluble in CC14. The fraction that is soluble in CS2
but not in CC14 is called carbenes. Asphaltine goes
by such local names as manjak, glance pitch, and
gilsonite.
asphaltite a naturally occurring, hard, solid, black
bitumen. Asphaltite is soluable in carbon disulfide
but not in paraffin naptha and fuses above 230F. Types
of natural asphaltites include gilsonite, grahamite, and
glance pitch. Asphaltite is an asphaltene.
asphalt plant a facility that buys basic sediment and
water and recovers crude oil from it (recycling unit)
ASSE American Society of Safety Engineers
Asselian a global age of geological time that occurred
from about 290-285 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Permian epoch.
assem. assemblage
assemblage a group of fossils that occurs and defines
a specific level in the rocks, assem.
assembly equipment composed of numerous
individual pieces that is used for a particular purpose
assessment additional capital that is requested from
an investor after the initial investment. Assessment
can be either mandatory or optional. If it is optional
or voluntary and the investor declines, there is a
penalty for noncompliance.
assgd assigned
assign to transfer. An assignment is assigned from
the assignor to the assignee.
assigned when earned an agreement in a farmout
in which the farmee is not assigned an interest until
after the earning conditions such as drilling a well
are satisfied. Assigned when earned is in contrast to
a present assignment.
assignee a person or company who receives an
assignment or transfer of interest such as an oil and
gas lease
assignment the conveyance that transfers an interest
in a property or a contract from an assignor to the
assignee, asgmt
assignment clause a provision in an oil and gas
lease that requires the lessor to give notice to the
lessee of any changes in ownership (change of
oumershp clause)
assignor the party who grants or transfers an
assignment or an interest such as an oil and gas lease
assistant driller a drilling contractor employee who
assists the driller on that tour on an offshore drilling
rig. The assistant driller often relieves the driller on

the drawworks brake and maintains the mud pumps

and circulation equipment. AID
assn or assoc association
associated gas natural gas that is in contact with
crude oil in the subsurface reservoir. It occupies a
separate portion of the reservoir and is wet gas.
Associated gas is in contrast to nonassociated and
dissolved gas. If production of associated gas will not
substantially affect the recovery of crude oil, a
government regulatory agency can reclassify it as
nonassociated gas. ASGAS
associated gas well allowable the amount of
natural gas that a government regulatory agency allows
a well or leasehold to produce per unit of time from
wells draining a free gas cap. It is often related in
volume to an oil allowable.
associated reservoir allowable a special reduced
gas allowable, the amount of gas production permitted
per time by a government regulatory agency, on an
associated gas well that also produces oil. The gas
allowable is based on the equivalent volume of oil.
ass wagon a dolly that was used to move heavy
equipment such as pipe on a drill floor
ass work heavy work done by hand
astern toward or behind the back (stern) of a ship
or offshore drilling rig
asthenosphere the portion of the earth located just
below the ltthosphere starting at a depth of about
60 mi. The asthenosphere is less rigid than the
lithosphere and seismic waves are strongly attenuated
in it.
ASTM or A.S.T.M. American Society for Testing and
Materials
astn asphaltic stain
asymmetric fold a fold in rocks such as an anticline
in which the limbs or sides are not similar and have
different dips on them. One limb will be steeper than
the other. The axial surface or center of the fold is
not vertical and will migrate horizontally with depth.
An asymmetric fold is in contrast to a symmetric fold.
AT 1) acid treatment 2) after treatment
a(t) autocorrelation function
ATA accrued treasury assets
atm atmosphere
atmosphere a unit of pressure equal to the pressure
of air at sea level which is 14.6959 psi, 101.325 kPa,
1.01325 bar, 3390 ft of fresh water, or 760 mm of
mercury. An atmosphere is equal to 1.01 x 105nt/m2
atm
atmospheric pressure the pressure exerted by the
weight of the column of air in the atmosphere.
Atmospheric pressure is 14.6959 psi at sea level and
decreases with altitude, (barometric pressure)
atmospheric-pressure oil stabilized oil existing
under surface conditions of temperature and pressure
(60F and 1 atm). Stabilized oil exists after the oil
has been processed through separators to remove
solution gas and water, (lease crude or stock-tank or
stocktank oil)
Atokan a North American epoch of geological time.
It is part of the Pennsylvanian period.

atoll authigenic clay minerals

atoll

atoll a relatively large (1 to 80 mi in diameter),

circular or elliptical reef with a central lagoon. The
atoll is surrounded by deep water and does not have
a central island.

1 PROTON
1 ELECTRON
HYDROGEN

2 PROTONS
2 NEUTRONS
2 ELECTRONS
HELIUM

8 PROTONS
S NEUTRONS
S ELECTRONS
OXYGEN

32 PROTONS
M S NEUTRONS
92 ELECTRONS
URANIUM

atom

atom the smallest particle that has all the properties

of an element. The nucleus of the atom is composed
of protons and neutrons while electrons orbit in shells
about the nucleus. All matter is composed of atoms
in chemical combinations that form compounds.
atomic number the number of electrons or protons
in the atom of an element. The atomic number of
carbon is 6.
atomic weight the relative weight of the average
atom of a element based on the carbon 12 isotope
being exactly 12. A
atomize to spray a liquid through a small hole
causing it to separate into numerous very small
droplets
attapulgite a group of clay minerals with a chainlattice and a chemical formula of (Mg,Al)2Si4Oj0
(OH) 2H2O. The clay minerals are light weight, tough,
and fibrous. Attapulgite is a colloidal clay that is used
to increase the viscosity of drilling and completion
fluids and develops a gel when mixed with salt water.
Attapulgite has high viscosity in both fresh and salt
water, (pafygorskite)
attapulgite cement a slurry formed by adding dry
cement to water with prehydrated attapulgite It is used
as a lost circulation material.
attenuation the reduction in amplitude or energy
of a wave such as a seismic wave
attenuator a device used to reduce the amplitude
of a wave or signal. An attenuator is usually calibrated
in decibels.
attic 1) a platform that goes around the crown of
the derrick on a drilling rig. The railing that goes
around the attic is called the pigpen, and both the

25

attic and pigpen are called the duck's nest. The attic
contains the water table that holds the crown block.
The attic is accessed by the derrick ladder, (crown
platform or crow's nest) 2) the derrick board on a
rotary rig
attic man a derrickman on a rotary drilling rig
attic oil oil that occurs in the very top of the reservoir.
Attic oil is not drained by wells that drain the reservoir
from lower elevations. Because there may not be a
well located on the very highest point of the reservoir,
some attic oil is often left in every reservoir that is
drained.
attitude 1) the horizontal orientation of a line or
plane 2) the angular orientation of a camera or the
photograph used in aerial photography
atto the metric prefix for 10~18. a
attributable acreage the acreage that is assigned
to a well for the purpose of determining an allowable
where there is an acreage factor in the allowable
formula
attribute a particular characteristic of data. Seismic
attributes include amplitude, frequency, velocity, and
polarity.
attribute map a contoured map based on a seismic
attribute. The attribute, in numerical form, is plotted
at each shot point and contoured.
au augite
audit a documented investigation
auger a drill with long helical grooves that wind up
the drillpipe to carry the cuttings to the top of the
hole when the auger is rotated. An auger drill is often
used for shot holes. No air or mud is circulated when
drilling.
auger man a rotary driller
auger stem four bars of iron that are fitted to the
auger stem of a cable-tool rig to form a heavy steel
shaft that prevents deviation of the well. The bit jars
are screwed into them, (sinker bar guide)
aulacogen a long-duration, deeply subsiding
depression bounded by large faults forming a trough
or graben in a craton or continental interior.
Aulacogens are often associated with a failed arm or
an aborted continental pull apart due to plate tectonics.
austenitic a nonmagnetic state of iron or an iron
alloy. Austenitic is in contrast to ferritic.
austenitic stainless steel A nonmagnetic alloy with
over 16% chromium and over 1% nickel (which can
be partially replaced by manganese) and iron. It is
used to make nonmagnetic drill collars. Austenitic
stainless steel is in contrast to ferritic stainless steel
which is magnetic.
AUTH or auth authorized
authg authigenic
authigenic a mineral that was formed by chemical
reactions after the sediments were buried in the
subsurface. The temperatures and pressures under
which authigenic minerals form are not high enough
to be termed metamorphic. authg
authigenic clay minerals clay minerals that have
precipitated out of subsurface waters (neoformed
clays) or formed from the alteration of a precursor

26

authority or authorization for expenditure automatic slips

material (transformed clays), such as feldspar grain

in a subsurface rock. Authigenic clays decrease the
primary porosity in sedimentary rocks. They create
microporosity which results in a high irreducible water
content for the rock and a high water saturation.
Authigenic clays have high conductivity and reduce
the resistivity of sedimentary rocks such as shaly sands.
This can result in a high water saturation estimate
from well logs. Authigenic clays are responsible for
formation damage as they can be dislodged from
mineral grains and/or dispersed by drilling mud filtrate
or other fluids injected into the formation adjacent
to the wellbore. They clog and bridge pore throats
to decrease the permeability of the rock.

AFE
(Authority For Expenditure)
Dry Holt

Completed Well

Drilling Intangibles
Site Preparation
Drilling Footage
Cement and Surface Casing
Logging
Mud

Completion Intangibles
Cement
Perforating
Frac or Acid

Equipment
Casing
Tubing
Pump Jock
Separator
Tanks

Total Well Cost

$_

authority for expenditure

authority or authorization for expenditure a

form that is filled out before drilling a well. The
authorization for expenditure lists all the estimated
costs of drilling the well with two results: a dry hole
and a producer. It is used to analyze the economic
feasibility of drilling the well and to keep costs under
control when drilling the well. An authorization for
expenditure is also made before any major purchase.
AFE
authorized total depth or authorized depth the
total depth of a well that is approved by the operator
on a drilling contract. AD
auto automatic
autochthonous something that is found in the same
place where it was formed. It has not been transported.
(in situ)
autocorrelation a crosscorrelation in which a signal
is correlated with itself. The autocorrelation function
measures the statistical dependence of a wave form

at a later time with the wave form at an earlier time.

Autocorrelation is used in seimsic signal processing
and can be used to determine the kind of
deconvolution necessary.
auto-lock safety joint a pipe joint used on a fishing
string that disconnects on tension or a quarter reverse
turn when the string is caught
automated shutdown a system on a producing well
that is designed to react to the sensors such as highand low-pressure valves and storm chokes that detect
abnormal downhole conditions and will automatically
shut in the well. An automated shutdown can be
manually reopened.
automatic catheads catheads with the catline spools
mounted on roller bearings around the cat shaft with
a friction clutch. Automatic catheads are controlled
manually, hydraulically, or pneumatically.
automatic choke an orifice operated by power that
is used to control the pressure on a flowing fluid
automatic custody transfer a system designed to
move oil from lease storage to a pipeline. Automatic
custody transfer has a field sampling and measuring
system for crude oil that works without manual input.
The equipment includes a pump, back pressure valve,
BS&W monitor and oil meter. ACT
automatic driller or automatic drilling control
unit a hydraulic or pneumatic device that is
connected to the drawworks brake handle on a drilling
rig and maintains a predetermined weight on the bit
without input from the driller (drilling control)
automatic elimination clause a provision in a unit
agreement that automatically eliminates certain lands
from the unit area after a specific date unless certain
developmental operations are not done (elimination
clause)
automatic feed control see automatic driller
automatic fillup shoe a device with a pressureactivated valve that is used on the first joint of casing
to regulate the amount of drilling mud flowing into
the casing as it is run
automatic gain control a device that regulates the
amplification or attenuation of input signal strength
coming into an amplifier. It is automatic on seismic
amplifiers if the gain of each channel is independent
of die other channels. AGC
automatic gas detector a sampling and analytical
device that measures gas-cut drilling mud in the mud
pits
automatic gauge see automatic tank gauge
automatic pump accumulator unit see
accumulator
automatic pump controller see percentage timer
automatic rabbit washers used on the sucker rods
of a pumping well to clean out paraffin
automatic ram lock a mechanical lock that keeps
the subsea blowout preventers closed if the hydraulic
pressure is lost or released
automatic shutdown a system with sensors that can
stop a process if abnormal conditions are detected
automatic slips a wedge-shaped device that is part
of a modern rotary table and is powered by air or
hydraulic fluid from a pedal at the driller's position

automatic tank gage or gauge azimuth bar

on a drilling rig. The automatic slips are used to
suspend the drillstring in the well, (power slips)
automatic tank gage or gauge an instrument on
a tank that uses a float on a line to show the height
of a liquid in the tank
automatic weight-on-bit control a device that uses
the rig-weight indicator on the dead line to
automatically maintain the constant required weight
on the bit during drilling
automatic well testing the automatic gauging and
sampling of a well. AWT
aux auxiliary
auxiliaries secondary equipment on a drilling rig
that is not directly involved in drilling the well.
Generators for rig lighting are an example of
auxiliaries.
auxiliary brake a hydrodynamic or electrodynamic
brake used to lower heavy loads at slow rates on a
drilling rig. Auxiliary brakes are used to prevent wear
on the main brakes.
AV annular velocity
AVC al) automatic volume control 2) automatic vent
chamber
avdp. avoirdupois
AVG, Av, av or avg average
AVL acoustic velocity log
AVO amplitude versus offset
Avogadro's number 6.0247 xl023/mole
avoirdupois a system of weights in which 1 lb equals
16 oz. Two thousand lbs equals a short ton and 2,240
lbs equals a long ton. Seven thousand grains equals
1 lb. One pound avdp. equals 1.215 lbs t. avdp.
AVP actual value profit
Av. Sp. Gr. average specific gravity

avulsion
avulsion an abrupt change in the course of a river
as it abandons one portion of a channel to erode
another channel
AW acid water
aw salt water activity

27

AWG American Wire Gauge

AWS American Welding Society
AWT automatic well-testing
awtg awaiting
ax axinite
axial compression inward directed forces parallel
to the long axis of an object. Compressive forces are
directed along a length of pipe when the pipe
encounters a deviation or sticky spot in the well as
it is being lowered into the well.
axial compressor a type of gas compressor that
compresses gas flowing from an inlet to the discharge
along a long shaft with numerous short propellors
or blades that are rapidly revolving
axial load the total load or weight applied to a
drilling bit. W
CREST

axial surface
axial plane or surface a surface formed by lines
or axes along maximum bending of layers of rocks
in a fold. The surface is essentially the center of the
fold and symmetrically divides the fold. The axial
surface is curved on an asymmetrical fold and is
straight on a symmetrical fold. It is more correctly
described as a surface rather than a plane.
axial tension outward-directed forces parallel to the
long axis of an object. Tensional forces are directed
along a length of pipe when the drill string is caught
in a keyscat when tripping out.
axial trace the line formed by the intersection of
an axial surface on a fold with a topographic surface
axial trend the azimuth or direction of a hinge line
on a fold
axis a line along the maximum bending of rock layers
in a fold. The axis separates the two limbs or sides
of the fold and is essentially the center of the fold.
AZIMU azimuth
azimuth 1) the horizontal angle (0-360) measured
clockwise from true north in surveying 2) the
horizontal angle measured clockwise between the face
of a deviation tool in a well and magnetic north 3)
the horizontal angle measured clockwise from
magnetic north in well logging, a. AZIMU or <)>
azimuth bar a reference point used to establish
compass orientation on a permanent bench mark

28

B back-off wheel

B
B 1) formation volume factor 2) turbulence 3)
magnetic induction 4) bottom of 5) angle between
interface and bed 6) barrel 7) boundstone 8) cation
mobility
b 1) reciprocal of formation volume factor 2) bubble
point 3) bulk 4) bank 5) burned 6) bubble 7) billion
8) bar (pressure) 9) radius of investigation
B/ 1) base 2) bottom of
BA barrels of acid
babbit 1) a material that is similar to lead. Babbit is
melted in a babbit ladle and poured into a rope socket.
The babbit solidifies and holds the sand line in the
rope socket which is used to attach tools. 2) a pot
with a long handle that is used to melt babbit {babbit
ladle) see Babbit metal
babbit ladle a pot with a long handle that is used
to melt babbit (babbit)
Babbit metal a soft, white metal alloy usually made
of tin, copper, and antimony that is used in friction
bearings Babbit metal is named after Isaac Babbit who
discovered it. (babbit)
baby driller an inexperienced driller
back the side of the drilling rig facing away from
the V-door
back-arc basin a basin located between an island
arc and a continent. Back-arc basins characteristically
contain volcanic sediments and are in contrast to forearc, trench, intra-arc, and retro-arc basins.
back band the brake band on a bull wheel drum
of a cable-tool rig
back brake the brake used on the sand-reel hoist
of a cable-tool drilling rig
backfill to replace soil dug from a ditch
backflow fluid flow opposite the normal flow
direction. Backflow is used in a well to remove or
return treatment fluid from a well and to clean
perforations.
background the noise that is not part of the signal,
such as a seismic reflection event
background gas natural gas in the returning,
circulating drilling mud. Background gas is the gas
that is detected by mud logging when drilling through
a homogeneous lithology. Background gas is in
contrast to zero gas and a gas show.
back-in farmout or back-in farm out a type of
farmout agreement in which the grantor who has a
retained nonoperating interest in the earning well

can convert it at a later date into a specified undivided

working interest
back-in interest a carried share in a well that
converts to a regular working interest at a specific
time, such as payout. The interest of a farmor in a
farmout agreement or assignor (the party that turns
over their interest) of a lease reverts to a specific
share of the working interest for the farmor or assignor
after the farmee or assignee (the party that receives
the interest in the lease) has recovered specified costs,
such as drilling and completion costs from production.
(back-in right)
back-in option an agreement between two parties
with working interests in a well. If one party elects
to not participate in the drilling of the well, the other
party can drill the well and recover a predetermined
amount of revenue from the production. The first
party can then back in and share proportionally the
working interest in the well. The carried party bears
no costs until back in.
back-in provision a farmout agreement provision
in which the farmor has the option of exchanging a
retained override for a portion of the working interest
back-in right see back-in interest
back-in unit a self-propelled workover rig that is
mounted on wheels. The cab and mast are mounted
on opposite ends so that it is backed up to the well.
A back-in unit is in contrast to a drive-in unit.
backlash the turning of the rotary table on a drilling
rig after the power has been shut off. Backlash is
due to the torque on the drillstring.
backlimb the shortest limb on an asymmetrical fold
in sedimentary rocks. The other limb is called the
forelimb.
back load to reload supplies from an offshore rig
or platform to a supply boat
back off 1) to unscrew a pipe coupling 2) to unscrew
stuck pipe in a well. This is done by locating the
free point. A left-handed torque is then placed on
the assembly, and a string shot is used to break and
remove the free section. The stuck pipe then can be
pulled with a fishing operation using a washover tool.
In a blind back-off, the joints are all tightened with
right-handed torque under tension or overpull. Slow
left-handed torque applied by the pipe tongs with
the swivel disconnected is then applied with overpull.
After one turn, the overpull is increased and the
assembly should unscrew near the free point. If the
stuck pipe cannot be fished, the well is plugged back
and sidetracked. 3) to raise the drill bit a short distance
off the bottom of the hole 4) to slack off on a line
5) to let drilling line out of the drawworks
back-off joint a section of pipe that has conventional
right-hand threads on one end and left-hand threads
on the other
back-off shot see string shot
back-off wheel a manual wrench in the shape of a

backpressure backup wrench

wheel that is used to break out a sucker-rod string
when it is pulled from a well (circle wrench or wheeltype back-off wrench)
backpressure 1) pressure against the face of the
reservoir rock (sand face) in the wellbore.
Backpressure is the pressure in a wellbore against
which the fluid is flowing out of the reservoir and
into the well. It is usually controlled from the surface
with the use of chokes and valves and other techniques
to reduce the pressure differential between the
reservoir and the wellbore. This reduces the rate of
flow from the reservoir to the wellbore. It also reduces
the gas flow and the gas/oil ratio and will result in
higher ultimate oil recovery. Backpressure is often
measured in pounds per square inch absolute (psia)
at the surface and added to the weight of a column
of fluid in the well. 2) the pressure maintained on a
system through which a fluid flows 3) the resistance
of exhaust gas to flow through an engine's exhaust
pipe 4) the pressure at the outlet of a pressure relief
system that is due to pressure in the discharge system.
B.P. or BP
backpressure equation An empirical relationship
between rate and flowing pressure in a normal singlephase gas well. It is Q = C (Ps2-Pu/T where Q is
the flow rate in standard volumes per day, C is a
coefficient, Ps is the static reservoir pressure, Puy is
the stabilized flowing bottomhole pressure, and n is
the reciprocal of the mathematic slope which is equal
to 0.5 for turbulent flow and 1.0 for laminar flow.
backpressure regulator a valve that is operated by
a diaphragm to maintain a constant upstream pressure
while allowing fluid flow
10,000 -

1000-

100

10
FLOW RATE

100
MMSCFD

backpressure test

backpressure test a test to measure a gas well's

deliverability. The static formation pressure (Ps) when
the well is shut in and the flowing bottomhole
pressures (Puj) at several different flow rates are
measured. Ap is plotted on log-log paper versus Q
where Ap = Ps2 Pufand Q = the flow rate in
MMSCF/d. Ps = static bottomhole pressure in pounds
per square inch absolute (psia) and Puf = flowing
bottomhole pressure in psia. A plot yields a straight
line which is the well's stabilized deliverability. The
test can be used to calculate a) the maximum flow
rate, b) the effects of different size production strings
on the flow rate, c) the effect of surface backpressure
on flow and d) the flow rate at different static pressures.
backpressure valve 1) a check valve that controls
fluid flow rates to maintain a predetermined, constant
pressure upstream from the valve. Three types of back

29

pressure valves are diaphragm, spring and weighted

lever. The most common type uses spring tension
and pressure against a plunger to maintain the
pressure. 2) a check valve that is used in the drillstring
to allow drilling fluids to be pumped down the well
but to prevent fluids from flowing up the inside of
the drillstring (drillstringfloat or drillstringfloat valve)
backside pumping a method in which a prime
mover pumps two wells at the same time with the
upstroke of one well being balanced by the
downstroke of the other well
backsurge tool a downhole tool that is used to clean
perforations. The backsurge tool consists of a treating
packer and an atmospheric air chamber with two valves
above and below the chamber. It is lowered into the
well with atmospheric pressure in the chamber. The
lower shock valve is opened to create the backsurge
in the well.
back surging a process used in wells to clear out
material clogging perforations in the casing. A
backsurging tool is used to create a sudden reduction
in pressure in the well to atmospheric pressure. This
causes a sudden flow of fluids through the perforations
into the well to clean out the perforations.
backswamp a swampy or marshy area on the
floodplains on a river located adjacent to the river
levees. The backswamp is covered with slow-moving
or stagnant water during floods and is the site of
fine-grained organic deposition. Occasional crevasse
splays can deposit coarse sediments in this
environment, (overbank)
backtank see mud box
back twist a turn by a wrench on the drilling line
of a cable-tool rig in a direction opposite the line
lay or winding. It unwinds the line that tends to twist
in the direction of the lay.
back up or backup 1) to hold a section of pipe as
another section of pipe is either screwed on or off
it 2) to hold a bolt as a nut is screwed on or off it
backup corner the location on a drill floor that is
given to a new hand (boll-weevil corner)
backup curve a curve in a track on a well log that
measures the same parameter as another curve in
the same track called the primary curve. The backup
curve has smaller scale and does not print until the
primary curve goes off scale.
backup line the wireline that suspends the tongs
on a drilling rig
backup man a roughneck on a drilling rig who uses
backup tongs to hold the pipe as another length of
pipe is being screwed into or out of it
backup post the Samson post on the floor of a
drilling rig to which the snub line of the backup tongs
is attached
backup or back-up tongs a large wrench-like
device used on the floor of a drilling rig to hold the
drillpipe as it is being made up or broken out of
the drillstring. The backup tongs are held stationary
by a chain or rope. The torque tongs are pulled by
a rope or chain around a cat head.
backup wrench a wrench or gripping device that
holds a pipe or bolt from turning as something is
screwed into or out of it

30

backwash bailout bittlee

backwash to reverse the flow of a fluid through a

filter to clean the filter
bacteria unicellular microscopic organisms that have
no chlorophyll and multiply by simple division.
Bacteria can be classified into aerobic bacteria which
use oxygen from the air or water and anaerobic
bacteria which breakdown chemical compounds to
obtain oxygen. They occur in three forms: spherical
(cocci), rod-shaped (baccilli), and spiral (spirilla).
Bacteria have existed from the Precambrian era to
the present.
bacterial degradation removal of lighter, shorter
molecules from crude oil by bacterial action leaving
heavy oil, tar, and asphalt that is usually sour. Bacteria
remove the isoparaffins from crude oil first, depressing
the pour point of the oil. Most heavy oil is bacterially
degraded oil.
bactericide a chemical or agent that will kill both
pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria but may not
kill bacterial spores. Bactericides used in drilling mud
are lime, starch, sodium hydroxide, and
paraformaldehyde. (biocide)
bacteriostat a chemical or agent that prevents
bacterial growth
BACW barrels of acid water
bad-faith trespasser an operator who drills and
produces petroleum from land on which he does
not have legal title
bad oil 1) oil that has too high a basic sediment
and water (BS&W) content to be accepted by a pipeline
2) an emulsion or mixture of oil and water (cut oil)
BAF barrels per acre-foot
baffle plates that are used in a separator to redirect
the fluid flow direction, decrease the fluid velocity,
and aid in separating the gas, oil, and water
baffle collar a small length of steel pipe with a
constricted orifice on the inside. A baffle collar is
used to connect two joints of casing during a cement
job. The wiper plug seats on the baffle collar when
it is pumped down the pipe. The baffle collar orifice
does not have a valve, in contrast to float, differential,
or automatic fill-up collars.
baffle plate a board across a fluid stream that is used
to slow the velocity, change the flow direction, and
to promote the mixing or separation of fluids
bafflestone a limestone rock composed of stalkshaped organisms such as bryozoans or coralline algae
that acted as baffles for water flow when the rock
was deposited
bag preventer a closing device at the top of the
well above the ram preventers on a blowout preventer
stack that will close the well with either a kelly, pipe,
wireline in the well, or with an open wellbore. The
bag preventer uses a reinforced oval-shaped elastomer
or hard-rubber packing element that is squeezed with
a piston activated by hydraulic pressure from
accumulators to close the well. The closing pressure
on the rubber seal can be eased to allow drillpipe
to be removed in a process called stripping. The bag
preventer has a lower pressure rating than the pipe
rams and a higher risk of failure under high pressure.
(annular, sleeve or spherical blowout preventer)
BAIL bailing

bail 1) to lower the fluid level in a well 2) to use a

bailer or sand pump to remove fluids and well cuttings
from the bottom of a well 3) a hanger-like device
that is made of an inverted U-shaped, solid cylindrical
steel bar that is suspended from the ears of a traveling
block on a drilling rig. The elevators hang from the
other end of the bail. It is designed to provide working
distance between the traveling block and the elevators
that are used to grip and lift or lower tubular goods
in the well, (links) 4) the eye on a downhole tool
through which the wireline loops
bail down to lower the level of a liquid in a well
by using a bailer
bailer 1) a tool that is run on a bailing or sand line
that is used to remove fluids and sediments from a
well. The bailer is a long tube with holes near the
top and a sealed body. The flapper-valve bailer has
a hinged metal plate on the bottom that allows
sediments to pass up into the bailer but closes when
the bailer is raised. A dart-bottom bailer has a check
valve on the bottom. The fluids enter the bailer through
the ports near the top or through the check valve. A
dump bailer can deposit the fluids at a specific location
in the well and is used to dump cement on a bridge
plug. The sand pump has a check valve on the bottom
with a piston just above it that is attached to a rod
that runs up the bailer. When the piston is pulled
up from the bottom of the well, it acts as a plunger,
sucking sand and fluid into the bailer. A hydrostatic
bailer is lowered to the bottom of a well with
atmospheric pressure in a chamber. On the bottom,
a port is opened and fill material is swept into the
tool and trapped, (bailing bucket) blr 2) see baler
bailer crown-block a pulley on the crown block
that is used to raise and lower the bailer
bailer dart the protrusion on the bottom of a bailer
that activates the valve when the bailer is lowered to
the bottom of the well
bailing 1) the process of using a bailer that is lowered
on a bailing or sand line to remove well cuttings
and fluids from the bottom of the well. Bailing is
done after drilling every few feet on a cable tool rig.
BAIL 2) see baling

bailing bucket see bailer

bailing drum 1) the reel on a cable-tool rig around
which the bailing line is wound 2) see baling drum
bailing line the cable that is used to lower a bailer
to the bottom of a cable-tool-rig well during bailing.
The line is wound around a bailing drum, goes up
to sheave at the top of the derrick, and down into
the well where it is connected to the bailer, (sand
line)
bailing tub a tank that is used to recover the
produced fluids brought up a well by a bailer
bail out to clean out
bailout zone a potential producing formation in a
well being drilled that is higher than the target to
which the well is being drilled. If the target is
unproductive, the well can be completed in the bailout
zone which does not have the potential production
of the target.
bailout bottle a container of emergency breathing
gas that is carried by a diver in case the umbilical
hose breaks

bajada balled or balled-up bit

bajada see debris apron
Bajocian a global age of geological time that
occurred from about 175-170 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Middle Jurassic epoch.
balanced a condition during production from a gas
well in which the cumulative gas take of each party
is equal to the amount that each party is entitled to
under an operating agreement. Balanced is in contrast
to inbalanced.
balanced drilling drilling with the hydrostatic head
generated by the drilling mud in the well equal to
the formation pressure. Balanced drilling is in contrast
to overbalanced and underbalanced drilling.
balanced-column cementing a method used to
deliver a batch of cement into a well by lowering a
drillstring filled with cement slurry into the well filled
with drilling mud. A valve is then opened on the
drillstring and the cement slurry, being heavier than
the drilling mild, flows out of the drillstring and into
the well.
balanced cross section a cross section that reverses
the geological history. The balanced cross section
assumes an original, finite volume of flat sedimentary
rock beds before deformation. The present bed
volumes are measured and the assumption is made
that no volumes have been gained or lost from the
cross section. The beds are then diagrammatically
restored to their original thickness and orientation
to test the structural history of the area. A balanced
cross section is one that can be restored to represent
an undeformed condition, assuming no materials have
been moved in or out of the area represented by
the cross section and the cross section displays
admissible structures.
balanced-plug method a method for plugging back
a well with cement using only drillpipe. A preflush
followed by a cement slurry and spacer fluid is pumped
down the drillstring. When the height of the cement
column inside the drillpipe and the annulus reach
the same level, the drillpipe is slowly pulled out of
the well to leave a balanced plug. The top of the
plug can be adjusted to a certain height by reverse
circulation.
balanced turn a section of a deviated well in which
the hole is turned in equal amounts to the right and
left
balancing the adjustment of production from a well,
lease, or reservoir so that each party that has an interest
in the production gets their proportionate share.
Balancing can be done by transferring either cash
or petroleum.
bald-headed anticline or structure an anticline
which is barren of production on the crest of the
anticline due to the removal of reservoir rocks by
erosion. Production comes from the flanks of the
structure, (scalped structure)
bald-headed derrick a derrick on a drilling rig
without a platform or attic at the top
baler a long cylinder made of light steel iron that
is up to 50 ft long and over 1 ft in diameter with a
valve on the lower end. Balers were used to raise
oil to the surface in some early oil wells. Jointed balers
were used in crooked wells, (bailer)
baling an old method used to raise oil to the surface

31

bald-headed anticline

from a well. A baler was lowered from a baling drum

into the well on a rope constructed of fine steel wire.
The oil and baler were then raised to the surface
and the oil was emptied into a baling tub. The baling
tub was a wooden tank about 6 ft in diameter and
height. From the baling tub, the oil flowed to the
settling tanks, (bailing)
baling drum a light reel up to 18 in. in diameter
that was attached to a derrick and driven by a belt
from a motor. It was used to raise and lower a baler
on a rope made of fine steel wire into a well to bring
the oil to the surface, (bailing drum)
ball the link that connects the hook and swivel on
a drilling rig. The ball supports the weight of the
hook and drillstring below it while allowing them
to turn.
ball-and-seat valve a type of valve that uses a
polished metal sphere and an orifice to allow fluid
flow in only one direction. Ball-and-seat valves are
used in sucker-rod pumps.
ballast the weight used by ships and offshore drilling
rigs near the bottom of their hulls to make them
seaworthy and keep them upright. The ballast can
be steel, but is often seawater on an offshore rig.
Computers can be used to adjust the seawater ballast
in tanks on an offshore rig to compensate for sea
conditions and to sink or raise a semisubmersible
to a certain level above sea level. The seawater ballast
can also be used to sink the rig into position on the
seafloor and to raise it back to the surface. On a gravity
structure, it keeps the offshore platform in position.
ballasted condition the condition on an offshore
drilling rig when ballast is in position
ballast tank a container for water ballast located in
the pontoon or caisson of a semisubmersible drilling
rig. Water ballast is used for stability and to raise
and lower the semisubmersible in the water.
(buoyancy chamber)
ball bearing a hardened-steel ball that is used to
convert sliding friction into rolling friction. Ball
bearings often rotate in a ball race.
ball cock a hollow, floating ball that is connected
to and opens and closes a valve. A ball cock is used
to control the fluid level in a container.
balled or balled-up bit a drilling bit that has
collected a mass of sticky well cuttings on its face,
causing the bit to lose drilling effectiveness. BU bit

32

balling the bit barefoot completion

balling the bit the coating of the bit face with soft
sediments. Balling the bit often occurs when using a
hard-formation bit with short teeth on a soft formation.
It can also occur when drilling through soft, sticky
formations called gumbo during inadequate drillingfluid circulation or when using excessive bit weight.
The bit becomes hard to rotate, (bit balling or ball
up)
ballistic prover an instrument used to test and
calibrate liquid flowmeters. A ballistic prover is similar
to a mechanical displacement prover but uses a smaller
volume of liquid and compares flow rates rather than
fluid volume. The flow from the main line is diverted
through the prover that contains a sphere or piston
displacer. Line pressure forces the displacer through
the prover.
ball joint a connection between two pieces of
equipment that can rotate due to a ball and socket
joint (flex joint)
ballooning the outward bulging of tubulars in a well
due to internal pressure. Reverse ballooning occurs
when the tubular is bent inward rather than outward
in normal ballooning.
ball pump a type of gas lift system in which synthetic
rubber balls are injected into the lower end of the
production tubing string to separate the liquid and
gas phases
ball race the track in which ball bearings turn
ball sealers hard, rubber-covered balls of nylon,
aluminum, or plastic that are used to close perforations
in a well. The ball sealer is at least lA in. larger in
diameter than the perforation.
ball up see balling the bit
ball valve a valve that opens with a quarter turn by
rotating a ball with a hole in it that is located in a
spherical container. The ball is usually made of chrome
steel but can be made of stainless steel for a corrosive
environment. The ball seats are made of plastic or
nylon and can be stainless steel for high temperatures
and corrosive environments. A ball valve is used to
regulate and shut off the flow of fluids in a pipe.
(globe valve)
band a specific range of frequencies or wavelengths.
An example of a band is visible light.
band brake a mechanical device that is used to slow
or stop a wheel or axle with either an external
contracting band or an internal expanding band lined
with heat- and friction-resistant material. Friction of
the band against a drum causes the breaking.
band clutch a mechanical coupling device that
allows a rotating part to gradually connect and
disconnect with a driven part by using either an
internal contracting band or an internal expanding
band lined with heat- and friction-resistant material
band pass the range of frequencies that can pass
through an instrument or system with little or no
attenuation
band-reject filter a filter that attenuates a specific
range of frequencies
band strapping the use of metal bands to attach
plastic or metal sheets to cylindrical structures
band wheel a large, vertical, wooden wheel, 9-11
ft in diameter, on a cable-tool rig. It is used to transmit

band
wheel

band wheel (off cable tool drilling rig chart)

power from the engine to the walking beam. The

band wheel is attached to the engine by a belt and
to the walking beam by the pitman which is attached
to the band-wheel crank.
bandwidth the specific range of frequencies within
which an instrument is designed to operate
bank 1) long ridge or mound of sediments formed
by currents or waves 2) a concentration of fluid such
as oil (oil bank) that moves cohesively through a
reservoir
BAR barrels of acid residue
bar 1) barite 2) barrel
bar 1) a general term for a long ridge of sand formed
by waves or currents and oriented roughly parallel
to the shoreline 2) a unit of pressure that is
105N/m2, 106dyne/cm2 or about 1 atm (14.5 psi). The
System International (SI) unit of pressure is the pascal,
equal to 10~5 bar. 3) to move or turn something by
using a bar for a lever

barchan

harchan dune a type of sand dune deposited by

the wind in a desert environment. A barchan has a
crescent shape with the horns and slip face both facing
downwind.
barefoot charter a type of contract between an
operator and an offshore drilling contractor. The party
agrees to maintain and operate the offshore rig with
their own personnel, without any help from the
drilling contractor.
barefoot completion a type of well completion in
which the well is drilled to the top of the producing

bar finger sand Bartonian

formation and casing is cemented. The producing
formation is then drilled. A barefoot completion is
used primarily with hard producing formations such
as sandstones, limestones, and dolomites. In relatively
unconsolidated producing sands, there is a sand
control problem, and an openhole gravel pack is often
used, (openbole completion)

bar finger sand

bar finger sand a long, narrow sand body deposited

as a distributary mouth bar on a prograding,
constructive delta. A bar finger sand is generally
oriented perpendicular to the shoreline.
barge a shallow-draft vessel with a flat deck that is
usually towed. Barge types include drilling, workover,
derrick, lay, bury, ramp, tow, jackup, flotation, and
crane barges.
barge captain the person in charge of a floating
drilling unit, such as a semisubmersible and its crew
barge engineer the person in charge of the
equipment on a floating drilling unit such as a
semisubmersible
barge job a drilling or workover rig mounted on a
barge
bargemaster the legal master of a floating drilling
rig. The bargemaster is in charge of the marine
department on the rig and is responsible for the crew,
the stability and ballasting of the vessel, and
supervision of the loading and backloading. On a
British rig, the bargemaster can be the Offshore
Installation Manager.
barite a mineral composed of BaSO4 that occurs as
white, grayish, greenish, and reddish ores and
crystalline masses. Barite is chemically inert,
nonabrasive, and is used as a weighting material in
cement slurries and drilling mud. It has a specific
gravity of 4-4.6. (baryte or heavy spar) bar
barite plug a slurry that is composed of barite, a
phosphate thinner, and water. A barite plug is used
to control an underground blowout in which a well
is kicking and losing circulation at the same time.
barium sulfate a type of scale composed of BaSO4
(barite) that forms in tubular production equipment
and is hard to remove. It is also the mineral barite.
barker a device on the exhaust pipe of an engine
that makes noise so that the pumper can tell from a
distance if the engine is running
barn a unit of area used for capture cross section
equal to 10~24 cm2
Barnaby a downhole scintillometer that measures
radioactivity and records it on the surface
barnburner a super well
baroid barite and Aquagel that is used to condition
drilling mud for coring operations

33

barometric pressure the pressure exerted by the

weight of the column of air in the atmosphere.
Barometric pressure is 14.6959 psi, 1.01325 bar, 33.90
ft of fresh water, or 760 mm of mercury at sea level
and decreases with altitude, (atmospheric pressure)
barred basin a basin with a sill at the entrance that
restricts water flow into the basin. The sill can be
formed by a reef or tectonic block. Only shallow waters
can flow over the sill. The waters in a barred basin
are often restricted and stratified.
barrel 1) a common measure of crude oil containing
42 U. S. gal, 34.97 Imperial gal, 15,915.615 ft3 or 0.15899
m3. A metric ton contains about 7.33 bbl, depending
on the "API of the oil. A barrel of average crude oil
weighs 0.14 tonnes (metric tons), whereas a barrel
of average light oil weighs 0.13 tonnes, and average
heavy oil weighs 0.15 tonnes. One barrel of oil contains
about 5.60 million BTUs of heat and weighs about
306 lbs. The BTU content of one barrel of oil is the
equivalent of about 6,040 ft3of natural gas. Bbl, bbl,
bar, brl or B 2) the body of a wire rope drum 3) a
measure of cement slurry volume that is equal to 42
gal 4) the cylindrical part of a downhole sucker-rod
pump in which the piston moves up and down
barrel compressor a centrifugal compressor in a
barrel-shaped housing
barrel equivalent a unit used in the laboratory to
test drilling fluids. One gram of material mixed with
350 ml of fluid is equivalent to 1 lb of material mixed
with 1 bbl of fluid.
barrel royalty a payment equal to a specific
percentage plus a revenue equivalent up to a specific
number of barrels of oil
barrel wrench a hand wrench that is used to screw
or unscrew pump valve seats in the working barrel
of a downhole pump (seat wrench)
Barremian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 125-115 m, y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Cretaceous epoch.
barrier beach or island a long, narrow, partially
subaerial, shoreline sand body not attached to the
land on either end and separated from the mainland
by a lagoon
barrier effect the use of an acid-in-oil emulsion to
retard the reaction time of an acid used in acidizing.
The oil forms a film on the rock surface to limit acid
contact. The oil must be at least 20% of the emulsion.
barrier reef a relatively large, long, narrow reef that
is oriented parallel to the shoreline. The barrier reef
is separated from the shoreline by a wide and deep
lagoon.
miles

bar scale a graphic scale in the shape of a long,

graduated rectangle that is used to show horizontal
distances on a map
Bartonian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 45-41 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle
Eocene epoch.

34

baryte basin

baryte see barite

Bas or bas basalt
basal conglomerate a coarse-grained soil zone
located on an unconformity. Weathered rocks in the
basal conglomerate are derived primarily from erosion
of the underlying rock.
basalt a common volcanic or lava rock. Basalt is very
fine-grained (aphanitic), dense, and dark to mediumgray in color. Basalt contains ferromagnesium
minerals, plagioclase, and feldspars, but no quartz
and has a matrix density of 2.82 gm/cc. Gas bubbles
are often trapped in the basalt. Bas, bas or BASLT
basal tar mat a reservoir bitumen composed of heavy
oil and asphaltic tar layer at the oil/water interface
of a reservoir. The basal tar mat is caused by water
washing and bacterial degradation of the oil or by
de-asphalting.
base basement
base a chemical that reacts with an acid to form a
salt. Bases occur from above 7 to 14 on the pH scale.
Examples of bases include lime and caustic soda.
base abstract a complete title opinion that covers
from sovereignty to a specific time
base allowable the amount of petroleum production
permitted by a governmental regulatory agency
without a penalty factor
BASEC British Approval Service for Electric Cables
BASEEFA British Approval Service for Electrical
Equipment in Flammable Atmospheres
base eighth the Vs royalty that goes to the lessor
(mineral rights owner) for leasing the land
base exchange the replacement of one type of cation
such as sodium on the surface of a clay mineral with
another cation such as calcium, see ion exchange
base line 1) a surveyed line of accurately determined
length and position. It extends out from a control
point to another point. Angles between the ends of
the base line and other points are then measured to
accurately locate the points 2) an accurately surveyed
east-west line used in United States and Canada land
divisions. The base line is the line from which township
boundaries are initiated. The principal meridian is
the north-south line.
baseline an arbitrary line that marks the inner
boundary of a country's continental shelf. Baseline
is often the low-water mark.
base load the lowest load level during a daily or
annual cycle
base load liquefaction plant an installation that
uses compression and supercold (260F) to
continuously make liquified natural gas, primarily for
overseas transport. The plant makes extensive use of
heat exchangers and compressors.
base map a map that shows the accurate location
of data points such as wells or seismic shot points
along with geographic or survey references. A base
map is often made of transparent material such as
film and is a map from which other maps are prepared.
basement or basement rocks undifferentiated
rocks such as igneous and/or metamorphic rocks that
are unproductive and are located below the sediment
cover of earth's surface. The basement can be the

surface below which there is no current exploration.

base, bsmt, BM, Btn, or BSMT

base metal a common, chemically active metal such

as lead or copper. A base metal occurs at the lower
end of the electrochemical series.
base-mounted reciprocating compressor a
compressor that uses pistons to compress air and is
mounted on a base rather than a tank
base of weathering the boundary during seismic
exploration between the surface low-velocity layer or
weathering and the underlying higher velocity layer
base pressure the pressure at which gas volumes
are calculated or a standard volume of gas exists. Base
pressure is usually at or near atmospheric pressure
(14.7 psi) and is defined by law or contract.
base price the crude oil price used for the
computation of windfall profits tax. Base price is
adjusted for oil grade, quality, and location. Tier 2
oil had a national average of $1520 per bbl. Tier 3
oil had a national average of $16.55 per bbl. The price
for Tier 1 oil was based on the price at which upper
tier oil from properties that first began production
after 1972 would have been sold for in May 1979. It
averaged $12.81/bbl. The adjusted base price was
adjusted quarterly for inflation.
base royalty the payments made by a lessor (mineral
rights owner) on production revenue from a lease.
A base royalty is free of the cost of production.
base sediment and water see basic sediment and
water.
base square the distance between the neutral axis
of adjacent derrick legs on a drilling rig. Base square
is measured along the derrick floor from inside the
derrick legs at a distance of one-fourth the leg angle
width.
Bashkirian a global age of geological time that
started about 330 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle
Carboniferous epoch.
basicity the relative strength of a liquid with a pH
above 7. Basicity is a measure of the liquid's ability
to neutralize an acid.
basic sediment solid impurities contained in oil
produced from an oil well. Basic sediments are usually
removed by settling to the bottom of the lease tank
before the oil is sold.
basic sediment and water solid impurities and salt
water that are mixed with crude oil. Most of the salt
water is removed in a separator, and the sediments
are removed by settling to the bottom of the lease
tank after the crude oil is produced from a well. The
pumper or gauger measures the remaining basic
sediment and water content of the oil before it is
taken from the lease tanks. It is measured by volume
on a centrifuged sample of the oil. The maximum
acceptable amounts vary from less than 5% to a small
fraction of 1%, but are usually less than 1% in most
areas, {base sediment and water or bottom settlings
and water)
basic size the nominal standard
basic sludge basic sediment
basin a general term for any large area of tectonic
origin with a thick accumulation of sedimentary rocks.

basin-floor fan
BASIN (10-50,000')

basin

A basin is a geological structure with a unique

sequence of rocks that are dissimilar to those outside
the basin. Because of the thick sedimentary rocks
which range up to 50,000 ft thick, these areas tend
to have significant petroleum accumulations. There
are approximately 600 sedimentary rock basins in the
world, (sedimentary basin)
basin-floor fan a submarine fan deposited on the
lower slope or basin floor of a basin. A basin-floor
fan is part of a lowstand system tract that is defined
by seismic or sequence stratigraphy.
basket 1) a junk basket or basket sub fishing tool
2) a platform or cage that is suspended from a crane
and is used to lift or lower personnel and supplies
between a supply boat and an offshore platform 3) a
cementing basket 4) the shale shaker receptical that
holds the deck with screens mounted on it
basket bit a drill bit with a basket located above
the bit to catch samples
basket sub a short section of pipe that is run just
above a bit or mill on a drillstring and is designed
to catch large junk fragments in an outer bowl. Eddy
currents in the circulating drilling mud cause the
fragments to fall into the bowl. Basket subs are always
run with mills and whenever metal or cement is
drilled. As many as three basket subs can be run on
a string. A basket sub is in contrast to a junk basket
that uses reverse circulation and catches the fish on
the inside of the tool, (boot basket or sub or junk
sub)
BASLT basalt
bastard a piece of equipment that is not standard.
A bastard has an irregular shape or size.
BAT before acid treatment
bat battery
batch 1) a specific quantity of material that is made
or used in one operation during a process 2) a measure
of the amount of crude oil in a pipeline
batch cementing a cement job on a well in which
the cement is injected in several batches or quantities
rather than continuously
batch mixer a mechanical blender that is used to
mix cement. A quantity of dry cement and water is
mixed in a tank with blades and the rotation of the
tank. Two types include pneumatic and ribbon
blenders. The batch mixer is in contrast to a jet mixer.
batch process a chemical procedure in which the
substance to be treated is put through the process
in specific quantities after which the reactant is
discarded or regenerated. Iron sponge sweetening

BCPMM

35

of natural gas is a batch process. A batch process is

in contrast to a continuous process.
batch treatment the injection of chemical corrosion
inhibitors at regular intervals into a production system
bathayal the ocean environment located between
100-500 fath water depth
batholith a large, irregular, subsurface intrusion of
igneous rocks such as granite or granodiorite
Bathonian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 170-165 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Middle Jurassic epoch.
bathymetric map a map that shows the depths of
the seafloor, usually with contours
batter the outward slope on the legs of an offshore
platform jacket. The slope gives the base of the jacket
a greater area than the deck and makes the platform
more stable.
battery 1) any installation of identical pieces of
equipment such as a tank or separator battery 2) a
device composed of cells that is used to produce and
store electrical energy by chemical action bat or bty
baud a measure of the ability of a channel to transmit
information. A baud is equal to 1 bit/sec.
Baume gravity or scale a European scale of fluid
density in which Baume gravity is equal to (140' +
the specific gravity or density of a fluid at 60F)
- 130. It was read off a Baum6 hydrometer, a glass
column with graduations from 10 to 1,000, in crude
oil at 60F, or was corrected to that temperature. The
scale was named after Antione Baum6, a French
chemist. Baume gravity is also used to describe the
density of acid solutions. Baume gravity has now been
superceded by API. Be
BAW barrels of acid water
bay the space between girts on the legs of a derrick.
The bays on a drilling rig derrick have a vertical height
of 7 ft. (panel)
BAYW bay water
BB bridged back

Bbl or bbl barrel

Bbls/acre-foot barrels per acre-foot
bbl/d barrels per day
bbl/MMscf barrels per million standard cubic feet
of gas
BBRKW barrels of brackish water
BC 1) barrels of condensate 2) bottom choke
Be bearden unit of consistency
BCD barrels per calendar day
BCF, Bcf, or bef billion cubic feet
BCFD, BCF/D, or Bctfd billion cubic feet per day
BCK bottom choke
bem 1) become 2) becoming
BCMCF barrels of condensate per thousand cubic
feet
BCOND barrels of condensate
BCPD barrels of condensate per day
BCPH barrels of condensate per hour
BCPMM barrels of condensate per million cubic feet

36

BCS beam pumping unit

BCS borehole compensated sonic

BD 1) barrels of distillate 2) bedded 3) building
derrick
Bd or bd 1) bed 2) bedding
B.D. barrels daily
B/D or b/d barrels per day
BDA breakdown acid
BDC bottom dead center
Bdeye bird's eye
BDF below derrick floor
Bdg bedding
BDIAM bit diameter
BDO barrels of diesel oil
BDP breakdown pressure
BDPD barrels of distillate per day
BDPH barrels of distillate per hour
BDPPD barrels per day per pound of pressure drop
B/dry bailed dry
Bdst boundstone
BDT blowdown test
Be Baume
beach price the price of offshore crude oil on land
after it has been treated offshore
bead the molten metal formed by welding
beaker sampler a metal or glass bottle that is
lowered into a tank to take an oil sample
beam 1) the maximum width of a ship's hull or
offshore drilling rig (breadth) 2) A walking beam on
a sucker-rod pumper or cable-tool rig 3) a focused
pulse of energy

beam head the end of the walking beam on a

pumping well where the sucker rods are attached
beam pumper beam pumping unit
beam pumping unit artificial lift equipment that
uses a walking beam to raise and lower a suckerrod string in the well to activate a reciprocating pistonplunger pump to lift the oil. The five major parts of
the beam pumping unit the are a) structural members,
b) bearings, c) counterbalance, d) gear or speed
reducer, and e) prime mover. The walking beam pivots
up and down on a center bearing supported by the
Samson post to provide a reciprocating action with

crank counterbalanced

air balance

beam-balanced pumping unit

beam-balanced pumper, pumpjack, or pumping

unit a pumping unit that uses the walking beam to
balance the weight of the sucker-rod string. Heavy
iron plates (counterweights or beam counterbalance)
are located on the opposite side of the walking beam
from the sucker rods. The location of the weights
on the beam is adjustable. The beam balanced pumper
is used primarily on shallow wells and is in contrast
to a crank- or air-balanced pumper.
beam counterbalance the weights on a walking
beam on a beam pumping unit. Their positions are
adjustable on the opposite side of the walking beam
from the sucker rods. The counterbalance is used to
offset the weight of the sucker-rod string.
(counterweights)

Mark II
beam pumping units (crank and air balanced and Mark II)

beam well bellows-type gas or orifice meter

a stroke from 12 to over 240 in. for the downhole
pump. The walking beam is connected to the gear
reducer and prime mover with the two pitmen and
an equalizer. The prime mover is either an electric
or internal combustion motor. The sucker-rod string
and polished rod are attached to the horsehead end
of the walking beam with a bridal and carrier bar.
Three common types of beam pumping units include
crank counterbalanced, beam balanced, and air
balance. A Class I lever pumping system has the speed
reducer rear mounted and the fulcrum at midbeam.
A Class III lever pumping system has the speed reducer
front mounted and the fulcrum at the rear of the
beam. The air balance and Lufkin Mark II are this
type. A beam-balanced pumping unit uses adjustable
weights on the walking bean to balance the load and
is used for shallow wells. The pumping unit weights
between 2,000-6,000 lbs. Beam pumping units are
classified by the American Petroleum Institute by gear
reducer torque capacity, unit structural capacity, and
maximum stroke length, (walking or rocking beam
pump unit)
beam well an oil well with a walking beam on the
pumping unit
bean a constriction in a line (usually '/64-1 in.
diameter) used to restrict and control the rate of flow
during a test or during production. Beans can be fixed
or adjustable. Adjustable beans use a needle, sleeve,
or cone-shaped stem with a seat to change the size
of the orifice. A positive or fixed bean has a specific
diameter. Some types of beans include bottomhole,
surface, and storm chokes. Production of oil or gas
is often reported in barrels or cubic feet on a certain
sized bean, (choke, flow-plug, or flow nipple) BN
bean a well back, down to or up to regulate the
flow from a well with a choke
bear cat a well with a high flow rate
bear gun a tool used to fracture a reservoir in a
well. The bear gun fires a IV2 in. diameter projectile
downward through the tool barrel where it is deflected
horizontally to fracture the formation.
beating 1) the horizontal direction of a point
measured clockwise from another point. If it is
measured from true or magnetic north, it is called
the azimuth 2) a surface or point that is used for
support 3) a part on which another part travels or
turns, such as a ball bearing or roller. Types of bearings
include outboard, saddle, and stirrup. The bearings
that travel about the journal on the leg of the rollercone bit, allowing the cone to rotate, are either
antifriction or friction bearings. They are also classified
as sealed and nonsealed.
bearing cap the fitting around a bearing that holds
it in place
bearing raceway the surface of the bearing ring that
is in contact with the balls or rollers
bearing ring the rotating or stationary ring that
contains the balls or rollers that travel or turn on
the bearing surface in the ring
beat the wells checked by a pumper
Beaufort scale a scale based on numbers from 0
to 17 that indicates the wind speed and seastate on
the ocean. Higher numbers represent higher wind
speeds and seastates.

37

becquerel a derived unit in Systems International

(SI) for activity of radionuclides. Bq
BED bedding
bed a layer of rocks. A bed has relatively well-defined
top and bottom boundaries and is either relatively
uniform in lithology, uniformly graded, or is
composed of similar, smaller units. A bed is a
stratigraphic subdivision of a member of a formation.
(stratum or layer) 2) The mounting skid or frame
and supports on a shale shaker
bedding or bedding plane the surface that
separates two sedimentary rock layers. A bedding
plane is caused by an interruption during
sedimentation or erosion after sedimentation. Bedding
planes occur on the top and bottom of beds. BED
bed form a deviation from a flat surface caused by
a fluid flow over loose sediments. Bed forms include
ripples and dunes.
bed load the coarser sediments that are transported
by rolling or bouncing along a sediment/water
interface such as a stream bed by a current of water
(traction load)
bedrock the relatively solid rock that underlies soil
or unconsolidated sediments
bedsheet cross section a very large cross section
or vertical slice of the subsurface
behind the pipe crude oil or natural gas that is
located in a reservoir(s) that has been cased in a
well. The well produces or has produced from another
reservoir.
belching intermittent flow on a well, (burping)
B electrode the current-return electrode in a
resistivity sonde
belemnoids a type of extinct cephalopod that existed
from the Mississippian to Eocene epoch. Belemniods
had an internal skeleton that resembled a cigar and
are guide fossils. Belm
belling tool a type of underreamer that is used to
enlarge the wellbore at the level of the producing
zone. A belling tool has expandable cutting arms that
are used to cut a bell-shaped cavity just below the
production string of tubing or casing on the bottom
of the well.
bell nipple a device with an expanded or belled
top that is used to fit the above-ground casinghead
fittings to the casing. The bell nipple is threaded on
one end to screw onto the casing. A bell nipple is
used above the blowout preventer or marine riser
on a well to guide drill tools down into the well. It
has a mud return line to direct circulation drilling
mud coming up the well to the shale shakers and a
fill-up connection.
bellows the pressure-sensitive element of a gas lift
valve. The bellows stretches and compresses similar
to a diaphragm to allow a ball to move on and off a
seat.
bellows-type gas or orifice meter a common type
of gas production meter that uses two bellows to
measure the pressure differential across an orifice.
The brass bellows expand and contract with the
pressure and drive a differential pen. A static pen is
driven by a Bourdon tube, and the chart is driven
by a clock.

38

bell prover benzene

bell prover a type of flowmeter prover in which a

bell is lowered into a tank filled with fluid. The bell
forces a known amount of fluid through the meter.
The true flow volume can then be compared to the
measured flow volume.
belly band or buster a safety belt that is attached
to a secured safety line. A belly buster is worn by a
member of the crew working in a high or dangerous
location on a drilling rig.
Belm belemnoids
belt a flexible band that transmits power or motion
between two wheels or pulleys
belt detector an electronic unit that is attached to
the belt of a drilling crew member and is used to
detect hydrogen sulfide. The sensor head is powered
by rechargeable or replaceable batteries and can
sound a preset alarm.
belt-drive pumping unit a pumping unit on an
oil well that uses a belt between two different diameter
wheels instead of a gear box to reduce speed and
transmit the power from the prime mover to the pump
belt hall or house the wood shed on a cable-tool
rig that protects the belt that runs through it from
the engine to the band wheel
belt or belt-line theory an old concept that the
best well location is between two producing wells
bench mark a permanent elevation reference mark
usually set in concrete or on an iron stake. The bench
mark used in topographic surveys is a 3-75 in.
aluminum or bronze alloy disc set in concrete or
bedrock by a government agency. Elevation and
identification are embossed and stamped on the disc.
BM
benchmark crude the crude oil that is used to set
the price standard against which other crude oils are
compared and their prices set. For OPEC, it is Saudi
Arabian light crude. In the United States, it is West
Texas intermediate, and in England it is North Sea
Brent, (marker or reference crude)
bend a pipe with at least one curve radius that is
less than that of an elbow. A 45 bend is called a V
turn. A 90 bend is a V4 turn. A 180 bend is a Vi
turn. A slight bend is called a spring.
bending forces forces that act perpendicular to the
layering in sedimentary rock
bendover price the dollars per barrel that a refinery
will pay for a condensate of certain API. Bendover
is less than average crude oil posted price.
beneficial interest the ownership of an interest by
contract, assignment, or trust. Beneficial interest is
in contrast to ownership by record or legal outright
ownership and control.
BENT, Bent, or bent bentonite
BENTC betonitic
benthic the ocean bottom environment
benthos organisms that live on the ocean bottom
bent housing the support for a positivedisplacement, downhole mud motor that is used to
drill directional wells. A bent housing has a
manufactured bend of l-3.

bent joint a joint of drillpipe, drill collar, or tubing

with a bend in it. The standard range of offset angles
varies between 0 and 3 with lA increments. A bent
joint is used in fishing operations.
bentonite a clay mineral of the smectite group that
has a formula of [(Al,M, Fe+f Fe+022, Mgo.19) (Si3s,
Alo.i)Oio(OH)2r031[Na031]+6^, Bentonite forms a gel
when mixed with fresh water and is used to make
common drilling mud. A high clay yield can be
obtained by using only 7%-9% bentonite with water
and other minerals. Bentonite is best used in muds
containing less than 10,000 ppm sodium chloride.
Wyoming bentonite is almost pure montmorillonite.
It is formed naturally by the weathering of volcanic
ash layers. Bentonite layers in rock often are used
for correlation and make good time lines. Bentonite
has become a broad term by usage, (gel) BENT, Bent,
or bent
bentonite cement a slurry formed by adding dry
cement to water with prehydrated bentonite. It is used
as a lost circulation material.
bent sub a small length of drillpipe that is used to
kick off a deviated well. A bent sub is run between
the downhole mud or turbine motor and the lowest
drill collar. One of the connecting threads is machined
with an angle to the axis of the sub. This gives the
sub a V-i-lV-i bend. A Vi" bent sub will give an angle
change of 2-3/100 ft and a 2 bent sub will give
6-87lOO ft. The bent sub can have a muleshoe
orientating sleeve and key to determine the actual
orientation of the bottomhole assembly in the well.
A bent sub can also be used as part of a fishing string
to give the right approach angle to the fish for the
fishing tool, (crooked, offset or angle sub)

H
I
C

C
I
H

benzene

benzene 1) a type of hydrocarbon molecule found

in all crude oils except those that have been weathered.
Benzene is formed by an unsaturated, closed ring.
The principle benzene hydrocarbons are the BTX
group (benzene, toluene and xylene), cumene,
styrene, and ethylbenzene. Crude oils rich in this type
of molecule have a sweet, fruity smell. The original
definition of aromatic implied fragrant compounds.
Simple benzene compounds in crude oil cause
fluorescence of the oil. The general formula is
Cn H2n_6. An example is benzene (C6H6). (arene or
aromatic) 2) a volatile, inflammable liquid (C6H6)
refined from crude oil 3) the term once meant gasoline
or petrol

Berriansian bimetallic cell

Berriansian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 140-135 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Cretaceous epoch.
best efforts gas natural gas bought on the spot
market (self-help, interruptible, direct purchase and
spot gas)
p 1) thermal cubic expansion coefficient 2) relative
bearing 3) wave propagation direction 4) beta particle
5) beta ratio
beta particle 1) an electron that travels at the speed
of light and is emitted during radioactive decay such
as thorium 234. A beta particle has very small mass
and a negative charge. 2) a positron. Beta particle is
the preferred term. )8
beta ratio the ratio of the diameter of an orifice on
an orifice plate to the internal line diameter that is
being tested. /3
bev beveled
bevel gear one of two wheels that engage with teeth
on their working surfaces. The working surface is
not parallel to the axes of the gear.
BF 1) barrels of fluid 2) buoyant factor
bf buff
BFIT before federal income tax
BFL barrels of fluid
BFMW barrels of formation water
BFO barrels of frac oil
BFPD barrels of fluid per day
BFPH barrels of fluid per hour
BFW barrels of formation water
BFWTR barrels of fresh water
Bg gas formation volume factor
BGC barrels of gas condensate
BGI broken gauge insert
Bgp gas formation volume factor at bubblepoint
BGT borehole geometry tool
BH or bh bottom hole
B/H barrels per hour
BHA bottomhole assembly
BHC 1) borehole compensated 2) bottomhole
contribution 3) bottomhole choke
BHC ALC acoustilog, caliper log
BHC ALC GR acoustilog, caliper, gamma ray log
BHC ALC GRN acoustilog, caliper, gamma ray,
neutron log
BHC ALC N acoustilog, caliper, neutron log
BHC AL GRN TC acoustilog, caliper, gamma ray,
neutron through the casing log
BHC AL GR TC acoustilog, caliper, gamma ray
through the casing log
BHC AL TC acoustilog, caliper through the casing
log
BHCK bottomhole choke
BHCP 1) bottomhole circulating pressure 2)
bottomhole closure pressure
BHCS borehole-compensated sonic log

39

BHC-GR borehole-compensated sonic, gamma ray

log
BHC-VD borehole-compensated sonic, variable
density log
BHFP bottomhole flowing pressure
BHFT bottomhole flowing temperature
BHG or BHGM borehole gravity meter or gravimeter
BHHP bit hydraulic horsepower
BHL 1) bottomhole locater 2) bottomhole location
BHM bottomhole money
BHO sub bottomhole orientation sub
BHP bottomhole pressure
BHP, B.H.P. or bhp brake horsepower
BHPC bottomhole pressure closed
BHPF bottomhole pressure flowing
BHPS 1) bottomhole pressure survey 2) bottomhole
pressure static
BHPSB bottomhole pressure survey buildup
BHPSD bottomhole pressure survey drawdown
BHPSI bottomhole pressure shut-in
BHPSS bottomhole pressure survey static
B/hr barrels per hour
BHSIP bottomhole shut-in pressure
BHST bottomhole static temperature
BHT bottomhole temperature.
BHTP bottomhole treating pressure
BHTV borehole televiewer
Bi biotite
BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs
bias a systematic distortion of the data in contrast
to random error
bi-directional meter a meter that measures fluid
flow in both directions
bicarb boduim bicarbonate
bicone bit a roller-cone type of drilling bit that has
two cones mounted on bearings. The bicone bit was
the original rolling cutter bit introduced in 1909. A
bicone rock bit is used in drilling soft formations
that a drag bit could not drill and is made only with
milled teeth. The original cones did not mesh, and
there was a problem with bit balling during drilling
soft shales. The bicone bit was redesigned in the 1920s
to have intermeshing teeth that were self-cleaning. A
bicone bit is in contrast to the more common tricone
drilling bit. (two-cone bit)
big-eyed bit a rotary drill bit with one large jet nozzle
that uses the hydraulic action of drilling mud to deflect
the well
big hole a well that uses greater than 10-in. diameter
casing
Big Joe a type of pressure reduction valve
billet a solid steel cylinder that is used as a form to
manufacture seamless casing
bimetallic cell a type of corrosion cell that uses
two dissimilar metals. The metals are connected
electronically with metal and with a liquid that is
corrosive to at least one of the metals.

40

bimetallic thermometer biostratigraphic

bimetallic thermometer a temperature sensing

device that uses the difference in thermal expansion
between two dissimilar metals. The strips of metal,
commonly iron-nickel alloys, are bound together in
a spiral or single helical pattern with one end fixed.
The other end has a pointer that moves on a scale.
bindstone a limestone with tabular or lamellar
fossils of encrusting or binding organisms such as
algae that are supported by a matrix
Bingham plastic fluid a non-Newtonian fluid that
will not flow until a pressure or shear stress equal
to the yield point has been applied. After the yield
point has been reached, the stress and deformation
is linear with a constant plastic viscosity. Drilling mud
is a Bingham plastic fluid and is in contrast to a
Newtonian fluid such as water or crude oil.
binning the use of small rectangular areas for
common-depth-point stacking. All traces with depth
points in a bin are used.
bio biotite
biocide a chemical or agent that will kill both
pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria but may not
kill bacteria spores. Biocides used in drilling mud
include lime, starch, sodium hydroxide, and
paraformaldehyde. (bactericide)
BIOCL or biocl bioclastic
bioclastic a transported particle of organic origin
such as a shell. BIOCL or biocl
biocoenose the environment of life. Biocoenose is
applied to fossil assemblages. Thanatocoenose is the
environment of death and can be different than
biocoenose.
biodegradation the action of aerobic or oxidizing
bacteria. Biodegradation sometimes may occur with
anaerobic bacteria. The biodegradation of crude oil
results in heavy or senile oil that is very viscous. The
normal alkanes are first attacked by bacteria, followed
by branched alkanes, and then by cyclic alkanes.
bioerosion the breakdown of rocks due to biological
activity such as boring clams

biofacies

biofacies a particular aspect or portion of a rock

layer such as a formation that is defined and identified
by its characteristic fossil content
biofacies map a map showing the aerial or lateral
distribution of biofacies in a rock unit such as a
formation
biogenic gas methane (CH4) produced by bacteria
(fermenters) from organic matter in the absence of
oxygen and sulfates at shallow depths from a few
feet below the surface to about 1,000 ft. Biogenic gas
is dry gas that is normally about 999% methane and
has a distinctive, very light carbon isotope
composition. It usually escapes into the atmosphere
but has been trapped in large deposits below the
permafrost in Siberia. Urengoy, the largest gas field

in the world with 285 Tcf of recoverable biogenic

gas. Natural gas can also be theimogenic gas. (marsh
or swamp gas)
biogenic theory the generally accepted theory that
crude oil and natural gas form from the maturation
of organic matter (biotic theory)
Bioh or bioh bioherm
bioherm a mound or lens-shaped deposit formed
by the remains of organisms such as corals or shells
that grew in that location. Bioh or bioh

bioherm

biolithite a limestone deposited by biological

organisms that formed a framework such as a reef
core. They are often identified by the organism that
formed the framework, such as coral biolithite.
biological marker or biomarker a compound
(chemical fossil) or a property of a compound found
in crude oil or sediments that proves a biological
origin for that compound. Examples are normal
alkanes from plant waxes, fatty acids, and porphyrins;
pristane and phytane derived from chlorophyll, along
with the optical activity or rotation of petroleum
exposed to light.
biomass organic matter
Biomi or biomi biomicrite
biomicrite a limestone that contains both skeletal
debris and limestone mud or micrite. The dominant
organism forming the skeletal debris is usually
identified, such as a crinoid biomicrite. Biomi or biomi
Biosp or biosp biosparite
biosparite a limestone that contains both skeletal
debris and calcite cement. The dominant organism
forming the skeletal debris is identified, such as a
pelecypod biosparite. The texture of biosparite skeletal
debris can be described as unsorted biosparite or
rounded. Biosp or biosp
Biost or biost biostrome
biostratigraphic a rock unit or layer that is defined
and identified by its fossil content

IJL:

",

biostrome

'

biostrome bit breaker box or bit box

biostrome a layered, extensive deposit formed by
the remains of organisms, such as corals or shells
that grew in that location. Biost or biost
Biot or biot biotite
biotic theory the generally accepted theory that
crude oil and natural gas form from the maturation
of organic matter, (biogenic theory)
biotite a common mineral that is composed of a
complex silicate of potassium, iron, aluminum, and
magnesium [K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3Oi0)(OH)2]. Biotite has a
density of 3.22 gms/cm3 and a cell dimension of 10.05
A. Biotite occurs as thin, black flakes with one perfect
cleavage direction and is common in igneous and
metamorphic rocks as well as in both sands and
sandstones, (black mica) Bi, Biot or biot
bioturb bioturbation
bioturbation the disturbance and mixing of
sediments by burrowing animals and/or plant roots.
bioturb
bird 1) an airborne magnetometer 2) a pressuresensitive hydrofoil that is used on a hydrophone
streamer for marine seismic exploration. Birds are
evenly spaced along the streamer to control depth.
bird cage or birdcage 1) the slatted or meshenclosed platform used to raise and lower the crew
between an offshore rig and crew boats 2) to flatten
and spread out cable or wire rope strands 3) a cable
or wire rope that has its strands flattened and spread
out
birdcaged wire cable or wire rope that has its strands
spread out in the shape of a bird cage due to a sudden
release of a heavy load that it was lifting
bird dog 1) a representative of the company that
has employed a geophysical crew. The person acts
as a liaison and makes sure that the job is done right.
2) to follow another company around and lease where
that company is leasing 3) an old term for a geologist
4) a person who helps a landman locate people
bird-dog fee the bonus paid to a guide that helps
a landman find people
bird dogging the activities of a bird dog
birdfoot delta a constructional type of delta with
several sediment lobes protruding into the basin. The
Mississippi River delta is a modern example.
bird's eye a spot or irregular patch of sparry calcite
in limestone. The sparry calcite, which reflects light
from its crystal faces, was precipitated from water in
the limestone in a cavity caused by an animal burrow,
gas bubble, mud crack, or other disturbance. Bdeye
biscuit cutter 1) a short coring barrel used on a
cable-tool rig 2) a clumsy derrick man who drops
pipe 3) a drill bit
Bit or bit 1) bitumen 2) bituminous
bit 1) the cutting tool used in drilling. On a cable
tool rig a percussion bit is used. The percussion bit
is a pointed or wedge-shaped weight that pulverizes
the rocks on the bottom of the well as the bit is
raised and lowered. On a rotary rig a rotary bit is
used. The rotary bit is turned by the drillstring or
downhole motor to chip and flake the rocks at the
bottom of the well. The most common rotary bit is
the rock or roller-cone bit that has two, three, or

41

bits

four rotating cones on the bottom of the bit. The

tricone bit with three cones is most common. The
tricone bit has three legs welded to a shank. The
legs hold journals around which bearings rotate to
allow the cone on each leg pin to turn. Roller-cone
bits are either a) milled tooth-steel teeth or b) insertbutton bits. Drag bits are rotary bits that have blades
that tear into soft formations. Diamond bits have no
moving parts and have diamonds that are imbedded
into the matrix on the bottom and sides of the bit.
Diamond bits are used for drilling through hard rocks
and coring. A polycrystalline diamond bit (PCD bit)
is a drag bit with blanks of man-made polycrystalline
diamonds. Regular bits have an opening in the center
of the bit body for drilling fluid. Some are full bore
openings and others are ported. The jet bit has fluid
courses through the body of the bit or between the
cones that are equipped with jet nozzles. On a
conventional tricone bit, there are nozzles located
between the cones. The drilling fluid jets out the
nozzles and impacts directly on the teeth of the cones
of a roller-cone bit. Extended nozzle bits have
elongated fluid paths to reduce the distance between
the nozzle exit and the bottom of the hole. Rotary
cone drill bits are good from 8 to 200 hours of rotating
and wear out after an average of 24 hours of rotating.
(drill bit) 2) The smallest bit of information that a
computer can distinguish between two choices such
as 0 or 1, yes or no, or on or off. A byte is the number
of bits, usually eight, that represents one character.
bit balling the coating of the bit face with soft
sediments. Bit balling often occurs when using a hardformation bit with short teeth on a soft formation. It
can also occur when drilling through soft sticky
formations, during inadequate drilling-fluid
circulation, or when using excessive bit weight.
(balling the bit or balling up)
bit body the part of a roller-cone bit that consists
of the shank, the bit legs (the structural support for
the cones), and the journal pins that attach the cones
to the body. The bit body also includes the lubricant
reservoirs and the watercourses. It is made of a forged
or cast nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloy of a
carburizing grade.
bit breaker box or bit box a metal holding device
in the shape of a heavy plate that fits into the bowl
of a rotary table and is used to screw (make up) or
unscrew (break out) the bit from the drillstring by
rotating the drillstring. The bit breaker is sized

42

bit deflection black-light inspection

bit breaker

according to the size of the bit. (breakout box or

breaker plate)
bit deflection the deviation in the direction of a
drilling bit from the direction of the well. Bit deflection
is often caused by a dipping hard-rock layer. With a
hard-rock-layer dip of greater than 45, the bit is
generally deflected down the dip of the layer, whereas
the bit is deflected updip with a dip of less than 45.
bit dresser 1) a machine that repairs and gauges
bits 2) a person on a cable-tool rig that repairs bits
bit floundering a decrease in penetration rate due
to a decrease in well-cutting cleaning efficiency at
extremely high bit weight
bit gauge a circular ring that is used to determine
if the outer diameter of a drilling bit has been worn
smaller than its allowed specifications and is, therefore,
undergauge
bit geometry the configuration of a drilling bit such
as tricone or flat-faced
bit hook a fishing tool used to straighten a bit in a
well
bit hydraulic horsepower the hydraulic
horsepower equivalent of the gallons per minute times
the pressure drop across the nozzles on the bit. BHHP
bit leg the part of a body on a roller-cone drill bit
that holds the pin and journal around which the cones
rotate. There are three legs on a tricone bit.
BITM bitumen
bit matrix the material on a diamond bit that is used
to hold the diamonds on the bit. The bit matrix is
often powdered and fused tungsten carbide.
bit mechanical horsepower the horsepower on
a drilling rig required to rotate only the bit
BITMS bituminous
bit port a nozzle through which the drilling mud
flows on a bit
bit record a document kept by the driller concerning
the performance of the bits used in drilling a well.
The bit record header includes the operator,
contractor, rig number, well location, drillstring
characteristics, and pump data. The record includes
the number, size and types of bits, sizes of nozzles,
footage and drilling rates for each bit, depth out, hours
run, weight on bit, rotary speed, pump pressure, and
strokes per minute, drilling fluid weight and viscosity,
and dull grading of bit when pulled.
BITROP rate of penetration of bit
bit shank the threaded cone-shaped top of the bit
that is screwed into the drillstring. (pin)

bit stabilization the downhole assembly required

to keep a bit rotating about its own axis and the well
on course
bit sticking the adherence of the bit or the bit
stabilizer to the sides of the wellbore
bit sub a short section of pipe with two box ends
that is used to connect the bit with the drill collar
on the drillstring
bit supplier a service company that sells drilling
bits through a sales representative. The bit supplier
keeps extensive records on bit performances and can
make bit recommendations. Sometimes several
recommended bit programs can be obtained from
bit suppliers before a well is drilled.
bitumastic material a coating made of asphalt and
filler that is used to prevent corrosion on metals
bitumen 1) organic matter that can be extracted from
sedimentary rocks with organic solvents such as
benzene, chloroform, or carbon disulfide. Bitumen
is in contrast to kerogen in sedimentary rocks that
is not soluble in organic solvents. 2) the solid
hydrocarbons that occur in sedimentary rocks.
Bitumen is fusible below 150C and is inflammable.
It has a variable color, hardness, and volatility. Native
bitumen is formed directly from organic matter in
sediments and is also called kerobitumen. It is
composed of C22 and heavier molecules. An example
is ozocerite. Reservoir bitumen forms from degraded
hydrocarbons in the reservoir and can be graphitic
or asphaltic. 3) a term used interchangeably with both
liquid and solid forms of petroleum and includes
crude oil, asphalts, mineral waxes, and asphaltines.
Bitumen is an old term that was used to describe
oil seeps. Bitumen in England is known as asphalt
in the United States. BITM, Bit, bit
bituminous containing oil or yielding oil when
distilled. BITMS, Bit or bit
bituminous coal a common, intermediate-rank coal
that is between lignite and anthracite (soft coal)
bituminous sands, sandstone, shale, or
limestone a sedimentary rock that has solid or very
heavy hydrocarbons such as bitumen, asphalt, or very
heavy oil as the cementing material or binder
bit walk the deviation of a well caused by righthanded rotation and dragging of the bit on the right
side of the well
bit weight the compressive force applied on the
drilling bit by the drill assembly. Bit weight is typically
between 3000-6000 psi and can be over 50,000 psi.
bkdn breakdown
BL 1) blue 2) black 3) barrels load 4) bent legs
bl 1) blue 2) black
black box a device whose function is to directly
locate subsurface petroleum. Promoters have always
tried to sell black boxes throughout the history of
petroleum exploration.
black gold crude oil
black light an ultraviolet light
black-light inspection a method used to inspect
tool joints. A solution of very fine, fluorescent-dyed
iron particles is applied to the cleaned and dried joint.
The joint is then inspected with a fluorescent or black

Black Magic blender

light. The iron particles will collect along any crack.
(iron-particle inspection)
Black Magic a heavy, oil-based drilling mud which
hardens to a consistency of cement and is used to
block the flow of water but not petroleum
black mica see biotite
black oil 1) a very dark, usually black but sometimes
greenish or brown crude oil with an initial producing
gas/oil ratio of less than 2000 SCF/STB. The stock tank
gravity of black oil is usually less than 45 API. Black
oil is sometimes called low-shrinkage crude oil or
ordinary oil. 2) an asphalt-based cijide oil 3) a dark
crude oil, in comparison to a light oil or condensate
Blackriverian a North American age of geological
time that occurred about 460 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Ordovician period.
black water water with corrosive products (iron
sulfide) due to bacterial action
blade the cutting edge on a drilling tool
blading off the leveling and cleaning of a site by a
bulldozer
bland unreactive drilling mud. It is used during
coring.
BL&AW barrels load and acid water
blank 1) a dry hole 2) the cutting edge on a
polycrystalline diamond bit. The blank is made with
a layer of man-made polycrystalline diamonds that
are cemented to a tungsten carbide cylinder called a
carbide stud under high temperature and pressure.
A blank has greater abrasion resistance than natural
diamonds, (drill blank)
blank casing casing (pipe) without perforations
blanket gas the gas above a liquid in a container.
Blanket gas is used to pressurize the liquid and protect
it from contamination or explosion.
blanket lease a drilling contract that covers a large
area
blanket sandstone a relatively uniform layer of
sandstone that covers a large area of the subsurface
blank flange the solid disk that fits in and closes a
companion flange that forms a projecting rim on an
opening such as a pipe (blind flange)
blanking plug a plug designed to stop fluid flow
blank jet a nozzle on a roller-cone bit that is
purposely plugged
blank liner a liner or the lowest string of casing
on an open hole completion that is without
perforations
blank off to case oil sand with casing or liner that
is not perforated
blank pipe a pipe without perforations
blank rams see blind rams
blaster a device that sends an electric current through
a blasting cap to detonate an explosive
blasting explosive fracturing in a well using
nitroglycerin
blasting cap a detonator that is electrically activated
blasting oil nitroglycerin
blast joint a hard section of tubing that comes in
sizes of 10, 20, or 30 ft in length and is made from

43

a special alloy with heat-treated joints. The blast joint

is designed to protect the tubing from external erosion
such as occurs adjacent to the perforated interval in
a dual-completion well. Blast joints usually have flush
connections.
Bid or bid 1) boulder 2) bladed 3) bailed
BLDG building
bldg 1) bleeding 2) building
bldg drk building derrick
bldo bleeding oil
BLDR boulder
bleached oil crude oil that has been decolorized
by sunlight
BLED bleeding oil
bleed to slowly vent a fluid from a line
bleed down to slowly reduce pressure from
equipment or a well by venting a fluid
bleeder line a drain on the bottom of a stock tank
that is used to remove basic sediment and water
bleeder valve a small valve that is used to vent fluid
or take a sample from a line, pump, or tank
bleeding the separation, by settling, of the solids
from the liquid in a cement slurry
bleeding a well a method of cleaning an oil well
of sediments and drilling mud that have accumulated
in the well. The well is shut in for a period of time
to allow gas pressure to build up, and the well is
then opened up. Gas, followed by oil, mud, and
sediments rapidly flows up the well and into the pits.
The process can be repeated several times, (periodic
flowing or rocking a well)
bleeding core a fresh core in which the crude oil
is coming out of the pores. This is due primarily to
the formation and expansion of solution gas bubbles
in the oil when the core is brought to the surface
and pressure on the core is reduced, (weeping core)
bleed line a line attached to a blowout-preventer
stack. The bleed line is used to vent produced fluids
after the blowout preventers have been thrown when
abnormal high pressures are encountered during
drilling.
bleed off to release pressure on a fluid
bleed plug a fitting used to prevent mud flowback
when tripping in on a drilling rig. The plug is threaded
for drill collars or drillpipe and has a small opening
fitted with a valve. The bleed plug is screwed into
the top of a stand with the valve closed before the
stand is lowered into the well. After the stand is
lowered, the slips have been set, and the elevators
removed, the bleed plug valve is opened and the
plug removed.
blender 1) a truck-mounted unit that is used to
proportionately mix materials with well-stimulation
fluid and pump the mixture to the pumping unit. A
diesel engine powers the mixing paddles in the mixing
tub and the auxiliary equipment. Liquid additives and
solids, such as proppants, are added in metered
volumes to the mixing tank. 2) equipment used to
mix gravel and a carrier fluid for a gravel pack
completion in a well. A screw or bucket conveyer is
used to bring the gravel to the blender where it is
mixed with a centrifugal pump.

44

blend sample blocky cement

blend sample a sample taken from a tank after the

contents of the tank have been mixed
BLC barrels of liquid condensate
big 1) bailing 2) bailed 3) bleeding
blind to close a line
blind back-off to unscrew stuck pipe in a well with
a right-handed torque under tension or overpull
blind box a wireline fishing tool that is designed
to clean the top of a fish to be caught with a socket.
A blind box is similar to a die collar but the internal
cutting edges are not spiraled.
blind drilling drilling through a formation that
causes lost circulation with no returns to the surface
blind fault a fault with a fault surface that does not
reach the earth's surface
blind flange the solid disk that fits in and closes a
companion flange that forms a projecting rim on an
opening such as a pipe (blank flange)
blind hole a well that has a lost circulation problem
blinding the clogging of screens by particles
blind layer 1) a rock layer that does not give a
primary reflection on a seismic record (hidden layer)
2) a rock layer that cannot be detected by seismic
refraction methods because it is either a) a low-velocity
layer located below a high-velocity layer or b) too
thin to give a distinct arrival (hidden layer)
blind-pool drilling fund a type of drilling fund
in which monies are raised from investors in order
to explore and drill in an area of interest. Instead of
having specific prospects, the money is raised and
then land is leased and drilled in the area of interest.
The fund, registered with the Security and Exchange
Commission, is usually in the form of a limited
partnership with the promoter being the general
partner.
blind rams a closing element in the blowout
preventer that uses steel plates with flat rubber surfaces
that fit together to close and open the well. Blind
rams can be used only when no pipe is suspended
in the well. Blind rams are sometimes called the master
valve, (blank or master rams)
blind shear rams a closing element in a blowout
preventer that has a cutting edge to shear any tubular
in the well. Blind shear rams used primarily in subsea
systems.
blind sidetrack an uncontrolled sidetrack
blind zone a subsurface layer that a) cannot be
detected on seismic refraction, b) does not give
reflections on reflection seismic, c) does not give a
good signature on a well logging tool, or d) does
not yield well cuttings to the surface when drilled
blk or bl black
BLK or blk block
blky blocky
blksh blackish
BLM Bureau of Land Management
bind blend
BLO barrels of load oil
block 1) the metal framework that contains sheaves,
pulleys, or wheels that rotate on a common axis and

are used for hoisting The mechanical advantage of a

block is determined by counting the number of lifting
lines and subtracting 2% for friction. A rotary drilling
rig has a crown and traveling block. 2) an area
composed of several leases 3) an offshore oil and
gas concession area defined by its latitude and
longitude In the United States, a block is typically 9
mi2 and is awarded to the highest bonus bid with a
fixed royalty by the Mineral Management Service. Most
expire in five years, but frontier or deep blocks can
have 10-year terms.
block agent material such as plastics, bitumens, gel,
or cement slurry that is pumped down a producing
well with treating fluid to prevent coning or channeling
block and tackle a system of sheaves or pulleys
and wire rope that act as a unit to raise or lower
equipment
block diagram a method of illustrating a portion
of the earth's crust in three dimensions. The diagram
is in the form of a block with the surface of the earth
as the top and a cross section of that portion of the
earth for the sides.
blocked up to complete leasing in an area
block guide the vertical or near-vertical steel track
located in the derrick of a semisubmersible or drillship along which the traveling block moves up and
down. The block guide is used to prevent movement
of the traveling block as the floater rises and falls
with the ocean waves.
block lease an oil and gas lease that covers several
individual leases that form a block The lessors have
agreed in the lease that a well drilled anywhere on
that block will satisfy the delay rental and drilling
requirements of all leases in that block.
block line see drilling or hoisting line
block squeeze a type of cement squeeze job used
in a well to isolate a zone for perforating, fracturing,
or stimulation. The zone below the producing zone
is perforated, and cement is squeezed under high
pressure. The zone above the producing zone is then
perforated and squeezed off. The cement is drilled
out of the hole, and the producing zone is perforated.
block tree a strong and compact type of Christmas
tree well-completion fitting in which the valves are
machined from one block of steel. Block trees are
often used in offshore wells and are in contrast to
loose-valve trees.
block valve a valve in a pipeline used to plug a
section of the pipeline

TTv. /C

blocky cement

blocky cement a type of natural cement found in

limestone. Blocky cement is formed by relatively large,

blooey or blooie line blowout-preventers control panel

interlocking blocks of sparry calcite between the
detrital particles.
blooey or blooie line 1) a surface pipe on an air
drilling rig through which the air, water, and well
cuttings are blown out 2) a large diameter, lowpressure pipe that is used to conduct fluids coming
up the well from the drilling rig during a kick. A
diverter is used to send the fluids down the blooey
line to the blooey pit.
blooey or blooie pit the earthen escavation adjacent
to an air drilling rig that receives the well cuttings
from the blooey line
bloom the fluorescence of crude oil under a black
light
BLOPD barrels of load oil per day
BLOPH barrels of load oil per hour
BLOR barrels of load oil recovered
BLOUT blowout
blow a line down to reduce pressure on a gas line
to melt any frozen obstruction and then to increase
the pressure
blow a well clean to open the valves on a recently
completed gas well to blow out any debris or
completion fluid
blowby 1) the flow of gases around the piston and
piston rings into the crankcase of an engine 2) the
escape of free gas with the liquid from a separator
blowdown 1) the venting of a fluid in a container
2) the fluid that is vented 3) the pressure difference
between the set and resealing pressures of a pressurerelief valve
blower a blowing gas well
blowing disposal of casinghead or solution gas into
the air
blowing a well periodic opening of the valves of a
well. Blowing a well allows rapid flow of oil and/or
gas up the well to clean the accumulation of sediments
and liquids out of a well, (periodic flowing)
blowing flow a type of gas flow with a spray of
liquid
blowing the drip 1) to open the valve on small
chamber on a pipeline to drain off the condensate
or drip gasoline 2) to vent the gas from a pipeline
to clear it of condensate or drip
blow job to clean with steam
blown and saucered a deal that has been put
together and is ready to be signed
blowoff cock a valve that either allows or stops the
flow of a fluid from a container or a pipe
blowout or blow out uncontrolled, often violent,
flow of fluid (gas, oil, drilling mud, and/or water)
from the well. A blowout can be caused by drilling
into an unexpected, abnormally high-pressure
reservoir in the subsurface. It is a function of the
weight of the circulating drilling mud in the well to
keep the fluids in the rocks. If fluids enter the well
(kick), the blowout preventers are thrown to prevent
a blowout. Forty-four percent of the blowouts occur
during tripping out, 41% during drilling, and 9% while
freeing stuck pipe. A blowout along the outside of
the casing string in a well is called broaching. BLOUT

45

blowout drill a training exercise conducted and

timed by the tool pusher on a drilling rig. The blowout
alarm is rung without warning the driller. The driller
pulls the kelly out of the rotary and shuts off the
mud pumps. Crew members go to the blowoutpreventer control panel, choke manifold and the
driller's side of the rig at ground level to operate
the remote blowout-preventor controls. The
derrickman goes to the accumulator, and the driller
orders the blowout preventer closed. The drill is timed
from the sound of the alarm to the closing of the
blowout preventers and recorded in the drilling
report. The blowout drill is usually run when the
kelly is about two-thirds in the rotary.

blowout preventer stack (off rotary drilling rig chart)

blowout or blow-out preventer a ram or closing

element designed to close the top of the wellbore
and to provide a controlled release of wellbore fluids.
The blowout preventers are arranged vertically in a
blowout-preventer stack. The stack is located below
the drilling platform and is attached to the conductor
pipe or surface string at the surface of the ground
or in the cellar. A basic arrangement of preventers
consists of an annular preventer, blind rams, drilling
spool with choke and kill line connections, pipe rams,
and a casing-head connector. The annular preventers
close around any pipe in the well or over an open
well. Pipe rams are metal blocks with inserts machined
into them that are designed to close around pipe in
the well. Shear rams use steel wedges used to shear
off any pipe in the well. Blind rams are metal plates
with flat surfaces that close an open well. The
preventers are activated hydraulically from pressure
stored in an accumulator. Each preventer has an
opening and closing line. Bushings or sleeves in the
lowermost section of the preventers prevent excessive
wear of the preventers from the rotation and tripping
of the drillstring. Blowout preventers are also used
in some workover operations. The blowout preventers
are mounted on the seafloor for offshore drilling and
activated by hydraulic or electrohydraulic power. The
working pressure is generally 3,000-15,000 lb/in2.
Blowout preventers are categorized by the American
Petroleum Institute according to working pressure,
through-bore diameter, and type of preventer.
blowout-preventers control panel a console
located on the drilling rig floor that contains the fourway control valves that activate the different preventers
in the blowout-preventer stack. The panel also has
gauges for accumulator, panel air, manifold, and

46

blowout-preventer drill boiler house or boilerhousee

annular pressures with a regulator for controlling

pressure to the annular preventer as well as a bypass
control. The blowout preventers can also be thrown
from another remote location on the rig.
blowout-preventer drill see blowout drill
blowout-preventer pump a pump on a drilling rig
that is designed to provide hydraulic pressure for
the accumulators that operate the blowout preventers
blowout-preventer stack a vertical assembly of
several rams or closing elements used to shut the
well. The various closing elements can be connected
with spools. The stack is located in the cellar, attached
to the top of the surface-casing string, and below the
drilling platform. On an offshore rig, they are located
on the sea bottom. An offshore double stack will have
blowout preventers both on the seafloor and on the
offshore drilling rig. Individual rams, such as pipe,
blind, or shear, and closing devices, such as the annular
preventers, can be activated by hydraulic pressure
stored in the accumulators. There are at least two
different locations to throw them, including a control
panel on the drilling platform. The stack typically
includes an annular blowout preventer, several ram
blowout preventers, kill and choke line connectors,
a drilling spool, and a wellhead connector, each
positioned vertically on top of each other. The blowout
preventer stack generally weighs 20-25 tons. (BOP
stack)
blowout-preventer test tool a tool that seals the
wellbore below the blowout-preventer stack to
pressure test the stack and its accessories
blow the cobs or soot out to run a motor at
excessive speeds
blow wild to blow out or have uncontrolled flow
from a well
BLOYR barrels of load oil yet to recover
BLPD barrels of liquid per day
blr bailer
BLRT bailer test
blsh bluish
bits bullets
BLU blue
blue pattern a dipmeter interpretation characterized
by decreasing formation dips with increasing depth
and the same azimuth. There is also a red and green
pattern.
blue sky exploratory well a wildcat well
blue sky law a state law in the United States that
regulates the sale of securities such as those that relate
to oil and gas. The federal government also regulates
the sales.
blue whistler a blowing gas well
BLW barrels of load water
BM 1) basement 2) barrels of mud 3) bench mark
Bm basement
bm ascending-wave particle-motion amplitude
BMMCF barrels per million cubic feet
BMUD barrels of mud
BN bean
bn brown

Bnd or bnd 1) band 2) banded

bndry or BNDRY boundary
bnish brownish
BNO barrels of new oil
BO 1) barrels of oil 2) backed off
B.O. back out
Bo 1) oil shrinkage factor 2) oil formation volume
factor
B ob oil formation factor at bubblepoint
bob 1) the pumping of a beam well 2) a gauging
bob or weight
bobcat a machine with a short wheelbase that is used
to move earth
bob tail or bobtail 1) the cable-tool drillstring used
to complete a well after a rotary rig has drilled to
the top of the pay zone 2) a truck without a bed 3)
anything that is shorter than normal
bob-tail or bobtail abstract a set of summaries of
all recorded instruments concerning the title to a tract
of land. A bob-tail abstract is in contrast to a verbatim
abstract that has complete copies of all the recorded
instruments, (abbreviated abstract)
bob-tail or bobtail plant a gas plant that is used
to remove liquid hydrocarbons from natural gas. The
liquids are then sent to a fractionater to be separated
into various fractions.
bob-tail or bobtail rig a small drilling rig
BOCD barrels of oil per calendar day
BOD 1) barrels of oil per day 2) basic oxygen demand
B oD relative oil volume
body the viscosity of an oil
body foam a foam consisting of a liquid with
spherical bubbles distributed throughout the liquid
that will not rise to the surface. Crude oils with low
gravities and high viscosities can form body foam.
Body foam is in contrast to surface foam.
body member a wellhead housing designed to
confine well pressure
body test a high-pressure test designed by the
American Petroleum Institute to evaluate pressure
equipment such as blowout preventers and wellheads.
Body test pressure, which is higher than the rated
pressure for the equipment, is used, (shell test)
body waves the P- and S-waves that travel through
the earth during seismic exploration and earthquakes.
Body waves are in contrast to surface waves.
body yield strength the tensional force necessary
to cause a tubular such as casing to exceed the elastic
limit
BOE 1) blowout equipment 2) barrels-of-oil
equivalent
Bo, formation volume factor for oil at initial reservoir
conditions
boiler a pressure vessel that has a heat source used
to generate steam from water in the vessel
boiler fuel steam generation fuel for industrial or
electric-utility boilers
boiler house or boilerhouse to falsify a report
(doghouse)

boiling point boot acreage

boiling point the lowest temperature at which a
liquid starts to boil
boll weevil an inexperienced worker on a drilling
rig or lease. A boll weevil is known as a green hand
in England, (peapicker or weevil)
boll-weevil corner the location on a drill floor that
is given to a new hand (back-up corner)
boll-weevil hanger a tubing hanger
boll-weevil plug a retrievable plug that is attached
to the drillpipe and is used to test the blowout
preventers. The plug seats in the casinghead housing
and is sealed by pressure from above.
boll-weevil stunt a dangerous mistake on a drilling
rig
bolting threaded fasteners such as nuts and bolts,
capscrews, and studs
bomb a thick, steel-walled sampler for formation
fluids in a well under pressure A spring is attached
to a lower and upper valve and a tripping arm. The
bomb is activated by dropping a metal bar or by a
preset clock mechanism. The bomb is run on a wireline and also measures and records pressure.
bond 1) to join together 2) the adhesive that joins
two materials 3) the linkage that joins atoms. Bonds
are either ionic or covalent.
bond index a measure of the quality of the cement
bond in a well. The cement bond index is the
attenuation in the zone of investigation (db/ft) divided
by the attenuation in a well-cemented section (db/ft)
on a cement bond log.
bonding the condition of the adhesion between
cement and casing or wellbore
Bond number the gravitational forces divided by
the capillary forces The Bond number is about 10~6
in waterfloods. NB
bone a difficult formation to drill
bone dry gas that contains no water vapor
bonnet 1) an end connection such as a cap that is
designed to retain pressure 2) the valve part that packs
off and supports the valve stem 3) the steel retaining
cover on a swivel, housing cap
bonus a payment to the lessor, the mineral right
owner, by the lessee for signing a lease
bonus allocation rule a bonus allocation that is
paid by the lessee against the gross income for the
property in order to compute the percentage depletion
allowance. The bonus allocation in not a deductible
expense, (bonus exhaustion rule)

boom a steel arm used to support the line used in

a hoisting system
Boomer a marine seismic source that uses
capacitators charged to a high voltage. They are
discharged through a transducer into the water.
boomer 1) a mechanical device used to tighten
chains that secure a load in place (load binder) 2) a
transient field worker 3) a strong seismic reflection
off a massive reflector 4) A shallow marine seismic
system that uses a magnetostrictive source.
booster a compressor or pump that is used to raise
the pressure of gas or oil in a pipeline
booster compressor a compressor that is used to
increase the air volume and pressure going into the
inlet of a regular compressor. A booster compressor
is used for air drilling deep or large diameter holes.
booster jar a fishing tool accessory that is used to
intensify the effect of a mechanical or hydraulic jar
used to loosen a fish in a well. The booster jar is
run on the fishing string above the jar. A fluid such
as nitrogen is compressed in the jar as the fishing
string is raised. When the tripping mechanism is
released, the expansion of the fluid in the booster
jar amplifies the force of the shock, (jar accelerator
or intensifier)
booster station a pumping installation on an oil
pipeline that is designed to keep the oil flowing. The
stations are often located from 80-150 miles apart
on the pipeline. The booster station can also include
separators, storage, scraper traps, and control
equipment. On a gas pipeline, compressor stations
are used, (intermediate pump station)
boot 1) a bonus, often in the form of extra acreage
or monies, that is paid by one party in an exchange
of properties such as a farmout 2) a vertical pipe on
a lease stock tank that is used to maintain hydrostatic
pressure on the oil and to allow gas to escape before
the oil enters the pipeline gathering system (conductor
pipe) 3) the protective shield on a seismic hydrophone,
connector, or other device 4) an oil conductor used
in settling tanks to place liquids in the tank with little
disturbance near the bottom of the tank 5) a gas
separating chamber located on the top of a vertical
flow treater
boot acreage extra acreage earned by a farmee in
a farmout besides the earning well drilling and spacing
unit

bonus allowable an extra saltwater injection well

granted in an allowable by a state agency
bonus bidding a method of competitive bidding
for leases. The leases have a fixed royalty, and the
lease goes to the highest offered bonus.
bonus exhaustion rule see bonus allocation rule
book rate of return an accounting rate of return
that is used to evaluate corporations. It is the net
earnings per average dollar invested. The book rate
of return is calculated by dividing the book profits
or earnings by (the net cash flow minus depreciation
and any unusual items such as write-offs).

47

boot basket

48

boot basket or sub bottom casing packoff

boot basket or sub a short section of pipe that is

located just above a bit or mill on a drillstring and
is designed to catch large junk fragments in an outer
bowl. Eddy currents caused by the circulating drilling
mud cause the fragments to fall into the bowl. Boot
baskets or subs are always run with mills and whenever
drilling through metal or cement. As many as three
boot baskets or subs can be run on a string. A boot
basket is in contrast to a junk basket that uses reverse
circulation and catches the fish on the inside of the
tool, (basket or junk sub)
BOP blowout preventer
BOPCD barrels of oil per calendar day
BOPD or bopd barrels of oil per day
BOP elevator a lifting mechanism that is used to
move the blowout preventers into storage when not
being used on an offshore drilling rig
BOPH or boph barrels of oil per hour
BOPPD barrels of oil per producing day
BOPPH barrels of oil per producing hour
BOP stack see blowout-preventer stack
Bor or bor bored
border price the official price of natural gas sold
at the United States-Canada border as determined by
the Canadian government
bore 1) to cut a hole 2) the inside diameter of a
pipe, cylinder, piston, or well 3) a fluid opening or
passage
borehole the hole drilled by the bit. (wellbore)
borehole compensated sonic log a sonic log that
uses two transducers above and below the receiver
pair on the sonde. By alternately pulsing the
transducers and averaging the measurements,
borehole effects are reduced.
borehole direction the azimuth of the wellbore
borehole directional survey downhole
measurements of the inclination and azimuth at
specific depths in a well. The survey can be either
magnetic or gyroscopic and single or multishot. Both
the gyroscopic and magnetic multishot surveys are
recorded on film. A borehole directional survey is
more commonly called a directional or deviation
survey or drift log.
borehole effect the distortion on a well log caused
by the size, shape, or other characteristics of the
borehole and the filter cake. Compensated logs are
adjusted for the borehole effect.
borehole farmin or farmout an agreement
between two companies whereby a well is drilled
between producing wells. The well is drilled
depending on the granting of increased well density
on the acreage and does not earn any acreage.
borehole geometry tool a wireline device that
measures the inclination and azimuth of a well. The
borehole geometry tool measures azimuth with a
magnetic compass or gyroscope. Inclination is
measured with a pendulum. The tool can either be
single or multishot.
borehole gravimeter or gravity meter a wireline
instrument that is used to measure gravity at various
levels in a well. The borehole gravimeter is sensitive

to the density of the rocks surrounding the wellbore

and is used to determine the horizontal extent of
the reservoir rock and the possible location of
potential reservoir rock such as dolomite that was
not encountered in the wellbore, but occurs in the
vicinity of the wellbore. It can be used in both an
open and a cased hole. BHG
borehole survey see deviation survey
borehole televiewer a wireline device that is
lowered down wells to transmit an image of the
borehole. The borehole televiewer emits a pulsed,
narrow beam of ultrasonic energy that is reflected
off the borehole and is recorded to produce an
ultrasonic image of the borehole. The amplitude of
the reflected wave is displayed on a cathode ray tube
with the picture split vertically on magnetic north
and photographed. A borehole televiewer is used to
detect and study fractures in reservoir rock
surrounding the wellbore and to inspect the casing
in a well for corrosion or faulty joints, (seisviewer)
borehole volume the volume of a well calculated
from a caliper log
borer an old term for a driller
borescope a long optical instrument with a light that
is used to inspect the inside of pipe
boring journal an old term for a driller's log made
by a drilling master. The drilling section would include
the number of crew, hours worked, distance drilled,
number of joints used, delays, and stoppages. The
geological section included a description of formations
drilled.
boring pore a pore space in a rock, usually
limestone, that was created by a boring organism such
as a sponge, bryozoan, or pelecypod
boring rod a 15-18-ft section of solid wrought iron
about 1 in. in diameter that was used to connect the
tools to the walking beam of a the cable-tool rig.
Boring rods were used on very early versions of the
cable-tool rig and were later replaced by manila rope.
(drilling rod)
borings well cuttings
BOS brown oil stain
bot 1) bottom 2) botryoidal
bottle the dry storage silo used to store dry or liquid
drilling-mud chemicals
bottled gas propane gas (less commonly butane gas
or propane-butane mixture) that has been compressed
into a liquid. Bottled gas is used in rural areas for
home heating and cooking and has industrial,
agricultural, and commercial applications, (gas liquids
or liquified petroleum gas)
bottleneck an area of pipe with a reduced diameter
that was caused by stretching of the pipe
bottlenecking the stretching of pipe due to tension
bottle test a test used to determine what quantity
of a chemical will break an oil-in-water emulsion
bottom 1) the sinking of a barge in shallow water
to provide a drilling platform 2) to complete drilling
a well
bottom assembly see bottomhole assembly
bottom casing packoff a mechanism used to contain
the annular pressure between a suspended tubular

bottom dead center bottomhole or bottom-hole pressure test

or hanger and the spool or tubing head adapter over
the suspended tubular or hanger
bottom dead center the location of a piston in an
engine's cylinder at the lowest position in the cylinder
during a stroke. Bottom dead center is in contrast to
top dead center. BDC
bottom-discharge bit a type of rotary coring bit
in which drilling fluid passes through longitudinal
holes in the wall of the bit onto the face of the bit.
A bottom-discharge bit is used in soft formations, (faceejection bit)
bottomed to drill a well to total depth, (btmd)
bottom flooding liquid coming out of the bottom
of a hydrocyclone, such as a desander or desilter
bottom hold-down a sucker-rod pump anchor
located at the bottom of the pump
bottomhole or bottom hole the lowest point of
a well
bottomhole or bottom-hole agreement a type of
support agreement in which one party contributes
either cash or acreage in exchange for information
on a well drilled to certain depth by another party.
The bottomhole agreement is formalized in a
bottomhole contract or letter.
bottomhole or bottom-hole assembly the lower
part of the drillstring extending from the bit to the
drillpipe. The assembly can consist of drill collars,
subs such as stabilizers, reamers, shocks, hole openers,
and the bit sub and bit. The bottomhole assembly
can be a) slick with no stabilizers, b) a pendulum
bottomhole assembly for reducing the deviation of a
well, c) packed with stabilizers for a straight hole,
or d) a fulerum for increasing the deviation of the
well. Bottomhole assemblies are also described as
a) specialized, such as articulated, b) steerable, and
c) oriented or nonoriented. (bottom assembly)
bottomhole or bottom-hole back torque the
torque on a drillstring caused by the twisting of the
drillstring
bottomhole or bottom-hole choke a restriction
(orifice or choke) that is anchored in the lower section
of tubing in a well. The bottomhole choke controls
the pressure and restricts the flow up the tubing to
regulate the rate of flow and the gas/oil ratio. A storm
choke is a bottomhole choke that automatically closes
if a designated flow rate is exceeded. BHCK
bottomhole or bottom-hole circulating
pressure the pressure on a fluid at bottom of a well
while circulating a fluid. BHCP
bottomhole or bottom-hole contract a legal
agreement providing for the payment of money or
other benefits upon drilling a well to a specified depth
bottomhole or bottom-hole contribution or
support the cash or acreage contribution made in
a support agreement between two parties. One party
makes the contribution to another party that drills a
well to contract depth, either as a dry hole or producer,
performs certain tests, and shares the information on
that well.
bottomhole or bottom-hole gas separator see
bottomhole separator

49

bottomhole or bottom-hole heater a heater used

on the bottom of the well to heat and recover viscous,
low "API oil
bottomhole or bottom-hole letter an agreement
between the operator of a well and another party.
The operator will drill a well and share the information
from that well with the other party in return for cash
or acreage in what is called bottomhole contribution
or support. This is in contrast to a dry hole letter in
which the other party will contribute only if the well
is a dry hole.
bottomhole or bottom-hole location the location
of the lowest part of the well with reference to a
surface location
bottomhole or bottom-hole orientation sub a
small section of drillpipe in which a free-floating ball
will roll to the low side to open a port and indicate
the orientation of the sub. BHO sub
bottomhole or bottom-hole packer a mechanical
device that is used near the bottom of a well to prevent
flow up the annular space between two tubulars,
usually the casing-tubing annulus. The bottomhole
packer can have one, two, or three bores, depending
on the number of tubing string, (production packer)
bottomhole or bottom-hole plug a bridge or
cement plug that is used near the bottom of a well
to shut off that portion of the well below the plug.
The plug is often used to isolate a depleted or waterbearing zone.
bottomhole or bottom-hole pressure pressure at
the bottom of the well. If the well is being drilled
and is filled with circulating mud, the pressure will
be hydrostatic pressure due to the weight of the
overlying drilling mud. If the well is completed and
producing, the pressure on the fluids at the bottom
of the well is taken either while the fluids are flowing
(flowing bottomhole pressure), or after flow has
stopped and the pressure has built up (static
bottomhole pressure). The pressure that exists when
the fluids are not flowing will be formation or reservoir
pressure. Bottomhole pressure is often taken under
several different flow rates to calculate maximum
productivity. The pressure is measured by a bomb
lowered on a wireline and is reported in units of
psi, psia, or atmospheres. BHP
bottomhole or bottom-hole pressure bomb a
downhole device used to measure pressure in a well
at a specific depth. The bomb contains a pressure
gauge and is lowered on a wireline.
bottomhole pressure buildup test a test on a well
to determine a) static bottomhole pressure, b)
interwell permeability (kh) c) skin effect and d)
condition ratio. The well is shut-in and the bottomhole
pressure increase with time is monitored.
bottomhole or bottom-hole pressure gage or
gauge a pressure sensor that is run on a wireline
to measure flowing or shut-in pressure in a well. The
pressure is scribed on a chart with a clock drive.
bottomhole or bottom-hole pressure test a
measure of reservoir pressure, either flowing or shutin, at a specific depth in a well. The pressure
measurement is made with a pressure gauge run on
a wireline. The pressure-sensitive element can be a
coiled Bourdon tube, bellows, or a quartz crystal
resonator.

50

bottomhole or bottom-hole pump

bounce off the engine

bottomhole or bottom-hole pump an electric,

hydraulic, or sucker-rod pump that is used in artificial
lift to raise oil and other produced fluids from the
bottom of the well to the surface
bottomhole or bottom-hole regulator a valve that
is anchored in the lower tubing string of a well and
functions similar to a bottomhole choke. The valve
is normally closed against a spring-loaded seat and
opens at a specific pressure differential that can be
adjusted with the spring.
bottomhole or bottom-hole sample a sample of
the produced fluids taken from the bottom of a shutin well. A bottomhole sample is in contrast to a
separator or surface sample, (subsurface sample)
bottomhole or bottom-hole separator a
downhole device designed to separate oil and gas
before they are pumped up the well. The separator
is attached to the bottom of the tubing below the
standing valve and is the only fluid entry into the
pump. Fluids flow through a tortuous path in the
separator causing the gas to separate from the liquid
and flow into the tubing-casing annulus. The
bottomhole separator device is used to increase the
efficiency of the pump and prevent gas lock.
(bottomhole or downhole gas separator)
bottomhole or bottom-hole support see
bottomhole contribution
bottomhole or bottom-hole temperature the
temperature in a well at a specific depth. It is usually
taken after the well has been shut in for a period of
time to allow the fluids in the well to come to thermal
equilibrium.
bottomhole or bottom-hole well a well drilled
to a very hard subsurface rock
bottom-intake electric submersible pump an
electric submersible pump that has the pump and
motor positions reversed with the pump on the bottom
bottom lease an oil and gas lease on acreage that
has another lease (top lease) that will become effective
when the current bottom lease expires
bottom loading pressure the pressure on the
pontoon of a semisubmersible when the pontoon is
in the submerged position
bottom out to drill to total depth in a well \
bottom plug see bottom wiper plug
J
bottom sample a sample of crude oil taken) from
near the bottom of the oil in a storage tank \
bottoms and bottom settlings the solid anq liquid
residue in crude oil that accumulates on the bottom
of a storage tank

bottomset beds

bottomset horizontal sedimentary beds deposited in

deep water off a delta. Bottomset beds are deposited
in front of prograding foreset beds by fine-grained
sediments settling out of water.
bottom settlings and water see basic sediment and
water
bottoms up 1) one complete circulation of the
drilling fluid in a well 2) to maintain circulation of
the drilling mud after drilling in order to wash the
well cuttings out of the well
bottom up to verify the total depth of a well
bottom water water in the pores of rock immediately
underlying a gas or oil reservoir
bottom wiper plug a hard-rubber wiper plug used
in a cement job. The bottom wiper plug is pumped
down the casing ahead of the cement and is used to
wipe drilling mud from the casing walls. The plug
has a hole in it covered by a diaphragm that is designed
to rupture so that when the plug seats in the float
collar, cement slurry can pass through it. (bottomplug)
boud boudinage
Bouger anomaly 1) a gravity measurement that is
corrected for topography (elevation) and latitude, but
not for isostasy (density of subsurface rocks) 2) an
unusual area of higher or lower values on a map of
Bouger gravity values
Bouger correction a correction that is made to
gravity values or readings for the attraction caused
by the rock located between the gravity measurement
station and the elevation of the datum which is usually
sea level
boulder a sedimentary particle having a diameter
greater than 256 mm. BLDR
boulders driller's term for alternating hard and soft
formations in a well
PELITIC
PARALLEL
LAMINATIONS

E
D

CURRENT
RIPPLES

PARALLEL
LAMINATIONS

GRADED

i SHARP BASE
SCOUR MARKS

Bouma sequence

Bouma sequence the vertical sedimentary

sequence deposited by a complete turbidity current
is coming to rest. It is divided vertically into units
that are labeled a, b, c, d, ande, which are distinguished
by their sedimentary structures and grain size. The
a unit on the bottom of the sequence is coarse-grained,
poorly sorted, and massive with possible graded
bedding. It is a potential reservoir rock. The e unit
on the top is very fine-grained, has parallel laminae
and is composed of hemipelagic or pelagic muds.
The a, b, and even c units can be missing from a
sequence.
bounce off the engine to start a pumping well (kick
the well off)

bounce the bit Brach or brach

bounce he bit to tap the bit on the bottom of the
drillstring into the bottom of the well
boundary agreement an instrument that states the
exact location of the boundary between two lands
and the owner's agreement to that location. A boundary
agreement is used when there is a boundary dispute
and a survey plat might be needed.
boundary pressure the average fluid pressure at
the oil/water or gas/water contact

boundstone

boundstone a type of limestone formed by shells

of organisms still in their original growth positions.
The organisms form an intergrowth or framework
that binds the rock. Limestone deposited on a reef
flat is boundstone. B or Bdst
bound water water that is chemically attached or
absorbed on mineral grains and is not free to flow
Bourdon tube an instrument that is used to measure
fluid pressure. A Bourdon tube is a metal tube that
is slightly flattened and curved into a C-shape. Fluid
pressure in the tube will straighten the tube, and the
pressure is read on a circular scale. The end of the
tube is usually attached to a pointer on a gauge face.
Some Bourdon tubes are coiled.
bowl the support device that holds the slips in a
master bushing on the rotary table on the floor of a
drilling rig
bow tie a seismic reflection pattern with three
reflection branches

box female threads on a tubular or rod. On a sucker

rod, the box is an annealed or shot-peened steel
cylinder with female threads that couples with the
male or pin end of another sucker rod. The box has
a slightly larger diameter than the sucker rods and
are classified by the API as T, which is corrosion
resistant, and S for heavy loading, (rod coupling)
box and pin a type of coupling used to join tubulares
and rods. It is used when the tubulars or rods have
male threads on one end and female threads on the
other end. Box and pin is in contrast to a pin-andpin coupling.
box tap a female, tapered, self-threading fishing tool
that is used to screw externally onto a fish

51

box die log to draw horizontal lines through the

inflection points on well log curves to define bed
boundaries and vertical lines through the maximum
deflections of the curves to box in individual beds
on a well log
Boyle's-Charles' law a law of physics that combines
both Boyle's and Charles' laws to explain the
relationship between temperature (70, pressure (P),
and volume (V) of an ideal gas. It states: P^V^/T^ =
P-^-JTi- The z factor can be used to apply this law
to a real gas.
Boyle's law a law of physics that relates the volume
to the pressure of a gas It states that: P,/P2 = V,/V2
or PV = a constant. P is the pressure of a gas and V
is its volume. The law shows that when the pressure
of a gas changes, there is a corresponding change in
volume of the gas and vice versa. This law assumes
an ideal gas. The z factor can be used to apply this
law to a real gas.
Boyle's law porosimeter a device commonly used
to determine the porosity of a rock sample such as
a core. In the Boyle's law single-cell porosimeter, a
known volume of gas is compressed to a specific
pressure in a sample chamber with the rock sample.
The volume of gas is measured at both atmospheric
and the elevated pressure to determine the sample
porosity. In the Boyle's law double-cell porosimeter,
one chamber contains the sample and the other
chamber is empty. The gas pressure is increased in
the empty chamber. A valve then is opened to connea
the two chambers and the pressures are recorded
to calculate the sample porosity.
BP 1) back pressure 2) bridge plug 3) bull plug 4)
boiling point
bp boiling point
B.P. back pressure
BPCD barrels per calendar day
BPCL base production control lever
BPD, Bpd, or bpd barrels per day
BPF bullets per foot
BPH barrels per hour
BPI bytes per inch
BPLO barrels of pipeline oil
BPLOD barrels of pipeline oil per day
BPLOH barrels of pipeline oil per hour
BPM barrels per minute
BPO before payout
BPSD barrels per stream day
BPV back pressure valve
Bq becquerel
BR 1) building rig 2) building road 3) broken rollers
B.R. building rig
brace a steel structural member that braces a girt
between the legs of a derrick
brace angle the two steel supports for the Samson
post on a Class III lever type of beam pumper
Brach or brach brachiopod

52

brachiopod brake flange

brace

brace (off rotary drilling rig chart)

brachiopods

brachiopod a bottom-dwelling marine invertebrate

belonging to the phylum Brachiopoda. Brachiopods
have two shells (bivalved) that are not the same in
size or shape. This differentiates them from the clams
or pelecypods that have two similar shells.
Brachiopods have existed from the Cambrian period
to the present and are important guide fossils. Bracb
or brach
brackish a mixture of fresh and saline waters. The
water contains between 1 and 35 ppt salt. BRAK, brak,
orbrks
bradding a condition on a drilling bit in which the
teeth have dulled and the relatively softer inner portion
of the teeth have flowed over the harder case area.
Bradding is caused by too much weight on the teeth.
bradenhead a steel cap screwed on the top of the
well casing. A bradenhead is used to confine gas
between the tubing and casing, (stuffing-box
casinghead)
bradenhead gas casinghead gas that is produced
from a well that has a bradenhead (casinghead) used
primarily on flowing or gas-lift wells
bradenhead gas well a well that is producing gas
from a gas reservoir that has been sealed off from
an underlying oil or gas reservoir in that well
bradenheading or braden heading a method
used in a well to pump treating fluids into a formation.
The treating fluids are pumped down the tubing string.
They are forced into the formation by produced
formation fluids that are then pumped into the tubing
string. If a packer is used in the well to isolate the
formation to be treated, the process is called
bullheading.
bradenhead method or squeeze a method of
squeeze cementing. The drillpipe is run in the well
until just above the casing perforations. A cement slurry
is pumped down the drillpipe and the pipe rams are
closed. The cement is then squeezed by pressure
through the perforations. Other methods are packer
squeeze and hesitation.
braided stream a stream formed of numerous,
intertwining channels separated by sand and gravel
bars. The coarse-grained sand and gravel deposits can
become potential reservoir rocks, (anastamosing
stream)
brainstorms engineers
BRAK or brak brackish
brake a device (mechanical, electrodynamic, or
hydrodynamic) that slows or stops the velocity of a
mechanism
brake band the flexible steel band that holds the
brake blocks and tightens over a drum to apply the
braking force
brake block the asbestos or similar resistant section
of lining on the band of a band brake. Several brake
blocks form the brake lining that generates the friction
on a drum when the brake band is tightened to cause
the braking force.
brake fever the condition of a roughneck who
persists in using the driller's brake
brake flange the surface of the drum to which the
brake lining is applied to cause the braking force.
(brake rim)

brake horsepower breakout cat head or cathead

braided river

brake horsepower the actual horsepower of an

engine delivered at the output end. Brake horsepower
is measured on the drive shaft of the engine by a
brake or dynamometer. Indicated horsepower minus
friction horsepower is equal to brake horsepower.
BHP, B.H.P., or bhp

brake lever a lever on the floor of a drilling rig

that is used to activate the drawworks brake
brake lining the series of brake blocks on the brake
band that are tightened around the drum to cause
friction and generate the braking force
brake rider a driller who uses the drawworks brake
excessively
brake rim the surface of the drum to which the
brake lining is applied to cause the braking force
(brake flange)
brake shoe the heat and friction-resistant material
on a band brake that comes in contact with a brake
drum or clutch drum
brake thermal efficiency the brake work divided
by the heat input
brake tie-down chain a chain located on the floor
of a drilling rig that is used to secure the brake lever
on the drawworks to hold the traveling block at a
certain height
brake weight a driller
braking capacity the load that a drawworks brake
and auxiliary brake on a drilling rig can hold
branch more than one seismic reflector observed
for the same subsurface point. A branch can be caused
by a buried focus.

53

branched-chain paraffin a type of hydrocarbon

molecule that is saturated with single bonds and is
formed by a straight chain similar to a paraffin but
with a side chain. An example is isobutane. A branchedchain paraffin is in contrast to a normal or n-paraffin
that forms a straight chain, (isoparaffin)
brass an alloy with 60% or more copper and zinc
BKD building road
BRDGE bridge
breadth the maximum width of a ship's hull or
offshore drilling rig (beam)
break 1) to start 2) a change in the drilling rate due
to penetration of a softer or harder subsurface rock
layer 3) the destruction of foam
break circulation to start pumping drilling mud
down the drillpipe to restore circulation after the well
was shut in
breakdown an equipment failure
break down 1) to unscrew the drillstring into
separate joints after either completion of drilling the
well, a mechanical failure, or during a change in
drillpipe sizes. The drillpipe is laid on the pipe rack.
(laying down or breaking down the pipe) 2) the
fracturing of a formation in a well
breakdown pressure the highest pressure,
measured at the surface, applied to a frac fluid during
a hydraulic fracturing job before a subsurface
formation takes fluids at a high rate and start to fracture
breaker plate see breakout block
break formation to drill through a formation
breaking down the pipe see break down
breaking strength the minimum stress that will
rupture a substance under atmospheric pressure and
room temperature (rupture strength)
break it up to make an analysis of crude oil
break out or breakout 1) to pull tubulars or rods
from a well, unscrew, and stack them in the derrick
2) to separate gas from a liquid 3) the formation of
gas bubbles in a liquid 4) to begin at a certain level
of responsibility as a member of a drilling rig crew
5) to loosen a pipe joint 6) the rising of oil to the
surface of an oil/emulsion drilling mud 7) an oblong
wellbore crosssection caused by spalling of fractured
rock into the well. The wellbore is elongated parallel
to the a or minimum stress direction of the
compressional forces that caused the shear fracture.
breakout block a metal holding device in the shape
of a heavy plate that fits into the bowl of a rotary
table and is used to screw (made up) or unscrew
(broke out) the bit from the drillstring by rotating
the drillstring. The breakout block is sized according
to the size of the bit. (bit or bit breaker box or breaker
plate)
breakout cat head or cathead a hub that is attached
to a rotating shaft (catshaft) such as on the drawworks
of a drilling rig. It is used as a power source with
the tongs to unscrew (break out) joints of pipe. The
breakout cathead is located opposite the driller's side
of the drawworks. The breakout cathead usually has
a stronger clutch and jerk line than the spinning
cathead.

54

Breakout man Brine storage pit

breakout man the crew member on a drilling rig

that operates the breakout tong
breakout oil oil that has separated from an emulsion
mud
breakout tongs the large, wrench-like device that
is suspended from the mast or derrick above the drill
floor of a drilling rig. In coming out of the hole, the
lead-tong or breakout man uses the breakout tongs
which act as the torque tongs and are connected by
rope or chain to the breakout cathead to grip the
pin end of a pipe joint for breaking out the pipe.
When going in the hole, the breakout tongs grip the
box end of the pipe and are used as backups for
the makeup tongs, (lead tongs)
breakover a change from one drilling mud type
to another (conversion)
breaks Small faults in rocks
break tour to begin the 24-hour cycle of tours by
the drilling crew of a drilling rig after it has been
rigged and is ready to drill
breathe or breathing the flow of vapors and air
in and out of a storage tank due to daily heating and
cooling
breather tubes outlet pipes on a storage tank that
allows air or vapor to escape as the tank is being
filled or the liquid is expanding by heating
breather or breathing vent a small port in a storage
tank that allows for the flow of air and vapor in and
out of the tank due to cooling and heating. The vent
can have a flame arrestor on it.
breathing loss gas lost by circulation
Brec, brec, or BRECC breccia
breccia a clastic, sedimentary rock containing very
unsorted, angular particles, some of which are larger
than sand in size. Breccia is similar to conglomerate,
except the breccia particles are angular, whereas the
conglomerate particles are rounded. BRECC, Brec or
brec
breccia pore a type of pore found in limestones
that is formed by the spaces between large, angular
pieces
brecciated intensely fractured and broken into
angular particles
brecciola a sedimentary rock composed of angular
rubble particles of carbonates interstratified with dark
marine shales. Brecciolas are deposited by gravity
slides and turbidity currents.
Brf barrels of reservoir fluid
brg bearing
brhg branching
bridge 1) an obstruction such as soft material that
swells or caves in to block a well, possibly trapping
the drillstring 2) the plugging of an orifice by material
inside the orifice. Bridging is in contrast to arching
that occurs outside the orfice. (bridge over or up)
bridge over 1) the collapse of the sides of well
around the drillstem 2) to plug a well at a specific
depth in the well (bridge or bridge up)
bridge plug an expandable tool with slips, a plug
mandrel and a rubber seal that is run in a cased well
to close it at a specific depth. A bridge plug is used

to isolate producing formations in a well or to plug

and abandon a well with cement. Three type of bridge
plugs are a) permanent, b) drillable (made of soft
metal) and c) retrievable (lowered on tubing or
wireline) BP
bridge up see bridge over
bridging the plugging of a well
bridging agents or material material that is added
to drilling mud or cement slurry to remedy a lost
circulation problem. Laminated plastic, ground, coal,
ground neoprene, shredded redwood and cedar,
leather, asbestos, cottonseed hulls, pig hair,
cellophane, and wood shavings are common bridging
materials, (lost circulation material)

bridle

bridle

bridle 1) the wire rope or cable that connects the

horsehead to the carrier bar and polished rod on a
beam pumping unit 2) the end of a survey cable to
which a sonde is attached
brightness an emulsion indicator. Relatively pure
water or oil is clear and bright, whereas emulsions
are murky and opaque. The greater the interfacial
area, the lighter the emulsion color.
bright spot an intense seismic reflection on a seismic
record. The reflection is between 20-25% of the
seismic energy compared to a typical reflection of
4-6%. A bright spot is caused by an abnormally large
reflection coefficient on an interface. A shale overlying
a sandstone reservoir saturated with gas can cause a
bright spot. As little as 2% gas can cause a bright
spot.
brimstone sulfur
brine very saline water, with greater than 35 ppt salt,
the salt content of ocean water. Oilfield brine is the
saline water often produced with oil from an oil well.
The most common salt in oilfield brine is sodium
chloride (NaCl).
brine disposal well a well used to inject oilfield
brine (salt water) into a subsurface reservoir
brine storage pit a surface depression that uses
either evaporation and/or seepage to dispose of oilfield brine or salt water

bringing bottoms up bryozoan

55

1 MILE

Sife

isr^^l

bright spot

bringing bottoms up to circulate well cuttings to

the surface of a well after drilling has stopped
bringing in a well to drill, complete, and put a
well on production
BRIT or brit brittle
British thermal unit a unit of heat measurement
often used to evaluate natural gas. A British thermal
unit is the amount of heat needed to raise the
temperature of 1 lb of water, 1 F. It is equal to 252
cal, 777.649 ft-lbs or 1060 J. The heating value of gas
is expressed in Btu/ft3and in Btu/gal for liquids.
Pipeline natural gas has between 900 and 1,200 Btu/
ft . Dry natural gas averages 1,031 Btu/ft3and wet
natural gas averages 1,110 Btu/ft3. The Btu content
of crude oil depends on API of the oil and averages
5,700,000 Btu/bbl of light oil. On a Btu basis, one
average barrel of oil equals 6,040 ft3of average natural
gas. BTU, B.T.U., B.t.u., Btu ,or BThU
brittle deformation the permanent fracturing of a
substance A rock is brittle if it fractures at less than
3-5% of strain. A substance is said to be brittle if it
ruptures below the yield point and ductile if it ruptures
above the yield point. Brittle deformation is in contrast
to elastic deformation.
Brk or brk break
BRKN or brkn broken
brks brackish
BRKW brackish water
brl barrel
brl/a barrels per annum
brn brown
broach to break through to the surface around the
casing in a well
broaching the uncontrolled flow of formation fluids
along the outside of a casing string up to the surface
broadside a type of arrangement used in seismic
reflection shooting in which the shotpoint is located
a significant distance from the geophone line of the

spread. An L-spread has the shotpoint located to the

side of one end on the line of spread, whereas a
T-spread has the shotpoint located opposite the center
of the line of spread.
broken 1) a sandstone with thin shale layers 2) a
pipe or tubing that has been loosened with pipe tongs
3) a formation with a mixed composition
broken thread a thread tooth used in a connection
that is fractured or chipped
broke out to be promoted to a new job
broker a person who purchases leases either as an
investment for himself to be sold later or as an agent
for a company that desires to keep their lease
purchases secret
bromine value the number of centigrams of
bromine absorbed by one gram of oil under specific
conditions. The bromide value is a measure of the
unsaturatedness of an oil
bronc or bronch a relative inexperienced or newly
promoted drill-rig worker
bronchitis the problem with a driller when he has
inexperienced rig workers or bronchs
bronze an alloy of tin and copper
broomstick charge an explosive charge that gives
off a directional impulse used in seismic exploration
Br.sh. brown shale
bit bright
brtl brittle
Brunton compass a pocket compass with sights and
a mirror that is used by a geologist in the field. It is
often used to determine the strike and dip of beds.
brute stack stacking of seismic traces before normal
moveout corrections have been made. A brute stack
is used early in seismic processing to estimate
velocities.
Bry bryozoa
bryozoan a small aquatic invertebrate belonging to
the phylum Bryozoa. Some live in colonies and secrete

56

BS bubblepoint curve

bryozoans

a branchwork of calcium carbonate. Bryozoans have

existed from Ordovician period to the present and
were important reef builders during Paleozoic era.
Bty
BS 1) basic sediment 2) bottom sediment 3) base
sediment
BS&W basic sediments and water
BS&W monitor an instrument used in a leaseautomatic-custody-transfer (1ACT) system that
measures and records the basic sediment and water
content of oil being transferred to a pipeline. Oil
with a BS&W content above a certain amount can
be automatically transferred back to treatment
facilities.
BSCFD, BSCF/D, or Bsctfd billion standard cubic
feet per day
BSD barrels per stream day
BSE backscattered electron
bsg bushing
B.S. gang a production crew
BSI British Standards Institution
BSKT basket
BSMP bit samples
BSMT or bsmt basement
BSPF bullets shot per foot
BSR bottom sinulating reflector
Bsto or bsto barrels of stock tank oil
BSULW barrels of sulfur water
BSW barrels of salt water
BSWPH barrels of salt water per hour
BT broken teeth
Bt total formation volume factor
b(t) noise
BTG bourdon tube gauge
BThU British thermal unit
BTM, Btm, or btm bottom
btm ch bottom choke
btm chk bottom check
btmd bottomed
BTS blankets to surface
Btu, B.T.U., B.t.u. or BTU british thermal unit
Btu or BTU adjustment clause a provision in a
gas pipeline contract that provides for an adjustment
in the gas price for the Btu content of the gas above
or below a specific amount

Btu or BTU regulation clause a gas purchase

contract provision that allows the purchaser to refuse
gas with a yield of less than a minimum number of
Btu/ft3.
btw between
BTX benzene, toluene, xylen
bty battery
BU balled up
bu buff
bubble bucket a sample container that is used to
receive the fluid from a drillstem test
bubble cap a concave-down metal cap that is located
over an orifice on a horizontal bubble-cap tray. The
tray contains a cool liquid. Gases rising through the
orifice in the tray are forced to bubble through the
liquid as they rise.

DISTILLING
COLUMN.

SIDEDRAW

bubble tray tower

bubble-cap tray A horizontal metal tray with bubble

caps mounted over orifices on the tray, the tray
contains a cool liquid and rising gases are forced to
bubble through the liquid. Several bubble-cap trays
are arranged vertically in bubble towers. Bubble
towers are used both in refining and in absorber
towers, (bubble tray)
bubble effect a secondary emission that occurs when
using a marine seismic source such as an air gun.
The bubble effect is caused by oscillation of an air
bubble as it pulses by contracting and expanding.
bubble flow a flow regime with gas bubbles
dispersed in a liquid
bubble hole a well that produces gas during a
drillstem test
bubblepoint 1) the temperature and pressure at
which solution gas will first bubble out of crude oil
in a subsurface reservoir 2) the minimum temperature
at a certain pressure or the minimum pressure at a
certain temperature, at which bubbles form in a liquid
3) the temperature at which solution gas bubbles out
of oil on the surface, b
bubblepoint curve a line drawn along the bubble
point of a pressure or temperature-versusconcentration plot or temperature-versus-pressure
plot. A bubble-point curve shows where bubbles first
form in a liquid.

bubblepoint pressure bulk density

bubblepoint pressure the lowest pressure at which
crude oil in a subsurface reservoir is saturated with
solution gas A slight decrease in the pressure will
cause bubbles of solution gas to form in the oil.
bubble pulses the pulses caused by the oscillation
of a high-pressure gas bubble in water. Bubble pulses
are caused by a marine seismic source such as an
air gun and can be filtered out by seismic processing.
bubblepoint pump a type of downhole oil pump
that is sensitive to solution gas bubbles forming in
oil. When saturation pressure is reached in the well,
solution gas locks the pump until the pressure builds
up to above saturation pressure. A bubblepoint pump
maintains a backpressure on the producing formation
in excess of the bubblepoint pressure to prevent
solution gas bubbles from forming. This increases
ultimate oil production.
bubble tower a vertical tank that uses bubble-cap
trays to pass gas through a liquid. An absorber tower
or glycol dehydrator is a bubble tower.
bubble tray see bubble-cap tray
Bubl bubble
buchwash basic sediments or bottom settlings
bucking or bucking-current electrodes the
electrodes in a wireline well-log sonde that focus the
current from the measuring electrodes into a
horizontal sheet that extends out into the formations
surrounding the wellbore. The bucking electrodes
are often 5-6 ft long compared to the central or
guarded electrode that is 3-6 in. long, (guard
electrodes)

buckle a bend or kink

buckle folding folding in sedimentary rocks caused
by forces parallel to the layering in the rock. Buckle
folding results in horizontal shortening.
buckled pipe a tubular such as tubing that is bent
into a helix. Buckled pipe is the result of a compressive
axial load on the tubular.
Buckles number water saturation times porosity.
(bulk volume of water)
buckling the twisting of a tubular, see helical
buckling
buckling stress the force that causes pipe to bend.
Buckling stress can be caused by either a sharp
deviation in a well or by compressive axial stress that
causes helical bending.
buck up to tighten a threaded connection such as
between pipe joints
budget the planned allocation of monies for an
investment such as drilling a well
buffer a substance that, when dissolved in water,
resists a hydrogen ion concentration or pH change
when an acid or base is added
buffer capacity the ability of a solution to maintain
a specific pH
bug 1) a microfossil. 2) an error in a computer
program
bug blower a large fan on the floor of a drilling
rig that is used to provide some relief from insects
bug hole see vug
bug picker Someone who works with microfossils

57

bug roost a bed

bugs 1) a seismograph crew 2) bacteria
build-and-hold wellbore a deviated or horizontal
well in which the inclination increases to a specific
angle and then maintains that inclination to the target
build angle 1) to increase the inclination of a well.
The build angle is approximately 3/100 ft. for
conventional directional drilling and 27ft for shortradius horizontal drainholes. 2) The rate of increasing
change of inclination of a well measured in 7100 ft,
30m, or 10m.
build curve the portion of a deviated or horizontal
well in which the well is deflected from vertical to
the desired inclination angle. The build curye extends
from the kickoff point to the end of curve.
building pits to make an excavation and
surrounding embankment for the mud pits on a
drilling rig
building rate see build rate
build radius the radius of curvature on a circle that
duplicates the build curve of a deviated hole
build rate the curvature of a build curve or rate of
angle increase in a deviated hole. The build rate is
usually expressed in 7100 ft and is typically V/t37100 ft. Positive is used for increasing angle
whereas negative is decreasing angle, (building
rate)
buildup the part of a well where the inclination
increases
buildup test a test run on a well to determine its
effective drainage radius and obtain information about
the permeability of the producing formation. The
production rate is stabilized and held constant. The
well is shut in for a period of time and the rise of
bottomhole pressure is recorded. A buildup test can
determine whether skin or borehole damage exists.
bulb bulbous

BULB

STEM

ROOT
bulb on a salt plug

bulb the enlarged upper section of a salt stock or

plug that was formed by salt swelling sideways. The
part of the bulb that protrudes out beyond the stem
is called the overhang, (cap, hat or head)
bulk density the combined density of rock and fluids
in the pore spaces

58

bulkhead bully

bulkhead an interior wall, usually on a ship or

offshore drilling rig
bulkhead deck the highest deck on a ship or
offshore drilling rig to which the watertight bulkheads
extend
bulk hose a flexible rubber hose on an offshore
drilling platform used to raise bulk supplies such as
water, fuel, drilling mud, or cement slurry from a
supply boat or barge to the platform
bulk modulus the ratio of change in pressure on
a body to fractional volume change. Bulk modulus
is the reciprocal of compressibility, volume elasticity,
incompressibility modulus or modulus of
incompressibility
bulk mud drilling mud or slurry that is mixed with
water or oil. Bulk mud is in contrast to dry mud
that is stored in sacks.
bulk storage trailer a large trailer that is used to
store dry cement on site for a cement job. The trailer
is moved on location and filled several days before
the job.
bulk volume the percentage of a particular
substance in a unit volume. BV or Vb
bulk-volume gas the percentage of gas in a unit
volume. BVG
bulk-volume hydrocarbon the percentage of
crude oil and natural gas in a unit volume. BVH
bulk-volume matrix the percentage of rock in a
unit volume. BVM
bulk-volume meter an instrument that measures
the bulk volume of a sample such as a core by
immersing it in a fluid and measuring the displaced
fluid in a calibrated tube. A bulk-volume meter is
used to calculate the porosity of the sample.
bulk volume of water see bulk volume water. BVW
bulk-volume oil the percentage of crude oil in a
unit volume. BVO
bulk-volume water the amount of formation water
in a unit volume, (bulk volume of water) BVW
bulk volume water-minimum or bulk volume
water-irreducible the percentage water that is
irreducible, bound to the rock surfaces by capillary
action, and cannot be produced. BVWmin or BVW^
bulldogged a fishing tool used to attach to fish or
junk on the bottom of the well. The tool is designed
so that it will not unattach from the fish or junk.
bulldozer a powerful tractor with a blade on the
front
bullet 1) a perforating gun projectile. Bullets range
in diameter from V+-*/\6 in. and come in various shapes
described as punch, needle, mushroom, burrfree, and
steelflo. 2) A sidewall coring projectile. BUILT
bullet perforator a type of tubular perforator that
is lowered into a well to shoot high-velocity projectiles
called bullets into the casing or liner and cement to
perforate the well. The perforator is electronically
detonated from the surface and can fire one, several,
or all the bullets. Bullet perforating was introduced
in the 1930s, but shaped explosive charges are more
commonly used today in perforating.
bull gear the large circular gear on a mud pump

The bull gear is powered by the engines and drives

the connecting rods.
bullheading 1) a method used in a well to pump
treating fluids into a formation. The treating fluids
are pumped down the tubing string. The fluids are
forced into the formation by produced formation fluids
that are then pumped into the tubing string. A packer
is used to isolate the formation to be treated. If a
packer is not used, the process is called
bradenheading. 2) to pump heavy drilling mud into
the kill line and annulus of a well to control the well
bullhead squeeze a technique that uses hydraulic
pressure applied to a well to force cement slurry
through perforations in a pipe. Cement flow up the
annulus is prevented by a packer.
bullnose a plug that fits into a subsea production
flowline and allows a line to enter the flowline. The
bullnose is removed once the line is secured.
bullnose bit a drag bit with a convex, hemipherical
face that cuts a nonrecoverable core

bull plug a threaded pipe fitting or nipple with a

rounded, closed end that forms a cap. A bull plug is
used to close a pipe. The bull plug on the bottom
of a logging tool uses an O-ring seal. BP
bull rope the rope that connects the bull wheel and
band wheel on a cable-tool rig
bull scout the oil scout that is elected to be in charge
of the scout checks or meetings. The bull scout assigns
scouts to their districts to be covered, (czar)
bull's eye diapir a subcircular diapir
BULLT bullet
bull tongs a tool consisting of a releasable chain
and handle that is used to grip and turn pipe or fittings
larger than can be handled with a pipe wrench, (chain
tongs)
bull wagon a casing wagon
bull wheel the large wooden spool, 7-8 ft in
diameter with a shaft of 10 in. in diameter that is
used to hold the cable on a cable-tool rig. It was
powered in early days from a bull rope attached to
the band wheel. Later, cable-tool bull wheels were
connected to the band wheel by a chain drive with
a clutch. The bull wheel is located on the drill floor
of a cable-tool rig on the side opposite the Samson
post.
bully an oilfield worker

bump a well or bump down burping

DERRICK

BIT
bull wheel

bump a well or bump down to have the downhole

pump on a pumping well to hit the bottom of the
well It is caused by too long a sucker-rod string.
Bumping a well can be done on purpose to clean
out any sand, mud, or paraffin from the well.
bumped a cement plug that has hit the float collar
near the bottom of a casing string during a cement
job on a well
bumper jar or sub a downhole fishing device that
consists of pipe with a solid metal rod in it. The rod
slides up and down in the pipe with a stroke length
of 18-36 in. and is designed to deliver a heavy,
downward blow to a tool that is attached to the bottom
of it. The sub is located between the jars and the
fishing tool on a fishing string. The bumper jar is
used in swabbing, cutting paraffin, and fishing and
often has a sinker bar above it. The bumper sub is
also used to free stuck pipe.
bumper sub a short section of pipe that acts like a
shock absorber on a drillstring. The bumper sub is
a cylinder with compressible fluid and a piston with
a 5-ft stroke. Bumper subs come in various lengths,
weights, strokes, and diameters. One or more are
used on the bottomhole assembly just above the drill
collars on a semisubmersible or drillship to
compensate for heave.
bumping the plug to pump cement slurry, a top
plug, and a displacement fluid down the casing string
during a cement job until the top plug lands on the
bottom plug indicating that the slurry has been
pumped out of the casing. An increase in cement
pump pressure occurs when the top plug bumps the
float collar.
bump oflf to disconnect a rod-line well from a central
power unit
bump-off post a device on a jack well that allows
the jack well to be disconnected without affecting the
other wells on the central jack plant
bung down to drill a well
bunker heavy fuel oil. It is described by numbers
such as #6 bunker fuel oil.
bunkhouse the building used to house the crew
and supplies on a drilling rig

59

buoyancy 1) the ability of a substance or object to

float on a fluid 2) the upward-directed pressure on
an object that is partially or entirely immersed in a
fluid. It is equal to the weight of the fluid that is
displaced by the object. 3) the ability of a fluid to
support an object
buoyancy chamber a container for water ballast
located in the pontoon or caisson of a semisubmersible
drilling rig. Water ballast is used for stability and to
raise and lower the semisubmersible in the water.
(ballast tank)
buoyant weight the effective weight of something
submerged in a fluid. Buoyant weight is equal to the
weight of the object in air minus the weight of the
fluid it displaces.
Bur or bur 1) burrow 2) burrowed
bur a rotary drilling bit
burdens the overriding royalties, production
payments, carried interests, and lessor royalties to
which a working interest is subjected
Burdigalian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 23-17 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Miocene epoch.
buried-focus effect a condition in seismic
exploration caused by a subsurface, concave-upward
reflector that focuses the reflections to a subsurface
point before the reflections reach the surface and
are recorded. This results in branches where more
than one reflector is observed for the same subsurface
point.
buried hill a basement or hard, sedimentary-rock
hill covered by softer sedimentary rock in the
subsurface. Granite-wash reservoirs can occur on
buried granite hill, and compaction anticline traps
can occur in sedimentary rocks over buried hills.
burn a bit to drill too fast
burned-out reservoir rock a reservoir rock that
contained crude oil but was naturally subjected to
excessive temperatures (generally above about 300F);
the oil was thermally cracked into thermal gas and
graphite. The graphite (C) can often be seen coating
the sediment grains.
burner tip 1) a point where natural gas on a burner
is burned 2) the gas price at the end user
burning disposal by fire of casinghead or solution
gas (flaring) 2) excessive erosion on a drilling bit
due to insufficient drilling fluid circulation
burning point the lowest temperature at which the
surface of a particular crude oil will ignite and steadily
burn when an open flame is held at its surface
burning shoe a rotary shoe used in fishing
operations that is designed to grind up and pulverize
junk (milling shoe)
burn-out pit a surface depression that is used to
dispose of materials by fire, (burn pit)
burn pit a surface depression that is used to dispose
of waste oil and materials by fire, (burn-out pit)
burn shoe a short cylindrical section of pipe that
is used on the bottom of the drillstring to mill or
grind away stuck pipe or junk in a well
burping intermittent flow on a well, (belching)

60

burr butt-welded pipe

burr a local area of roughness or a sliver on a surface

produced by mechanical damage
burrow pore a pore, often in limestone, formed by
the burrow of an animal in the sediments
burst pressure the net outward-directed pressure
on the inside of a pipe
burst pressure rating or strength the maximum
pressure that the inside of an object such as drillpipe
can bear before failure, (internal yield strength)
bury threads to screw a connection together until
the male threads are covered by the shoulder on the
female connection and cannot be seen
bus or bus bar numerous electrical conductors that
are arranged together to collect electric current from
several sources and distribute it. A bus is a solid metal
conductor that is designed to carry a heavy electrical
current.
bushing 1) a removable sleeve or lining that is used
on a pipe or opening to limit its size, provide a guide,
or resist wear or corrosion 2) a pipe fitting that is
used to connect two pipes of different sizes. It has
larger external threads and smaller internal threads.
bsg
bust the failure to tie or return a survey loop back
within acceptable standards

H
1

C
c1 1
H H

H
1

H- C
1
1
H
1
H- -C-H

H
1

butterfly valve

and close The butterfly valve is used to turn the flow

on and off. (fishtail or wafer valve)
Butterworth tank cleaning system rotating
nozzles of high-pressure, hot-water jets that are used
to clean gas from oil tanks
button 1) the tungsten carbide, conical, spherical,
or chisel-shaped pellet that is cold-pressed into a hole
drilled in the face of a steel cone on an insert or
button roller-cone bit. The button does the crushing
and chipping" of the rock on the bottom of the well.
Chisel-shaped buttons are used in softer rocks,
whereas the spherical buttons are used in harder rocks.
(compact or insert) 2) a block that is nailed to the
drill floor and is used to hold the bit when the drillstem
is screwed into it 3) a small, disk-shaped microresitiviry
pact electrode

C
\

W
1

C-- H
1

H
butane (normal and isobutane)

butane a gas (C4Hl0) found in some natural gases

Butane has two isomers: isobutane and1 n-butane.
Isobutane has a molecular weight of 58.124, a boiling
point of 10.9F, a critical temperature of 274.98F, a
specific gravity at 60F of 0.5631 and a gross heat
content of 3252.7 Btu/ft3. N-butane has a molecular
weight of 58.124, a boiling point of 311F, & critical
temperature of 3Q5.65F, a specific gravity at 60*F of
0.5844, and a gross heat content of 3262.1 Btu/ft3.
Butane is often separated from natural gas and used
as an additive to gasoline, or liquified under pressure
and used as a part of liquid petroleum gas. It is one
of the paraffin series of hydrocarbons.
butene an olefin or alkane with the chemical formula
C4H8 (butylene)

butterfly valve a type of quick-opening valve that

uses a disk or wafer on a pivot in a chamber to open

button bit (Hughes Tool Co.)

button bit a type of roller-cone bit with tungsten

carbide buttons or inserts on the cone faces. The
button bit is commonly used in drilling hard rocks
and in coring. The button, bit crushes the rock by
Compression and produces relatively fine cuttings
compared to those produced by a steel tooth or milled
teeth roller-cone bit. (msert bit)
button hole a small hole in tubing thai allows natural
gas from the tubing to flow up the casing-tubing
annufus
button pole an extension on a gin pole
buttress sand beach sands deposited on an
unconformity by transgressing (rising) seas. Buttress
sands can be potential petroleum reservoir rocks.
butt-welded pipe a tubular that has one longitudinal
seam formed mechanically to make the welded

butylene

buttress sands

junction The edges were heated in a furnace to welding

temperature before welding.
butylene an olefin or alkane with the chemical
formula C4H8. (butene)
buy-back crude the proportion of crude oil
belonging to the national government in a sharing
agreement, (participation crude)
BV bulk volume
BVG bulk-volume gas
BVH bulk-volume hydrocarbon
BVM bulk-volume matrix
BVO bulk-volume oil
BVW bulk-volume water

byte

61

^,. bulk-volume water-irreducible

BVWmln bulk-volume water-minimum
BW barrels of water
B w water formation-volume factor
B^g wet-gas formation volume factor
BW/H barrels of water per hour
BW/D barrels of water per day
BWL barrels water load
BWOL barrels of water over load
BWPD or bwpd barrels of water per day
BWPH barrels of water per hour
BWPMM barrels of water per million cubic feet
BWTR brine water
b.y. billion years
bypass a pipe connection that goes around a flow
control mechanism such as a valve A bypass is used
during adjustments or repairs.
bypassing or by-passing the flow of fluid such as
water around relatively impermeable reservoir rocks,
leaving oil behind, (imbition)
bypass valve a valve that allows fluid to flow around
an area or piece of equipment in the line
byte the computer memory needed to store one
character. A character is a symbol such as A or 2. A
byte commonly takes 8 bits of memory. Computer
memory is measured in kilobytes or megabytes.

62

C cable-tool rig

C 1) Celsius 2) centigrade 3) coal 4) center 5)

capacitance 6) concentration 7) conductivity 8)
coulomb 9) coefficient 10) specific heat 11) waterdrive
constant 12) calculated 13) coil 14) carbon 15) cubic
16) phase velocity 17) curvature 18) components 19)
cored
c 1) coarse 2) core 3) capillary 4) contact 5) critical
6) conversion 7) compressibility 8) electrochemical
9) correlated 10) capacity 11) constant 12) casing 13)
compressional wave 14) shaliness exponent 15) coal
16) heat capacity 17) centiCa calcite
CA elevation correction
Ca apparent compressibility
cabbages bearings located on the pitman of a beam
pumping unit
cable 1) a rope made of strands of steel wire. A cable
is in contrast to a wire rope that has a fiber core
such as hemp with strands of steel wire wound around
it. 2) the electrical conductors that connect the
geophones with the seismic recording truck. The cable
has as many pairs of wires as geophone groups, which
often number 24 or 48. 3) the electrical conductors
and supporting members that are used to lower and
raise a well logging sonde in a well 4) a rope made
of fibers 5) a nautical unit of length equal to 600 ft,
100 fath, about 183 m, or about 0.1 nautical mi
cable clamp a rope socket
cable crew ten or more jug hustlers that work on
a seismic crew planting and moving the geophone
arrays
cable electrode an electrode in a flexible insulator
that is run between the sonde and the logging cable
for electrical contact with the borehole fluid
cable-guide method a fishing method for
conductor cable or sand line in a deep open hole
or for a radioactive instrument. It uses special tools
from a fishing tool service company, (cut and strip)
cable hander a crossbar that rests on the rotary table
and uses a clamp to support the weight of a survey
cable during fishing operations
cablehead a quick-connecting end of a logging cable
that contains electrical and mechanical couplings
cable suspended unit an electric submersible
pump suspended by a cable in a well. CSPS
cable-tool drilling the original method of drilling
a well by pounding the bit, a heavy weight, with a

cable tool drilling rig

chisel edge, up and down on the bottom of the well

to pulverize the rocks at the bottom of the well. Usually
less than 25 ft of water are kept in the well. If there
is no water in the well, water is dumped into the
well. At regular intervals (3-8 ft), the well cuttings
are bailed out of the bottom of the well with a bailer
on a bailing or sand line. The method is about onetenth as fast as rotary drilling and does not effectively
control abnormal high pressures in subsurface fluids,
but it does minimize formation damage. A cable-tool
rig can drill about 25 ft/day and rarely more than 60
ft/day. Cable-tool rigs were effective in medium to
hard rocks, but soft and unconsolidated rocks often
cave in or allow water to flow into the well. There
was typiclly a two-man crew on the rig. Almost all
wells were drilled with cable-tool rigs until the period
1900-1930 when the rotary rigs were introduced.
Cable-tool drilling is still used today and is normally
limited to 3,000-5,000 ft, but can drill to 7,500 ft and
do 10,000 foot workovers. (churn or rope drilling)
cable-tool rig an older type of drilling rig that
pounds a hole in the ground by raising and lowering
a wedge-shaped bit on the end of a drilling line. The
cable-tool rig has a derrick, engine, walking beam,
bull wheel, band wheel, and calf wheel. The derrick,
which was originally wooden, was 72 ft high with a
base of 20 ft. The derrick has a crown block at the
top that is used to raise and lower equipment in the
well. The engine, which was originally a locomotive,
single-tube, boiler steam engine with a heavy flywheel,
was connected by a belt to the band wheel, a large,
vertical wooden wheel. The band wheel turns and is
attached to the walking beam by a pitman. This causes

cable tools calcareous

63

cable tool drilling rig (Texaco, Inc.)

the walking beam to rise and fall, which causes the

drilling line on the other end to rise and fall in the
well. The drill string, which is about 20 ft long and
located on the end of the drilling line in the well, is
composed of the bit, the drillstem, jars, and a rope
socket. The cable-tool bits are solid steel that vary in
length from 3-4 ft and weigh from 140-200 lbs. The
end of the bit has a wedge or chisel shape with a
taper of 25. Higher angles are used for softer
formations and flatter angles for harder formation.
The bits have two V-shaped notches for watercourses.
The drilling line, originally hemp rope, but now steel
cable, is wound around the bull wheel. As the well
is drilled deeper, more rope is unwound from the
bull wheel. Drilling line is let into the well by a temper
screw attached to the walking beam. The calf wheel
is a more powerful winch system that is also powered
from the band wheel and is used to set casing in
the well. The rig is dismantled when moved, although
some very shallow rigs were mounted on wheels.
The common cable-tool rig was used in the 1870s
and 1880s. By 1890, most of the equipment had been
standardized, and the rig was known as a standard
cable-tool rig that was commonly used up to 1925.
The last standard cable-tool rig was retired in the
late 1950s. Unitized cable-tool rigs that are lighter
and more portable with telescoping double pole masts
are now used. The steam engine has been replaced
by the multicylinder internal combustion engine with
a speed-reducing intermediate shaft.
cable tools the equipment used to drill a well with
a cable-tool rig. CT (standard tools)
cable wiper a device that consist of loops of cable
that is designed to be attached to a casing string as
it is run in a well to remove the mud cake. Two
types of cable wipers are rotating and reciprocating.
cab over a truck with the engine over its front wheels
cackle berry a dynamite charge
cadastral map a large-scale map showing property
and political boundaries. It is used to delineate
ownership of the land. A cadastral map can also show
physical and cultural features.
cadastre or cadaster an official registration of
location, value, and ownership of real estate that is
used for taxation
cage the container for the ball valve in a sucker-rod
pump

cable tool
drillstring

CAI 1) conodont alteration index 2) color alteration

index
caisson 1) a type of offshore production platform
with one, very large leg. A caisson is used in Arctic
waters were there is moving ice. 2) a water-tight
chamber made of concrete and/or steel. The cellular
base of an offshore gravity structure and the buoyancy
chambers on a semisubmersible are caissons.
caisson completion system an offshore Christmas
tree that is installed entirely below the mudline
cake consistency the texture of the filter or mudcake in a wellbore. Cake consistency is described by
such terms as soft, hard, firm, tough, or rubbery.
cake thickness the thickness of the filter or mudcake made of the solids in drilling mud that are
plastered to the side of the wellbore. Cake thickness
is usually measured in Vyi of an inch.
CAL or Cal caliper log
CAL computer analyzed log
cal 1) calcite 2) caliper survey 3) calorie 4) caliper
log
calendar month one of the 12 months of the year
calendar quarter three consecutive months that
start with the first day of January, April, July, or October
calendar year twelve consecutive months that start
with January 1 and end with December 31
CA1C, Calc, or calc calcite
calc calcareous
calcarenite a limestone containing predominantly
sand-sized particles or particles from 0.062 to 1 mm
in size. Clear
calcareous containing some CaCO3 or limestone.
calc

64

calcareous alga or algae caliper log

calcareous alga or algae a type of aqueous plant

that secretes mud-sized needles of aragonite (calcium
carbonate) and lives primarily in shallow, tropical seas
or intertidal areas. Calcareous algae are important
contributors to both sand- and mud-sized carbonate
particles in tropical seas. Calcareous algae have been
important on reefs throughout geological time.
Stromatolites are a type of algae that build large, domal,
laminated calcareous structures in shallow water.
Coralline algae are a type of calcareous algae that
are encrusting, (calcified alga or algae)
calcareous dolostone a calcareous sedimentary
rock containing 50%-90% dolomite
calcareous ooze a very fine-grained, white deposit
of calcium carbonate deposited on the ocean bottom.
In shallow waters, the ooze is composed of both shells
(microfossils) and inorganically and organically
precipitated calcium carbonate. In the deep ocean it
is composed of microfossil shells of formainifera or
coccoliths.
calciclastic a rock composed of clastic limestone
particles
calcified alga or algae see calcareous alga or alga
calcilutite a limestone containing primarily silt- and
clay-sized (mud) particles (less than 62 mm). Clclt
calcimetry the analysis of the carbonate content of
a rock
calcimicrite a limestone composed of particles less
than 20 JJL in size
calcirudite a limestone containing particles that are
primarily larger than sand-sized or particles larger
than 1 mm. Clcrd
calcisiltite a limestone containing particles that are
primarily silt-sized
calcite a common mineral composed of CaCO3.
Calcite has a hardness of 3, a specific gravity of 2.72,
and is commonly white, colorless, or yellow. The
mineral effervesces in cold, dilute acid. Calcite is
formed both organically and inorganically. It is a
common cement in sedimentary rocks. The rock
limestone is composed primarily of calcite. Ca, CALC,
cal, Calc, or calc
calcium carbonate the primary constituent of
limestone, a common sedimentary rock. Calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) is also a common scale that forms
in pipes. It is the cause of water hardness and is a
unit or standard of water hardness, (lime)
calcium chloride a white salt (CaCl2) that is used
as a desiccant, as an accelerator in cement, as a drying
agent for gas, and to increase the density of drilling
fluid
calcium hydroxide the active ingredient [Ca(OH)2]
of slaked lime and the main constituent of wet cement
(lime)
calcium mud a water-base bentonite drilling fluid
in which the bentonite has been altered to a calciumbase clay by the addition of lime to form lime mud
or gypsum. Calcium muds are called lime or gyp muds.
The lime mud has up to 120 ppm soluble calcium
and is composed of bentonite, lime, thinner, caustic
soda, and an organic filtration control agent. The gyp
mud contains up to 1200 ppm calcium similar to lime
mud except the lime is replaced by gypsum. The

calcium reduces swelling and hydration of the clays.

Calcium replaces sodium on the clay, and the clays
form aggregates. It is used to drill thick anhydrite
deposits and to counteract sloughing shales and salt
water flow.
calcium sulfate a salt composed of CaSO4 that is
used to control alkalinity in drilling mud and can
form as scale in pipes. Calcium sulfate is the
composition of the mineral anhydrite.
calcium-treated mud water-base drilling mud that
contains calcium oxide (lime) or calcium sulfate
(gypsum) to retard hydration of shales and clays, see
calcium mud
calc OF calculated open flow
calc sh calcareous shale
calc ss calcareous sandstone
calctc calcitic
calculated absolute open flow the theoretical
maximum producing capacity of a gas well. It is usually
calculated from a four-point test. CAOF
calculated gas saturation a ratio of the volume of
gas under reservoir conditions to the volume of the
reservoir rock. CGS
calendar day allowable the amount of gas and/or
oil permitted to be produced from a well, leasehold,
or field by a government regulatory agency
(allowable), stated on a per day basis, (actual calendar
day allowable)
calf line the cable used on a cable-tool rig to raise
and lower casing in the well. The calf line was wound
around the calf wheel.
calf wheel the reel on a cable-tool rig that is located
on the walking beam side of the drill floor and winds
the calf line used for running casing. It was used
along with a multiple sheave crown block and the
traveling block. The calf wheel was powered by a
chain and sprocket from the main shaft.
calibration the adjustment of an instrument to a
standard
calibration loop see test loop
calibration pill see test pill
calibration survey a short run by a sonde before
the well log is make to make sure that the logging
equipment is accurately running and the results are
replicable
calibration tail a short form on a well log with
information on log calibration. The calibration tails
are made before and after the logging survey.
calibration tank a tank in which liquid flowmeters
are calibrated (prover tank)
caliche a very hard crust formed in arid-climate soils
and composed primarily of calcium carbonate. Caliche
is opaque, reddish-brown to buff, or white and can
contain gravel and finer grains, cche
caliper an instrument used to determine the inner
diameter of a tubular such as tubing or casing
caliper log a wireline well log that records the
diameter of the wellbore. The tool has one, two, three,
four, or six spring arms that expand and contract to
fit the size of the wellbore as it is brought up the
hole. In one type of caliper log tool, the motion of

call-back marker cantilever derrick or mast rig

three or four spring-driven arms is transfered to a
rheostat. The change in resistivity is calibrated to hole
size. In another version, three flexible springs are
conected to a center rod that telescopes into a cavity
with an electrical coil in the tool. The current
generated by the movement of the center rod is used
to measure the well diameter. The caliper log is used
to a) calculate hole volume for cement, b) determine
hole volume to calibrate other logs, c) locate filter
cake and permeable zones, d) locate packer seats for
openhole drillstem test, and e) to determine hole
stability. Areas of thick mudcake on the side of the
wellbore indicate permeable zones and areas of caving
or washout are seen as enlargements. Corrosion,
scaling and holes can also be located in tubular goods
by some caliper logs, (section gauge) CAP, CAL, cal,
orCALP
call-back marker a buoy that is attached to the sea
floor and can be released by a sonic signal (recall,
pop-up, or subsurface buoy)
call-on oil an option to buy oil during a period of
time
call-on production the right of a company through
an agreement such as a farmout to purchase the gas
and/or oil produced at a specified rate or at current
rates
Callovian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 165-160 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Middle Jurassic epoch.
CALM catenary anchor leg mooring
calorie the metric unit of heat energy. One calorie
is required to raise the temperature of lg of water
from 14.5 to 15.5CC at 1 atm pressure. A calorie is
equal to 0.0039685 Btu or 4.1855 J. cal
calorific value the heat value of a substance
calorimeter an instrument that is used to determine
the heat content of a substance. A calorimeter is used
to determine the Btu content of natural gas.
CALP caliper log
CAL Systems Computer Analyzed Log Systems
calyx drill a type of rotary drill that has serrated
cutting edges for soft formations and an adamantine
cutting edge for hard formations. The drill can be
used for both drilling and coring.
cam an eccentric plate that is mounted on a shaft
called the camshaft. When the cam shaft is turned,
the cam imparts an alternating motion to a piece of
equipment that is in contact with the cam surface.
Camb Cambrian
Cambrian a period of geological time about 570500 m. y. ago. It is the oldest period of the Paleozoic
Era. The Cambrian is subdivided into the Upper
Cambrian, Middle Cambrian and Lower Cambrian
global epochs. It contains the North American epochs
Dresbachian, Franconian, and Trempealeauan. Camb
camera an impression block used in fishing
Camneld bushing a fishing tool that is a
combination spear and washover pipe
Campanian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 80-72 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Cretaceous epoch.

65

camp boss a drilling crew member in charge of the

crew's administration, lodging, and food
can 1) to close a tank. 2) to seal core samples in a
can
Canadian pole a wooden rod that was used instead
of rope on a cable-tool drilling rig. The rods were
about 18 ft long, 22V in. in diameter, and either
round or hexagonal. On each end was a metal strap
that held a pin or box joint which allowed the rods
to be screwed together.
Canadian rig a drilling rig that is similar to a cabletool rig, except that it uses wooden rods that were
screwed together instead of manila drilling line
cancellation decree a court order that voids a lease
C&A compression and adsorption plant
C&C circulating and conditioning
candela the System International (SI) unit for
luminous intensity, cd
candela per square metre a derived unit in System
International (SI) for luminance, cd/m2
C&K lines choke and kill lines
C&P cellar and pits
C&R combination tools or methods
canted leg a leg on an offshore jackup rig that is
designed to slant outward from the rig to give the
rig more stability

cantilevered mast
cantilever derrick or mast a steel tower that is
used on a cantilevered or jackknife derrick rig. The
rig is assembled with the mast or derrick horizontal.
The mast or derrick is then pivoted to a vertical
position using the traveling block and drawworks on
the rig. (jackknife derrick or mast)
cantilever derrick or mast rig a drilling rig in
which the derrick or mast is assembled from the
bottom up, horizontally on the ground, and then
pivoted vertically into position by using the rig's
drawworks. The drilling structure is made of
prefabricated units that are pinned together with large
pins. The engine and derrick are pinned and then
put in place after which the mast or derrick is raised.
After the mast or derrick is raised, the traveling block
is used to raise the drill floor into position. The rotary
beams are installed, and the catworks and rotary are
raised into position with the traveling block. The
catline boom is used for lighter lifting. The cantilever

66

can't stain water capping a well

rig is the most common type of drilling rig on land.

(jackknife derrick or mast rig)
can't stain water a well that does not produce even
a trace of crude oil
CAODC Canadian Association of Oilwell Drilling
Contractors
CAOF calculated absolute open flow
cap 1) capacitor 2) capacity 3) capture 4) bulb, head,
or hat
CAP caliper log
capacitance a measure in farads of how much
electrical charge can be stored on a capacitor. C
capacitance probe a sensor that determines the
dielectric constants of oil and water in an oil/water
emulsion to determine their relative amounts
capacitor a device that stores an electrical charge
on an electrical circuit. A capacitor consists of two
conducting plates separated by an insulator. The ability
of a capacitor to store electrical charge is called
capacitance and is measured in farads (F). (condenser)
cap
capacity 1) the ability of a reservoir to take water
2) the maximum production rate, c or cap 3) the
net amount of fluid actually delivered at the outlet
port by a rotary pump per unit time. Capacity is usually
expressed in US gallons/minute. 4) permeability
multiplied times pay thickness of a petroleum
reservoir. Capacity is expressed in millidarcy-feet
(md-ft).
capacity allowable a type of allowable, the amount
of oil that a well, leasehold, or field is permitted to
produce per period of time by a government
regulatory agency, that is used for a waterflood or
enhanced oil-recovery project
capacity index a measure in barrels per hour per
pound increase of bottomhole pressure of an injection
well's ability to take water
cap a well to place and close a valve on the wellhead
of a well that is blowing out
capillaries small pores in a rock that can retain
liquids by capillarity
capillarity the attraction of the surface of a liquid
to the surface of the solid with which it is in contact.
Capillarity affects the recovery of oil from a reservoir
as it hinders the oil from flowing through the pores
of the rock. Smaller pores and pore throats increase
this effect, (surface tension)
capillary condensation the formation of pendular
water rings around contact points of sediment grains
capillary forces the interfacial forces between
immiscible fluid phases. Capillary forces can cause a
fluid to flow into a porous rock, to move through it,
and to be held by the rock.
capillary fringe the portion of the zone of aeration
just above the water table. The pores of the rock are
filled with water held by surface tension.
capillary number the ratio of viscous forces to
capillary forces. Capillary number is equal to viscosity
times velocity divided by the interfacial tension. Nc

capillary pressure the pressure differential between

two immiscible fluids. Capillary pressure is caused
by the interfacial surface tension and is related to
the curvature of the surface. Capillary pressure is
measured in a core by a) a porous diaphram, b)
mercury injection, c) the centrifugal method, or d)
the dynamic method. Pc
capillary pressure curve a record of capillary
pressure versus water saturation in a rock. The curve
is plotted from results of a test used to determine
the characteristics of pores in a reservoir rock In one
test, oil or gas is forced under increasing pressure
into a reservoir rock that is 100% saturated with natural
wetting fluid such as water. This will determine the
displacement pressure, the minimum pressure needed
to force the oil into the rock, the relative size
distribution of the pores, and the amount of
irreducible fluid saturation. The capillary pressure is
plotted against wetting fluid saturation. In a mercuryvacuum capillary pressure curve, mercury is injected
under increasing pressure into a reservoir rock from
which all fluids have been removed. The smaller the
pore throats, the greater the pressure needed to inject
the mercury. The mercury-vacuum capillary pressure
curve is used to determine the pore-size distribution
in a rock.
capital assets the money value of tangible assets.
The assets can be evaluated by physical inspection.
Capital assets is in contrast to intangible assets.
capital expenditures monies spent in drilling and
completing a well that cannot be deducted under
federal income tax law. The monies are recovered
by the slower and less desirable depletion or
depreciation methods. Capital expenditures include
geological and geophysical costs, equipment costs,
and lease bonuses.
capital investment funds spent to acquire an
asset(s)
capitalize to deduct monies paid out during an
investment such as drilling a well from income over
a period of time greater than one year. Capitalize is
in contrast to expense, which is more favorable for
tax purposes.
capital need per unit produced the money
invested in exploration and drilling per barrel of oil
daily production
capital string the deepest and last length of casing
that is often run down through the producing zone.
The casing adjacent to the producing zone can then
be perforated or shot with holes to complete the well.
Capital string has the smallest diameter, ranging from
23/8-95/8 in. and typically is 5Vi or 75/a in., and is the
longest string of casing in the well. Capital string
protects the hole, isolates formation fluid, prevents
fluid migration, and protects the downhole equipment.
(flow, long, oil, pay, production string, or production
casing or inner conductor)
CAPL Canadian Association of Petroleum Landmen

capped-in royalty see shut-in royalty

capping the impermeable cap rock that forms a seal
on a petroleum trap
capping a well closing in a well to prevent loss of
natural gas. Capping a well can be either a) closing
the blowout preventers on a well during a blowout

cap rock or caprock carbon black

or b) placing and closing a valve on a well that is
blowing.
cap rock or caprock 1) impermeable rock that
forms the seal on top of an oil or gas reservoir. Caprock
is commonly shale or evaporites but can also be
cemented rocks, argillaceous rocks, micrite, chalk, or
permafrost. Permeabilities are mostly below 1CT4
darcys (cover or roof rock or seal) 2) the insoluble
top layer of a salt plug in a salt dome. Cap rock is
composed primarily of granular anhydrite with
gypsum, limestone, dolomite, and occasionally sulfur.
It has an average thickness of 300-400 ft with up to
1,000-ft thickness. On shallow salt stocks, the anhydrite
grades upward into gypsum and limestone with
possibly some barite and sulfur. The anhydrite is
thought to have been formed as an insoluble residue
precipitated from groundwater reacting with halite.
The other minerals are thought to have formed from
the alteration of anhydrite. Cavities are common in
caprock. CPRK
cap rock or caprock effect the positive gravity
anomaly produced by the dense caprock that is
superimposed over the broader, negative gravity
anomaly produced by the underlying, less dense salt
dome
capsule detector a capsule that is filled with
chemicals used to detect hydrogen sulfide on a drilling
rig. The capsule is broken and attached to clothing
with a string. If hydrogen sulfide is present, the
chemicals will turn brown.
capture the absorption of a neutron into an atom.
The atom becomes energized and releases gamma
rays of capture. This effect is used in well logging.
capture cross section 1) nuclear capture cross
section is the effective area, usually measured in barns
(10~24cm2), that a neutron has to pass through to
be captured by a particular atomic nucleus. 2)
macroscopic capture cross section is the effective
cross-sectional area per unit volume of material for
the capture of neutrons. The unit of measure is usually
capture or sigma units (lO^cm" 1 ). Capture cross
section is used in pulsed neutron logging to identify
elements. Chlorine has a high capture cross section,
hydrogen lower, and elements in minerals lower. X
capture gamma ray energy (gamma ray photon)
that is emitted when the nucleus of an atom captures
a thermal neutron. Measurement of capture gamma
rays is used in neutron and pulsed neutron logging.
capture unit a measurement of macroscopic capture
cross section equal to KT'cm"1. (sigma unit) C.U.
Car carbonate
Caradocian a global age of geological time that
started about 460 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Ordovician epoch.
CARB or carb carbonaceous
carbene a component of bitumen that is soluble in
carbon disulfide and benzene but not carbon
tetrachloride. Carbene is an asphaltene.
carbide blade bit a rotary bit that has several
tungsten carbide steel cutting edges and is used for
drilling hard formations
carbide cable bit a percussion type of bit that uses
tungsten carbide button inserts to drill the cable-tool
well. The bit is used for drilling shallow gas wells.

67

H
H

H
H-C

C-H

H- C
/

C-H
x

C
H

earbocyclic compound (cyclohexane)

carbocyclic compound a hydrocarbon with the

carbon atoms bonded in a circular structure. Two
types are cycloalkanes with single bonds and aromatics
with some double bonds.
carbonaceous 1) a rock that contains significant
amounts of carbon 2) a sedimentary rock that contains
organic matter. CARB or carb
carbonate a rock formed from CO3, primarily
limestone and dolomite. Carbonates are potential
reservoir rocks. Types of carbonate textures include
rhombic, sucrosic, microsucrosic, grainy,
subcrystalline, slabby, oolitic and pseudo-oolitic.
About one-fourth of the world's sedimentary rocks
are carbonates. Car or crbnt
carbonate-analysis log a computer log that has a
computed porosity and sometimes a secondaryporosity index and a movable-oil index. The carbonateanalysis log is derived from a laterolog, microlaterolog,
sonic, density, and sidewall neutron log.
carbonate compensation depth the depth in the
ocean above which carbonate deposition exceeds
solution and below which carbonate solution exceeds
deposition. Carbonate sediments such as chalks and
calcareous oozes are not deposited below the
carbonate compensation depth. It occurs as deep as
20,000 ft in the Pacific Ocean and as shallow as 11,000
ft in the Atlantic Ocean. CCD
carbonated waterflooding a waterflood process in
which water that is nearly or fully saturated with carbon
dioxide is injected into the subsurface reservoir. The
carbon dioxide comes out of solution, extracts lighter
hydrocarbon fractions from the oil to form a miscible
front, and helps drive the oil toward producing wells.
(CO2 augmented waterflooding)
carbonate platform of shelf an extensive shallowwater area where both inorganic and organic
limestones are deposited. A rimmed platform or shelf
has a grainstone bar along its deepwater- margin on
the side that faces the waves, (limestone platform of
shelf)

carbonate ramp a sloping area of the seabed where

both inorganic and organic limestones are deposited
that is located between the beach and deep water.
Deposition on the carbonate ramp will cause it to
evolve into a carbonate platform or shelf.
carbon black very fine particles of amorphous
carbon. Carbon black can form naturally by thermal
decomposition of hydrocarbons. Carbon black is
important commercially and can be made by the
incomplete combustion of gas or by burning sour

68

carbon dioxide carried to the casing point or through the tanks

gas. It is used as pigment for printing inks and paints

and as a strengthening agent for rubber.
carbon dioxide a colorless, odorless gas (CO2).
Carbon dioxide has a molecular weight of 44.01, a
boiling point of -1093F, a critical temperature of
87.9F, and a specific gravity at 60F of 0.827. It is
found as a relatively inert gas in natural gas, in almost
pure carbon dioxide reservoirs in the subsurface, and
in small amounts in air. Carbon dioxide mixes with
water to form a weak acid, carbonic acid, that can
cause metal corrosion. Carbon dioxide is used for
inert gas injection in enhanced oil recovery.
carbon dioxide flooding, injection or miscible
flooding an enhanced oil recovery process in which
carbon dioxide gas is injected into the reservoir. First,
the reservoir is repressured with water injection. When
the carbon dioxide is injected, lighter hydrocarbons
from the oil transfer to the carbon dioxide to form
a miscible front which is soluble with the oil. The
first carbon dioxide slug is followed by alternating
slugs of water and carbon dioxide to push the oil
toward producing wells. The carbon dioxide can
originally come from carbon dioxide wells, from
chemical or fertilizer plants or from power plant stack
gas. The carbon dioxide can be separated from the
produced fluids during the flooding and recycled.
(CO2 flooding, injection or miscible flooding)
Carboniferous a period of geological time about
365-290 m. y. ago. Carboniferous is used in Europe
and is divided into the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian
periods in the United States. It is subdivided into the
upper Carboniferous, Middle Carboniferous, and
Lower Carboniferous global epochs.
carbon log a wireline well log of pulsed neutron
type. Carbon in the formation responds by inelastic
collision to the high-energy neutrons to produce a
distinctive MeV gamma ray. The carbon measurement
is combined with a similar oxygen measurement for
a C/O ratio. A Ca/Si ratio is also measured to identify
the rock matrix. The carbon log can be run in a cased
hole and is used to a) indicate hydrocarbon saturation,
b) identify rock matrix composition, and c) indicate
porosity.
carbon monoxide a colorless, odorless gas (CO)
that is toxic
Carbon/Oxygen log a well log of the neutron
spectroscopy type that uses a pulsed-neutron sonde.
By recording the gamma rays produced by
bombarding the formation with 14-MeV neutrons, the
carbon/oxygen and the silicon/calcium ratios can be
determined. The Si/Ca ratio for limestone is 1.2; for
shale, 1.38; and for sandstones, between 1.5 and 1.8.
The C/O ratio depends on the lithology, porosity, and
hydrocarbon saturation of the formation. It is used
to determine hydrocarbon saturations and lithologies.
The carbon/oxygen log can be used in both an open
and cased hole.
carbon plant an installation that burns natural gas
with an insufficient air supply to produce carbon black
carbon-preference index a ratio between the
amount of normal alkanes of odd and even numbered
carbon atoms between C24 and C34 in organic
molecules and hydrocarbons. The amounts are
measured by gas chromatography. Organic matter in

young sediments has a high carbon-preference index.

Maturation of the organic matter reduces the number.
Mature crude oil ranges between 0.9 and 1.1. The
carbon-preference index of immature crude oil is
greater than 1.1. CPI
carbon ratio the ratio of C12, the most common
carbon isotope, to either C13 or C14 (a radioactive
isotope). The C12/C13 ratio is most commonly
measured to determine if there has been any biological
or chemical fractionation of the carbon isotopes.
carbon-ratio theory a theory that relates the
thermal history of an area to the rank of coals. With
brown lignite coals, heavy oil was generated. In areas
of bituminous coal, light oil and gas were generated.
In areas of anthracite coal, no oil or gas was preserved.
The carbon ratio is made by dividing the percentage
of fixed carbon by weight into the percentage of the
sum of fixed carbon and the volatile matter of the
same analysis. Carbon ratios from 50 to 60 are best
indicative of light and medium oil deposits. The
carbon-ratio theory was suggested by David White
in 1915.
Carman a global age of geological time that occurred
about 230-220 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper Triassic
epoch.
carried interest or carried working interest a
fractional interest in a lease which is free of all costs
of drilling and completing a well up to a certain point,
such as to casing point, through the tanks, or during
the life of the well. The carried party's expenses are
paid by the other parties who own the working interest
in the well. After the point is reached, the carried
interest usually becomes a working interest and shares
in the costs. CWI
carried interest system an arrangement in which
a company pays all or part of a partner's cost in
exploring, drilling, testing, and completion, and the
carried partner will repay the expenses if oil or gas
is found
carried party an interest in a well or lease that is
not responsible for the costs of drilling, completing,
and/or operating the well or lease either up to a certain
point, such as casing or installation of the tanks, or
during the life of the well. The costs are borne by
the carrying party.
carried to the casing point or through the
tanks a participant (carried party) in drilling, such
as a promoter, who is free of drilling and completion
costs on a well up to a point (installation of casing
or tanks.) The costs are borne by the other participants
(carrying parties) such as the investors.

carrier bar

carrier casing
carrier the elutant that moves the vapor sample
through the packing in a gas chromatograph.
Hydrogen and helium are common carriers.
carrier fluid see carrier fluid
carrier-mounted rig an air or mud drilling rig that
is mounted on a wheeled carrier. The carrier-mounted
rig is rated for moderate depths and usually has a
telescoping mast that is raised by hydraulics.
carrier rig a self-propelled workover rig. The carrier
rig includes a mast, hoisting equipment, and an engine.
The engine is used for both moving the rig and for
the hoisting system. The rig can be either a drive-in
or back-in unit, depending on which end the mast
is mounted.
carrier system the secondary migration route for
hydrocarbons from the source rock to the reservoir
rock in the trap. A carrier system includes permeable
beds, faults, fractures, and unconformities.
carrot the crumpled piece of casing or liner that is
blown but by jet perforating
carry to alternately drill and case a well
carrying fluid 1) the fluid, usually oil, water, foam,
or gelled fluid that transports the proppants during
hydraulic fracturing 2) the fluid that transports gravel
during gravel packing
carrying party an interest in a well or lease that is
responsible for the costs of drilling, completing and/
or operating the well or lease, and also is responsible
for paying for the interest of any carried parties
carrying rental see delay rental
carryover free liquid escaping with the gas from a
separator
Carter coordinates informal land subdivisions
applied by the petroleum industry to Kentucky and
Tennessee and some other eastern states lacking
townships and ranges. It is based on latitude and
longitude. Each subdivision is 5 minute square, and
each section is 1 minute square. CC
cartridge see sonde
carved-out interest an interest such as an overriding
royalty or oil payment created by the owner of a larger
interest such as a working interest in a well or lease
carved-out overriding royalty interest a
nonworking interest in a well that is created from a
working interest. The working interest owner transfers
the carved-out overriding royalty interest and retains
the working interest.
cascade the step-like arrangement of baffles in
separators
case to run and cement casing in a well
cased or cased hole a well in which casing has
been run and cemented. A cased hole is in contrast
to an open hole. CH or OH
cased-hole log a wireline log run in a well that
already has casing cemented in Some cased-hole
logs are gamma ray, compensated neutron, pulsed
neutron and carbon/oxygen logs. A cased-hole log is
in contrast to the more common openhole logs.
case hardened a hard, thin skin on iron or steel.
The interior remains softer.
cash balancing a method in which an
underproduced party in a gas well can be compensated

69

for underage in a gas balancing agreement by

monetary consideration from the overproduced party.
The other method is volumetric or in-kind balancing.
cash consideration the money paid for a promise
or act during an oil or gas transaction
cash contribution cash payment required in a
support agreement by one party to another party for
drilling a well in return for information on that well.
It is made either as a dry-hole or bottomhole
contribution.
cash-contribution clause a provision in a joint
operating agreement that awards a party money for
drilling a well or some other operation specified on
a lease
cash-flow analysis the comparison of monies spent
and made during the economic life of an investment,
such as drilling, completing, and operating a well
cash-flow profile a graph that shows projected
expenditures and income over time
cash-flow stream a model that shows how monies
are spent and made during the economic life of an
investment such as drilling a well

casing

casing thin-walled steel pipe that is usually seamless

but can be electric welded or rivited and ranges in
length from 16 to greater than 40 ft. Seamless casing
is made by piercing the center of solid, round bars
of steel at high temperatures. Casing comes furnished
with a screwed coupling and threaded connectors.
The coupling can be either long or short. Casing is
used to complete a well by running a string of casing
into the well and cementing it. There are three API
ranges of casing lengths. Length 1 ranges from 16 to
25 ft and averages 22 ft. Length 2 ranges from 25 to
34 ft and averages 31 ft- Length 3 is greater than 34
ft and averages 42 ft. Casing is made of at least eight
API grades of steel with minimum yield strengths. It
is specified by a) outer diameter and wall thickness,
b) weight per unit length, c) coupling size, d) length
of joint, and e) grade of steel. Diameters range from
4V2 to 36 in. Casing weight ranges from 9Vi to 200
lb/ft. Casing is graded according to the operating
pressure and corrosiveness of fluids that it is designed
to withstand. Casing is denned by API standards for
outside diameter, weight per foot, grade, range, and
end finish. Casing is used a) to stabilize the sides of
the well, b) to prevent pollution of fresh water
reservoirs, and c) to prevent fluids from zones other

70

casing adapter casinghead gas

than the producing zones from entering the well.

Usually two or more strings (lengths) of casing are
cemented into the well. Surface casing is large in
diameter (e.g., 13% in.) and is run from the surface
to depths usually between 200-1,500 ft, depending
on local conditions. It is used to prevent fresh water
from flowing into the well, to prevent loose earth
from caving into the well, and to attach the blowout
preventers to the top of the well. The intermediate
or protection casing string is smaller in diameter (e.g.,
95/s in.) and is often used to isolate layers of salt or
abnormal high-pressure zones in the well. The
production casing, or oil string, is smallest in diameter
(e.g., 75/s or 5'/2 in.) and extends from the surface,
down through the surface and intermediate casing
to the top of, or through, the producing zone. Liners
are made of casing but do not extend to the surface
as a casing string does. Casing has a matrix velocity
of 17,000 ft/sec and an interval transit time of 57.0
sec/ft. The yield strength of casing ranges from 40,000150,000 lb/in2. The casing used in seismic exploration
shotholes comes in 10-ft lengths. C, cs, c, CSG, Csg,
orcsg
casing adapter a beveled fitting that is used on the
top of a string of casing to prevent tools and pipe
from hanging up on the casing when they are run
in the well, (swage npple)
casing bowl 1) a patch made to repair casing or
attach casing to another casing string in a well. The
casing bowl is applied with a casing-patch tool and
is made of neoprene or lead, (casing or external patch)
2) a section of casing with a slip and seal assembly
that is cemented in to repair a casing leak or fracture
casing burst pressure the minimum pressure on
the interior of casing that will cause the casing to
fail
casing cementing see cement job
casing-cement temperature the temperature of
the cement slurry at a specific time during a cement
job
casing centralizer see centralizer
casing clamp a collar that is bolted around casing
being held in slips to prevent the casing from slipping
casing collar the shoulder on the ends of casing
that contains the threaded connection
casing-collar locater a device that uses either
magnetics or a scratcher to locate the casing collars
at the end of casing joints in a well. The magnetic
casing collar locator uses the deformation of a
magnetic field between two opposed permanent
magnets, and the mechanical locator uses feelers or
fingers to identify collars. The collar locations are
used as reference depths in the well for correlation
of other logs and well completion. The casing-collar
locater is used to make a collar log. (collar locater)
CCL
casing collar log a record of the location of casing
collars on a casing string in a well made by a casingcollar locator. The log is used for accurate depth
locations in a well, (collar log)
casing completion a well completion in which
casing is set in the well. Types of casing completions
include a) permanent, b) perforated, c) multizone,
d) sand-exclusion, and e) water- and gas-exclusion.

casing coupling a collar with a box end or inside

threads (female) that is used to connect joints of casing
casing crew a specialized crew of one to five
members that is used to assist the drilling crew in
picking up, running, and laying down casing in a well.
The casing crew can come with specialized equipment
such as hydraulic tongs, pick-up or lay-down liners,
thread protectors, and casing stabbing board for the
job.
casing cutter a fishing tool that is attached to a sub
on a drillstring and is used to cut a hole in casing.
The casing cutter is a heavy tube that is held by slips
as rotating knives are forced outward to cut the casing.
A releasing device retracts the knives so the tool can
be recovered.
casing elevators a heavy clamp-like device that
hangs from the traveling block and is used to run
casing. Casing elevators are either the a) collar-type
or b) slip-type.
casing free pump a type of hydraulic pump used
on oil wells in which the power fluid goes through
one string of tubing and the production comes up
the tubing-casing annulus. A casing free pump is in
contrast to a parallel free pump.
casing hands a team of service company employees
that are trained to run casing on an offshore well
casing hanger a bracket support that is designed
to fit on a wellhead and suspend the casing string in
the well. It grips the casing with slips and packing
rings. A threaded casing hanger or mandrell uses male
or female threads to hold the casing. The largest
diameter casing is hung from the lowest hanger.
casing hardware equipment run in or on casing
to aid in running the casing string and promote a
good primary cement job. Casing hardware includes
guide and float shoes, stage cementing collars, packoff shoes, baskets, centralizers, and cementing plugs.
casinghead or casing head 1) the top of the casing
in a well or the surface of a well 2) a heavy, steel
adaptor or flanged fitting that is bolted or welded to
the top of the surface casing and is part of the wellhead.
The casinghead consists of a body, retaining element,
hanger-packer mechanism, valves, and bleeders. The
hanger-packer is fixed to the end of a casing string
or another casing head and seals the annular space
between the casing strings while suspending the
smaller diameter casing string in the well. The
casinghead is used to attach the casinghead spool and
blowout preventers. One casinghead is used with only
surface and production casing. Two casingheads are
used if there is an intermediate casing string. The
casinghead valves and bleeders are used to relieve
gas pressure, csg hd (starting head)
casinghead gas natural gas that bubbles out of crude
oil on the surface due to the decrease in pressure
between the reservoir and the surface. The amount
of gas that bubbles out determines the producing
gas/oil ratio of the well which is expressed in standard
cubic feet (SCF) of gas at 60F per barrel of stock
tank oil. Casinghead gas is wet gas containing liquid
hydrocarbons that can be removed from the gas by
reducing the temperature or pressure on the gas with
an absorption plant. Casinghead gas is in contrast to
nonassociated gas produced from a gas well.
(separator gas) CHG or CH

casinghead gas clause casing protector

casinghead gas clause a provision in a lease that
provides for a royalty for the casinghead gas that is
produced and sold or stripped of liquid hydrocarbons
casinghead gasoline liquid hydrocarbons of very
light crude oil composition that occur as a gas under
subsurface reservoir conditions (high temperature and
pressure) and condense into a liquid upon production
at surface conditions. Gas condensate typically grade
from colorless to light-colored liquids with tints of
red, green, or blue. Condensates have very high API
that range between 45 and 60 and are very valuable
commercially. Natural gas that contains gas condensate
is called wet gas. If condensate is recovered on the
lease with standard field separator equipment, it is
often combined and recorded with the crude oil. The
Natural Gas Processors Association has defined
casinghead gasoline as having a vapor pressure
between 10 and 34 psi, a percentage evaporated at
104F of 24% to 85%, a percentage evaporated at 275F
of not less than 90%, and an end point in distillation
of not higher than 375F. Retrograde gas is the
perferred term for casinghead gasoline, (drip, natural,
raw, or wild gasoline, drips, condensate, gas
condensate, distillate, gas distillate, retrograde gas,
or white oil)
casinghead-gas royalty the payment (royalty) made
for casinghead gas that is produced, saved, and
marketed from an oil well. The royalty can be.a) an
annual amount of money per year, b) payment based
on a fraction of the gas produced or, c) based on
detailed lease provisions concerning casinghead gas
and the extraction of casinghead gasoline from the
gas.
casinghead housing or spool a short forged steel
pipe with a flanged top with smaller outlet flanges
or flanged connections and either a) female casing
threads or b) slip-on well casing connector used to
suspend the surface casing that suspends and seals
the top of the casing string. The casinghead spool
has a seal, intermediate head spool, and tubing head
spool on it. It is put on the uppermost joint of casing
after a cement job, and the blowout preventers are
attached to it. As other casing strings are run in the
well, they are landed in additional casingheads that
are flanged at both ends. CHH
casing inspection log a record of the location and
extent of casing damage in a well. A tool measures
the casing-wall thickness either electromagnetically
or mechanically. The electromagnetic casing
inspection log tool has two radial coils. The exciter
coil produces a magnetic field which creates eddy
currents in the casing that attenuate and shift the phase
of the magnetic field recorded on the pickup coil to
show wall thickness and splits.
casing jack a screw or hydraulic tool used to
straighten collapsed casing in a well by applying
tension to the casing. One type uses a spear on
drillpipe and a slip and spider located higher on the
drillpipe to hold the casing. Another type welds the
casing on a casing head and then uses a slip and
spider located higher to grip the casing.
casing mill a pilot or section mill that has hard
cutting edges on it to grind a hole in casing
casing overshot see casing-patch tool

71

casing pack 1) a method used to cement casing that

can later be removed from the well with minimum
difficulty. An oil-base mud is run in the well ahead
of the cement. The mud does not solidify, and the
casing can later be cut and removed above the section
that was cemented. 2) the fluid left above the cement
slurry in the annulus between the borehole and casing
to protect the casing from corrosion by formation
fluids and to control pressure
casing packer test see hook-wall packer test
casing patch a patch made to repair casing or attach
casing to another casing string in the well. The casing
patch is applied with a casing-patch tool and can be
made of neoprene or lead, (casing bowl or external
patch)
casing-patch tool a tool that is used to patch
damaged casing. The damaged casing is cut and
removed from the well. The casing-patch tool is
lowered into the well where rubber or lead on the
end of the tool is used to seal against the top of the
cut casing remaining in the well.
casing pickup sling cable or wire rope that is
designed to fit around tubular goods for loading,
moving, and positioning tubulars
casing point 1) the time at which a well has been
drilled to the objective depth or target formation and
well logs, drillstem tests, and other tests have been
run to evaluate the well. A decision by the operator
is made at the casing point to either complete (case)
the well or plug and abandon. 2) the depth to which
casing is set in a well. CP or csgpt
casing-point election or option a time in a farmout
agreement during which the farmer can elect after
the earning well has been tested to accept either a)
a working interest or b) a convertible overriding
royalty
casing pole a 6-foot wooden wrench that was used
to make up casing
casing potential profile a record of the electrical
potential of a casing string in a well that is used to
detect corrosion.
casing pressure the pressure a) between the casing
and tubing when the casing and tubing are sealed at
the top of the well, or b) between the casing and
the drillstring. Casing pressure is measured at the
surface after the well has been shut in. CP, C.P., or
csg press

casing program or programme the

predetermined plan for casing in a well. A casing
program includes the casing diameter in inches, the
hole size in inches, and the depth in ft. It provides
for a conductor, surface string, intermediate strings,
and a production string. Two common casing
programs are:
13% in.
95/s
7
5

10%
in.
75/s
5 or 5J/2

casing protector 1) a threaded cap made of steel

or plastic that is screwed onto and is used to protect
the threads on the ends of casing 2) a rubber doughnut
that fits around drillpipe to reduce wear on the casing.
Casing protectors are usually located 3 ft above the

72

casing pump CAT1

tool joint on alternate tool joints. Casing protectors

are not used in open holes, (pipe rubbers)
casing pump a large-volume, downhole, sucker-rod
pump that is used to pump crude oil up the casing.
The casing pump is run on a sucker-rod string and
has a barrel that is usually between 3-43/4 in. in
diameter. The pump is held in position by a packer
located either on the top or bottom of the working
barrel. The casing pump is a larger version of an
insert pump and has a much larger volume than an
insert or tubing sucker-rod pump, (casing sucker-rod
pump)

casing roller
casing roller a long, tapered, steel tool with a series
of rollers on the side. The casing roller is run on a
drillstring below a bumper sub and jars and rotated
to roll out collapsed casing in a well. Longitudinal
rollers are located on the body and ports, and channels
provide circulation. The rollers are usually tapered
on both ends to prevent binding.
casing scraper a tool that is run on a work string
to scrape the cement off the inside of a casing string
after a cement plug has been drilled out
casing scratcher a ring with flexible steel wires that
is run on a casing string to remove the mudcake in
preparation for a cement job. A casing scratcher is
either reciprocated or rotated.
casing seat the location of the bottom of a string
of casing in a well. CS
casing shoe a short, hollow steel cylinder with a
rounded bottom that is screwed into the bottom of
a string of casing before it is lowered into a well. It
guides the casing around any irregularities in the
borehole as the string is lowered in the well. The
casing shoe has an orifice in the end to allow drilling
mud to flow into it as it is lowered and cement slurry
to flow through it during a cement job. A guide shoe
does not have a valve on the orifice. A float shoe
has a check valve that prevents slurry backfill into
the casing during a cement job. There is also a
differential or automatic fill-up type, (drive shoe)
casing slip a wedge-shaped device that fits into the
casing bushing to hold casing when it is being worked
on
casing spear a fishing tool that is used to retrieve
casing in a well. The tool is lowered in the casing
on a fishing string. Tapered slips are activated by

rotating the string and grip the inside of the casing.

The slips hold as long as tension is maintained.
casing spider a heavy metal block with a tapered
hole to hold slips that fits around and hold casing.
The casing spider is used as casing joints are being
attached or removed from the casing string as it is
raised or lowered into a well. Casing up to 75/s in.
outside diameter can be run through the rotary table.
For casing with 75/a-133/s in. outside diameter, the
split master bushing is replaced with a one piece
casing bushing. For casing greater than 13% in. outside
diameter, a hinged-type bushing is used.
casing standoff the minimum radial clearance of
casing in a well divided by the displacement of the
casing center line from the center of the well. Casing
standoff can be expressed as a percentage.
casing strength the a) yield strength, b) collapse
strength, and c) burst strength of casing
casing string a length of casing that is made of
numerous joints of casing of the same outer diameter
that are screwed together and lowered into the well
as a section in one operation. A casing string can be
several hundred or thousand feet long. Types of casing
strings include drive pipe or casing, conductor casing,
surface casing, intermediate or protection casing, and
production or oil string casing. Casing is used a) to
provide a path for the drilling fluids up and down
the well, b) to support the blowout preventers, other
casing and liner strings and the Christmas tree, c) to
prevent the collapse of the well, differential sticking
of the drillstring, lost returns, pollution of fresh water
reservoirs, and d) to provide a path for produced
fluids up the well.
casing sucker-rod pump see casing pump
casing swage a pointed tool that is used with a jar
to open collapsed casing in a well
casing tally a count, visual inspection, and measure
of the length of each joint of casing made when the
casing is delivered to a rig
casing tongs a large-diameter power tong that is
suspended above the drill floor and is used to make
up and break out casing on a drilling rig. It contains
both the lead and backup tongs. The diameter of the
tongs are adjustable to several sizes of casing.
casing-tubing annulus the space in a well between
the outside of the tubing string and the inside of
the casing string
casing wagon small carts that are used to move
casing from the pipe rack to the derrick floor on a
drilling rig
Cassadagian a North American age of geological time
that started about 380 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Devonian period.
cast the color of oil fluorescence
casting 1) to pour molten metal into a mold 2) an
object that has solidified in a mold
cast iron an alloy of iron with 2%-i% carbon. Gray
cast iron contains carbon or graphite in the form of
flakes, whereas white cast iron contains carbon or
graphite in the from of carbines and has no color.
Fractures in white cast iron are metallic white.
CAT casing attenuation thickness

CAT or Cat catline boom

CAT or Cat catalytic
Cat, cat, or caterpillar a tractor used to clear land
and skid rigs. Cat is also a term for certain diesel
and natural gas prime movers.
cat a knot used to attach the drilling line to a rope
socket
catagenesis the thermal alteration of organic matter
in sedimentary rock. Catagenesis temperatures occur
between those of diagenesis (near surface) and
metamorphism (deep) and range from about 50 to
200C (122 to 392F). It includes the temperatures
which generate crude oil and thermal gas from organic
matter, (katagenesis)
catalyst a substance that promotes a chemical
reaction but is not affected by the reaction
catalytic combustion detector the original "hot
wire" mud log detector that uses a wheatstone bridge
circuit. CCD
catch-all clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that protects the lessee from errors in the description
of the land under the lease by including all the land
owned by the lessor in that area, (cover-all clause
or Mother Hubbard clause),
catch a sample to obtain a set of well cuttings from
a well being drilled. The well cuttings are usually
collected at regular intervals from the shale shaker.
catcher a trap-door device used in a junk basket to
retain junk during fishing operations
catcher sub a short section of pipe on a drill or
fishing string that triggers a hydraulic device when a
ball is dropped or lowered on a wireline in the string
catching the dog loafing on the job
catchpot a container used on a pipeline to remove
condensate and debris

cathead

cathead, cat head, or cathead spool a hub or

spool-shaped rotating drum located on a winch shaft
(catshaft) that is used to wind a rope (catline) for
pulling or hoisting. Catheads are located on the
drawworks of a drilling rig. The friction cathead is
used to move heavy objects. Mechanical catheads are
used on the drill floor for making-up and breakingout pipe. The breakout cathead Is located opposite
the driller's side of the drill floor, whereas the makeup
cathead is on the driller's side.
cathead a derrick up to pivot a derrick into a vertical
position by using a cable attached to the cathead on
the drawworks
catheader the crew member on a rig-erecting crew
that uses the cathead
cathead man or cat head man the crew member
on a drilling rig that uses the cathead when pipe is
being run or pulled. The cathead man is third in
rank on the drilling crew and is more experienced
than the roughnecks.

73

cathode the positive terminal of two electrodes in

an electrolytic cell. The cathode is the electrode at
which reduction occurs. The cathode does not corrode
and is in contrast to anode.
cathode ray tube an electronic device that is used
to display information or a picture on a television
screen or computer terminal. A beam of electrons
that is directed by a magnetic field is sprayed onto
the inside of the luminescent screen to create the
image. CRT
cathodic protection a method used a)to reduce seawater corrosion on large marine structures such as
offshore platforms and b) to reduce corrosion on well
casings and production facilities from saltwater
exposure. Cathodic protection reverses the electric
current which flows away from the corroding metal.
The protected equipment is set up as the cathode,
and a metal bar or plate as the anode. In the active
or impressed current system, a DC electrical current
at low voltage and several hundred amperes is caused
to flow between the cathode and anode to neutralize
the electrochemical corrosion on the structure. In
the passive method, a sacrificial anode of zinc,
aluminum, or magnesium corrodes instead of the
structure. CP
cathodoluminescence an analytical technique
used to delineate irregularities in the chemistry of
mineral grains and differences in natural cements in
sedimentary rocks. An electron beam is used to activate
a thin section of the rock. Luminescence differences
depend on concentrations of excitor and inhibitor
ions in the rock.
cation an ion with a positive charge Examples of
cations are Na+ and Ca+ + Cation is in contrast to
an anion.
cation exchange capacity a measure of the amount
of cations that can be exchanged in the interlayer
sites of a clay mineral. It is expressed in
milliequivalents per 100 g. The higher the cation
exchange capacity of the clay mineral, the more
unstable the clay mineral. Cation exchange capacity
is measured by dispersing a known weight of clay
in a solution of magnesium chloride to exchange the
cations with magnesium. The clay is then transferred
to a solution of potasiBm or calcium and the amount
absorbed is measured. Bentonite has about 70-130
mEq/100 g, and attapulgite 5-99 mEq/100 g. CEC
cationic membrane a membrane such as clay
minerals that passes cations but not anions
cationic surfactant an organic molecule with a
water soluble group that is positively charged. A
catonic surfactant is in contrast to an anionic, nonionic,
or amphorteric surfactant.
catline or cat line a VA or VA in. Manila or a wire
rope wound around a cathead and used for pulling
or hoisting. The catline is used on the floor of a drilling
rig to pull on the manual pipe tongs. The catline
can also go through a catline sheave on the crown
block for hoisting such as lifting logging tools to the
drill floor.
catline boom a metal pole that is suspended out
from a mast or derrick on a drilling rig at about the
height of the monkeyboard. A sheave at the end of
the boom is used with the catline for light lifting.

74

catshaft CCD

catshaft the axle on a drilling rig that has a cathead

on each end that are used for pulling a rope. The
catshaft is the uppermost revolving shaft that goes
through the drawworks.

cavern pores

catwalk on stock tanks

catwalk 1) a flat, steel surface, 4-6 ft wide and 4050 ft long, that extends out from the ramp on a drilling
rig. The catwalk is elevated 3 ft above the ground.
The catwalk is used to pull equipment such as tubulars
up through the V-door onto the rig. 2) the elevated,
narrow walkway such as that connecting tanks or
installations (walkway)
catworks or cat works the gear and chain linkage
that is used to drive the catheads on a rig.
caus caustic
caustic sodium hydroxide, caus
caustic consumption the amount of caustic lost
during an enhanced oil recovery project due to
reaction with minerals in the formation
caustic flooding an enhanced oil recovery process
in which alkaline chemicals such as sodium hydroxide
are injected into the reservoir. The alkaline chemicals
react with oil in the reservoir to form surfactants.
The surfactants and oil flow better through the
reservoir because of reduced interfacial tension,
spontaneous emulsification and changes in wettability.
A slug of polymer-thickened water is then injected
into the reservoir to produce a more uniform sweep
of the surfactants and oil. This is followed by injection
of fresh and then saline waters to drive the oil toward
producing wells, (alkaline flooding)
caustic soda sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Caustic
soda is used to adjust the pH of drilling mud.
caustic treater a vessel with sodium hydroxide.
Caustic soda is used to remove mercaptans, sulfides,
and acids from solutions that are passed through it.
CAV cavernous
Cav or cav 1) cavern 2) cavernous
cav cavity
cave catcher a basket that is attached to the tubing
in a well and is designed to catch sloughings off the
sides of the well, (umbrella)
cave-in the collapse of rocks from the sides of a
well bore, see sloughing
cave-ins see covings
cavernous a rock formation that contains large,
person-sized pores. CAV, Cav, or cav

cavern pore a pore large enough for a person to

enter. These are usually found in limestones and are
due to solution.
cavey a formation that caves or sloughs into wells
drilled through it. (cavy)
caving collapse of well walls into the hole (stuffing)
cavings particles of rock from the sides of the wellbore that have fallen into the well. They become mixed
with well cuttings from the bottom of the well and
can be a complication in making a sample log. (cavein). CVGS, Cvgs, or cvgs
cavitation the formation of partial vacuums due to
the rotation of an impeller blade. Cavitation can
damage a pump with shock waves and high velocity
microjets created by the asymmetrical collapse of the
bubbles.
cavity an enlarged wellbore due to sloughing of a
soft formation such as shale, (pot belly)
cavy a formation that caves or sloughs into wells
drilled through it. (cavey)
Cayugan a North American age of geological time
that ended about 405 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Silurian epoch.
CB 1) core barrel 2) changing bit 3) counterbalance
4) core bit 5) centerline bradenhead 6) center of
buoyancy
cb carbonized
CBBL core barrel
CBG coal bed gas
CBL 1) cement bond log 2) acoustic cement bond
Cbl cobble
CBL-GR acoustic cement bond, gamma ray log
CBL GRN acoustic cement bond, gamma ray, neutron
log
CBL N acoustic cement bond, neutron log
CBL-VD acoustic cement bond, variable density log
CBM conventional buoy mooring
CBND cement bond log
CC 1) casing cemented 2) carter coordinates
CC or cc cubic centimeter
C-C thru-tubing caliper log
Cc compaction constant
C-Cal contact caliper
CCD 1) catalytic combustion detector 2) carbonate
compensation depth

CCF
CCF cumulative cost per foot
cche caliche
Cck casing choke
CCL casing collar locater
CCM condensate cut mud
CCOR conventional core
C.C.P. critical compression pressure
C.C.R. critical compression ratio
ccw counterclockwise
CD 1) contract depth 2) calender day 3) compensated
density log 4) cone dragged
cd candela
CD. corrected depth
Cd. cored
C.D.DA. Canadian Diamond Drilling Association
CDF cumulative distribution function
CDG curved drilling guide
CDL compensated density log
C DLC compensated densilog, caliper log
C DLC GR compensated densilog, caliper, gamma
ray log
C DLC GRN compensated densilog, caliper, gamma
ray, neutron log
C DLC M compensated densilog, caliper, minilog
C DLC N compensated densilog, neutron log
CDM continuous dipmeter survey
cd/m 2 candela per square meter
CDN compensated density neutron
CDP 1) common depth point 2) conductivity derived
porosity 3) central delivery point
CDP gather the display of seismic data used in
stacking with the seismic traces that are thought to
be the same arranged side by side. It is done after
correction for normal moveout and statics. CDP gather
is used to check the correlation of the traces and to
evaluate the stack.
CDPS common depth point stack
CDP stack common-depth-point stack
CDR continuous drilling rate
CDRTM compensated dual resistivity
cdsr condenser
ce effective compressibility
CEC cation exchange capacity
CEE International Commission Rules for Approval of
Electrical Equipment
C8 octane
cell the ballast tank or storage compartment at the
base of on offshore gravity structure. The cell can
be used to store oil or ballast water.
cellar 1) a pit dug below the platform of a drilling
rig to give space to mount the blowout preventers
on top of the well below the drilling platform. The
cellar is about 10 ft square and 6 ft deep. The cellar
also collects water and other fluids off die rig for
later disposal. 2) the portion of a well located below
the producing zone

cementation

75

cellar contractor a service company that digs the

cellar or pit to hold the blowout preventers before
a large drilling rig is brought onto the site. A backhoe
is used often.
cellar deck the deck below the rotary table on an
offshore drilling rig. The cellar deck is the lower deck
on a semisubmersible drilling platform with two decks.
The upper deck is called the Texas or main deck.
Celsius temperature scale the scientific scale that
used to be called centigrade. The Celsius temperature
scale is based on a 0 freezing point for fresh water
and a boiling point of 100. To convert Celsius to
Fahrenheit multiply by 9A and add 32. To convert
Fahrenheit to Celsius subtract 32 and multiply by
5
/<>. The scale is named after Anders Celsius, a Swedish
astronomer (1701-1744). C
cem cemented
cement 1) minerals that naturally grow between
clastic grains in sediments to bind the grains together
to form a sedimentary rock. Most cements precipitate
from interstitial water. The most common of these
are calcite, quartz, and authigenic clay minerals. Other
cements include opal, chalcedony, dolomite, siderite,
and iron oxides. Heavy oil or asphalt can also act as
cement. 2) a liquid that hardens into a solid. Cement
is a mixture of powder consisting of alumina, silica,
lime, and other substances which harden after mixing
with water. Cement is made of a blend of limestone
and clay or shale with iron and alumina often added.
It is fused (between 2600-2800F) in a rotary kiln,
cooled, pulverized into clinkers, blended with gypsum,
and ground in a mill. When mixed with water, it is
called a neat slurry. Cement is used to bond the casing
to the well walls and is called a slurry in its wet form.
API classes of cement include A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H,
and J. The classes are based on the recommended
depths, corrosive environment, strength, pressures,
and temperatures. Additives can be used to alter the
cement viscosity, density, and particle dispersing, or
to accelerate or retard the setting time and increase
the final strength. Some specialty cements include
pozzolanic, pozzolan-lime, resin or plastic, gypsum,
diesel oil, expanding, refractory, latex, and permafrost
cement. 3) to pump wet cement (slurry) between
the casing and well walls during a cement job.
(cementing or cement job) CMT, Cmt or ant
cement additive materials added to cement to
change the properties of the cement. The additives
can be either chemical or nonchemical. Types of
cement additives are accelerators, retarders,
extenders, weighing agents, dispersants, fluid-loss
control agents, lost-circulation control agents, and
antifoam agents. Cement additives are used to change
the cement's density, setting time, compressive
strength, flow properties and dehydration rate, and
to bridge lost circulation zones, to cause the cement
to expand, and to reduce the cost of the cement.
Calcium chloride is added to reduce setting time,
gypsum to increase setting time, barite and hematite
to increase weight, and bentonite and pozzolans to
decrease weight.
cementation the natural process that transforms
sediments into consolidated sedimentary rocks.
Cementation occurs by deposition or precipitation
of minerals called cement between the sedimentary
grains.

76

cementation factor

cementing up

cementation factor an empirical number used in

the Archie formula for well-log analysis It generally
ranges from 1.0 to 30, is 1.3 for unconsolidated
sediments, and is commonly about 2.0 for reservoir
rocks. The factor is influenced by the rock geometry
that controls the shape of the conductive solution in
the pores, (porosity exponent or shape) m
cement basket see cementing basket
cement bond 1) the clinging of casing and/or a rock
formation to cement 2) the binding of casing to the
well walls by cement
cement bond log or survey a log that is derived
from the acoustic log to show where and how well
the cement has set behind the casing in a well. A
cement bond log measures amplitude in millivolts
and arrival time. The sonic wave train is recorded as
a series of waveforms or a variable density log of
semiparallel black and white lines. The attenuation
of the sound waves is proportional to the quality of
the cement bond. The amplitude of the first arrival
of the compressional wave is measured to determine
bond quality. If the casing is well cemented, the
acoustic wave travels primarily through the rock
formation with significant loss of energy. If the casing
is poorly cemented or lacks cement in what is called
a holiday, the acoustic wave travels primarily through
the steel casing at a different velocity than through
the formation and with very little loss of energy. The
cement bond log cannot identify channels and is
adversely affected by high-velocity formations. A more
advanced type is called the variable density log. A
cement bond log is often combined with a collar log
for location. CBND or CBL
cement channeling an undesirable effect caused
when cement slurry does not rise uniformly up and
around the casing during a cement job. Channeling
leaves spaces called holidays.
cement consistometer see consistometer
cement density the specific gravity of a cement.
Portland cements are about 3-15cement dump bailer a cylinder with a valve that
is used to release small batches of cement slurry into
a well during secondary cementing
cemented up cement on the inside of a tubular such
as casing
cementer 1) see cementing service 2) a service
company employee who is a member of a well
cementing crew, operates the cement pumps, and
maintains the equipment for a cement job on a well
(cement man)
cement evaluation tool a type of cement bond log
that uses eight ultrasonic transmitters to determine
the radial pattern of cement behind the casing and
the bonding of the cement to the casing and rock.
CET

cement filter cake a type of perforating plugging

material consisting of solid cement filling the
perforation tunnels or holes in the casing or liner.
Cement filter cake is emplaced as a wet slurry during
a cement squeeze job to plug the perforations.
cement hardening test a test that times how long
cement remains pumpable after being mixed, (cement
pumpability or thickening test)

cementing see cement job, CMT

cementing barge a flat-bottomed boat with
equipment used in cementing operations for offshore
wells
cementing basket an expanding metal cone that
is used to prevent the downward flow of cement in
a well. The basket is made with flexible spring steel
petals that face upward. Liners can be used to fill in
between the petals. Drilling mud and cement can flow
up the annulus but not downward. The basket is
designed to support the column of cement slurry as
it cures and is often used above lost circulation zones.
Casing collars or stop rings hold the basket, (metalpetal basket)
cementing head the connection between the
cement pump truck and rig pump lines and the casing
head. The cementing head holds one or more wiper
plugs that can be selectively released into the casing.
Cementing heads vary in design.
cement permeameter a permeameter that
determines the permeability of set cement by the flow
rate of water through a core sample under differential
pressure The curing time, temperature, and pressure
of the sample are also recorded.
cementing plug a solid spacer made of an
aluminum body encased in molded rubber used in
a cement job The bottom plug is pumped down the
well before the cement slurry and seats on or bumps
the float collar. The bottom plug has a diaphragm
that ruptures for the cement slurry, to pass through.
The top plug is then pumped down with a
displacement fluid behind it until it bumps the bottom
plug.
cementing pump the pump used to drive cement
down the casing during a cement job

cement truck

cementing service a service company that supplies

the cement and additives along with bulk hopper
trucks, pumping trucks, float equipment, cementing
head, connecting lines and personnel for a cement
job on a well. The cementing service also has engineers
to design and supervise the cement program, along
with a laboratory and technicians to test the cement
slurry and additives, (cementer)
cementing time the time needed to complete a
cement job on a well. Cementing time extends from
the start of mixing to the complete circulation of the
cement slurry into place.
cementing up the forcing of cement slurry up the
space behind casing during a cement job

cement job centipoise

DISPLACEMENT FLUID

CEMENT OR
SLURRY

GUIDE SHOE

cement job

cement job to pump wet cement (slurry) down a

well to fill the space between the casing and the rock
walls. Primary cementing is the first cementing that
protects the casing, prevents water from flowing
vertically in the space between the casing and rock
walls of the well, and isolates the producing formation.
Secondary cementing is any cement job that occurs
after primary cementing. Squeeze cementing uses
pressure to force the cement through holes or
perforations in the casing. A plug-back job puts a plug
of cement on the bottom of the well or at a certain
level to prevent water from flowing up the well and
reducing the effective depth of the well. A single-stage
cement job is done through the casing using top and
bottom wiper plugs. A multistage cement job is used
to avoid fracturing the formation when cementing
long casing strings. Either the pipe is moved up the
hole 500-1,000 ft after each batch or a multistage
tool that is opened hydraulically by special plugs is
used, (cementing)
cement man a service company employee who is
a member of a well cementing crew and operates
the cement pumps and maintains the equipment for
a cement job on a well, (cementer)
cement mill a mill with a large grinding surface
that is used to grind cement. Usually a roller-cone
bit is more efficient.
cement-mixing hopper a large, metal funnelshaped device that is used to add dry cement and
other ingredients to a cement mixer
cement packer a cement plug around the bottom
of tubing in a well
cement plug cement that bridges a wellbore and
is used to form a seal. An abandonment plug is used
to seal a dry or depleted well. A directional plug is
used to deviate a new well from the old well. A plugback plug is used to seal off a lower portion of a
well. A loss circulation plug is used to seal a thief
zone. A cement plug can be put in position as a

77

balanced plug, a two-wiper plug, or with a dump bailer

on a wireline.
cement pumpability test a test that times how long
cement remains pumpable after being mixed, (cement
hardening or thickening test)
cement retainer a tool that is used in a highpressure, cement squeeze job to temporarily prevent
the flow of cement up or down the well. The cement
retainer is a close-tolerance tool that is not retrievable
but is made of drillable metal.
cement slurry a liquid cement and water mixture
The cement slurry is pumped between the casing and
well walls to set casing in a well during a cement
job. The slurry has a density between 10.8 and 22
lbs/gal.
cement squeeze a process of forcing liquid cement
(slurry) by pressure through holes or perforations
in the casing or liner to seal an area behind the pipe
cement thickening test see cement pumpability test
cement time see waiting on cement
Ceno Cenozoic
Cenomian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 100-92 m. y. ago It is part of the
Upper Cretaceous epoch.
Cenozoic or Cenaeozic an era of geological time
from about 67 m. y. ago to the present It is subdivided
into the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. Ceno
cent centralizers
center irons the steel shaft on which the walking
beam of a cable-tool rig or pumping unit pivots
centerline the line running from bow to stern down
the middle of a ship or offshore drilling rig. C.L or
CIL
centerline fracture an induced fracture down the
center of a core
center of buoyancy the geometric center of the
upward thrust generated in the fluid displaced by a
floating object. A floating drilling rig is at rest when
the center of gravity of the rig and the center of
buoyancy lie in the same vertical line. CB
center of gravity the point at which a body is
balanced when suspended. CG, C.G., or eg
center spear a fishing tool used to fish cable. The
center spear is composed of a solid metal bar with
a barb on the bottom or with barbs along its length.
(rope or wicker spear)
centi the metric prefix for 10~2. c
centigrade temperature scale the metric
temperature scale which has 0 as a fresh water
freezing point and 100 as fresh water boiling point.
Centigrade is now called Celsius. Degrees centigrade
equals (degrees Fahrenheit minus 32) times 5/<>.
Degrees Fahrenheit equals (5/s> degrees Centigrade)
plus 32
centimeter one-hundredth of a meter of length in
the metric system. One centimeter is equal to 0.3937
in.
centipoise a unit of dynamic viscosity in CGS units
A centipoise is 1/100 of a poise and is one gram per
sec-cm. A centipoise is equal to 0.000672 lb/ft-sec.
Water has a viscosity of 1.005 centipoises at 20C.
cp

78

centistoke centrocline

centistoke a unit of kinematic viscosity in the CGS

system. A centistoke is equal to a centipoise per unit
density in g/cc. cs
centr centrifugal
central facility a field operation such as separators
or stock tanks that serves several leases
centralize to position a tool or tubular in the center
of a wellbore

centralizer

centralizer an attachment with two hinged steel

bands with connecting bands that is put on casing
as it is run into th.e well. The centralizer is designed
to keep the casing string central in the well while
cement slurry is pumped between the casing and the
well walls. Two types are spring-bow and rigid. There
are usually six or eight spring blades that are bowed
outward on the centralizer. Centralizers are made in
different sizes. Centralizing springs are similarly used
to keep tools central in a well, cent
central Jack plant an engine, often one-cylinder,
that turns a horizontal band wheel used to power
several pumping wells that surround it. Shackle rods
connect the band wheel on a vertical shaft with the
pumping wells. A central jack plant can be connected
to 10-25 pump jacks or outpost wells that are powered
by belt-driven eccentrics, (central power or central
pumping power)
central oil-treating station a separator facility that
is used to treat oil emulsions from several leases
central power or central pumping power see
central jack plant

central processing platform being towed

(Texaco, Inc.)

central processing or producing platform a

fixed, offshore platform that contains the separation,
treatment, and compression facilities for several
offshore fields. The produced fluids flow to the central
processing platform through submarine pipelines. The
oil, gas, and water are separated, and the produced
water is disposed of in the sea. The gas is compressed
and dehydrated. The platform also contains turbinepowered generators, freshwater-making units,
instrument-air compressors, and gas-flaring facilities.
CPP
central processing unit the part of a computer
where the arithmetic and logic processes are done
and instructions are decoded and performed. It
controls the computer. CPU
centrate clarified liquid from a centrifuge
centrifugal compressor a compressor that uses
blades (impellers) to accelerate gas radially. The gas
enters in the eye of the impeller and is accelerated
outward to impart kinetic energy and pressure. An
additional pressure rise can also occur in the diffuser
located after the impeller. Up to 10 impellers can
be used in one frame. If they are mounted in series,
they increase the compression ratio, whereas if they
are mounted in parallel, they increase capacity. Several
frames can be used in a series for high pressures in
multistage compressors. Centrifugal compressors are
widely used in gas gathering.
centrifugal force the force that is caused by rotation.
Centrifugal force pulls matter away from the axis of
rotation.
centrifugal pump a rotary or impeller type of highvolume pump for liquids that uses an electric motor
to rotate blades (impellers) in a casing to spin the
liquid out of the pump. Centrifugal pumps can be
either radial flow or axial flow and are compact,
portable, and maintain constant flow. This is in contrast
to reciprocating pumps that use pistons to generate
high pressures but relatively low volumes. Centrifugal
pumps can be found on a drilling rig mixing and
pumping mud to the mud pits, desander, desilter,
and degasser units as well as supplying mud to the
mud pumps for supercharging. They are less
expensive, smaller, and quieter than reciprocating
pumps. A reciprocating pump is used for the mud
pumps.
centrifugal test a test that uses a centrifuge to
determine the basic sediment and water content of
crude oil. The centrifugal test uses a shake-out or
grind-out machine.
centrifuge a high-speed, rotating device that uses
centrifugal force to separate liquids and solids of
different densities. Hydrocyclones used to separate
coarse solids from drilling mud are an example. A
centrifuge called a shake-out or grind-out machine
is used to determine the basic sediment and water
content of crude oil.
centripetal stream pattern a stream drainage
pattern that is characterized by streams flowing into
a central depression. Centripetal patterns can be found
on karst limestones with sinkholes.
centrocline a structure in which the sedimentary
rock beds dip down toward a central point. A
centrocline is in contrast to pericline or quaquaversal.

Ceph or ceph

centrifuge

Ceph or ceph cephalopod

cephalopod a highly developed marine invertebrate
belonging to the class Cephalopoda of the phylum
Mollusca. Modern examples include squids and the
pearly nautilus. Many have either internal or external
skeletons or shells and are guide fossils. Cephalopods
include the nautiloids and ammonoids that were
important during the Mesozoic time. Cephalopods
have existed from the Cambrian period to the present.
Ceph or ceph
ceramic bean a ceramic insert of a specific size that
is used in a choke valve to control the flow from a
well
certified capacity the maximum amount of natural
gas that a pipeline is legally allowed to transmit
certificate of clearance a permit for the
transportation of oil or gas by a regulatory commission
certificate of compliance and authorization to
transport oil or gas from lease a regulatory
commission form that is executed by an operator to
certify that the operation of the wells complies with
the regulations of the commission The certificate
authorizes a purchaser to transport oil and gas from
the lease.
certificate of conformance a certificate that a well
has been plugged and abandoned in compliance with
the appropriate laws and regulations
certificate of fitness a document certifying that a
mobile or fixed offshore drilling vessel meets the
technical requirements for United Kingdom or
Norwegian North Sea waters. The certificate must be
granted prior to entry.
certificate of production a form or declaration that
the operator of a new well files for record in a
government agency to testify that production in paying
quantities has commenced. A certificate of production
is required in certain states to extend the lease or
interest in the well, (affidavit of production)
certificate of title an abbreviated abstract on the
title of land. The abstractor issues an opinion on the
owner of the lands, unreleased oil and gas leases,
conveyances of minerals, outstanding encumbrances,
and liens of record, (report of title or memorandum
of title)

79

certification of abstract certification by an

abstractor that the abstract has a complete summary
of all instruments affecting title to the land as shown
in records up to the date of certification
certified petroleum geologist a geologist whose
ethical and professional qualifications have been
reviewed and accepted by a committee of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists. Each is given
an identification number.
cessation of production a permanent or temporary
end to oil and gas production from a well. Temporary
cessation could be due to workover operations.
Permanent cessation results in plugging and
abandoning and the termination of an ordinary oil
and gas lease.
cessation of production clause a provision in an
oil and gas lease that explains how the lessee can
maintain the lease if production is interrupted. It
usually involves payment of delay rentals or
commencement of work on the well or lease within
a certain period of time after the cessation of
production.
CET cement evaluation tool
CF 1) casing flange 2) cubic feet 3) completion factor
Cj shape factor
cf 1) casing flowing 2) compare 3) cubic feet
Cf formation compressibility
CFB cubic feet per barrel
CFD, cfd, cfD, or cf/d cubic feet per day
CFE core flow efficiency
CFG cubic feet of gas
CFGPD or CFG/D cubic feet of gas per day
CFGPH or CFG/H cubic feet of gas per hour
CFGPM or CFG/M cubic feet of gas per minute
CFGPS or CFG/S cubic feet of gas per second
CFH or cfh cubic feet per hour
CFI carbonate fabric unit
C15+ the saturate fraction of crude oil and sediment
extract
C5 pentane
CFL cut fluorescence
CFM or cfm cubic feet per minute
C4 butane
C4 fraction the hydrocarbons in crude oil and natural
gas that contain four or less carbon atoms in their
molecules These include methane, ethane, propane,
and butane. The C4 fraction is in contrast to the
pentane-plus fraction.
dp cubic feet per pound
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CFS or cfe cubic feet per second
CFT cubic feet
CG 1) Corgun 2) connection gas 3) coarse grained
4) center of gravity
C.G. or eg center of gravity
eg or eg. coring
Cg or cg gas compressibility or gas coefficient of
isothermal compressibility

80

Cgl, cgl, or cglt channel

Cgl, cgl, or cglt conglomerate

CGR 1) condensate-gas ratio 2) corrected gravity
C-GR or c-gr coarse grained
Cgr/gal grains per gallon concentration
CGS calculated gas saturation
cgs the cm-gm-sec system
CH 1) casinghead gas 2) cased hole
Ch chlorite
ch 1) chert 2) choke
Cj, capacity of hole
C/H cased hole
chain a unit of length used for public land surveys
in the United States that is equal to 66 ft or 4 rods.
One acre is equal to 10 square chains.
chain breaker a rotary driller
chain drive a mechanical power transfer system that
uses a roller chain with links made of side bars,
transverse pins, and rollers. A chain drive is used to
connect chain gears or wheels with teeth. Chain drives
can also be double or triple roller chains depending
on the number of connected rows of links.
chained out of the hole a method of breaking out
pipe on a drilling rig. The tool joint is loosened with
the pipe tongs. The spinning chain is then wrapped
counterclockwise around the stand. The spinning
chain is connected to a pulling line from the cathead
and the tool joint is broken out by spinning the stand
with the chain.
chaining a string of charged particles between two
electrodes. Chaining can cause short-circuiting and
can occur in a water/oil emulsion.
chainman a surveyor's assistant who uses a chain
to measure distances such as the length of a seismic
spread
chain of title a complete record of transfers or links
that goes from the patent to the present on a tract
of land
chain slinger the backup man on a drilling crew

chain tongs

chain tongs a tool consisting of a releasable chain

and handle that is used to grip and turn pipe or fittings
larger than can be handled with a pipe wrench, {bull
tongs)
Chal or chal chalcedony
chalcedony a mineral that is cryptocrystalline
(crystals too small to be seen by the naked eye) and
composed of quartz, with a chemical formula of SiO2.

Chalcedony is white to light gray, very hard, and has

a conchoidal fracture. Chal or chal
chalk an extremely fine-grained limestone
composed primarily of microfossils (foraminifera tests
or coccoliths). Foraminifera (forams) are single-celled
animals and their tests (shells) generally range in size
from 25 to 64 (JL Coccolithopores are also single-celled
animals with plates (coccoliths) generally less than
20 \L in size. Chalks originally have high porosities
(25%^i0%) but have low permeabilities due to small
pores and pore throats. The permeability in some
chalk reservoirs is enhanced by natural fractures. The
rock is usually soft, earthy, and white to light gray
or buff in color. Chalk is used as an oil-wetting agent
in drilling fluid. CLK, Chk, or chk
challenge clause a provision in an agreement such
as a joint operating agreement in which a nonoperator
has the right to challenge the operator by offering
to conduct operations on a more favorable basis. The
operator then has the right to meet the challenge or
forfeit the right to continue to operate. (Annie Oakley
clause)
chamber lift a type of intermittent gas lift that uses
either a) the tubing-casing annulus or b) a bottle on
the end of the tubing string to accumulate fluids
between cycles. Chamber lift is used in low bottomhole pressure, high productivity index wells to obtain
the lowest flowing bottomhole pressure for gas lift.
chamfer the tapered or conical end of a threaded
pipe or coupling
chance factor a geological condition that must have
occurred or be present for a petroleum deposit to
exist. The chance factor is expressed as a probability
and is used in a risk analysis of a prospect. Some of
the more important chance factors are a) reservoir,
b) caprock, c) mature source, d) migration, and e)
geometry or trap.
Chancellor rotating horsehead a pumping unit
with a horsehead that rotates to increase the maximum
stroke length by about 50%. The horsehead is eggshaped and pivots near the center of the horsehead.
A cable sling is mounted on the front of the horsehead
to suspend the polished rod hanger. The rotating
horsehead doubles the load on the unit and increases
the production rate.
chance of success a decimal number such as 0.25
that has been assigned by a geologist to a proposed
well to represent the probability of success that the
well will be a producer when drilled. The chance of
success can be determined by multiplying the risks
assigned to each chance factor for that well, (composite
risk factor)
change house a shelter used by the crews on a
drilling rig to change clothes
change of ownership clause a provision in an oil
and gas lease that explains what notice the lessee
must give the lessor if the ownership changes.
(assignment clause)
change rams to replace the rams in a blowout
preventer with another size or type rams. Pipe rams
are most commonly changed.
changing tour a crew change on a drilling rig
channel 1) a cavity on the outside of the casing
caused by a poor cement job. (holiday) 2) a trough

channel deposit
eroded by a river. Two common types of river channels
are meandering and braided or anastamosing. 3) a
series of devices that are interconnected so that data
can flow from source to recorder Seismic systems
are often 24 channels so that information from 24
groups of geophones are recorded simultaneously.
4) a path of informational flow in a computer
channel deposit the sediments that fill a river
channel. Meandering river channel deposits bend back
and forth in aerial view, are oriented perpendicular
to the (paleo) shoreline and have a fining-upward
grain size. Braided channels are intertwining.
channel fill the alluvial sediments such as gravel,
sand, silt, and clay that were transported and deposited
in a channel by a river. Meandering rivers tend to
fill with sand and finer grained sediments. Braided
rivers tend to fill with coarse sediments such as gravels
and sands.
channeling the flow of fluids such as water through
more permeable zones in a reservoir. The channeling
can occur in the shape of fingers. Channeling can
trap (bypass) oil in less permeable zones. It is a
problem in primary production from water drive
reservoirs and during waterflood and enhanced oil
recovery.
channel job a faulty cement job
channel pore an elongated pore that has developed
without regard to the texture or fabric of the rock
channel sands the sands deposited by a river in a
channel. Channel sands can be deposited either in a
point bar, on the insides of a meander, or in reaches
between meanders.
channel wave a seismic wave trapped in a subsurface
rock layer. The rock layer is bounded both above
and below by reflectors with a reflectivity of near
unity. The phenomenon is called wave guide effect
or normal mode propagation.
character the part of a seismic event that is
recognizable
character log an acoustic wave train display. The
display can be either in a) intensity modulated-time
mode or b) amplitude-time mode.
charcoal test a test that is used to determine the
condensate or natural gasoline content of wet gas
by adsorption of the liquids on activated charcoal in
the field. The charcoal is then brought into a laboratory
and the liquid is heated off the charcoal, condensed
and measured. The test is standardize^ by the
American Gas Association and the Gas Producers
Association.
charge 1) a tax, lien, or assessment on an interest
in the land 2) an explosive used in seismic exploration
It is usually described by weight, type, and sometimes
length.
chargeability the operator that is charged with the
ownership of a particular lease of federal lands
charged shallow formation with an abnormal high
pressure caused by fluids flowing up from a deeper
reservoir
charging pumps the air or electronic pumps that
pressure the gas in the accumulators
Charles' law a law of physics that relates the volume
00, temperature (T), and pressure (P) of an ideal gas.

chemical compaction

81

The law states that Yyv2 = TXIT2 and T/V = a constant.

It also states that Pi/P2 = TXIT2 and TIP = a constant.
chase pipe to lower a drillstring a few feet in the
well and then suddenly stop it with the drawworks
brake in order to clean out the pipe
chase threads to straighten and clean the threads
on a pipe
chasing the dog loafing on the job
chat a driller's term for conglomerate
Chattian a global age of geological time that occurred
about 33-25 m. y. ago. It is part of the Oligocene
epoch.
Chautaguan a North American age of geological time
that occurred from about 380 to 365 m. y. ago. It is
part of the Devonian period.
Chazyan a North American age of geological time
that occurred about 475-460 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Ordovician period.
CHB chloroform bitumen
cheater a length of pipe that is put on the handle
of a wrench to increase its length and improve
leverage, (snipe)
check an area of six townships
checkerboard a lease pattern that looks like a
checkerboard. Every other lease is held by one party
with a 100% working interest with only the lease
corners touching. Chkbd
checkerboarding leasing or farming out land in a
checkerboard pattern
checkerboard working interest an arrangement
in which a farmee receives a 100% working interest
in certain acreage, and the farmor retains a 100%
working interest in the balance
check shot survey a method used to determine
seismic velocities over various intervals in a well. The
source is usually on the surface, and geophones are
positioned in the well.
check valve a type of valve that allows fluid flow
in only one direction. The check valve is usually
opened by pressure on a spring behind the gate, (oneway, nonreturn, or swing gauge or valve)
cheese paraffin
chelating the attachment of a group to a central
metallic agent such as iron with two valences to form
a heterocyclic ring. A sequestering agent uses chelating
to separate the iron cation from the anion by chelating
to prevent the formation of iron hydroxide during
acidizing.
Chemelectric treater or dehydrator a horizontal
separator that uses chemical demulsifiers, heat, and
electrostatics to separate emulsions
chemical barrel a small tank that holds 1-5 bbl of
fluid. Mud treating chemicals are mixed with water
in the chemical barrel and added to the circulating
system of a drilling rig. The barrel has a water inlet,
small mixing system, and outlet.
chemical compaction the reduction in volume of
a sedimentary rock due to pressure solution of grains
at the grain-to-grain contacts. Anhydrite and gypsum
grains are most susceptible, quartz is intermediate

82

chemical consolidation chimney

and zircon, rutile, and pyrite are least susceptible to

chemical compaction.
chemical consolidation a method of sand control
that uses injected resins to bind unconsolidated pay
sands in a well
chemical cutoff a technique used to cut pipe in a
well by high-pressure jets of a corrosive fluid on the
pipe

chemical cutter

chemical cutter a downhole tool that uses acid to

cut stuck pipe in a well. The chemical propellant is
packed inside the tool which is lowered on wireline.
The tool is activated by electrical signals that direct
a high pressure and temperature propellant out
through holes to cut drillpipe or tubing. The jet cutter
is similar but uses a jet charge instead of chemical
action to cut the tubular.
chemical dehydration a process that uses a surfaceactive agent to produce an unstable emulsion in a
separator to separate oil and water.
chemical feeder pump a small pump that is used
to inject an emulsion breaking chemical into the flow
lines from wells. The chemical feeder pump can be
powered from the pumping unit.
chemical flood an enhanced oil recovery process
in which water mixed with chemicals is injected into
a depleted oil reservoir. The chemicals are designed
to reduce the surface tension of the remaining oil
and to push it toward a producing well. The injection
is done in several stages with each chemical or water
injected during that stage called a slug. The first slug
injected is usually a water preflush, then a surfactant
slug that reduces surface tension, then a polymer slug
that drives the surfactant, then a fresh water buffer,
followed by water to drive the slugs, (micellar flood)
chemical flooding enhanced oil recovery processes
which involve injection of water with chemicals into
a subsurface reservoir. Chemical flooding includes
surfactant, polymer, and alkaline flooding.
chemical fossil a compound found in crude oil or
sediments that proves a biological origin for that
compound. Normal alkanes from plant waxes and fatty
acids and porphyrins, pristane, and phytane derived
from chlorophyll are examples of chemical fossils.
chemical remanent magnetism magnetism in a
rock generated by mineral grain growth below the
Curie point. Chemical remanent magnetism is in
contrast to thermal and detrital remanent magnetism.
CRM

Chemungian a North American age of geological

time that ended about 380 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Devonian period.
chenier beach a beach ridge of sand located on
peat or clay. A chenier beach is very long and narrow.
chert a hard and extremely fine-grained or
amorphous rock composed of SiO2. Chert occurs both
as nodules in limestones and dolomites and as
extensive, layered deposits (bedded chert). Chert
forms either inorganically by precipitating out of
ground water or organically by deposition of siliceous
microfossils such as radiolarians or diatoms. CHRT,
Cht, cht,or ch
chert bit the first tungsten carbide insert bit
introduced by the Hughes Tool Company in 1949.
The chert bit had short, closely spaced inserts and
was very durable.
chert clause a drilling contract provision that allows
for the conversion of footage rates to day rates when
chert, a hard rock to drill, is encountered in the well
Chesterian a North American epoch of geological
time that occurred about 340-330 m. y. ago. It is part
of the Mississippian period.
chevron fold a fold in sedimentary rocks in which
the fold limbs are straight with uniform thickness but
there is a angular hinge line with thickening.
(accordion or zigzag fold)
CHF casinghead flange
CHG casinghead gas

chg or chng changing

CHH casinghead housing
if magnetic susceptibility
chicken hook a steep pole with a hook that is used
on a drilling rig to release the safety latch on the
traveling block's hook to remove the swivel
chicken-wire anhydrite a sedimentary rock
composed of large recrystallized anhydrite (CaSO4)
nodules. The impurities between the nodules have a
chicken wire pattern when the rock is slabbed.
chicksan a high-pressure swivel joint used in a
piping system. A chicksan is designed to give a bend
to the piping system and swivels on internal threads
with ball bearings. It is used on cement or frac jobs.
(swivel joints)
chief computer the person on a seismic crew who
does the preliminary evaluation and possibly some
interpretation of the seismic data. The chief computer
works directly under the party chief.
chief mechanic an employee of the drilling
contractor on an offshore drilling rig who supervises
the engineering department and maintains the rig
machinery
chiller a type of heat exchanger that uses a refrigerant
to cool fluids
chimney a geochemical zone over a hydrocarbon
deposit The area is identified by very strong soil and
rock alteration, stressed vegetation, high soil gas, and
a very strong reduction zone, in contrast to the
oxidizing or weakly reducing area surrounding it. The
chimney is caused by light hydrocarbons leaking from
a subsurface reservoir.

chip
chip an electric circuit consisting of numerous,
miniature transistors and other circuit elements on
a single, small (less than V4 in.2) silicon chip. The
component design on the chip is made by a computer.
The electrical connections between the elements are
made by an evaporated metal that is engraved on
the circuit by a photographic process. The
microprocessor is a single chip that contains all the
arithmetic and logic units of a computer, (integrated
circuit)
chip coring a method of obtaining well cuttings with
accurate depths during cable-tool drilling. A sand
pump is used to remove the well cuttings. The largest
cuttings are sampled and are assumed to be from
the last one or two strokes of the drill bit and represent
the last 1 in. of drilling.
chip hold-down effect the effect of high drillingmud weight and pressure holding the well cuttings
on the bottom of the well and slowing the drilling
chisel tongs tongs with inserts shaped like chisels
for better pipe gripping
Chit or chit chitin

choke-flow connection

83

shales but a shale-compensated chlorinity log is now

available. This log has been replaced by the neutronlifetime and thermal-decay-time logs. CHL, Chl, chl,
or chl log
chlorite The chlorite clay mineral family includes
the species (a) amesite, (b) antigorite, (c) chamosite,
(d) clinochlore, (e) penninite, and (f) corrensite. The
clay minerals are rich in iron and magnesium and
have the chemical formula (Mg, Fe+2, Fe+3)6AlSi3O10
(OH)6. The mineral has a density of 2.65 (Mg) to
3.42 (Fe) gms/cm3and a cell dimension of 14.20 A.
Chlorites originally form in low-grade metamorphic
rocks or from the alteration of black mica and
ferromagnesium minerals. Chlorite is associated with
and resembles the micas. Chlorites have a low cation
exchange capacity and are relatively stable. Because
they have a high iron content, chlorites react with
acid such as HC1 to form a gelatinous flocculant or
iron hydroxide. This can reduce the permeability of
a rock. A chelating or sequestering agent is used to
prevent this. Cb, Chlor, or chlor
choc chocolate

chock
chitinozoan

chitinozoan an extinct marine microfossil of an

organism with an uncertain affinity They are shaped
like flasks and existed from the Ordovician period
through the Devonian period. Chtz
Chk or chk chalk
chk choke
Chkbd checkerboard
chky chalky
CHL chlorinlog
Chi, chl, or chl log chlorine log
CHL GR chlorinlog, gamma ray log
Chlor or chlor chlorite
chloride stress cracking the stress fracturing
caused by corrosion of ferrous-based alloy steels when
exposed to chlorine ions in water
chlorinlog, chlorine log, or chlorine survey a
neutron-gamma ray type of wireline log that is run
to determine the amount of chlorine present in a
formation. The log is made by counting the rate of
gamma rays in a certain energy range made by the
capture of thermal neutrons from a source by chlorine
atoms. Chlorine occurs dissolved in salt water, and
the chlorine log is used to locate saltwater-bearing
zones. The chlorine log was originally sensitive to

chocks blocks or triangular-shaped objects that are

put in front or in back of wheels to prevent a truck
or trailer from moving, (scotches)
choke a constriction in a line (usually VM-I in.
diameter) used to restrict and control the rate of flow
during a test or during production. Chokes can be
fixed or adjustable. Adjustable chokes use a needle,
sleeve, or cone-shaped stem with a seat to change
the size of the orifice. A fixed or positive choke has
a specific diameter orfice. Some types of chokes
include bottomhole, surface, and storm chokes.
Production of oil or gas is often reported in barrels
or cubic feet on a certain sized choke, (bean, flow
bean, flow-plug, or flow nipple) CK, CH, chk, ck, or
cb
choke bean the replaceable orifice on a positive
choke, (flow beam)
choke extractor a wireline tool that is used to pull
side-door chokes when the pressure in the tubing is
less than the pressure in the casing-tubing annulus.
The choke extractor has a sub for attachment to a
pulling tool, a fishing neck, an equalizing sub, two
choke cups, and a spring-loaded ball.
choke-flow connection the valve or valves on a
blowout-preventer stack that connect the well with
the chokeline that leads to the choke manifold and
mud tanks on a drilling rig

84

chokeline chromatography

chokeline a pipe on the ram preventers of a blowout

preventer stack that conducts fluids from the annulus
of a well to the choke manifold. The chokeline controls
the rate of drilling fluid flow out of a well when the
blowout preventers are closed and a kick is being
circulated out of the well.
chokeline valve a valve on the blowout preventer
stack of a drilling rig that is used to control or stop
the flow of fluids through the chokeline to the choke
manifold
choke manifold a series of automatic valves, gauges,
chokes, and lines on a drilling rig. It is located on
the ground next to the blowout preventer stack and
is connected to the blowout-preventer stack outlet.
The choke manifold can direct the flow to the burning
pit, reserve pit, mud tank, or mud conditioning
equipment. The choke manifold is used to circulate
a kick out of a well after the blowout preventers have
been thrown and to circulate heavier drilling mud
into the well to control it. It is operated from a control
panel on the drill floor. The control panel has gauges
that show drillpipe pressure, manifold pressure, and
choke positions.
choke panel a device located on a drilling rig that
is designed to control an orifice or choke that can
regulate the back pressure of drilling mud on the
formation face in the well
chord one of the vertical elements on the leg of a
jackup rig

PRESSURE GAUGE

MASTER VALVE

TUBING HEAD

CASINGHEAD

Christmas tree

standardized by the American Petroleum Institute after

sizes and ratings set forth by the American National
Standards Institute. Flowing wells that use Christmas
trees include all gas wells and, less commonly, oil
wells in the early stages of field development. On
the seafloor, they can be either wet trees which are
exposed to seawater, or dry trees which are contained
in an air-filled chamber. Gas lift wells also have
Christmas trees, (production tree or tree) xtree
chromate a compound that contains chromuim.
Chromates are used with lime as anodic corrosion
inhibitors.
chromatogram the record from a chromatograph
OIL CHROMATOGRAM
OF UNALTERED OIL

chordate

chordates animals that have backbones. Chordates

are in contrast to invertebrates that are common as
fossils in sedimentary rocks, (vertebrates)
CHP casinghead pressure
Chp chalcopyrite
Christmas tree surface completion equipment over
a well that flows to the surface under its own pressure
and is used to control the flow from the well. The
Christmas tree consists of a casing head housing, casing
and tubing head spools, and production valves and
chokes. Christmas trees vary in construction, but all
have at least one master valve to control the flow of
the well. On the top is a swab valve and a pressure
gauge. To the side of the flow cross or tee is the
flowline valve. Most Christmas trees are single-wing
but some are double-wing when the well is a dual
completion. Most trees are machined out of a solid
block of metal (block tree), whereas some are
assembled with individual valves (loose-valve tree).
The Christinas tree has a hollow passageway that
connects to the top of the tubing in the well. The
flanged or studded fittings on the Christmas tree are

chromatogram

chromatograph an instrument used to analyze the

components of a substance by chromatography.
Column (liquid-solid) chromatography uses a glass
column packed with activated, powdered silica or
alumina. The liquid phase is a solvent such as hexane.
Gas chromatography uses a high-molecular weight
stationary liquid phase in the column to partition the
gas phase.
chromatography a process used to separate by
adsorption, partition, ion exchange, or
electrochromatography, the components of a sample
in solution or mixture by passing it over or through
a substance. The components in the sample have
different mobilities as they pass over or through the
substance and are physically separated. Liquid
chromatography is used to separate oils and extracts
from sedimentary rocks into their components. Gas

chrone circulating ditch

chromatography is used to qualitatively and
quantitatively analyze the organic components of
crude oil and to detect oil and gas seepages.
chrone the time equivalent of a chronzone
chronostratigraphic analysis a method to analyze
the history of deposition and erosion of sedimentary
rock units in a basin by prograding depositional units
called clinoforms. Depositional history of sedimentary
rocks is related to times of higher sea level and erosion
or to times of lower sea level and deposition.

Youngest

Diachronous

Oldest
chronostratigraphic section

chronostratigraphic section a section, a vertical

slice similar to a cross section, of sedimentary rocks
and unconformities in a sedimentary rock basin with
prograding depositional units called clinoforms. The
vertical axis on the section is geological time. The
horizontal axis is distance, similar to a stratigraphic
cross section. The sedimentary rocks are divided into
depositional sequences which are bounded by
unconformities on both the top and bottom. Each
unconformity is represented by a hiatus, a gap in the
time record.
chronazone the basic time-stratigraphic unit of
rocks deposited during a specific time such as between
the first and last appearance of a fossil or a particular
part of a sequence. A chrone is the time equivalent
of a chronzone.
CHRT, Cht, or cht chert
CHRTY or chty cherty
Chtz chitinozoa
churn drilling see cable tool drilling
churn flow a type of rising fluid flow consisting of
unstable and distorted bubbles in a liquid. Churn flow
occurs between slug and annular flow.
CI correlation index
CI or C.I. contour interval
CIBP cast iron bridge plug
CID cubic inch displacement
Cincinnatian a North American epoch of geological
time that occurred about 455-425 m. y. ago. It is part
of the Ordovician period.
CIP 1) cement in place 2) closed-in pressure
CIPA California Independent Producers Association

85

CIRC, Circ, or circ 1) circulation 2) circulate 3)

circulated
circle-A pump a type of downhole pump that is
used to lift viscous fluids such as heavy oil. The pump
is either a tubing or stationary barrel type with top
or bottom holddown. (viscous fluid pump)
circle flood a type of waterflood pattern in which
the production wells are drilled in a circle around a
water injection well
circle jack a large, semicircular rack that is bolted
to the floor of a cable-tool rig and is used to make
and break pipe connections. A circle jack has one
wrench that is attached to the floor and another wrench
that is jacked up along the rack, (jack and circle)
circle wrench a manual wrench in the shape of a
wheel that is used to break out a sucker-rod string
when it is pulled from a well, (back-off wheel or wheeltype back-off wrench)
circuit an electrical current path. The electrons in
the current will flow from a negative power supply
terminal, through a conductor such as a copper wire,
to a positive power supply terminal
circuit diagram a plan using symbols to show an
electrical circuit or path
circular chart a circular piece of paper with a scale
radiating out from the center. The chart is rotated,
and a parameter such as gas flows is recorded with
time. A circular chart is in contrast to a strip chart.
circulate to cause drilling mud to flow on a complete
trip through the mud or circulating system on a drilling
rig. Circulating is done by pumping drilling mud out
of the mud tanks with mud pumps and down the
inside of the rotary hose, swivel, and drillstring on a
rotary drilling rig. The mud jets out through the
nozzles on the drill bit and returns to the surface in
the space called the annulus between the drillstring
and the walls of the well. After going through the
shale shaker, the desander, and the desilter, the mud
returns to the mud tanks. Circulation of drilling mud
while drilling is suspended is necessary to prevent
the drillpipe from becoming stuck and to remove
the well cuttings from the bottom of the hole. CIRC,
Circ, or circ
circulate-and-weigh a technique used to control
high subsurface pressures during drilling. Circulation
is restarted immediately after a kick, and the weight
of the drilling mud is gradually increased on a
schedule, (concurrent method)
circulate out to circulate drilling fluid in a well to
remove cuttings and gas. CO
circulating device flow-control equipment that is
run on production-injection tubing to provide fluid
communication between the tubing and the tubing
annulus. It consists of a sliding sleeve or side pocket
mandrel.
circulating differential fill collar or shoe a short
section of pipe that is run either on the bottom (shoe)
or between joints near the bottom (collar) of a casing
string during a cement job. The circulating differential
fill collar or shoe uses a differential pressure aaivated
valve to allow the casing to fill with well fluids as it
is run in the well.
circulating ditch an obsolete term for the mud tanks

86

circulating fluid

clastic ratio

circulating fluid the drilling fluid, drilling mud,

water, foam, or air that is circulated down a well on
a rotary drilling rig
circulating head an attachment used on the top of
a drillpipe or tubing to connect with the circulating
system, (rotating head)
circulating out the kick the close a well and
circulate the lighter drilling mud out while circulating
heavier drilling mud into the well
circulating pressure the pressure on a fluid at a
specific depth in a well that is required to circulate
that fluid at a specific rate. CP
circulating sleeve a device on a tubing string that
is manipulated by a wireline tool to open or close
ports between the tubing and annulus. The circulating
sleeve protrudes out from the tubing, while the tubing
still has a full inner diameter. The circulating sleeve
can be used to turn on and off production from several
levels in a well, (sliding sleeve or sliding-sleeve npple)
circulating squeeze a squeeze cement job on a well
with two producing zones that has communication
behind the pipe between the zones due to channeling
in the primary cement job. The upper zone is
perforated first. Tubing with a packer is run and set
between the zones. Water is circulated to clean the
channel, and cement is pumped into the channel.
The packer is then released and picked up above
the upper perforations. A low squeeze pressure is
then applied, and the excess cement is circulated out.
circulating sub a tool that provides for circulating
drilling mud around and through a fishing string to
prevent string sticking, to control high pressures, and
to keep the hole clean. Circulation through the sub
can be by perforations or by side ports called
circulating ports. The circulating ports can be opened
or closed by manipulating the fishing string.
circulating system the system on a rotary drilling
rig that pumps, stores and conditions the drilling fluid
which is usually drilling mud. The mud pumps (mud
hogs) suck drilling mud from the steel mud tanks
and pump it through the rotary hose, swivel, kelly,
drillpipe, drill collars, and nozzles in the drill bit onto
the bottom of the well. The mud then returns to the
surface in the annulus (space between the wellbore
and drillpipe), through the blowout preventers, and
onto the surface. Next to the rig, it goes through the
mud-return line and through the shale shaker to
remove the coarse well cuttings. The mud goes
through the desander, desilter, and degasser to remove
the rest of the well cuttings and dissolved gas and
back into the mud tanks. The mud is then ready to
be pumped back up the suction line to the mud pumps.
circulating temperature The temperature of a
liquid being circulated at a specific depth in a well.
circulating valve a valve that connects the drillpipe
with the annulus a short distance above the drillstem
test tool to allow the circulation of drilling fluid to
remove any combustible test fluid from the drillpipe
before the tool is withdrawn from the hole. The valve
can be combined with a shut-in valve.
circulation the flow of drilling fluid, drilling mud,
water, foam, or air down the well and back up.
Circulation can be either normal circulation in which
the fluid is pumped down the center of the drillstring

and back up the annulus or reversed circulation in

which the fluid is pumped down the annulus and
back up the center of the drillpipe. CIRC, Ore, or
circ

circulation rate the volume of drilling mud, usually

expressed in gallons or barrels per minute, that is
being pumped down a well
circulation time the time that it takes the drilling
mud to make a complete round trip from the mud
tanks through the circulating system, back to in the
mud tanks. Circulation time is twice lag time, (cycle
time)
CIS customer instrument service
city gate the point where gas ownership is
transferred from the pipeline to the local distributor
CK or ck choke
CL caliper log
Q 1) love wave velocity 2) condensate or natural gas
liquids content
Cl or cl clay

Cl 1) chloride 2) chinozoisite
CL. center line
C/L center line
clabbered the flocculation of drilling mud due to
contaminants. The drilling mud will have a high gel
strength and will be very viscous, (gelled-up)
cladding the coating of steel pipe and equipment
with a thin sheet of corrosion resistant material.
Cladding is necessary when H2S, CO2> or other
corrosive gases are expected to be encountered during
drilling or production.
CLAG cleaning agent treatment
Clairborne a North American age of geological time
that occurred about 50-45 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Eocene epoch.
clamp a mechanical device that is used to hold
something in place
clamp connection a pressure sealing device that
is used to join two pieces without bolted flange joints.
Two clamp hubs are used on the ends of the items
and are held together by the clamp with two or four
bolts.
clapper valve a valve that uses a hinged lid to allow
fluid flow only in one direction. Clapper valves are
used in bailers to remove fluid and debris from the
bottom of a well.
clarification to make clear. The removal of oil from
water, or suspended solids from a fluid.
das clastic
clastic grain a sedimentary particle that has been
transported and deposited as a whole particle. A clastic
grain is rounded by erosion during transportation.
Dune or beach sand is an example of a clastic grain.
clastic limestone a limestone composed primarily
of broken and rounded shells (coquina)
clastic ratio a ratio of the thickness of clastic rocks
(conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones and shales) to
die thickness of nonclastic rocks (limestones,
dolomites and salts) in a sedimentary rock unit.

clastic rock cleaning a well

clastic ratio map

clastic rock a sedimentary rock composed of

particles of other rocks that were broken down by
weathering and transported and deposited by erosion
Examples of clastic rock include sandstone, shale,
siltstone, conglomerate, and breccia.
clathrate ice with gas molecules trapped in the cagelike ice crystal structure. A clathrate is a solid crystalline
compound similar to snow. Natural clathrates usually
contain ethane or isobutane or, less often, methane
or nitrogen. They are common in permafrost areas
and in seabed sediments. Clathrates also form in and
block gas wells and lines and foul heat exchangers
when gas is cooled. They are composed of about 90%
water and 10% of one of the gases methane, ethane,
propane, isobutane, n-butane, carbon dioxide or
hydrogen sulfide. Methane snow is a clathrate formed
by water and methane. Clathrates have a specific gravity
between 0.96 and 0.98. Potassium salts can be used
as a drilling-fluid additive to inhibit clathrate
formation. Gas dehydration is used to depress the
dew point of produced natural gas and prevent
clathrate formation. Clathrates are melted from pipes
by heaters, steam, or hot water or by adding methanol
or ethylene glycol. (gas hydrate or hydrate)
clay a particle size less than Viw mm in diameter
Cl orcl
clay blocking a type of formation damage caused
when low-salinity water enters the formation causing
clay minerals to be displaced and dispersed from pore
walls and to bridge pore throats, resulting in reduced
permeabilities
clay control methods used to isolate or stabilize
clay minerals in a formation. The methods retard the
breakup of clay platelets that could cause clay to flow
through the formation and clog pore throats, reducing
or eliminating formation permeability.
clay extender a high molecular weight organic
compound such as polyvinyl acetatemaleic anhydride
copolymer that is added in low concentrations to
drilling mud to increase viscosity and initial yield.
clay gouge soft, unconsolidated, very fine-grained
rock fragments found along a fault surface. Clay gouge
is formed by the grinding action of fault movement
on rocks and subsequent mineral decomposition.
Gouge can act as a permeability barrier, forming a
fault seal, (fault gouge, gouge, or selvage)
clay mineral a hydrous, aluminum silicate mineral
with a layered crystal structure. Clay minerals usually

87

occur in extremely fine-grained sizes in sedimentary

rocks and can be either allogenic (originally deposited
with the other sediments) or authigenic (formed by
chemical reactions in the subsurface). Clay minerals
are composed of tetrahedral layers of silica
surrounded by four oxygens, three of which are
shared. They can also contain octahedral layers of
aluminum or magnesium surrounded by six oxygens,
whereby all the oxygens are shared and a layer of
loosely bound atoms or molecules can be exchanged.
Authigenic clay minerals include neoformed clays that
have precipitated out of subsurface waters and
transformed clays that have formed by the alteration
of a precursor mineral grain such as feldspar. The
four common types of clay minerals are kaolinite,
illite, smectite, and chlorite. Smectite is the clay used
in drilling mud to increase viscosity and density and
to build the filter cake on the sides of the well. Clay
minerals, because of their size, decrease the porosity
and permeability of a rock and increase irreducible
water content. Clay minerals can trade (exchange)
cations (positive charges) in their interlayer sites. The
amount a particular clay mineral can exchange is called
cation exchange capacity. Cations and fresh water can
cause some clay minerals to swell (swelling clays)
or disperse. This can cause the clay mineral to detach
from mineral grains and clog pore throats in
sedimentary rocks, reducing or destroying the rock's
permeability in a process called formation damage.
The smectite-type of clay mineral has the greatest
cation exchange capacity. Some problems with clay
minerals include a) migration of fines (kaoline and
fibrous illite), b) swelling (smectite, vermiculite, and
mixed layers), and c) HC1 acid damage (chlorite and
Fe illite).
clay plug the fine-grained, organic-rich sediments
that fill an abandoned river channel or ox-bow lake
occupying an abandoned meander
clay stabilizer an additive that is used to prevent
the breakup of clay mineral platelets, a cause of
formation damage
claystone a massive mudstone that contains more
clay than silt but lacks the laminations and fissility
that are characteristic of shale. Cist
Clear calcarenite
Clclt calcilutite
Clcrd calcirudite
Clcsp calcisphere
CLDL chloride detection log
clean a sandstone or carbonate rock with little or
no clay-sized particles or shale, en
clean drilling drilling with circulating drilling mud
cleaned core a core that has had the formation fluid
extracted with solvents, usually acetone, chloroform,
ethylene dichloride, hexane, naphtha,
tetrachloroethylene, toluene, trichloroethylene or
xylene. A clean core is in contrast to a native-state
or restored-state core.
clean gas natural gas that has had the solids such
as rust and dust removed by filters
cleaning a well a workover process on a well to
remove sediments, water, scale, wax, and other
materials from the well

88

cleaning solution Clintonian

cleaning solution an acid solution that is used to

clean up the producing formation in a well before a
fracturing, cementing, or acidizing treatment
clean oil crude oil that contains less than a specified
amount of basic sediment and water. The specified
amount is defined by contract and is usually 1%. (dry
oil)
clean out to workover a well by removing sand,
scale, waxes, or other deposits that have caused a
decrease in a well's efficiency
cleanout acid a mixture of HC1 acid and surfactants
that is circulated down a well to remove unwanted
material
cleanout bailer a device lowered on a sand line
on a cable-tool rig to remove fluid from the well
cleanout box or cleanout door an opening in the
side of a tank that is used to clean the sediments
out of the bottom of the tank
cleanout cost the costs incurred in a workover to
maintain or restore the productive capacity of a well
cleanout crew a workover crew that removes sand
and paraffin from wells
cleanout machine a reverse circulation drilling rig
that is used to drill the pay zone after the rotary rig
drills down to the top of the pay
cleanout string a string of six to twelve drill collars
and small drillpipe or tubing with a bit that is used
to drill out cement above a stage tool
cleanout tools bailers and swabs used to remove
sand, scale, waxes, or other obstruction that build
up and obstruct production in wells
cleanup a swab job
cleanup trip a lowering of the drillstring into the
well solely for the purpose of circulating drilling mud
and cleaning the well cuttings from the bottom of
the well
clearance 1) the difference between the diameter
of a wellbore and the downhole tool 2) the maximum
distance between the surface of a gun and the surface
of a wellbore core.
clearance volume 1) the space left between the
traveling and standing valve in a downhole, suckerrod pump. Clearance volume is measured when the
pump is at the bottom of the stroke. 2) the space
remaining in a compressor cylinder at the end of
the discharge stroke measured in cubic inches
clearing account an account that accumulates
expenses during a period with the balance allocated
to other accounts on some predetermined basis
clearing its throat a well that is allowed to blow
to clear out drilling mud. Gas from the subsurface
blows out the mud
clear the well to pay for drilling a well
clear-water drilling fluid water that ranges from
fresh to saturated brine and comes from a
consolidated, normally pressured formation
cleavage the breakage of minerals along smooth
planes that are controlled by the crystal structure of
the mineral. The cleavage is described by the number
of planes, their orientation to each other, and their
degree of perfection. Clvg

CLEAVAGE ONE DIRECTION

CLEAVAGE TWO DIRECTIONS AT RIGHT ANGLES

CLEAVAGE THREE DIRECTIONS NOT AT RIGHT ANGLES

cleavage

clevis and pin

cleave to break
clevis a U-shaped piece of metal with a bolt or pin
through the end. A clevis is used to connect a chain,
cable, or linkage. A clevis can be found on the brake
and clutch linkages and on hydraulic and air cylinders
on a drilling rig. (shackle)
CLF cyclic load factor
Cliftonian a North American age of geological time
that ended about 415 m. y. ago. It is part of the Silurian
period.
climbing, device equipment that is used to prevent
a fall by a worker from a drilling-rig mast or derrick.
A climbing device moves up and down a steel cable
that is attached to the top and bottom of the derrick
and runs next to the ladder. A worker is attached to
the climbing device by a tail rope and safety harness.
The climbing device moves freely up and down the
cable unless the worker falls, at which time the device
catches the cable to stop the fall. A counterbalanced
climbing device has a weight on it equal to the weight
of a worker.
clingage the oil remaining on the sides of a
measuring or prover tank after the tank is drained
clinker a hard, granular nodule made by heat
treatment of cement components in a kiln. It is ground
with calcium sulfate to make Portland cement.
clinograph an instrument that measures and records
inclination
Clinton flake a small particle of cellophane that is
used as a lost-circulation additive for cement
Clintonian a North American age of geological time
that occurred about 420 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Silurian period.

CLK

CLK chalk
CLKY chalky
cln 1) crystalline 2) clean
clng cleaning
CLOS closed
close a well to stop the flow of a well by any means
closed-in well a well that has been temporarily shut
in but is still capable of production
closed or closed-in bottom pressure the pressure
at or near the producing formation in a well after
the well has been closed (shut-in) for a period of
time, usually 24 hrs or longer. Closed bottom pressure
is measured in psi, psia, or atm. (shut-in bottombole
pressure)

closed gas lift or closed installation a type of gas

lift in which the tubing is hung with a packer and a
standing valve is used. Closed gas lift is in contrast
to the open and semiclosed types.
closed or closed-in pressure the pressure at the
wellhead after the well has been closed (shut-in) for
a period of time, usually 24 hrs or longer, (shut-in
pressure)

closed structure a dome

closed traverse the closeness of a survey going into
a well compared to a survey coming out of the well
close in to temporarily shut in a well that is still
capable of producing
close nipple a short pipe that is threaded along its
entire length
closeology a simplistic concept which states that
leases closest to a discovery well are worth the most,
and drillsites closest to a producing well have the
least risk
close sand a very fine-grained sandstone
closing machine a machine that makes wire rope
by braiding wires into strands and strands into rope.
(stranding machine)
closing ratio the ratio between pressure in a well
and the pressure necessary to close the rams in a
blowout preventer
closing unit the pumps, valves, lines, accumulators,
and other equipment that are used on a drilling rig
to activate the blowout preventers
closing-unit pump the hydraulic fluid pump used
on an accumulator that stores and supplies the power
to close the blowout preventers on a drilling rig
closure 1) the vertical distance between the top of
a reservoir rock and the spill point of a trap. Closure
is a measure of the maximum vertical height of
petroleum that the trap is capable of holding 2) the
property of a potential petroleum trap to prevent
leakage of petroleum out of one or more sides of
the trap and to hold petroleum. Four-sided closure
is necessary for an effective trap. 3) the cumulative
error in a survey loop
closure pressure the pressure that holds rock
fractures closed
closure stress the pressure which propellents must
withstand to hold open fractures caused by a hydraulic
fracturing job. Closure stress is related to overburden
and pore pressures.

CNS

89

cloud on a title a claim that could impair an owner's

title to property if it is upheld in court
cloud point the temperature at which a precipitate
first forms in a fluid as it is cooled. For crude oil, it
is the temperature in which the oil first appears cloudy,
usually due to the formation of solid paraffins. The
cloud point is 2-5F above the pour point of the
oil.
clr 1) clear 2) clearance
clrg clearing
CIS chlorine log system
dsd closed
Clslt calcisilitite
Cist claystone
clucking right along a flowing well that is
producing
clump weight a heavy weight that is used with each
guyline on a compliant offshore platform to dampen
the wave effect
Clus cluster
clutch a coupling device that enables a rotating part
to gradually connect and disconnect with a part that
is driven. The mechanical type is either a jaw or gear
type. The air or friction type is commonly used in
drilling and uses air pressure to cause a gripping
surface to close around a power input shaft.
clutcher a rotary driller
clutch stomper a rotary driller
Clvg cleavage
CM molarity concentration
cm centimeter
CMC l)sodium carboxymethyl cellulose 2) critical
micelle concentration
CMDP correlation method of direct prospecting
Cmeg/1 milliequivalents per liter concentration
Cmg/1 milligrams per liter concentration
cm3 cubic centimeter
CM-GR coarse to medium grained
CMHEC carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose
CML channel master log
CML N channel master, neutron log
CMPL completion log
Cmpt compact
cm/sec centimeters per second
cm2 square centimeter
CMT, Cmt, or cmt cement
cmtd or cmtd. cemented
CN compensated neutron log
Cf, normality concentration
en clean
enen concentric
CNG compressed natural gas
C9 nonane
CNL compensated neutron log
CNS compensated neutron sonde

90

cntl COCORP

end control
cntr center
cntrt contorted
Cnty county
CO 1) cleaning out 2) crude oil 3) circulate oil 4)
carbon monoxide 5) company
Co 1) water-saturated formation conductivity 2) oil
compressibility 3) liquid coefficeint of isothermal
compressibility
co oil compressibility
C/O carbon/oxygen
COAC cleanout acid
coagulation the attraction and aggregation of finely
divided, suspended particles into lightly bonded
groups. It can occur in drilling mud between clay
platelets. Coagulation can result in gelation and the
precipitation of colloids, (flocculation)
coagulent an additive that promotes clotting
coal a combustible, sedimentary rock that is formed
predominantly (greater than 50%) of carbonaceous
material from plant remains altered by subsurface heat
and time in a process called coalification. As heat is
applied to woody material, it becomes, in sequence,
peat, lignite, bituminous coal (soft coal), and anthracite
(hard coal). The progression from lignite to anthracite
involves increasing carbon, decreasing volatiles, and
increasing heat content. Humic coals are derived
primarily from woody organic matter. Cannel coals
have large amounts of spore and resin material,
whereas, boghead coals have significant amounts of
algal organic matter. C or c
coalbed or coal-bed degassification field a field
that produces methane gas from a subsurface coal
seam. The wells will also produce considerable water
which is usually fresh or brackish. The methane flows
through fractures in the coal. The wells tend to have
a long economic life, and production can actually
increase during the first few years as the wells are
dewatered.
coalbed or coal-bed gas or methane gas formed
by biochemical and physical processes during the
coalification of plant material into coal. Coalbed
methane is predominantly (80%-99%) methane gas
(CH4). Carbon dioxide and water vapor are the main
impurities. Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide are
never present. Higher temperatures and coal rank
produce more methane. The methane is adsorbed
to the surface of the coal and the amount of adsorbed
gas can range up to 700 ft3/T of coal. A reduction in
pressure caused by drilling a well into the coal and
dewatering the seam will cause the methane gas to
be released. Btu content is usually 950-1,050/ft3. (coal
seam gas) CBG
coalesce the combination of smaller globules in an
emulsion into larger globules by molecular attraction.
Coalsecence causes oil/water and water/oil emulsions
to be easier to separate by gravity.
coalescer 1) an additive that causes substances to
come together such as coalescing an emulsions 2) a
vessel containing an extensive surface made of
wettable packing that causes drops of liquid to form
from a gas or liquid. The liquid drops are separated
out by gravity.

coal gas methane gas formed by the heating of coal.

Coal gas has a low heat (Btu) content, (town gas)
coal gassification a process that uses heat and steam
on coal to produce a gas similar to natural gas
coal oil kerosene made from distilling either coal
or crude oil
coal rank the degree of thermal alteration or
maturity of a coal. The maturity increases from lignites
to sub-bituminous, bituminous (high, medium, and
low volatile), semianthracites, anthracites, and metaanthracites.
coal seam a bed of coal that is thick enough to be
mined
coal-seam gas see coalbed gas
CO&S clean out and shoot

if
..':.

':;,

coarsening upward sequence

coarsening upward sequence a vertical sequence

of sedimentary rocks that becomes coarser in grain
size upward in contrast to a fining upward sequence
coastal plain an extensive, flat area adjacent to an
ocean margin. A coastal plain is formed by deposition
of sedimentary rocks prograding (depositing) out into
the ocean.
coating the thick surface around a pipeline that
prevents corrosion. The coating can consist of
bitumen, fabric, fiberglass, paper, or plastics.
Submerged pipelines are coated with cement to
decrease buoyancy.
cobble a particle size 64-256 mm in diameter. Cbl
orCOBL
COBL cobble
coccolith a plate composed of CaCO3 from a very
small, single-celled animal (Coccolithophore) that
floats in the ocean. Coccoliths range in size from 25
to 64 u. and can be identified only under a scanning
electron microscope. Relatively pure deposits of
coccolith fossils form the rock chalk. Coccoliths are
abundant microfossils in sedimentary rocks from the
Jurassic peroid to the Holocene epoch.
Coccolithophore a very small, mostly marine,
planktonic, single-celled animal. The test (shell) is
composed of numerous plates called coccoliths.
Chalks are composed of coccoliths. Coccolithophores
have existed from the Cambrian peroid to the present
but are most common in rocks from the Cretaceous
peroid and the Cenozoic era.
COCORP Consortium for Continental Reflection
Profiling

code of federal regulations, title 25 collapse strength

code of federal regulations, title 25 the
regulations that govern the leasing of Indian land
controlled by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. CFR, title
25
code of the east only a binding legal contract can
be depended upon in an oil deal
code of the west a man's handshake or word is
good for an oil deal
coef coefficient
coefficient of isobaric thermal expansion the
fractional volume increase of a fluid per degree
increase in temperature at a constant pressure. It
ranges from 0.00036 to 0.00096/F in crude oils with
most occuring between 0.00040 and 0.00065. The
coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is 6.9 x
6

coefficient of isothermal compressibility of

gas the fractional change of gas volume as pressure
is changed at a constant temperature, (compressibility
or gas compressibility)
coefficient of isothermal compressibility of
oil the fractional change of crude oil volume as
pressure is changed above the bubble point and at
a constant temperature, (compressibility or oil
compressibility)
coefficient of transmissibility the flow rate of
water in gallons per day through an area of a subsurface
aquifer that is 1 ft wide and equal in height to the
thickness of the aquifer with a unit hydraulic gradient.
(transmissibility coefficient)
coelenterate an aquatic invertebrate that belongs to
the phylum Coelenterata which includes the corals.
Coelenterates also includes sea anemones, jellyfish,
and hydroids. They are characterized by a radial
symmetry. Coelenterates have existed from the
Cambrian period to the present.
coeval at the same time or period
COF calculated open flow
COFCAW combination forward combustion and
waterflooding
coffee grinder an old term for a rotary drilling rig
cofferdam the watertight space between two liquid
containers. A cofferdam is designed to prevent the
liquids from mixing if the side of one container is
ruptured.
COGA Coastal Oil and Gas Association
cogeneration the production of two forms of energy
from one fuel. Cogeneration is used for heavy oil
steamfloods where natural gas is burned to generate
both steam and electricity. The electricity is sold to
help offset the costs of the steamflood.
COH coming out of hole
coherant noise noise that is organized, predictable,
and repetitive. Coherant noise in seismic includes a)
multiples, b) direct and near surface waves, c)
diffractions, and d) shear waves converted from
compressional waves.
coherence the capacity for correlation between
arrivals of seismic energy at different detectors
cohesion the attractive force between similar
molecules in the same substance

91

coil a spiral of pipe or tubing. A coil is often used

to radiate or transfer heat
coil area the outer surface or heat transfer area of
a pipe
coiled tubing high-strength, ductile steel tubing
with an outer diameter of 1V4 in. being common.
The tubing is made of low carbon steel alloy with
very low sulfur and chromium, copper, and nickel
for ductibility in lengths up to 19,000 ft.
coiled tubing unit a well service unit that uses
flexible, small-diameter steel tubing wound as a
continuous length on a hydraulically powered tubing
reel. The reel can store up to 16,000 ft of tubing
with an outer diameter of Yt-lYt in. Coiled tubing is
in contrast to other types of well service units that
use joints of relatively stiff pipe. The coiled tubing
unit usually is used on producing wells that need
pressure control. Coiled tubing is used for cleaning
out sand or paraffin in tubing, initiating flow, well
stimulation, and cementing. A limited amount of
drilling can be done with a downhole hydraulic motor.
The blowout-preventer stack usually consists of four
rams including hydraulic cutter, pipe, blind, and slip
rams. As the tubing feeds off the tubing reel, it goes
through a counter which is attached to a level wind
assembly and a pipe straightener. An injector head
with friction blocks pushes or pulls the tubing in or
out of the well with a typical speed of 60-100 ft/min.
The coiled tubing greatly reduces trip time compared
to solid tubing. Other equipment on the unit includes
a circulating system for nitrogen, acid, or other fluids,
blowout preventers, lubricator, tubing injector head,
and hydraulic crane. The unit usually has a crew of
two. (endless tubing, continuous tubing, or reeled
pipe unit)
Col or col color
col column
Col ASTM color by the American Standard Test
Method
cold an electrical circuit that is not on. Cold is in
contrast to hot
cold dip a method of sealing cores in a strippable,
plastic coating for shipping and storage
cold stacking the mothballing of a drilling rig for
an indefinite time in contrast to warm stacking
cold test the temperature at which oil becomes solid,
which is generally 5F lower than the pour point
cold-work to form metal without using heat
colessor's agreement or colessor's ratification
agreement an agreement by one owner that
confirms a lease executed by another concurrent
owner of the lease
coll collecting
collapse job a fishing operation to remove collapsed
pipe from a well
collapse resistance or pressure a measure of the
amount of external pressure that a pipe can withstand.
Four types are a) yield strength collapse pressure,
b) plastic collapse, c) transition collapse, and d) elastic
collapse.
collapse strength the minimum external pressure
that will collapse a tubular such as casing. The collapse

92

collar ComAVL-G

can be either a) elastic (failure occurs before

deformation), or b) plastic (deformation occurs before
failure).
collar a short metal cylinder that is attached to the
end of a tubular such as drillpipe or casing by either
flash weld, inertial weld, or by screwing on. The collar
is used to couple the tubular with another tubular.
It is threaded either internally (box end) or externally
(pin end). Those that are used on casing on a cement
job are called baffle, float, and differential or automatic
fill-up collars, (coupling or tool joint) coir
collar-bound pipe drillpipe that is caught in a well
by debris or sediments packed around the pipe collars
collar clamp a device with rubber gaskets that is
temporarily used to seal a leaking pipe collar
collar locater see casing-collar locater
collar log a record of the location of casing or tubing
collars in a well made by a collar locater. The collar
log is used for accurate depth locations in a well.
(casing collar log)
collar pecker or pounder a worker who hammers
the collar of a pipe so that it can be screwed tighter
or unscrewed
collar pipe a heavy, large-diameter pipe that is used
to add weight to the bottom of the drillstring just
above the drill bit to control drilling and to prevent
bending by stiffening the drillstring. Collar pipe is
about 30 ft long and has a uniform inner and outer
diameter. The inner diameter is 2V* in. or 27/s in.
and the outer diameter is slightly smaller than the
size of the hole being drilled. Usually 2-20 drill collars
are located on the drillstring. (drill collar)
collecting system the pipes, pumps, tanks, and
valves that are used to transport and control the flow
of oil and/or gas from the well to the pipeline or
main storage tanks
collection bank the bank that holds the lessor's
executed lease and draft until the lessee pays the bank
the monies due
collet connector a mechanically or hydraulically
operated system that is used to connect the marine
riser to the blowout preventers on a seabed
colloclast an irregular or lobate accretion of
calcilutite or calcisiltite. Colloclasts are the result of
algae or bioturbation.
colloid very fine-grained material that is in
suspension in a fluid. Colloids are easily put in
suspension but settle out of suspension slower than
clay-sized material. True colloidal suspensions have
particle sizes ranging from 5 to 200 \L. The word is
derived from the Greek word for glue.
colloidal 1) particles that are too small to be seen
with an optical microscope 2) a suspension that is
intermediate in properties between a liquid and a
solid
colloidal fraction that part of drilling mud, such
as bentonite, that gives the mud gel strength. Colloidal
fraction is in contrast to the inert fraction.
coin colonial

colonial survey an early system of mapping in the

United States that was used for Kentucky, Tennessee,
West Virginia, Vermont, and Maine. There were

6 mi2 townships. Individual parcels of land with

irregular boundaries were granted in the townships.
color 1) paint-band identification of pipe
classifications 2) a show of crude oil in well cuttings
color composite image a colored image used in
remote sensing that is made by transmitting each band
from a black-and-white multispectral image through
a different color filter, and then combining colors
color imaging the assignment of a color to various
ranges of a seismic attribute such as amplitude or
interval velocity on a seismic section
color stability the resistivity of crude oil to color
change that comes from exposure to light and age
coir collar
column chromatography a chromatography
technique that uses a packed glass column of activated,
powdered silica, or alumina to separate crude oil and
extracts from sedimentary rocks into their
components. The liquid phase is a solvent such as
pentane, heptane, toluene, benzene, or methanol. The
components are separated or partitioned by their
mobility through the column, (liquid-solid
chromatography)

YOUNGEST

1
I
rlOO

50 FEET

OLDEST

columnar section

columnar section a rock column showing all the

different rock units such as formations that occur in
a locality or region. The rock units are ordered
vertically by age with the oldest on the bottom and
the youngest on the top. The rocks are horizontal
and their ages and their range of thickness is given.
Individual rock layers are drawn as they would weather
in a cliff of rocks. Resistant rocks such as sandstone
protrude out of the column, whereas weak rocks such
as shales are weathered back, (geological column or
section or stratigraphic section)
COM or com common
Com compensated
Com-a-long an open-jawed wrench or spanner
Com AVL compensated acoustic velocity log
Com AVL-G compensated acoustic velocity log,
gamma ray log

ComAVX-N commercial well

Com AVL-N compensated acoustic velocity log,
neutron log
comb combination
combination collar a cylinder that is used to couple
tubulars that has a right-handed thread on one end
and a left-handed thread on the other
combination driller a driller who can use both a
cable-tool and rotary rig
combination drive two or more reservoir drives
(solution gas, free gas cap, water, or gravity) that force
the oil through the reservoir rock and into the wells.
The relative importance of the types of drives will
change with oil production and time.
combination gas wet gas
combination lease a lease that is producing or is
capable of producing from both an oil and a gas
reservoir
combination logging tool several logging tools
joined together to make several measurements on a
single logging run
combination outfit or rig a drilling rig with both
rotary and cable-tool equipment. The cable-tool rig
part is used to drill hard rocks, such as chert and
limestone. The rotary rig part is used to drill the softer
rocks, such as shale and sandstone. The cable-tool
part can also be used to drill the reservoir rock to
alleviate any formation damage problems. The
combination rig came into use during the 1920s and
can also be used as a workover rig.
combination plant a device that uses both
compression and adsorption to remove liquid
hydrocarbons from natural gas
combination string 1) a length of casing that
changes from casing joints of high tensile strength
near the top of the well to casing joints of high collapse
and internal yield strength near the bottom of the
well 2) a length of pipe made up of smaller lengths
of pipe of several different diameters that have been
screwed together
combination trap a type of geological trap that uses
both structural and stratigraphic elements to trap
petroleum. The structural element is created by the
deformation (folding and faulting) of the reservoir
rock. The stratigraphic element is formed by reservoir
rock deposition or erosion.
combustion the burning of material by very rapid
oxidation The oxygen comes from the air.
combustion zone the reservoir rock where the oil
is combusting during a fire-flood-type of enhanced
oil-recovery project
COM D or Com Den compensated density log
come working for a percentage of the action rather
than a salary
come-along a device used for tightening or pulling
chains or wires. A come-along has either a lever
attached to short lengths of chain with hooks, or two
jaws attached to a ring.
come in to start production
come on stream to start a well producing or to
activate a piece of equipment or installation

93

come or coming out of the hole to pull equipment

such as a wireline tool, tubing, or the drillstring out
of the well
come to see you to have a well kick or blowout
COMM commercial
commence or commencement the date at which
a well is spudded. The hole must be started with a
rig capable of drilling to contract depth.
commence or commencement lease an oil and
gas lease which will remain valid as long as drilling
a well begins during the primary term and drilling
operations are being carried out with reasonable
diligence. This is in contrast to a completion lease
in which the well must be completed to extend the
primary term of the lease.
commencement of drilling the first operation on
the drilling site prior to drilling the well. This could
start with dirt work, work on the water well for the
drilling rig, or erecting the rig.
commencement provision an oil and gas lease
clause that provides for the extension of a lease if a
well is being drilled on that lease during the expiration
of the primary term, (drilling operations clause)
commercial butane a natural gas product that is
composed predominately of butane and/or butylenes.
Commercial butane is defined by the Natural Gas
Processors Association as having a vapor pressure of
not more than 70 psig at 100F and at least 95% of
it must evaporate at a temperature of 34F.
commercial clays clays such as attapulgite and
Wyoming bentonite that are sold for the purpose of
making drilling mud. Commercial clays are in contrast
to natural clays.
commercial deposit an oil and/or gas reservoir that
contains enough petroleum for production in paying
quantities. The oil and/or gas produced should either
a) repay the costs of drilling and completing the well(s)
and cover the operating cost of the well(s) plus profit,
or b) pay the costs of operating the well(s) plus profit.
commercial production oil and/or gas production
from a well in sufficient quantity to make a profit
after operating costs
commercial propane a natural gas product that is
composed of at least 95% propane and/or propylene.
Commercial propane is defined by the Natural Gas
Processors Association as having a vapor pressure of
not more than 215 psig at 100F and must pass other
tests on sulfur and corrosive compounds content,
dryness, and residue left after evaporation.
commercial quantity there is no consistent
definition for commercial quantity. It could be large
enough deposit of crude oil and natural gas to
economically justify (make a profit) the development
and production of the petroleum. A prudent person
experienced in this area would expect a profit after
costs.
commercial well a well that is capable of production
in paying quantities. The production is either enough
to a) eventually repay the cost of drilling and
completing the well and cover the operating costs
of the well plus profit or, less commonly, b) pay the
costs of operating the well plus profit. A commercial
well is a well that a reasonably prudent industry

94

commingle

compaction anticline

member would complete if he/she were drilling and

completing with his/her own money without any
support.
commingle to mix fluids from more than one
source. Commingling can be the mixing of production
from different reserviors in the same well or
production from different wells.
commingled well a well that produces from two
or more different producing reservoirs. The gas or
oil is mixed as it is brought up the well in a single
string of tubing. A commingled well is in contrast to
a multiple completion well in which the oil or gas
from the different producing reservoirs is not mixed
as it is brought up the well in separate strings of
tubing and stored in separate tanks.
commissioner's well a single well drilled in
Louisiana on a unit that was created by the
Commissioner of Conservation
committed area the surface area that is covered by
a gas contract. The gas produced from that area is
obligated to a pipeline and/or user under the
conditions, including price, specified in the gas
contract. It includes not only the gas from existing
wells but any new reserves found by extension of
existing reservoirs and new reservoir discoveries
under the committed area.
commodity charge a rate or charge for gas that is
actually taken by the gas purchaser
commodity value of natural gas a value for natural
gas that is computed by comparing it with competing
sources of energy
common carrier a person or company engaged as
a public utility for hire in the transportation of
petroleum such as a pipeline company. The
transporter is obliged by law to service all interested
parties without discrimination. If the pipeline capacity
is reached, the common carrier must offer ratably to
all shippers in proportion to the amounts they offer.
A common carrier is in contrast to a private or contract
carrier.
common cement Portland cement that is either API
Class A or ASTM Type 1
common-depth-point a reflector in the subsurface
from which reflections from different offset distances
are recorded on several different seismic profiles. It
is used for common-depth-point stack in seismic
exploration. Common-depth-point was originally
called common reflector point.
common-depth-point-stack a seismic exploration
method in which the same subsurface reflector is
recorded on numerous seismic profiles from different
offset distances between source and detector. The
traces are corrected for statics and normal moveout
and then superimposed or stacked. The traces are
summed algebraically into a single trace. Up to 180
traces can be used. Stacking eliminates random noise
and reinforces weak reflectors. The number of seismic
profiles stacked is identified with a number or
percentage such as 24 stack or 2,400% stack, which
is called the multiplicity factor. The common-depthpoint stack often uses 12, 24, or 48 traces, (horizontal
or roll-along stack) CDP stack
common ion effect the use of a calcium salt to
retard the reacting time of acid used in acidizing.

One to two pounds of calcium chloride are used per

gallon of acid.
common pool see common reservoir
common purchaser an oil and gas carrier that is
required by law to purchase without discrimination
from all parties in a specific area, field, or reservoir.
If the transportation capacity of the carrier is exceeded,
the parties are accommodated ratably according to
their amounts tendered.
common reflector point the original phrase for
common-depth-point
common reservoir a subsurface oil and/or gas
deposit that is continuous. A common reservoir has
a single pressure system and has one gas/oil, gas/water,
and/or oil/water contact, (common pool)
communitization see pooling or unitization
community lease the result of pooling of several
separate tracts of land to form one drilling and spacing
unit
community property an ownership of property
acquired during marriage that is shared between
husband and wife. Community property is in contrast
to separate property that was acquired before marriage
or by inheritance.
commutator 1) the bars that are connected to the
armature coils of an electric motor that collects or
distributes current to the brushes 2) a device that
changes alternating current to direct current and vice
versa
COMP or comp 1) completion 2) completing 3)
completed
Comp. completed
compact the tungsten carbide, conical, spherical, or
chisel-shaped pellet that is cold-pressed into a hole
drilled in the face of a steel cone on an insert or
button-roller cone bit. The compact does the crushing
and chipping of the rock on the bottom of the well.
Chisel-shaped compacts are used in softer rocks,
whereas the spherical compacts are used in harder
rocks, (button or insert) Cmpt or cpct
compacted zone the part of the producing
formation that lines the perforation tunnel. The
sediments are compacted by the process of perforation
which usually is made by detonating a shaped
explosive charge.
compaction the decrease in volume of sedimentary
rocks caused by increasing overburden pressure of
overlying rocks during burial. Compaction is
accomplished primarily by squeezing the fluids out
of pore spaces which decrease in volume. Compaction
decreases the porosity and increases the density of
sedimentary rocks with depth, cp
compaction anticline a domal structure formed by
compaction of sedimentary rocks over and along the
flanks of harder rocks of limited aerial extent such
as a buried reef, channel sandstone, bedrock hill or
cuesta. The overlying sedimentary rocks compact and
decrease in thickness more than the overlying harder
rocks. Because the sedimentary rocks are thicker to
the sides of the harder rocks, their total compaction
is more, and their thickness decreases more along
the sides, creating a compaction anticline on originally
horizontal sedimentary rocks. A compaction anticline

compaction constant compensator

compaction anticline

in sedimentary rocks can form a petroleum

trap, (compaction or plains type fold or draped
anticline)
compaction constant a number that is used to
compute the porosity of rocks from their interval
transit time on a sonic log. The compaction constant
is 1.0 for a completely compacted formation and less
than 1.6 for an uncompacted formation. Cc
compaction correction an empirical correction
applied to uncompacted sand and abnormal highpressure zones when computing sonic log porosities
compaction drive a minor type of reservoir drive
which is caused by the compaction of the reservoir
rock with decreasing reservoir pressure. A compaction
drive can be present in chalk and unconsolidated sand
reservoirs.
companion flange a type of small-diameter pipe
coupling or connector with one part convex and the
other concave. Companion flanges fit in each other
and are held by bolts and nuts.
compaction fold see compaction anticline
company maker a field or trend discovered by a
company which gives the company reserves and
production needed for cash flow sufficient to secure
that company's financial outlook
company man or representative an on site
representative of the operating company on a well
being drilled who is directly responsible for drilling
operations. The company man is either employed by
the operating company or is a self-employed
consultant. He oversees the well drilling, orders
needed supplies and services and has an office on
the rig where he is on call 24 hours a day. The company
man verbally reports to the operator each morning
and works with the toolpusher. (rig manager)
compartment an enclosed or semienclosed space
in a semisubmersible, drillship, or barge
COMPD or comp'd completed
compensated density log see compensated
formation density log. COM D or ComDen
compensated density neutron log a log that
measures compensated density, neutron porosity, and
the photoelectric factor with a tool built into a drill
collar. The radioactive sources in the tool are
connected by cable so that they can be fished with a
slickline if the drill collars become stuck. CDN
compensated dual resistivity log a log similar to
a dual induction log but made by an electromagnetic

95

propagation tool built into a drill collar. The

compensated dual resistivity log is boreholecompensated and makes two resistivity measurements
at two depths of investigation (35-65 in. and 20-45
in.). CDR
compensated formation density log a well log
that measures the density of rocks adjacent to the
wellbore and is adjusted for irregularities in the well
bore. The sonde bombards the rocks with gamma
rays from a cesium source. Rock atoms cause Compton
scattering and the returning gamma rays are counted
on two detectors at different distances from the source
on a skid pressed against the side of the well. The
rugosity of the well is compensated by using the two
detectors. The log determines the bulk-volume density
of each formation in the well. By knowing or estimating
the matrix and fluid densities, the porosities of each
formation can be calculated. Newer density logs also
measure the photoelectric adsorption cross section
of the formation which is used to identify the lithology
and correctly estimate the matrix density, (dualspacing formation density log) CDL, COM D, or Com
Den
compensated log a wireline well log that has been
corrected for unwanted effects or rugosity, such as
variations in wellbore diameter or mudcake. The
compensation is usually made by using two detectors
in the sonde.
compensated neutron log a type of well log that
is used to determine the porosity of each formation
in a cased or open well and is adjusted for irregularities
in the wellbore. The compensated neutron log
bombards each formation in the well with high-speed
neutrons from a radioactive source such as a mixture
of plutonium-beryllium or americium-beryllium
located in the tool. Two detectors measure the number
of gamma rays and/or slow neutrons that are emitted
from the formation to determine the hydrogen content
of the rocks. Hydrogen is an element in the water,
gas, or oil that occupies the pore space. The two
detectors compensate for rugosity of the well walls.
The ratio of detector responses allows conversion to
a linear porosity reading that is good for both highand low-porosity formations. The log is recorded as
either density or porosity (assuming a limestone
matrix) in Track 2. The compensated neutron log is
used for a) porosity, b) correlation, c) gas effect, d)
crossplots for lithology, e) tie-in log for perforating,
and f) bit selection, {dual-spaced neutron log) CNL
Compensated Spectral Density log a wireline
well log that measures both compensated density by
recording the Compton scattering cross section of
gamma rays and lithology by recording the
photoelectric cross section. CSD
compensation royalty 1) a payment (royalty) made
to a lessor in lieu of drilling an offset well in order
to prevent drainage of land by a producing well that
has been drilled on an adjacent tract of land.
(compensatory royalty) 2) payment (royalty) made
by an operator to the mineral rights owner for not
fully developing a lease. The compensation royalty
is paid instead of a production royalty.
compensator a drillstring or heave compensator.
Two types are passive with a hydro-pneumatic spring
and active with a power-assisted hydraulic system. All

96

compensatory royalty

completion report

present drillstring compensators are based on airspring tensioning. The compensator reacts to the
difference in the suspended drillstring weight and a
set tension level. A drillstring compensator can be
either deadline, crown block, or traveling block,
depending on where it is mounted. The compensator
is also used during wireline operations.
compensatory royalty see compensation royalty
compensatory royalty clause a provision in an oil
and gas lease that allows for a royalty payment to be
made to the lessor on oil and gas production from
a well on an adjacent tract of land in lieu of drilling
an obligatory offset well on the lease
competent formation a rock layer that will not flow
or change its thickness with stress such as folding
competitive bids the method used to sell leases
on known geologic structures on federal land. The
sales are advertised and sealed bids are accepted. The
lease goes to the highest bonus offered.
competitive lease the method used to grant leases
on United States onshore federal lands over known
geologic structures. Tracts are nominated by interested
companies, individuals, or the Bureau of Land
Management. The award is made to the highest peracre cash bonus in a sealed bid. The government
retains the right to reject an inadequate bid. The lease
grants the lessee the right to explore, drill, and
produce oil and gas from that tract. Competitive leases
have a 5-year primary term with $2/ac annual rental
and a sliding scale royalty from \2Vz% to 25% based
on production volume. The lease has a maximum of
640 ac. Competitive leasing is in contrast to
simultaneous leasing and over-the-counter
application.
complemental abstract a title opinion that adds to
the information in another title opinion of overlapping
time frames
complete a well to install the production and
treating equipment necessary to produce crude oil
and/or natural gas from a well
complete date see completion date
completed well 1) a well that was drilled, equipped,
and is capable of producing commercial amounts of
oil and/or gas 2) a well drilled to a depth below
which commercial oil and gas is not likely to exist
3) a well drilled to a reasonable depth sufficient to
prove or disprove the existence of oil or gas at that
location 4) a dry hole
complete payout period the time when the gross
income from the mineral interests of the well(s) equals
all the costs of drilling and completing (both tangeable
and intangeable) plus the operating costs up to that
time
complete voidage replacement a pressuremaintenance method in which the fluid produced from
the reservoir equals the fluid injected into the reservoir
completion a single operation involving the
installation of equipment in and on a well, after drilling
and evaluating the well, to bring the well into
production from one or more zones. Completion
usually starts with setting pipe. A well completion
can be conventional, in which the tubing is run into
4'/2 in. or larger casing, or miniaturized. The most
common completion techniques are open hole

(barefoot), screen liner uncemented, gravel pack with

liner, cemented liner with perforations, and cemented
casing with perforations. Completion can also include
well stimuation and production testing. COMP or comp
completion card a card compiled by a commercial
firm that details information on the drilling, testing,
exploration, and production of a well. A completion
card usually includes the name, location, spud date
of the well, total depth drilled, depths to the tops of
formations in the well, intervals completed,
completion techniques and initial petroleum
production. Cards are also printed for proposed but
abandoned well sites.
completion contract a type of drilling contract in
which the operator will pay either on a footage or
day-work basis but does not have to pay until the
drilling contractor has completed the well
completion date the day in which a well is either
a) plugged and abandoned or b) completed, as
evidenced by releasing the rig or filing an official
completion report (complete date)
completion efficiency the actual well production
divided by the amount the well would produce without
either stimulation or damage. Completion efficiency
is expressed as a percentage or decimal. A completion
efficiency of 200%-300% is characteristic of a good
well stimulation job. (flow efficiency)
completion engineer a petroleum engineer who
specializes in completing a well. The completion
engineer oversees the installation of the production
equipment and perforates, tests, and treats the well.
completion factor a measure of the formation
damage in a well. Completion factor is equal to
qlqt times 100, where q is the production rate at a
fixed drawdown of the actual well and qi is the
theoretical production rate at a fixed drawdown of
the well with no formation damage. CF
completion fluid the liquid that is kept in the well
as it is being completed. A completion fluid is selected
to control subsurface pressures, to minimize any
formation damage, to prevent formation fluids from
flowing into the well, and to prevent corrosion of
equipment. Completion fluids include a) water-and
oil-base muds, b) treated, produced water (salt water),
c) lease crude oil, d) refined oil such as diesel oil,
e) water with 2% to 4% KCl, and 0 nitrogen. The
oil-base and oil emulsion muds are for well pressure
control. The completion fluid can be left in the annular
space between the tubing and the casing. Two types
are a) casing pack and b) packer fluid.
completion interval the portion of the reservoir
that is in fluid communication with the well through
perforations in the casing
completion lease a type of oil and gas lease in which
a well must be completed during the primary term
of the lease to extend the life of the lease. A completion
lease is in contrast to a commence lease in which
the well only has to be started in order to extend
the primary term of the lease.
completion log a well log run in a cased hole to
evaluate the cement job behind the casing. The
cement-bond log is the most common.
completion report a report that is required by many
states to be filed with the conservation commission

completion rig compression pressure

of that state after the completion of a well. A completion
report can include the name and/or number of the
well, location, lease name, completion date, date of
first production, name and depth of the producing
reservoir(s), initial production test data, records of
casing and cementing, perforation information,
records of fracing or chemical treatments, and the
well log.
completion rig a rig that is a swabbing unit and is
also equipped to do minor drilling. The completion
rig is used when the well is near total depth, and
the target is ready to be drilled. The completion rig
is used to save money, rather than use a large rig to
complete the well.
complexing agent a chemical that will bind
dissolved iron into complexions. Complexing agents
are often used during an acid job to prevent the
dissolved iron compounds from reprecipitating and
having the gelatinous hydroxide affect reservoir
permeability.
compliant platform an offshore platform that is
anchored to the seafloor, but its upper end is free
to move within a restricted area. Articulated platforms
and guyed towers are examples.
comp nat completed natural
component 1) the lowest number of independently
variable constituents in a system. Natural gas, crude
oil, and water would be a three-compound system
2) self-contained units that have been assembled
onshore, barged offshore, and are installed on an
offshore platform. They are transported offshore on
deck barges and lifted into place by derrick or crane
barges. Some common components used are
wellhead, oil and gas separation, gas compression,
platform power generation, diesel, filter and exhaust,
storage, and mud. (module)
composite log 1) several well logs that are the same
or different types from one well that have been spliced
together to make a continuous record 2) a log
composed of a) a lithological description of the
formations including paleontolgy, b) a borehole
compenesated sonic log, c) a gammaray log, d) a
caliper log, e) formation identifiaction, f) an optional
drilling rate record, and g) an optional mud weight
record
composite mud recap a report that summarizes
the daily mud-check reports after a well has been
drilled
composite risk factor a decimal number such as
0.25 that has been assigned by a geologist to a proposed
well to represent the probability of success that the
well will be a producer when drilled. The composite
risk factor can be determined by multiplying the risks
assigned to each chance factor for that well, (chance
of success)
composite sample 1) a sample taken from the top,
middle and bottom of a storage or stock tank 2) a
sample with all the original fluids such as water, oil,
and gas
composite stream the flow in a line of a) both crude
oil and natural gas or b) two different liquids
compositing mixing
compound 1) a mechanism that is used to transmit
power from a prime mover to several sources while

97

varying the amount of power going to each source.

On a drilling rig, the compound is used to transmit
power from the diesel or electrical prime movers to
the drawworks, rotary table, pumps, and other power
sources by means of clutches, shafts, chains and
sprockets, and belts and pulleys. The compound is
enclosed in heavy-gauge metal and the chains are
run in an oil bath. 2) to connect two or more engines
or motors 3) a substance formed by the chemical
union of two or more elements in a fixed proportion.
CaCO3 is an example. 4) a lubricant used on pipe
threads
COMPP completed as producer
compr or compr. compressor
compressed section a section such as a cross
section or seismic section in which the horizontal
scale has been significantly reduced, resulting in
considerable vertical exaggeration
compressibility the change in fluid volume when
pressure on the fluid is changed, see coefficient of
isothermal compressibility of oil and gas
compressibility factor a number that is the ratio
of the actual volume of gas at a specific temperature
and pressure to the volume of that gas calculated by
the ideal gas law at the same temperature and pressure.
The compressibility factor is expressed as z and
compensates for the volume and electrostatic
repulsion of the gas molecules when computing gas
volume using the ideal gas law. The factor is 1.00
for an ideal gas and varies between 0.7 to 1.2 for
real gas. The compressibility factor has been
determined for a large number of gases over a wide
range of temperatures and pressures. They are usually
plotted as a function of temperature and pressure
for a given gas specific gravity. The compressibility
factor is also plotted as a function of reduced
temperature and pressure, (supercompressibility or gas
deviation factor) z
compression the state of stress in an object due to
inward-directed forces
compressional packer a conventional packer that
seats and expands tightly against the casing as the
tubing is lowered
compressional wave an elastic wave that travels
through the body of the medium with the particles
of the medium moving in the same direction as the
wave propagation. The velocity of a compressional
wave varies with the elastic constant and density of
the medium. The compressional wave is the wave
that is primarily used in seismic exploration.
Compressional wave is in contrast to shear and surface
waves. (P-, primary, pressure, or longitudinal wave)
c
compression cup a small container that uses either
a spring or screw cap to force grease onto a shaft
bearing for lubrication
compression ignition the start of a fire or explosion
in a mixture of compressed gases, resulting in an
increase in temperature
compression plant an installation that uses
compression and cooling to remove liquid
hydrocarbons from natural gas
compression pressure the increase in pressure
caused by a compression stroke in an engine.

98

compression ratio computing center logs

Compression pressure is usually stated in pounds per

square inch.
compression ratio 1) the ratio of the volume of
an engine's cylinder at the start of the compression
stroke to the volume of the engine's cylinder at the
end of the stroke. Higher compression engines tend
to have better fuel efficiencies. 2) the ratio of the
absolute discharge pressure to the absolute intake
or suction pressure in a compressor. CR
compression refrigeration a mechanical
refrigeration system in which the refrigerant, usually
ammonia or propane, is made by evaporation of the
liquid during the rarefaction stage of compression
by a compressor. Compressional refrigeration is in
contrast to absorption refrigeration.
compression strength see compressive strength
compression testing or test-car method a
method that is used to test the condensate or natural
gasoline content of natural gas. A truck with
compression and refrigeration equipment condenses
the natural gasoline out of the gas.
compression wave see compressional wave
compressive forces or stress forces that are
directed inward. Compressive forces or stress are in
contrast to tensional forces or stress.
compressive service drillpipe drillpipe that is
designed to be limber enough manage a curve in a
deviated well, but stiff enough to transmit torque and
resist buckling
compressive strength the maximum
compressional or inward-directed forces that a body
can resist before failure. Compressive strength is often
expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). Reservoir
rocks generally have a compressive strength 8-180
MPa (1,100-26,000 psi). Carbonates average 100 MPa
(14,500 psi) and sandstones 60 MPa (8,700 psi).
(compression strength)
compressor a device used to increase the pressure
and decrease the volume of gas. Compressors can
be positive- or nonpositive-displacement and can raise
the pressure in steps with a two-, three-, or multistage compressor. A single-stage compressor can
compress air to a maximum of 110 psig. Four types
are a) reciprocating with pistons (both single and
multiple stage), b) rotary screw, c) sliding vane, and
d) centrifugal or dynamic with turbines. The energy
to drive the compressor comes from steam turbine,
gas turbine, electric motor, or gas engine, compr or
compr.
compressor clearance the ratio, expressed as a
percent, of the volume of gas in a compression cylinder
at the end of a compression stroke to the volume of
gas displaced by one piston stroke
compressor station an installation on a gas pipeline
at which the pressure of the gas is raised or boosted
by compressors to keep the gas flowing. An inlet
compressor starts the gas flowing through the pipeline.
Intermediate pump stations keep the gas flowing. The
size and number of compressors in each station varies
widely. Compressor stations are spaced at regular
intervals, usually every 40-50 mi along the pipeline.
Stations can also have separators, storage, scraper
traps, and control equipment. Booster and

intermediate pumping stations are used on oil

pipelines, compr sta
Com-Pro log a computer processed interpretation
log
compr sta compressor station
Compton scattering the inelastic scatterings of
gamma rays colliding with an orbital electron of an
atom which yields some of the energy to the electron.
The effect depends primarily on the density of the
electrons and occurs mainly at intermediate gamma
ray energies of 100 kV to 2 MeV. Compton scattering
is used in density logging.
compulsory pooling a state law that requires a
lessee in a majority interest in a unit to include lesser
lessees in pooling to form a unit. Compulsory pooling
is usually initiated by a petition to the regulatory
agency. In some states, if a lessee refuses to join,
the proportional costs of that lessee's drilling will
come out of the lessee's share of production. Some
states allow for the risk of drilling the well in the
computation of compensation, (forced pooling)
compulsory unit a unit or area of land created by
order of a government-agency
compulsory unitization the forced combining of
mineral rights of large tracts of land on a producing
reservoir by a government administrative agency in
order to coordinate pressure maintenance,
waterflooding, or any other method that will maximize
the ultimate recovery from that reservoir
computed log analysis a computer analysis of
digital well logging data
computer an automatic, electric machine that uses
stored information and instructions to make rapid
calculations, correlations, and selection of data. The
computer accepts data and programs. A program is
a set of instructions for the computer. Analog
computers, the older type, use quantities such as
lengths, voltages, or resistances to represent numbers.
The digital computer uses numbers expressed as
digits, usually binary. The computer itself is called
hardware, whereas programs are called software.
Memory is the space in a computer where the data
is stored as it is being processed. A hard disk is a
computer memory device mounted in the computer
made of an aluminum disk coated with iron oxide.
It is read and written on by a read-write head. Floppy
disks are 3V2-, 5V4-, or 8-in. plastic disks with a magnetic
coating. They are written on and read in disk drives.
The computer has both read-only memory (ROM)
that contains permanent computer instructions and
random-access memory (RAM) that can store data.
computer production control a computer process
that controls and/or monitors field conditions and
activities such as lease production, operational status
of equipment, and well testing. CPC
computer program the instructions that guide a
computer during a task, (software)
computing center logs well logs that have been
processed in a central computer facility. The depth
track is, by convention, on the far left of the log.
Track 2 might include formation characteristics with
a gamma ray and apparent grain-density plot. Track
3 could be a hydrocarbon analysis with water

con condensate stabilization

saturation. Track 4 might be a porosity analysis, and
track 5, a bulk-volume analysis.
con consolidated
CONAT concrete articulated tower
Cone or cone concretion
cone concentrated
concentration The relative amounts of solute and
solvent in a solution
concentration cell 1) an oxygen corrosion cell with
different oxygen concentrations producing the
potential differential. The low oxygen concentration
is the anode. 2) a metal ion corrosion cell with different
concentrations of metal ions producing the potential
difference
concentric operations well service operations with
small-diameter tubing run in normal tubing or in a
well without tubing. Concentric operations are
normally conducted with a small rig or hoisting unit
with the Christmas tree in place.
concentric tubing a macaroni string run inside
larger production tubing
concentric-tubing workover a workover on a well
using relatively light and small equipment that is run
through the production tubing in a smaller diameter
tubing string
concession a legal agreement by a government to
a foreign oil company giving that company the right
to explore, drill, and produce oil and gas in a certain
area. The concession provides for royalty payments
to the government if petroleum is produced.
Concessions were originally granted for a long time
with payments necessary only on the production of
oil and gas. Modern concessions are often are sold
or auctioned and have an exploration period of about
5 years. They require a minimum exploration
expenditure and are limited to blocks or tracts.
concession crude the proportion of production that
is allotted by contract to the operating company by
a country, (equity crude or oil)
conch conchoidal
conchoidal a smooth, curved type of fracture
surface. Conchoidal fracture is characteristic of glassy
texture, conch
concrete a blend of cement with fillers such as sand
and gravel. Concrete is different from cement that
contains no fillers and is used in wells.
concrete gravity platform a type of fixed
production platform with large, concrete cells or
cylinders located on the base. The cells hold ballast
water to keep the platform in position and are also
used as storage tanks. Concrete legs support a steel
deck with modules and contain the risers. A concrete
gravity platform is more expensive than a jacket and
is used only when there is need for oil storage facilities.
concrete perforated wall platform a type of
offshore gravity platform that has an outer wall of
concrete with holes to dampen the force of waves
on the central core. The central core supports a
concrete deck.
concretion a roughly spherical or nodular rock
formed by cementation of sediments about a central

99

nucleus that was often organic matter or a fossil. Cone

or cone
concurrent method a method used after a kick
when the blowout preventers have been thrown to
control abnormally high, subsurface pressures by
immediately circulating drilling mud and gradually
increasing the mud weight on a schedule, (circulate
and weigh)
COND condensate well
COND or cond condensate
condemned land that has been determined by
geological data and/or dry holes not to have
commercial production
condensate liquid hydrocarbons of very light crudeoil composition that occur as a gas under subsurface
reservoir conditions (high temperature and pressure)
and condense into a liquid upon production and
surface conditions. Gas condensates typically grade
from colorless to light-colored liquids with tints of
red, green, or blue. Condensates have very high API
that range between 45 and 60 and are very valuable
commercially. Natural gas that contains gas condensate
is called wet gas. If condensate is recovered on the
lease with standard field separator equipment, it is
often combined and recorded with the crude oil. The
Natural Gas Processors Association has defined
casinghead gasoline as having a vapor pressure of
10-34 psi, a percentage evaporated at 104F of 24%85%, a percentage evaporated at 275F of not less
than 90% and an end point in distillation of not higher
than 375F. Retrograde gas is the preferred term for
condensate, (casinghead, drip, natural, raw or wild
gasoline, drips, gas condensate, distillate, gas distillate,
retrograde gas, or white oil) COND or cond
condensate gas reservoir a reservoir that contains
fluids only as a gas phase under initial reservoir
temperatures and pressure. As the initial reservoir
pressure is decreased by production and the reservoir
temperature remains relatively constant, liquid
hydrocarbons (condensate) separate from the gas in
a process called retrograde condensation. If the
condensate separates from the natural gas in the
subsurface reservoir, it wets the reservoir rock and
cannot be produced. To prevent this, the wet gas that
is produced is often stripped of condensate and the
dry gas is reinjected into the reservoir (cycling) to
maintain reservoir pressure. The formation gas/oil
ratio of a condensate gas reservoir is between 5,000
and 10,000 SCF/bbl. (gas condensate or single-phase
reservoir)
condensate ratio the volume of condensate liquids
divided by the residue gas volume expressed in barrels
per million cubic ft (bbl/MMcf).
condensate reservoir see condensate gas reservoir
condensate stabilization the removal of lighter
hydrocarbons, such as propane and butane, from
condensate after it has been separated from gas. These
lighter hydrocarbons can vaporize in a stock tank and
be lost, taking some of the heavier hydrocarbons with
them. The condensate is stabilized using a vertical
vessel with ceramic rings or trays. The unstabilized,
cold condensate enters the top of the vessel where
it flows down the rings or trays to the bottom. On
the bottom, it is heated by an indirect heater or steam

100

condensate water cone of depression

coils. The lighter hydrocarbons are vaporized and rise

to the top of the vessel where they flow out of the
vessel. The stabilized condensate is removed from
the bottom, cooled, and sent to storage.
condensate water water vapor that is mixed with
natural gas in the subsurface reservoir but condenses
as a liquid under surface conditions when the natural
gas is produced
condensate well a well producing from a
condensate gas reservoir. In some states, it is defined
by the well's gas/oil ratio. Wells with producing gas/
oil ratios between 15,000-150,000 are generally
classified as condensate wells. COND
condensation 1) the process of forming liquid or
solid from vapors by cooling and/or reducing pressure
2) the liquid formed by cooling and/or pressure
reduction
condensed ring several hydrocarbon rings that
share common carbon atoms. An example of a
condensed ring is bicyclodecane.
condensed section a sequence of thin, marine,
hemipelagic or pelagic rock beds that were deposited
very slowly (<l-10 mm/1,000 years). A condensed
section is defined in seismic or sequence stratigraphy
and usually occurs in transgressive and distal highstand
system tracts during periods of maximum sea-level
rise and transgression.
condenser 1) heat exchanger equipment that uses
either water or air cooling to condense a vapor into
a liquid 2) a device that stores an electrical charge
on an electric circuit. A condenser consists of two
conducting plates separated by an insulator. The ability
of a condenser to store electric charge is called
capacitance and is measured in farads, cdsr
condensing gas drive an enhanced oil-recovery
method that uses miscible displacement and involves
injection into an oil reservoir of natural gas that either
a) naturally contains lighter hydrocarbons or b) has
been enriched on the surface by addition of propane,
butane, or pentane. The transfer of the intermediate
components from the displacing gas into the residual
oil swells the residual oil and makes it less viscous.
Lean gas or lean gas and water is then injected to
drive the oil toward a producing well. Noncritical
condensing gas drive does not go to complete
miscibility, whereas critical condensing gas drive goes
to miscibility. (enriched gas injection or process)
condition 1) to mix additives to drilling mud and/
or circulate the drilling mud in a well to make the
well conditions uniform throughout the wellbore 2)
to prepare a well
conditional landowner a Louisiana landowner
whose title ends at a certain time after the occurrence
of a certain condition
conditioning survey a gamma-ray survey of
radioactive tracer released in a well to determine
where water is flowing into the well and the tracer
is being diluted
condition ratio a measure of the formation damage
in a well. Condition ratio is equal to the production
rate at a fixed drawdown of the well divided by the
theoretical production rate at a fixed drawdown of
the well with no formation damage, (productivity
factor) CR

conduction the movement of electromagnetic

energy through material by molecular interaction
Con Dr. continuous drift log
Condr or condr conductor
Condt or condt conductivity
conductivity 1) the ability of a substance to transmit
an electrical current. Conductivity is measured in a
well by an induction logging tool and is recorded in
units of mho per meter. Conductivity is the inverse
of resistivity. 2 ) the time rate of transfer of heat through
a substance. Rocks generally range from 3 to 15 meal/
cm/sec/C. C, Condt, or condt
conductor 1) a material such as a copper wire,
through which an electric current can flow. A
conductor is in contrast to an insulator. Condr or
condr 2) conductor pipe
conductor bracing supports for marine conductors
that are located at intervals between the seafloor and
the deck on an offshore platform
conductor casing or pipe the first string of largediameter casing (185/o-30 in. OD) that is cemented
into the well. Conductor casing is required only where
surface soils are relatively incompetent, and in areas
of soft sand formations it can be set down' to 1,500
ft. The conductor pipe is used to secure the blowout
preventers and wellhead equipment before drilling
the surface casing hole. Conductor pipe is also used
to a) seal off shallow fresh-water zones from drilling
mud, b) to supply a route for drilling fluids to circulate
back to the mud pits, c) to protect against shallow
gas zones, and d) to prevent washout of
unconsolidated sediments a well cave-in. A conductor
pipe can be drilled into the seafloor from a
semisubmersible or drillship. On a jackup rig, the
conductor pipe extends from the cellar deck to about
200 ft below the mudline. (standpipe)
conductor line an electrical wire that goes down
a well with the wireline and is used in well logging
and perforating (electric line)
conductor pipe a vertical pipe on a lease stock tank
that is used to maintain hydrostatic pressure on the
oil and to allow gas to escape before the oil enters
the pipeline gathering system (boot)
Cx methane
cone 1) the solid, conical-shaped block of metal that
has teeth cut into it (milled-teeth or steel-tooth bit)
or tungsten carbide pellets inserted into the drilled
holes (insert or button bit). The cone rotates on
bearings around a journal on a leg of a roller-cone
bit. The bit is rotated on the bottom of a drillstring
on a rotary drilling rig to flake and crush rocks and
cut the well. Roller-cone bits are manufactured with
two cones (bicone), three cones (tricone), and four
cones. The original cone steel has a Rockwell hardness
of 35-40, but is carbonized at 1700F for 24 hours
to a hardness of 60 for the milled-teeth and 45 for
the insert bit. (cone shell) 2) the shell of a
hydrocyclone 3) the liner surrounding a shaped
explosive charge
cone bit a roller-cone bit
cone of depression lowering of the water table in
the shape of a cone centered about a well that is
pumping water

cone offset conjugate fractures

/"
-

.V.:--

WATER
TABLE

: / . : .

cone of depression

cone offset the amount in which the lines drawn

through the center of the three cones on a tricone
drilling bit fail to intersect the center of the Bit. Cone
offset is the horizontal distance from the axis of the
bit to the axis of the journal. The offset is designed
to give more drag to the cones and cut the well more
efficiently. Softer formations uses larger offsets.
cone packer method a method used to run a
drillstem test on a section in well that has a smaller
hole diameter than the hole above it due to coring.
A cone-shaped packer is seated on the shoulder of
the well to form the seal for the test. The anchor
pipe does not touch the bottom of the well, (rat-hole
method)
cone penetrometer a long, heavy rod that is
dropped from a certain distance into the seafloor to
measure sediment penetration for offshore
construction
cone-roof tank a liquid storage tank with a roof in
the shape of a cone that points upward
cone shell see cone
cone skidding the freezing or locking of a cone
on a roller-cone bit. Because the cone will not turn,
a flat surface is ground in the cone by friction with
the bottom of the well.
Conewangoan a North American age of geological
time that ended about 365 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Devonian period.
conf confirmed
confidence envelope an enclosed interval with a
stated probability or degree of confidence that it
contains the parameters that it is intended to estimate
confidentiality of information clause or
provision a term in an agreement in which the
drilling party consents to drill a tight hole until the
other party agrees to release the well information
configuration see array
confined aquifer an aquifer bounded above and
below by impermeable rocks
confirmation the telephone and following
electronic notice of the results of a test well
confirmation well a well that is drilled after a
discovery well to prove the aerial extent of the
producing formation found by the discovery well
conformable two adjacent and parallel beds of rock
between which there was no erosion or significant
interruption during deposition

101

conformance 1) a measure of the uniformity, both

in areal and vertical extent, in which the reservoir is
swept with injection fluids during enhanced oil
recovery 2) a measure of how well a computer model
matches the characteristics of a real reservoir
conformity a bedding surface in a succession of
rocks that separates slightly older from slightly
younger rocks and there has been no evidence of
erosion
CONG or cong conglomerate
congeneration the simultaneous generation of two
types of energy. Electrical energy and steam for use
in steam injection are cogenerated by burning natural
gas for steam flooding.
congl conglomerate
conglomerate a poorly sorted, clastic, sedimentary
rock containing rounded particles, some of which are
at least pebble-sized. It is similar to breccia, except
breccia has angular particles. The rounded particles
in a conglomerate indicate they were transported a
great distance by an erosional process before they
were deposited. CONG, Cgl, cgl, cglt, cong, or congl
congressional townships the rectangular survey
system established in the United States by the National
Land Act of 1785. It is based on 6-mi townships that
are located by north-south lines called meridians and
east-west lines called base lines Each township is
divided into 36 sections that are 1-mi2 in area.
Coniacian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 90-85 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Cretaceous epoch.
conical angle the angle on the cone of a roller-cone
bit
conical-tower platform an arctic, offshore
production platform made from concrete in the shape
of a long cone. The base of the cone rests on the
seafloor, and the apex of the cone supports the
platform. The shape results in a minimum area of
exposure to shifting ice at sea level.

Fl
_-_^-_ -

.OIL . o/wca^TACT/ j j i

rlr-Hr-

.WATER.

coning

coning the drawing up of underlying waters or oil/

water contact into an oil reservoir in the shape of a
cone. Coning is caused by too rapid production, (water
coning) Coning can also occur by drawing down the
gas/oil contact around a well.
conjugate a system of faults, fractures or folds that
were formed at the same time by the same
deformational episode
conjugate fractures two sets of shear fractures
caused by compressive stress. Conjugate fractures are
oriented at angles of about 60 and 120 from each
other.

102

CONL consumer gas

CONL contact log

CONN or conn connection
connate water 1) original waters in sedimentary
rocks from the time of sediment deposition 2)
subsurface water that has been out of contact with
the atmosphere for a great period of time 3) water
in the pores of subsurface rock that is very saline 4)
formation water held in the pores of the rock by
capillary action
connected well 1) a gas well that is connected to
the pipeline 2) an oil well that is connected to a
refinery by pipeline
connecting rod the metal shaft in an engine that
connects the piston with the crankshaft
connection 1) the location where wires in an
electrical circuit meet 2) a pipe or fitting that is used
to join pipe with a tank or another pipe. Some common
types are threaded, flanged, hub, and clamp. CONN
or conn
connection gas the natural gas that flows into the
well when the mud pumps on a drilling rig are turned
off while making a connection
connectors devices used on risers to connect and
disconnect the riser and to lower a marine riser
package to subsea equipment
Cono or cono conodont
conodont small, toothlike fossils and microfossils
composed of calcium phosphate. Conodont are of
unknown function but are thought to be the jaw
structure of extinct worm-like animals. They existed
from the Middle Cambrian epoch through the Triassic
period and are good guide fossils. Cono or cono
Conodont Alteration Index a maturity scale that
is based on the darkening of Paleozoic era conodont
fossils. The conodonts are removed from carbonate
rocks with acetic or fosmic acid. The conodont colors
are then compared to standards. The scale ranges
from 1 to 8, with 1 being the lowest maturity and 8
being high-grade metamorphism. CM
cons considerable
consenting party a company or individual that
agrees to join in and share the costs of any operation
under a joint operating agreement. A consenting party
is in contrast to a nonconsenting party, (drilling party)
consent well a well in which all parties in an
operating agreement participate in contrast to a nonconsent well
conservation the prevention of waste
consistency the viscosity or thickness of a
nonreversible fluid such as cement slurry at a specific
pressure and temperature over a specific time interval.
It is measured with either a pressurized or atmospheric
pressure consistometer. Consistency is measured in
poises and can be expressed as Bearden units of
consistency in accordance with American Petroleum
Institute specifications.
consistometer a pressurized or atmospheric
pressure instrument that uses a stirring apparatus to
determine the thickening time of cement slurries. The
pressurized consistometer is constructed with a
rotating cylinder to contain the slurry and stationary
paddles and is enclosed in a pressure chamber. The

chamber rotates at 150 rpm during the test, and the

slurry consistency is measured by the torque on the
paddles and reported in Bearden units of consistency
(BJ units.
consol consolidated
consolidated relatively solid or firm rock. Loose
sediments become consolidated into sedimentary
rocks by the process of cementation and compaction.
Consolidated is in contrast to unconsolidated
sediments, consol or con
consortium a group of companies that have
organized for a common purpose such as exploration
and drilling
conspic conspicuous
constant choke-pressure method a technique
used to control a saltwater kick in a well by adjusting
the size of a choke to maintain constant casing pressure
constant composition expansion see flash
vaporization
constant dollar a method used to analyze the
economics of an investment such as drilling a well
by keeping the value of a dollar the same throughout
the life of the project. The dollar is not discounted
for time. A dollar made or paid out today is worth
the same as a dollar made or paid out in the future.
constant percentage decline an oil well
production decline rate or curve that is a constant
percentage such as 10% per year. The average rate
versus cumulative production is a straight line on
regular coordinate paper. The equation for constant
percentage decline is: Q, = QTf" where Q, =
production rate at a certain time, Qt = initial
production rate, e = base of the natural logarithm
(2.7182), D = decline as a fraction of production rate,
and t = time. Constant percentage decline is the most
commonly used method to duplicate a well's decline
curve, (exponential decline)

DISTRIBUTARY
CHANNELS

constructive delta

constructive delta a river delta in which river

sediment deposition is dominant and the delta has
prograded far out from the shoreline with
characteristic distributary lobes. A constructive delta
is in contrast to a destructive delta that is dominated
by erosion from waves and tides, (river dominated
delta)
consumer gas the natural gas that is sold by an

Cont continuous flowmeter 103

interstate pipeline to a utility company for resale to
consumers
Cont 1) content 2) contact caliper log
cont continued
contact the surface that separates rocks of different
compositions. Ctc or c
contact angle the angle formed by the meeting of
two immiscible fluids on a solid. The wetting phase
contact angle is less than 90, whereas the nonwetting
phase contact angle is greater than 90. A reservoir
is considered to be water-wet if the contact angle of
water is less than 70, neutral if it is between 70
and 110, and oil-wet if it is greater than 110.
contact line the gas/oil or oil/water contact in a
reservoir
contact log any wireline well log made by a sonde
which is held against the wellbore well with a skid
or pad. CONL
contactor or contact tower a vertical vessel that
is used to bring a gas in contact with a solid or liquid.
A contact tower can be either an absorber or adsorber
tower. An absorber or absorption power uses
absorption to remove liquids from a gas stream.
Absorbers are designed as either packed or tray-type
towers and include absorption plants for removal of
liquid hydrocarbons and glycol done by an absorber.
An adsorption power is used for dehydration of natural
gas. The gas usually flows down through an adsorption
power and up through an absorption tower.
Contain or contam contaminated
contaminant 1) a substance that mixes with another
substance and has an undesirable effect 2) a gas that
occurs in natural gas that is corrosive such as hydorgen
sulfide or carbon dioxide
contaminating formation a subsurface formation
that changes the physical properties and chemistry
of drilling mud as it is being drilled. Anhydrite and
gypsum will contaminate water-base drilling mud. The
mud must be treated with additives, or an special
inert mud must be used to avoid contamination.
contamination gas or oil hydrocarbons in
circulating drilling mud that is not from a subsurface
formation. The oil could be diesel oil. Contamination
is in contrast to liberated gas.
Contb contribution
contiguous leases land that shares part or all of a
side. Touching corners does not qualify as contiguous.
contiguous zone 1) the part of the ocean and seabed
that extends out from a country's territorial waters
2) the ocean and seabed that is adjacent to offshore
tracts or concessions that have been granted by a
country
continental apron see continental rise
continental borderland a complex type of
continental margin in which the seafloor is composed
of ridges and basins that extend from the shoreline
to the continental slope
continental drift a relatively old theory (first
suggested by Alfred Wegener in 1912) that all the
continents were joined in one supercontinent
(Pangaea) that broke up during the Mesozoic era.
The continental fragments drifted across the surface

of the earth into their present positions and are still

moving today. The evidence for continental drift was
in the similarity of fossils and rocks between continents
that are far apart today. The theory has been supported
by the recent development of the seafloor spreading
and plate tectonics theories.
continental margin the seafloor surrounding the
continents. The continental margin extends from the
shoreline down to either a) an average water depth
of 200 m or b) the abyssal ocean floor.
continental offshore stratigraphic test a drilling
program on a portion of the continent margin that
is going to be offered for lease bids. The well or
wells are stratigraphic test wells into which seismic
lines are tied. The cost of the well can be shared by
the parties that share the well information. COST

continental shelf, slope and rise

continental rise an enormous wedge of gently

sloping (1:40 to 1:2000) sediments located at the base
of the continental slope in water depths of about 5,00013,000 ft. Continental rises are located everywhere
except where an ocean trench is located off the
continental slope, {continental apron)
continental shelf a relatively flat platform covered
with shallow water that surrounds the continents. The
continental shelf extends from the beach to the shelf
break (a sharp change of slope) at water depth of
about 450 ft. The continental shelf slopes less than
1 and averages 50 mi in width. It is the area of most
offshore petroleum exploration drilling and
production. The continental shelf covers 5Vi% of the
earth's surface.
continental slope the ocean bottom slope of 36 leading from the continental shelf down to the
continental rise
continuing interest a mineral rights interest that
last for the term of the lease
continuity an unbroken electrical circuit
continuous drilling provision a clause in a
farmout agreement where each new well will be
spudded within a certain time following the
completion of the proceeding well
continuous flow gas lift a type of gas lift in a well
in which the gas is continuously injected and the flow
up die well is uninterrupted. Continuous flow gas
lift is in contrast to intermittent gas flow.
continuous flowmeter a fluid velocimeter that is
run through production tubing and positioned by
centralizers to measure flow velocity in casing with

104

continuous guidance tool contract of association

a spinner. It makes a continuous record of flow versus

depth.
continuous guidance tool a gyroscopic directional
measurement instrument used in a cased hole. Two
axes of the gyroscope are held by spinning. The
horizontally aligned north position is sensed by an
accelerometer and the gyroscopic axis.
continuous operation clause or continuous
drilling operations clause a provision in an oil
and gas lease that allows the lessee to hold the lease
after the primary term of the lease has expired as
long as drilling or reworking operations are
continuing. The lease is held after the primary term
expires as long as no more than 60 days elapse between
the abandonment of one well and the spudding of
another well.
continuous phase the fluid that completely
surrounds the globules of the dispersed phase
(suspended phase) in an emulsion. Oil is the
continuous phase in a water-in-oil emulsion and water
in an oil-in-water emulsion, (external phase)
continuous process a chemical procedure in which
the substance to be treated is continuously put through
the process and the reactant is regenerated.
Continuous process is in contrast to a batch process.
continuous production decline rate minus - 7?
in which q is production rate and is time, (nominal
decline rate)
continuous reeled tubing see coiled tubing
continuous rod a sucker-rod string that has no joints
continuous treatment the uninterrupted
application of a corrosion inhibitor to produced fluids.
Continuous treatment is in contrast to batch treatment.
continuous tubing unit a well service unit that
uses flexible, small-diameter steel tubing> wound as
a continuous length on a hydraulically powered tubing
reel. The reel can store up to 16,000 ft of tubing
with an outer diameter of Vt-VA in. Continuous tubing
is in contrast to other types of well service units that
use joints of relatively stiff pipe. The continuous tubing
unit is frequently used on producing wells that need
pressure control. Continuous tubing is used for sand
or paraffin clean out in tubing, initiating flow, well
stimulation, and cementing. A limited amount of
drilling can be done with a downhole, hydraulic motor.
The blowout-preventer stack usually consists of four
rams including hydraulic cutter, pipe, blind, and slip
rams. As the tubing feeds off the tubing reel, it goes
through a counter which is attached to a level wind
assembly and a pipe straightener. An injector head
with friction blocks pushes or pulls the tubing in or
out of the well. The coiled tubing greatly reduces
trip time. Other equipment on the unit includes a
circulating system for nitrogen, acid or other fluids,
blowout preventers, lubricator, tubing injector head,
and hydraulic crane. The unit usually has a crew of
two. (coiled tubing, endless tubing, or reeledpipe unit)
continuous-velocity log see sonic log
contour or contour line a line of exact value on
a map. Contours separate larger from small values.
On a topographic map, the contour lines are lines
of exact elevation of the ground surface. On a structural
map, the contour lines are lines of exact elevation

contours

of the top of a subsurface rock layer. Other maps

such as isopach, lithofacies, or isoporosity maps also
use contours. The difference in values between two
adjacent conturs is called the contour interval.
Contours of elevation are referred to a reference level
called the datum such as sea level.
contour interval the difference in value between
two adjacent contours. An example would be a 100ft contour interval on a topographic map with 100,
200-, 300-, and 400-ft contours. CI or C.I.
contourite a deep ocean current that follows the
contours of the ocean bottom such as along the base
of the continental slope. A contourite can winnow
bottom sediments.
contour map a map of the land surface, sea bottom,
or subsurface rock unit that uses contours to show
variations in such attributes as elevation, thickness,
or composition
CONTR or contr contractor
contraband oil petroleum that was produced or
transported in excess of that allowed by a government
regulatory agency
contract a written, enforceable agreement or
covenant between two or more patties that obligates
each party
contract area all the lands, oil, and gas leaseholds
and interests intended to be developed and operated
under a joint operating agreement, (unit area)
contract carriage a provision that a pipeline will
transport natural gas to an end-user
contract depth 1) the minimum depth to which an
earning well must be drilled in order to satisfy the
earning requirements in a support or farmout
agreement 2) the depth to which a well must be drilled
to fulfill a drilling contract. The drilling contractor is
paid to the contract depth. CD
contract landman or leaseman a person who is
employed under a specific contract to acquire oil and
gas leases
contract of association a legal agreement between
a government and a party to explore an area. The

contract operator conventional recovery

party bears the entire cost of exploration and a portion
of the development costs for any fields found in
exchange for a portion of the production profits.
contract operator a contractor that has been
designated by the working interest owners of a lease
to manage the exploration, drilling, and/or production
on that lease
contractor's hole a job done in a hurry
contract pressure the minimum gas pressure that
is required in a pipeline contract for the operators
of a well to deliver to that pipeline. Contract pressure
is usually 700-1,000 psi.
contract price the price paid by an oil company
purchaser or refinery for crude oil. Contract price is
usually posted each month.
contrast the ratio of maximum to minimum
brightness on a remote sensing image
contrast enhancement an image processing
method used for remote sensing that increases the
image ratio contrast by expanding the range of digital
values recorded to the full range of available digital
values
contrast ratio the ratio of reflectances on a remote
sensing image between the brightest and darkest part
contribution agreement a contract between two
parties in order to drill a well. One party gives support
in the form of cash or acreage contribution to another
party to drill a well to a specified depth in return
for information on that well, (support agreement)
contribution clause a provision in a joint operating
agreement that if any party in the joint operating
agreement receives a contribution in the form of
monies or acreage for drilling a well, the other parties
in the joint operating agreement will be notified and
share in that contribution
contribution letter a request by one party that
another party contribute money or acreage if the first
party drills a well and shares the information. A
contribution letter can be either a dry-hole or bottomhole contribution.
contributor a person or company who gives or
agrees to give money for drilling a well
control 1) the location of data points such as wells
and seismic lines that are used in making a subsurface
map or prospect. Generally, the closer the control,
the more accurate the interpretation. 2) the data upon
which a map or seismic section is made
control agent sealing agent
control cabin the enclosure where the driller
operates the hoisting, rotary, and circulating
equipment on an offshore drilling rig. (dog house)
control casinghead a fitting on top of a well that
fits around the drilling line on a cable-tool rig. The
control casing head is used to prevent oil from flowing
out the well.
control head see surface control head assembly
controllable pitch propeller a propeller on a drill
ship or semisubmersible whose blade angle can be
adjusted. The propeller is used in a dynamic
positioning system, cp
controlled acidizing treatment a type of acid job
that is used to concentrate acid on the producing

105

formation in the well. One method uses a tubing string

that is landed just below the producing formation.
The well is then filled with oil. Acid is then pumped
down the tubing in enough volume to displace the
oil in the tubing and in the annular space around
the producing formation. The casing outlet is then
closed, and the acid is pumped under pressure out
into the producing formation. In another method, a
packer seated just above the producing formation on
the tubing string is used to concentrate the acid on
the producing formation. The controlled acidizing
treatment is in contrast to the uncontrolled acidizing
treatment.
controlled exploratory well an exploratory well
that can be either a new-field or new-pool wildcat.
The well is drilled in an area that has no production
(new-field), or the well is drilled to test a new reservoir
rock (new-pool) that has no current production in
an area that produces from another reservoir, (wildcat
well)
control manifold the valves and pipes that distribute
the hydraulic pressure from the accumulator to the
various closing elements on a blowout-preventer stack
control panel the console on a rotary drilling rig
that is used to activate the various preventers on a
blowout-preventer stack. There are at least two. The
primary control panel is located at the accumulator,
and the remote control panel is located at a convenient
location, such a the drilling floor.
control pod an assembly of subsea valves and
regulators that are used to direct hydraulic fluid to
various components of a subsea blowout-preventer
stack when activated from the surface
control room operator an employee on a
semisubmersible who supervises the ballast control
room that stabilizes the rig. The operator also monitors
marine traffic, the rig alarm system, and the weight
distribution during loading and unloading. CRO
convection the movement of a fluid due to density
differences. Temperature often controls the density.
conventional bit a roller-cone or drag bit in contrast
to a jet bit
conventional farmout an agreement in which the
farmee receives a convertible override for 25% carried
to the casing point. The override is converted to a
working interest after payout. A conventional farmout is in contrast to a third-for-a-quarter.
conventional gas natural gas that can be produced
under current technology at cost plus profit at current
market prices. Conventional gas is in contrast to
unconventional gas.
conventional gas lift valve a gas lift valve mounted
on a tubing-retrievable mandrel or tubing pup joint.
The conventional gas lift valve was the first type of
gas lift valve, and the tubing had to be pulled to retrieve
the valve, (tubing-retrievable gas lift valve)
conventional mandrel a short tubing joint (pup)
with a lug for fixing a conventional gas lift valve (tubing
retrievable or standard mandrel)
conventional mud drilling mud consisting of only
clay and water
conventional recovery oil production from
primary production and waterflood

106

conventional sales contract core

conventional sales contract a gas contract in which

the producer sells all the gas produced from specific
wells or a field to a buyer. A conventional sales contract
is in contrast to the warranty contract where the
producer sells only a specific amount of gas which
can come from any source.
convergence pressure the pressure at a specific
temperature at which the vapor-liquid equilibrium
ratios (K factors) for the various components of a
system tend to approach 1.0 when plotted against
pressure on a log-log scale. Convergence presure is
used to correct K factors. The convergence pressure
is approximately 10,000 psia for typical black oil, 5,000
psia for retrograde gas and wet gas, and 5,000-10,000
psia for volatile oils.
convergent margin the boundary between two
plates of the earth's lithosphere that are coming
together. A convergent margin is characterized by
compression with subduction such as an ocean trench
and/or mountain range. A convergent margin is in
contrast to a divergent margin.
conversion the replacement of one drilling mud in
a well with another (breakover)
conversion cost the cost of changing a producing
well into an injection well for waterflood or enhanced
oil recovery
convert 1) to change an interest of one party in a
well into a different interest at a specific time. For
example, an overriding royalty interest converts at
payout to a working interest. 2) to change a producing
well into an injection or service well
converted wave a wave that has been transformed
from one type to another. A PS wave is a P-wave that
was converted to an S-wave when it was reflected.
convertible interest an interest that is usually
nonoperating in an oil and/or gas well(s) that changes
at a specific time such as payout to a different interest
that is usually operating
convertible override farmout a type of farmout
agreement in which the farmor assigns the farmee
oil and gas leases for an area in return for drilling a
well(s) on those leases. The farmor retains an
overriding royalty, which, at the option of the farmor,
can be converted into a share of the working interest
after the farmee's payout.
convey to transfer
conveyance the assignment or transfer of a right
such as a mineral right
convolution the change of wave shape as it passes
through a linear filter. The rocks in the earth's crust
act as filters such that waves used in seismic
exploration are changed as they pass through the
subsurface rock. A mathematical operation is used
to describe the effect of a linear system on an input
waveform. A process called deconvolution restores
the waves to their original shape.
COOH 1) coming out of hole 2) came out of hole
cook to naturally expose organic matter in
sedimentary rocks to temperatures sufficient to
generate crude oil and/or thermal gas
cooking time the time that sedimentary rocks spent
at temperatures sufficient to generate hydrocarbons
cook-out samples to dry out well cuttings

COOR or coord coordinate

coordinated survey a large-scale geophysical
survey, usually offshore, whose costs and results are
shared by several parties. The cost is often shared
proportionally according to each parry's acreage in
the study area.
COP AS Council of Petroleum Accountants Societies
cop floating asphalt in Texas waters
copolymer a molecule formed by joining two or
more unlike polymers
copper sulfate electrode the nonpolarizing
electrode that is most commonly used to test the
electrical potential of a metal structure to evaluate
its potential for corrosion
coprolite fossilized excrement of vertebrate animals
Coprolite is in contrast to the smaller fecal pellets.
Coq or coq coquina
coquina or coquinoid limestone a limestone
composed primarily of broken and rounded shells.
(clastic limestone) Coq or coq
COR carbon/oxygen ratio
Cor coral
cor 1) corner 2) corrected

corals
coral a marine invertebrate that secretes a shell of
calcium carbonate and belongs to the class Anthozoa
in the phylum Coelenterata. Corals are identified by
the symmetry and pattern of septa or walls in the
coral. Important types include the tabulates
(Ordovician to Jurassic in age), rugose (Ordovician
to Permian), hetrocorals (Mississippian period), and
scleractinians (Triassic to present). Corals have existed
from the Ordovician period to the present and are
important framework builder for reefs. The type of
corals that form reefs are colonial and live in symbiosis
with algae. Modern reef corals grow only in shallow,
tropical waters of normal salinity. Cor
coralline algae or alga an encrusting algae that
secretes a coating of calcium carbonate
cordage 1) the fiber or steel rope used in drilling
2) the ropes used on a ship
Cor Det electromagnetic corrosion detector
core 1) a cylinder of rock with a l3/4-5V4-in. diameter
(whole or full-diameter core) and lengths of 20-90
ft that is drilled by a rotary coring bit from a well.
Cores are used to determine the permeability,
porosity, pore-size distribution, fluid content including
hydrocarbon saturation and type, mineralogy, and

core analysis core hole

sedimentary structure present and fabric of the rock.
Sidewall cores are only about Vi in. in diameter and
1-2 in. long, in contrast to the full diameter core.
Wireline cores are 1 and Vi to 2 in. in diameter.
Oriented cores are taken with reference to magnetic
north. Cores can be described as native-state, cleaned
or restored-state depending on preservation, or or c
2) the process of drilling a core from a well. The
core is usually taken using a rotary coring bit that is
hollow and is usually either embedded with small
diamond chips or has tungsten carbide inserts with
diamond surfaces. The core is received and held in
a core barrel located above the rotary coring bit. Rarely
is there 100% core recovery. 3) the main memory
of a computer. The core is usually called memory.
4) the fiber or wire-rope center of a drilling line.
Fiber-core wire ropes use hard-twisted manila or sisal
that is impregnated with a lubricant. The fiber core
gives the drilling line flexibility. A wire-core drilling
line has greater strength.
core analysis the examination of a core. Routine
core analyses includes porosity, fluid saturation,
horizontal permeability, and lithology determinations.
Supplementary routine analyses can include vertical
permeability, grain density determinations, and
gamma-ray logging. Special core analyses are oil-water
relative permeabilities, capillary pressures, cation
exchange capacities, wettabilities, formation factor,
and resistivity index determinations.
core barrel 1) the cylinder that is located above the
core bit and receives the core sample. Two common
types of core barrels are a) wireline and b) full core
or conventional. The wireline core barrel is retrieved
through the bit and drillpipe by an overshot on a
sand line. It is 15 ft long and uses either roller-cone
or diamond cutting edges. The full-core or
conventional core barrel is run on a drillstring and
comes lengths between 10-60 ft but is commonly
30 ft long in sections that can be added together. It
is composed of a) a cutterhead, b) an outer barrel,
c) a floating inner barrel, and d) a core catcher with
fingers. The cutterhead is a hollow core bit that is
usually called the core head. The inner core barrel
holds the core. A core catcher is used on the bottom
of the core barrel. Drilling mud circulates down
between the two barrels to the cutter head. The core
barrel uses a stabilizer directly above the bit, and
many have a safety joint so that the inner barrel and
core can be pulled if the outer barrel becomes stuck.
Some types of core barrels are a) steel, b) plastic or
fiberglass, c) rubber sleeve, d) pressure, and e) sponge
insert. A rubber sleeve core barrel is used for soft
or fractured formations. The sponge insert core barrel
is used to retain formation fluids. The core barrel is
2-3 in. in diameter less than the hole being drilled.
2) a sidewall core projectile. CBBL or CB
core bit a hollow bit that is used to cut a core sample
in the well. The most common type has the surface
embedded with small diamond chips or tungsten
carbide inserts with a diamond surface and no moving
parts. The circulating drilling mud flows between the
inner and outer core barrel and out the center of
the bit. The mud returns up through fluid channels
along the sides of the bit to the annulus. Core bits
have threads for connection, rather than API pin
connections. The original core bits had drag-type teeth.

107

Roller-cone core bits are sometimes used today and

were used on the superdeep Russian well on the Kola
Peninsula. A wireline retrievable core bit and barrel
are pulled through the drillstring. The wireline
retrievable core bit is shorter and smaller than the
conventional core bit. (core head) CB
core box a wooden box that is used to ship and
store cones. The core box is at least 3 ft long and is
marked with the core number, the box number, and
top and bottom.
core catcher a ring with inward-bending metal strips
that is used in a core barrel to retain the core when
it is cut from a well
cored center the uneven wearing down of teeth or
diamonds in and around the center of the drill bit.
The bit eventually tries to cut a small core.
core dip a method that seals a core with an
impervious coating of removable plastic for shipping
and storage. Core dip can be either a hot dip called
Core Gel or a cold dip.
core drill to drill using a core-barrel assembly to
obtain a core sample from a well
core-ejector diamond bit a diamond bit that is
similar to a core bit except that it cuts smaller diameter
and shorter-length cores that are ejected, carried up
the well by the circulating mud, and caught on the
shale shaker
core extractor a jack used to eject a core sample
from a core barrel
core fisher see core picker
coreflood a laboratory test in which enhanced oil
recovery fluids are injected into a full-sized core of
reservoir rock to determine the suitability of the
reservoir and the injection fluids for enhanced oil
recovery
core flow efficiency the ability of a perforation to
transmit fluid divided by the ability of an ideal or
drilled perforation to transmit fluid. Perforating guns
have a typical core flow efficiency of 0.65-0.85. CFE
core flushing the displacement of formation fluids
from a core as it is being cut or brought to the surface.
Core flushing is caused by two processes. As the core
is being cut, mud filtrate penetrates the core and
displaces formation fluids. When the core is brought
to the surface, free gas expands in the core and also
displaces formation fluids.
coregamma surface logger a device that measures
the natural radioactivity of a core as it is passed along
a conveyer belt through the instrument. The results
are compared to the gamma ray log from the well
to accurately position the core.
Core Gel a hot dip used to seal cores in a plastic
coating
core grabber an assistant to the geologist or
engineer in charge of coring on a well
coregraph a log which shows the results of the
analysis of rock cores. The coregraph usually illustrates
permeability, porosity, fluid content and type,
lithology, and sedimentary structures.
core head see cutterhead
core hole a well drilled with a slim-hole rig. The
wellbore is 6V4 in. in diameter or less. Well logs are

108

core log correlation log

run in a core hole, although a core is not necessarily

taken.
core log a record of core lithologies, sedimentary
structures, and data such as porosity, permeability,
and fluid saturation versus depth
core marker a metal marker that is inserted into
the inner core barrel before coring. When the core
is extracted from the barrel, the core marker falls
out to show that the barrel is empty, (rabbit)
core picker a cylinder with flexible internal springs
that is used to retrieve a dropped core, core fisher
core-plug drill a small, 3/4-in. diamond-bit hand drill
that is usually air cooled. The core-plug drill is used
to cut plugs for porosity and permeability
measurements from full-diameter cores and other rock
samples.
core-pusher plunger a plunger that is used to eject
a core sample from a core barrel
core saw a diamond-impregnated wheel used to slab
cores
core shell the lining of a core barrel
core slicer a downhole tool that cuts a core with a
triangular cross section from the wall of a well
Coriband a computer-processed log that applies
a statistical analysis of frequency crossplots to complex
lithologies. The log is made from resistivity, density,
neutron, and sonic log data and shows porosity,
secondary porosity, grain density, fluid analysis, water
saturation, and formation analysis. Track 1 has a
secondary-porosity index and average density of solids
index, Track 2 has water saturation, Track 3 has fluid
analysis, and Tract 4 has formation analysis. A
differential caliper log is located in Tracks 2 and 3coring the process of taking a core from a well. Four
types of coring are a) conventional, b) diamond, c)
wireline, and d) sidewall. Before coring, the hole is
circulated to remove cavings and loose material. The
conventional and diamond core is taken with a core
barrel and drillstring. Less weight is applied to the
bit during coring than drilling, and a slower rotary
speed is used. The core is broken off in the core
barrel by alternating with higher rotary speeds, and
raising and lowering the drillstring a short distance.
The core is retrieved and placed in trays, labeled,
inspected, and described on the rig floor. The core
is then wrapped, sealed, and sent to the laboratory.
Coring is expensive because it involves rig time.
coring reel drum a relatively small drum that is
used with small-diameter wireline to lower and
retrieve tools such as a deviation tool in a well
coring time the time, usually expressed in minutes
per foot of core, necessary for coring a well
corkscrew the condition of a tubular that is twisted
into a helix
CORL correlation
corln coralline
corner post a derrick leg
corner shot a well drilled in the corner of a lease
that is adjacent to a producing field. It is hoped that
the well will penetrate a portion of the producing
field that might extend under that corner of the lease.

Corod a continuous sucker-rod string with no

joints
CORP corporation
corr 1) corrected 2) corrosion
corrected oil crude oil whose gravity (API) has been
corrected to 60F
correction deed an instrument filed for the purpose
of amending or clarifying an instrument that was
previously recorded
correction factor a multiplier that is determined
by a prover. The correction factor is applied to a
meter to yield a volume that is corrected to base
conditions of temperature and pressure.
correction lease a lease that is executed to correct
an incorrect provision in the previous lease
correl correlation
correlate to match rock units

correlation

correlation 1) the matching of rock layers.

Correlation is made with the use of marker beds,
key horizons, physical similarities of rocks, and fossils
and microfossils. Correlation between well logs are
made to draw cross sections of the subsurface. 2)
matching of phases on seismic records to show that
events are the same reflectors. CORL or correl
correlation index 1) a method used to define the
chemical nature of various distillate fractions in a crude
oil. The correlation index varies between 0 and 100
and is computed by the formula: CI = (48,680 + K)
+ (4737 x G) -456.8. Kis the average boiling point
of the fraction in "Kelvin, and G is the specific gravity
at 16C. Lower values means the fraction is rich in
paraffin hydrocarbons, and high values means greater
concentration of naphthenic and aromatic
hydrocarbons. CI 2) a crude oil classification by the
US Bureau of Mines based on the paraffin and napthene
content of the oil. Types include paraflnnic, paraffinicnapthenic, napthenic-paraffinic, and napthenic. The
more napthenic the oil, the higher the index.
correlation length the depth interval in which
correlation of dipmeter curves from each arm are
made. The correlation length varies 1-30 ft.
correlation log a wireline well log that records the
natural radioactivity (gamma-ray emissions) of rocks
in the well. Of the most common sedimentary rocks,
only shales have significant natural radiation. Volcanic
ash, granite wash, and some salt deposits also are
naturally radioactive. Three elements, potassium,
thorium and uranium, account for most of the gamma

correlation rights theory CO2 flooding, injection, or miscible flooding 109

rays emitted from the sedimentary rocks. The
correlation log is recorded in Track 1 and is usually
run with porosity and/or resistivity logs. The sonde
contains a scintillation crystal as a radiation detector.
The correlation log can be run in either an open
hole or cased well and can be run in both salt and
nonconductive muds. The log is used for a) shale
location, b) lithology identification, c) correlation, and
d) bit selection, (gamma ray and natural gamma
ray log)
correlation rights theory the legal premise in
some states that all land owners overlying a producing
formation have proportional rights to that formation
correlation scale a scale of either 1 or 2 in./lOO ft
on a well log. Well logs on a correlation scale are
used for correlation between logs for the purpose
of drawing cross sections. The correlation scale is in
contrast to a detail scale.
correlative rights the multiple ownership of
hydrocarbons in a common reservoir
correlogram a correlation display using a seismic
trace-type curve that is half of the autocorrelation
function
corrosion the chemical consumption or wearing
away of equipment. It can occur during drilling and
production or during treating, storing, and
transportation of petroleum. Corrosion can be by
either inorganic or organic bacteria. Corrosion is
caused primarily by oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and chlorides in petroleum drilling and
production. Electrochemical corrosion produces a
measurable current. Sour corrosion is caused by
hydrogen sulfide, whereas sweet corrosion is caused
by carbon dioxide and fatty acids. Types of corrosion
include a) uniform, b) crevice, c) pilling, d) galvanic,
h) cavitation, and i) stress, corr
corrosion agent a substance that causes corrosion
such as hydrogen sulfide or oxygen
corrosion cell the flow of an electric current
between a metal structure and a surrounding
electrolyte. A corrosion cell will cause the metal to
corrode.
corrosion control agent see corrosive inhibitor
corrosion coupon a metal strip used to check
corrosion rates
corrosion fatigue the failure of metal that has been
weakened by corrosion or chemical degradation.
Corrosion fatigue is the primary cause of sucker rod
parting.
corrosion inhibitor an additive to drilling mud that
is designed to inhibit corrosion. These include filmforming amines, oxygen scavengers such as sodium
sulfite, and hydrogen-sulfide scavengers such as zinc
compounds, copper carbonate, and iron derivatives.
Chromates, dianodic zinc-phosphates, and lime are
used to reduce the effects of sodium and calcium
salts on metal, (corrosion control agent)
corrosive agent the substance causing corrosion
corrosive gas a gas that dissolves in water or other
liquids and attacks metal. The most common corrosive
gases encountered during drilling are H2S and CO2.
corrosive product the result of corrosion, usually
a metallic oxid

corset a steel cover used to protect the top of the

conductor pipe on a jackup rig
corundum a very hard mineral composed of A12O3
COS carbonyl sulfide
cos cosine
COST continental offshore stratigraphic test
cost the monies spent on a project. These can include
acquisition, exploration, development, and production
costs.
cost center a geological or legal unit to which cost
and revenue are identified
cost crude oil 1) the portion of oil production that
pays for the cost of drilling and completing the well
2) oil produced from the operator's wells
cost depletion a method of accounting in which
the depletable basis of a lease or equipment is
amortized over the life of production. Cost depletion
is in contrast to percentage depletion.
cost of finding the amount of monies spent on
exploration and drilling to produce 1 bbl of crude
oil or 1 Mcf of natural gas
cost of service the cost of natural gas which is used
to calculate the buyer's regulated resale rates. It is
calculated on costs specified by the Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission.
cost per foot dollars expended to drill a well divided
by the footage drilled. CPF
cost per unit of daily production the total capital
and operating costs for discovering and producing
oil and gas per unit of volume produced in bbl/day
or Mcf/day. It does not include deductions for royalties
or taxes.
COSUNA correlation of stratigraphic unit of North
America
cosurfactant a surfactant such as tertiary amyl
alcohol that is used to increase the effectiveness of
another surfactant for enhanced oil recovery
COTD cleaned out to total depth
cotd coated
cotd gn coated grains
Cotg or cotg coating
cotton picker a clumsy oilfield worker
CO2 carbon dioxide
CO2 augmented waterflooding a waterflood
process in which water that is nearly or fully saturated
with CO2 is injected into the subsurface reservoir.
The CO2 comes out of solution, extracts lighter
hydrocarbon fractions from the oil to form a miscible
front, and helps drive the oil toward producing wells.
(carbonated waterflooding)
CO2 flooding, injection, or miscible flooding an
enhanced oil-recovery process in which carbon
dioxide gas is injected into the reservoir. First, the
reservoir is repressurized with water injection. When
the carbon dioxide is injected, lighter hydrocarbons
from the oil transfer to the carbon dioxide to form
a miscible front which is soluble with the oil. The
first carbon dioxide slug is followed by alternating
slugs of water and carbon dioxide to push the oil
toward producing wells. The carbon dioxide can
originally come from carbon dioxide wells, from

110

coulomb CR

chemical or fertilizer plants, or be manufactured from

power plant stack gas. The carbon dioxide can be
separated from the produced fluids during the
flooding and recycled, (carbon dioxide flooding,
injection or miscible flooding)
coulomb a derived unit in System International (SI)
for electric charge. It is calculated by A x s. A coulomb
is equal to 6.25 X 1018 electrons. C

counterweights

counterbalance 1) an offset weight used for stability.

A counterbalance is used on most pumpers to balance
the weight of oil and sucker-rod string on the upstroke
and the sucker-rod string on the downstroke. It is
located on a rotary crank on a crank-balanced pumper
and can also be located on the walking beam on the
end opposite the well on a beam balanced pumper.
Counterweights on the walking beam are used for
shallow wells and they can be adjusted by moving
them along the beam. On some pumpers, the rotary
counterbalance can be adjusted by shifting their
position on the crank arms. The use of a
counterbalance allows a smaller prime mover and
gear reducer size, (counterweight) CB 2) to offset a
weight
countercurrent stripping the injection of natural
or inert gas into a production system to flush out
oxygen
counter flush see reverse circulation
counterpart leases oil and gas leases of different
ownerships that outline a block of acreage which
includes all the separate tracts of land. The lessors
have pooled their royalty interests and will share,
proportional to their surface acreage contributions,
any production from a well drilled on any of the
leases.
counter-regional fault an antithetic fault that has
become a growth fault
counterweight see counterbalance
coupling 1) a mechanical device that is used to join
two parts 2) a short metal cylinder that is attached
to the end of a tubular such as drillpipe or casing
by either flash weld, inertial weld, or by screwing
on. The coupling is used to couple the tubular with
another tubular. It is either threaded internally (box
end) or externally (pin end). Those that are used
on casing on a cement job are called baffle, float,
and differential or automatic fill-up collars. Casing
collars are either long or short, (collar or tool joint)
3) the larger-diameter end of a sucker-rod that holds
female threads that receive the pin with the male
threads of another sucker rod. (box)
coupon a small, metal strip that is exposed to test
an environment for corrosion or scale
course the borehole axis over an interval length in
a well

course departure the distance between two points

in a deviated hole projected onto a horizontal plane
course length the measured length between two
survey points in a well
course vertical depth the difference in vertical
depth between two points in a deviated hole
C/OUT cleaning out
cov covered
covalent bond the chemical linkage between two
atoms formed by the sharing of electrons. The water
molecule (H2O) has covalent bonding. Covalent bonds
are in contrast to ionic bonds.
covenant a written promise. The violation of a
covenant will cause a specific legal action. The
covenant can either be specifically written (express
covenant) or does not appear in detail (implied
covenant) on the instrument. A covenant is a
mandatory obligation in contrast to an option.
cover-all clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that protects the lessee from errors in the description
of the land under the lease by including all the land
owned by the lessor in that area, (inclusive, catchall, or Mother Hubbard clause)
cover rock see cap rock
cow sucker an old term for a heavy piece of metal
that was used on the end of a drilling line to lower
it into a well when no tools were attached
CP 1) casing point 2) cathodic protection 3) casing
pressure 4) controllable pitch 5) circulating pressure
Cp sonic compaction correction factor
cp 1) centipoise 2) compaction 3) controllable pitch
Cp 1) rock pore compressibility 2) gas heat capacity
at constant pressure
CP or Cp specific heat at constant pressure
CP. 1) casing pressure 2) cement through
perforations
CPA 1) Canadian Petroleum Association 2) critical
path analysis
CPC 1) casing pressure closed 2) computer
production control
cpct compact
CPF 1) casing pressure flowing 2) cost per foot 3)
closed power fluid
CPG Certified petroleum geologist
CPI 1) carbon preference index 2) corrugated plate
interceptor 3) computer-processed interpretation
CPM cycles per minute
CPP 1) casing potential profile 2) central processing
platform
Cppm parts per million concentration
Cpr pseudoreduced compressibility
CPRK cap rock
CPS 1) cycles per second 2) centipoise per second
3) counts per second
CPSI casing pressure shut in
CPU central processing unit
CR 1) compression ratio 2) cold rolled 3) cored 4)
condition ratio

 crater

CR Rayleigh wave velocity

Cr cordierite
cr 1) core 2) creek
CRA 1) chemically retarded acid 2) complex reservoir
analysis
crack a valve to barely open a valve in order to
vent a small amount of liquid or gas
cracker a length of Manila or hemp rope that was
used between the tools and the drilling line on a
cable-tool rig to give the line elasticity in order to
bounce the bit off the bottom
crackers a bottomhole assembly on a drillstring with
single joints of drillpipe between the drill collars to
produce a more flexible assembly
cracking 1) a refining process used to break longchained hydrocarbons into more valuable, shortchained hydrocarbons such as gasoline by using heat,
pressure, and/or chemicals 2) a natural process in
which high temperatures form condensates, lightliquid hydrocarbons, thermogenic gas, and graphite
(C) from crude oil. Kerogen and asphaltenes can also
be cracked to form smaller bitumen molecules.
crane machinery that uses a moveable extension or
horizontal beam to lift and move heavy objects
crane barge a barge that has a high lifting-capacity
crane on the stern. A crane barge is used to raise
modules onto offshore platforms, (derrick barge)
crank or crank arm the steel arm on each end of
the crankshaft located on the speed reducer of a beam
pumping unit. The crank connects the crankshaft to

111

the pitman arm with a wrist pin. The crank rotates

and has a counterbalance on the end of it. (rotary
crank)
crank-balanced pumper, pump jack, or
pumping unit a type of beam pumping unit in which
two rotating counterweights heavy metal castings are
located on the crank to balance the weight of the
sucker-rod string. The unit has a short walking beam
and is in contrast to the beam-balanced type, (crank
counterbalanced beam pumper, pump jack, or
pumping unit)
crankcase The crankshaft housing on an engine
crank counterbalanced beam pumper, pump
jack, or pumping unit see crank-balanced pumper
crank end the inlet end of a reciprocating
compressor
crank pin the pin that connects the crank to the
pitman on a beam pumper
crankshaft the rotating shaft that converts the rotary
motion of an engine into the reciprocating motion
on connecting rods into rotary motion on an engine.
crash the failure of computer hardware or programs
such that the computer becomes inoperable. An
electric surge or outage can cause a crash. If the
information entered in the computer has not been
backed up, it will be lost.
crash flooding the rapid filling of flotation tanks
with water to tilt an offshore platform that has been
floated out into position
crater 1) to fail or cave-in 2) the depression around

walking beam

pitman
Samson
post

crank counterbalanced
pumping unit

112

craton critical path analysis

a well caused by the flow of oil, gas, and/or water

from a well during a blowout
craton the stable land area of a continent. Cratons
include both shields and platforms.
crbd crossbedded
crbnt carbonate
CR/CT ratio residual carbon/total carbon ratio
Crd, Crd., or crd cored
creaming the rising or falling of dispersed-phase
globules in an emulsion
CREC cushion recovery
creekology an old theory, with little or no geological
support, that oil is found by drilling in creek beds
creep the gradual deformation of a material such
as a metal or plastic under constant stress during a
long time
creeping formation an anhydrite, sodium or
potassium salt layer or a shale that slowly advances
into the well bore because of pressure or chemical
reactions. The process is called heave, swell, or
squeeze.
cren crenulated
CREST
AXIS

crest
crest 1) the top of a fold 2) the uppermost surface
of salt on a diapir such as a salt stock or plug 3) the
top or ridge of a thread
Cret cretaceous
Cretaceous a period of geological time about 14067 m. y. ago. It is the youngest period of the Mesozoic
Era. The Cretaceous is subdivided into the Upper
Cretaceous and Lower Cretaceous global and North
American epochs. Cret
crevasse a break in a river levee
crevasse splay sediments deposited to the side of
a delta through a break in a river or distributary
channel levee. A crevasse splay has the shape of a
small delta to the side of the channel in the overbank
or interdistributary bay environment. Some coarse,
well-sorted sand can be deposited in that environment
that are potential reservoir rocks, but they tend to
be relatively thin.
crevice oil crude oil in the fractures of shale
crevice corrosion a local concentration of metal
corrosion on a crack or pit
crew boat a light-weight, high-speed boat used to
the shuttle crew between an offshore platform and
land

crew chief an employee who is in charge of a pulling

unit and crew (head well puller or pulling unit
operator)
erg coring
cricondenthem the maximum temperature at
which two phases, such as gas and liquid, or liquid
and solid, can coexist
CRIM complex refractive index method
Crin crinoid
crinal crinoidal
crinoid a marine animal belonging to the class
Crinoidea in the phylum Echinodermata.! Crinoids
have small disk-shaped or globular bodies covered
with calcareous plates and numerous arms that come
out from the body. A calcareous stem that was attached
to the seafloor held the body in place. Crinoids existed
from the Ordovician period to the Recent but were
most common during the Mississippian and
Pennsylvanian periods. Crinoidal limestones can be
very thick.,Crin
creinoidal limestone a limestone containing
crinoid fossils, crinal
cripple to reduce the output on a mud pump by
pulling certain valves or rods
crippled bit a roller-cone drilling bit with one cone
removed
crit critical
critical angle the smallest angle of incidence in
which a sonic, electromagnetic, or optic wave that
strikes an interface will be reflected. When a seismic
wave strikes a layer between two rocks at the critical
angle or greater, it will travel parallel to the layer.
At an angle less than the critical angle, the seismic
wave will be reflected.
critical compression pressure the lowest pressure
at which a fuel will ignite in an engine. C.C.P.
critical compression ratio the lowest compression
ratio that a fuel will ignite in an engin. C.C.R.
critical depth the minimum depth of a reservoir
rock necessary to have closure on a particular trap
critical dip the minimum dip in the opposite
direction of the regional dip that is necessary to form
closure on a subsurface trap
critical distance the distance from the seismic
source that the head wave emerges on thesurface.
critical flow the maximum velocity of a fluid through
an orifice. Once the critical flow is reached, the flow
velocity remains constant and is unaffected by pressure
changes.
critical gas saturation the minimum gas saturation
in the pores of a rock at which gas will flow through
the rock. Sgc
critcal micelle concentration the surfactant
concentration above which micelle concentration
increases rather than monomer concentration. CMC
critical path analysis the charting of all the activities
and their interrelationships that are necessary for the
development of a large project such as an offshore
field. Each activity has a time in which it must be
completed to keep the project on schedule.

critical period forecast crossbeds

critical period forecast a weather and seastate
prediction for a critical offshore operation such as
moving a rig

^critical point

liquid

y****
liquid + gaa
^

qaa

TEMPERRTURE
critical point

critical point 1) the temperature and pressure at

which the bubblepoint and dew-point curves meet
on a temperature versus pressure plot. The properities
of a liquid and its vapor are indistinguishable at the
critical point. 2) a location on a drilling line that is
subjected to excessive wear. Critical points often occur
where the drilling line is bent through sheaves and
is caused by shock loading.
critical pressure the vapor pressure of a fluid at
the critical temperature. It is the pressure necessary
to condense a vapor at the critical point. For ethane,
the critical pressure is 707.8 psia. Critical pressure is
used along with critical temperature to determine the
state in which a fluid exists (liquid or gas) and to
calculate compressibility factors.
critical production rate the maximum production
rate from a well that allows a stable cone to exist in
the oil/water contact. At the critical production rate,
the gravity and viscous forces are balanced, and the
cone is maintained at a critical cone height. Pc
critical rate the maximum rate at which oil can be
produced from a well without production of gas from
the free gas cap or water from below the oil/water
contact
critical reflection the seismic reflection from the
point where the head wave is first generated
critical saturation the minimum oil saturation in
the pores of a reservoir at which oil will flow through
the reservoir. Critical saturation is about 15%. (residual
saturation)
critical speed the speed that equals the natural
frequency of any compressor part
critical state the temperature, pressure, and
composition at which all vapor and liquid properties
become identical
critical temperature the temperature above which
a particular substance exists only as a gas phase no
matter what the pressure. The substance cannot exist
as a liquid. For ethane, the critical temperature is
90.09F. Critical temperature is used along with critical
pressure to determine the state in which a fluid exists

113

(liquid or vapor) and is used to calculate

compressibility factors. Tp
critical velocity the velocity of a fluid that occurs
in the transition range of Reynolds numbers of about
2000-3000 between laminar and turbulent flow. vc
critical water saturation the highest water
saturation in a reservoir through which hydrocarbons
can flow without water flowing
critical weight the weight on the bit at critical
revolutions per minute that will cause the drillstring
to resonate and fail
critter fossil
CRK or crk creek
CRM chemical remanent magnetism
crm cream
crn blk crown block
crnk crinkled
CRO control room operator
crooked hole or well a well that unintentionally
deviates from vertical along its course. The deviation
is often caused by the bit being deflected by a dipping
hard-rock layer such as limestone. If the dip is greater
than 60, the bit will generally be deflected down
the dip of the rock layer. A dip of less then 45 will
generally deflect the bit in the updip direction of
the rock layer. A well that is intentionally drilled
deviating from vertical is called a deviated well and
a vertical well is called a straight hole, (naturally
deviated hole)
crooked-hole area or country a location where
dipping, hard rock layers such as limestone make
drilling a straight hole difficult
crooked hole tendency the tendency of subsurface
formation to cause a well to deviate. It is controlled
by the dip, degree of drillability, faulting, and fracturing
of the formation and can be described as mild,
medium, and severe.
crooked sub a small length of bent drillpipe that
is used to kick off a deviated well. A crooked sub is
run between the mud or turbine motor and the lowest
drill collar. One of the connecting threads is machined
at an angle to the axis of the sub. This gives the sub
a V2-2V20 bend. A V20 crooked sub will give an angle
change of 2-37lOO ft and a 2 crooked sub will give
a 6-87l00 ft change. A crooked sub can have a
muleshoe orientating sleeve and key to determine
the actual orientation of the bottomhole assembly in
the well. A crooked sub can also be used as part of
a fishing string to give the right approach angle to
the fish for the fishing tool, (angle, bent, or offset
sub)
cross a pressure fitting with at least four openings,
usually at 90. The cross on a Christmas tree diverts
the well fluids into the wings and provides access to
the well for running wireline tools.
crossbedded a sedimentary rock that displays
crossbeds. crbd, XBD, X-bdd or x-bdd
crossbeds sedimentary beds deposited at an angle
(up to 36) to horizontal in dunes or ripples. The
top of the crossbed is steep, whereas, the bottom is
tangential to the horizontal. Crossbeds dip in the
direction of current flow. X-bds or x-bds

114

cross-correlation crown block

cross-beds

cross-correlation a statistical process in which the

similarity of two waveforms from a seismic source is
calculated as a function of the time shift or lag between
the waveforms. Cross-correlation is applied to the
analysis of Vibroseis data.
crossfed the contact of wires in a swismic cable
causing the blending of data
crossflow the flow of fluid from one reservoir in a
well through the well into another reservoir with low
pressure
crosshead the connection between the pony and
connecting rods on a mud pump
cross-laminated a sedimentary rock with crossbeds
that are less than 1 cm thick. X-Latn or x-latn
crossover a fitting that has two different nominal
sizes and/or pressure ratings and is used to join
equipment of different nominal sizes and/or pressure
ratings, (adapter or adaptor)
crossover connection a flanged connection used
on a wellhead to joint two different pressure rating
pipes
crossover distance the seismic source to geophone
distance at which the head wave and direct wave arrive
at the same time. The direct wave arrives first at a
distance shorter than the crossover distance.
crossover joint a length of casing with different
thread types on each end
crossover packer a packer used in a dual
completion well with gas on the bottom and oil on
the top
crossover spool a flanged wellhead connection that
is designed to seal around and suspend an inner casing
string (crossover casing spool) or tubing string
(crossover tubing spool). The crossover spool also
allows for a pressure increase from one side of the
spool to the other. During drilling, the crossover spool
is a drilling spool that has the blowout preventers
mounted on it.
crossover sub a short section of pipe with a box
and pin end of different diameters. A crossover sub
is used to change the outer diameter of drillpipe on
a drillstring.
crossover tool a tool that is attached between the
top of a liner or screen and the bottom of a workstring
during gravel packing. The tool allows the gravel-pack
slurry to be pumped down the work string to the
openhole-liner or casing-liner annulus, and the fluid
returns to flow into and up the crossover tool to the
casing-workstring annulus.
crossplot or cross plot a graph of two different
measurements. Well-log measurements are often

crossplotted. Porosity measured on a compensated

neutron log is plotted on one axis and porosity from
a density log (limestone matrix) on the other axis. A
separation of the two curves can be due to either a
difference in matrix such as sandstone or the presence
of gas. Crossplotting data from density, neutron, and
sonic logs is used to make M-N and mineral
identification (MID) plots used to determine
lithologies, gas and secondary porosity. Other
examples of crossplots are Pickett and Hingle
crossplots.
cross section a vertical slice or panel of the
subsurface. Cross sections are often made by
correlating between well logs and are an important
tool for finding petroleum. Some types of cross
sections include correlation, structural, and
stratigraphic.
cross spool a large, spool-shaped metal pipe that
is used between the preventer elements on a blowoutpreventer stack to attach choke and kill lines. The
choke and kill lines can attach to one spool or two
spools with a preventer element in between. The
spools can be studded, flanged, or clamp-on
connected. The spool has an internal diameter equal
to the bore of the blowout preventers, (drilling or
spacer spool or spool)
cross threaded male and female threads that do not
match
cross yoke the horizontal, steel beam that connects
the two pitman arms on a beam pumping unit with
the walking beam through an equalizer bearing
(equalizer)
crowding die line the drilling of wells along a lease
line to drain oil from the adjacent lease
crowd the bit to put more weight than necessary
on a drilling bit
crown 1) the platform at the top of a derrick that
is used to service the crown block 2) a piston top
3) the part of a bit with diamonds (North America);
the entire diamond bit (Europe)

crown block

crown block a stationary metal framework on the

top of the derrick or mast of a drilling rig that holds
sheaves that rotate on a horizontal shaft mounted on
bearings with a greased lubricating system. The drilling
line goes through the crown block. It can also hold
a sheave for the coring reel drum and small sheaves
for a Manila rope from the friction cathead. The sand
line sheave is often attached to one end of the block
or hung underneath. The crown block is part of the

crown block compensator crude oil analysis

hoisting system of the rig and the crown block beams
are often an integral part of the mast or derrick. Some
crown blocks are double deck with the top sheaves
at right angles to the bottom sheaves, cm blk
crown block compensator a type of motion
compensator used on a semisubmersible or drillship.
The crown block compensator is a cylinder filled with
compressed fluid from a reservoir, and a piston that
is attached to the derrick above the crown block. The
piston stroke is 20-25 ft.
crown land federal or provincial land in Canada
Crown-O-Matic a valve located near the top of a
derrick. When contacted by the traveling block, it
activates the air brakes on the drawworks to stop the
traveling block.
crown platform see crow's nest
crown profile the shape of a diamond bit. A long
taper aids in drilling a straight hole and permits higher
bit weights, whereas a short taper is easier to clean
crown sheet a plate on a boiler firebox
crow's foot 1) a device that is designed to clamp
onto a line that passes through it in order to tighten
the line. Another line, such as a sand line from a
winch, is attached to one part of the crow's foot. As
more pressure is put on the sand line, the crow's
foots grips the line harder. 2) a device used to center
a deviation instrument on a bit. The crow's foot is
run on the bit and the bottom of the deviation
instrument fits into the recessed center of the crow's
foot.
crow's nest 1) a platform that goes around the crown
of the derrick on a drilling rig. The railing that goes
around the crow's nest is called the pigpen, and both
the crow's nest and pigpen are called the duck's nest.
The crow's nest has a water table that contains the
crown block. The crow's nest is accessed by the derrick
ladder, (attic or crown platform) 2) an old term for
the top of the derrick on a drilling rig
CRP common reflector point
crpld crumpled
crpxln cryptocrystalline
crs coarse
CRT 1) cathode ray tube 2) cones run together
CRUDE or crude crude oil
crude bitumen a natural occurrence of very viscous
hydrocarbons that are not commercially recoverable
from a well
crude oil a natural liquid that comes from wells and
is composed of a mixture of primarily hydrocarbon
molecules with a C/H ratio usually 6-8. Crude oil
varies in chemical composition and physical
properties. The specific gravity of crude oil generally
ranges from 0.780 (50 API) to 1.000 (10 API). Its
density is measured in "API. A heavy oil has a density
below 25 API, a medium crude 25-35 and a light
oil 35-45. Crude oil ranges in color from transparent
through colors of greenish-yellow, reddish, and brown
to typically black. The light oils with low API tend
to be amber to yellow in color, whereas the heavy
oils with low "API tend to be brown to black. The
smell ranges from gasoline (normal, sweet crude)
to foul (normal, sour crude) to fruity (atomatic). Types
of hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are paraffins,

115

AROMATIC HC
& NSO COMPOUNDS

naphthenes, aromatics, and asphaltics. Crude oils can

be classified according to their relative concentrations
of paraffins, naphthenes, aromatics, and NSO
compounds. Crude oils can also be divided into a)
black or low shrinkage oils and b) volatile or high
shrinkage oils. The low shrinkage oils are less than
40 API and have 0 to 1,000 SCF of natural gas/stock
tank barrel. The high shrinkage oil ranges 35-5O
API and have 1,000-4,000 SCF of natural gas/stock
tank barrel. Crude oils can also be classified into a)
heavy oil, b) black oil, and c) volatile oil. Heavy oil
has less than 20 API, a high viscosity greater than
10 cp, high density, and a negligible gas/oil ratio. It
is immature or degraded oil. Black oil has 30-45
API. Its critical temperature is greater than the reservoir
temperature. Volatile oil has 45-70 API. Volatile oil
has a very low specific gravity and exists in the two
phase region. The liquid has a very high gas/oil ratio.
Crude oil has a compressibility of about 1 x 10"5
vol/vol/psi. Oil does not dissolve in water and is
generally, but not always, lighter in weight than water.
Crude oil often contains significant amounts of
dissolved natural gas. Crude oils are divided into sweet
and sour crudes based on their sulfur content. The
exact amount varies, but sweet crude generally has
less than 1% sulfur, whereas sour crude has more
than 1%. Low-sulfur crude has less than 0.6% sulfur
by weight, intermediate-sulfur crudes have 0.6-1.7%,
and high-sulfur crudes have greater than 1.7%. Crude
011 has a calorific value of 18,300-19,500 Btu/lb. Crude
oils have kinematic viscosities of 0.007-13 stokes at
100F and are generally 0.023-0.23 stokes.
An average crude oil chemical analysis by % weight
carbon
hydrogen
sulfur
nitrogen
oxygen
metals

84-87
11-14
0.06-8.00
0.02-1.70
0.08-0.14
0.00-0.14

(oil or petroleum) CO, CRUDE, or crude

crude oil analysis the characteristics of a particular
crude oil determined by a test recommended by the
American Society of Testing and Materials and the
Institute of Petroleum. The analysis includes the API,
sulfur content, viscosity, pour point, C4 and lighter

116

crude stream cubic foot

content, salinity, metallic content, and characteristics

of the major distillates such as yield, API, sulfur
content, ash weight, and true boiling point.
crude stream a specific crude oil sold by an
exporting country at a specific shipping point. The
crude stream is often a blend or mixture of oil from
different fields and has specific qualities. Arabian light,
offered by Saudi Arabia, has 33.4 API and 1.8% sulfur.
crumb boss the oil field bunkhouse housekeeper
crummies chain tongs that are used to run tubing
crush cut the slow leaching of crude oil from a
sample in a laboratory implying poor permeability
cryogenic plant a gas processing plant that uses
very low temperatures to achieve a high liquid
recovery. The gas passes through a turboexpander
where it expands and is exhausted with temperatures
of -160 to -180F. Almost all the gases except
methane are condensed. The gases can then be
separated in a fractionator.
cryogenics the study and use of very low
temperatures
crypto cryptocrystalline
cryptocrystalline a rock that has a crystal structure
that is too small to be seen with an optical microscope.
(microcrystalline) CRYP-XLN, crpxln, crypto, or cryptoxln
cryptofissile a clay mineral that separates into
tabular falkes during a wettability test with distilled
water after 10% HC1 has been added. Cryptofissile is
in contrast to hydroclastic, hydrofissile, hygrotaroid,
and noncrystalline.
CKYP-XLN or crypto-xln cryptocrystalline
crys or cryst crystalline

crystals

crystal a homogeneous solid composed of a chemical

element, compound, or isomorphous mixture. A
crystal has a homogeneous, internal atomic
arrangement that is often reflected by the crystal faces.
XI, xl STAL or xtal
crystalline 1) a substance with a definate and
ordered molecular structure in contrast to amorphous
2) a texture composed of crystals or fragments of
crystals crys, cryst, XLN, Xln, or xln
crystalline carbonate a name given to any
limestone in which nothing can be recognized in the
texture of the rock
CS 1) cast steel 2) carbon steel 3) casing seat
cs 1) casing, static 2) centistokes
CSA 1) casing set at 2) Canadian Standards Association
CSAT combinable seismic acquisition tool

CSD casing setting depth

CSD Compensated Spectral Density
cse gr coarse-grained
Cy heptane
CSG, Csg., or csg casing
CSG-C casing collapse
CSG-F casing failure
csg hd casing head
csg press casing pressure
csg pt casing point
CSIP casing shut-in pressure
C6 hexane
C6+ hexanes and heavier hydrocarbons
CSL 1) center section line 2) county school lands
3) computer logging service
C slinger a backup man on a drilling crew
CSNG compensated spectral natural gamma tool
CSPKR casing packer
CSPS cable suspended unit (electric submersible
pump)
CSPT casing packer drillstem test
CST sidewall coring
CST chronological sidewall coring tool
CSt. centistoke
CSUT" cyber service unit
CT cable tools
C, 1) true formation conductivity 2) total
compressibility
c(t) convolution function
Ctc 1) contract 2) contact
CTD corrected total depth
ctd coated
C lo decane
CTGS, ctg, Ctgs, or ctgs cuttings
C3 propane
CTL cuttings time lag
CTP cleaning to pits
CTL cemotop
ctr center
CTS condensate to surface
Cj ethane
CTY county
CU clean up
CU or cu cubic
Cu cummingtonite
Cub or cub 1) cube 2) cubic
cubic centimeter a unit of volume in the metric
system and a derived System International (SI) unit
that is defined by a cube 1 cm on a side. A cubic
centimeter is equal to 1 ml. cc or cm1
cubic foot the standard of measurement for natural
gas. A standard cubic foot of natural gas is the volume
of gas in a cube 1 ft on a side under standard pressure
and temperature. The definition of standard pressure

cubic meter cut and strip

and temperature varies with contract and law but is
about 15 psia and 60F.
cubic meter a derived unit in System International
(SI) for volume. A cubic meter contains 35.315 ft3.
The conventional unit is barrels and can be converted
to the SI unit by multiplying by 0.1590. In some
countries a cubic meter is used to measure crude
oil volume, w3
cubic meter per kilogram a derived unit in System
International (SI) for specific volume. m>lkg
cubic meters per minute a derived System
International (SI) unit for pump output and flow rate.
A conventional unit is US gpm and can be converted
to the SI unit by multiplying by 0.00378. Another
conventional unit is bbl/min and can be converted
to the SI unit by multiplying by 0.1590. nv'lmin
cubic meters per stroke a derived System
International (SI) unit for pump volume. A
conventional unit is US gals/stroke and can be
converted to the SI unit by multiplying by 3785L/
stroke. Another conventional unit is bbl/stroke and
can be converted to the SI unit by multiplying by
0.1590. m-'/stroke
cubic meters per tonne a System International (SI)
derived unit for clay yield. The conventional unit is
bbl/ton and can be converted to the SI unit by
multiplying by 0.175. nv'lt

cuesta
cuesta a surface ridge formed by a resistant rock
layer, such as limestone
cu cm cubic centimeter
cu ft cubic foot
cu ft/bbl cubic feet per barrel
cu ft/d cubic feet per day
cu ft/lb cubic feet per pound
cu ft/min cubic feet per minute
cu ft/sec or cu ft/s cubic feet per second
cu ft/sk cubic feet per sack
cu in cubic inch
cu m cubic meter
cum 1) cumulative 2) cumulative production
CUM-G cumulative gas production
CUM-O cumulative oil production
cumulative or cumulative production or
recovery the total oil and gas production up to a
given date, cum
cup 1) a piston with a concave end that is used in
some pumps 2) a depression worn in the shoulder
of a tool joint by wobble
cup job to replace worn cups on the traveling valve
of a downhole pump

117

cup packer a cup-shaped sealing device used in a

well to test the blowout preventers and casing
cupronickel an alloy of greater than 70% copper
plus nickel
curative the title requirements that are necessary to
remove any objections on record title
curbstone broker a lease broker without an office
cure to age and set cement
cure the title to fill in a gap or defect in the chain
of title for land, (curing a title)
Curie point the temperature above which a medium
loses its ability to retain magnetism. For most rocks
it is less than 600C.
curing the setting and aging of cement
curing a title see cure the title
current dollars dollars that are not adjusted for
inflation (nominal dollars)
curtailment the forced reduction of a well's per day
gas production from the production specified in a
purchase contract
curved drill or drilling guide a downhole device
used to kickoff and drill the build section of shortradius horizontal drainholes. The guide consists of a
conventional drill bit driven by a flexible driveshaft
in a bent guide or pipe. The outer portion of the
guide does not rotate, forcing the drill bit to drill
the curve. The drill bit is driven from the surface by
the driveshaft and the flexible drillstring above it. The
guide could also be prebent or designed to bend
after running in the borehole. CDG
CUSH or cush cushion
cushion the fluid used in a pipe or tubing string
to control pressures. A column of water or drilling
mud is used in running drillpipe into a well to prevent
crushing of the pipe by hydrostatic pressure in the
well. CUSH or cush
cushion gas 1) the amount of natural gas that is
necessary in a natural gas storage reservoir to maintain
the minimum pressure needed to recover the natural
gas stored in the reservoir 2) natural gas that is stored
in an underground reservoir for later use in a pressure
maintenance program
custodian see pumper
custody transfer the location in a gas pipeline where
the gas ownership goes from seller to buyer
cut 1) a separate hydrocarbon fraction or part made
by distillation or a similar process. A cut is often made
for identification of oil shows in well cuttings. A solvent
such as trichloroethane is used to dissolve the oil
from the cuttings. The oil is then identified visually
in a visible cut or by fluorescence in cut fluorescence.
(fraction) 2) a liquid diluted with something 3) the
particle size that is removed at a certain percentage
under certain conditions from a liquid-solid system
by a filter 4) the percent impurities in crude oil 5)
to reduce drilling mud density
cut and fill an erosional channel that has been filled
with sediments
cut and strip a fishing method for conductor cable
or sand line in a deep open hole or for a radioactive
instrument. Cut and strip uses special tools from a
fishing-tool service company, (cable guide method)

118

cut-and-thread cycle skip or skipping

cut-and-thread a fishing technique for a stuck

logging tool. The survey cable is supported from the
rotary table and cut. The cable is then threaded through
an overshot and drillstring until the logging tool is
engaged and retrieved.
cut a spoke to slightly close a valve
cut ditch 1) to drill effectively 2) to do a good job
cut down derrick to take a wooden derrick apart
cut hole to drill a well
cut line the height of oil in a stock or storage tank
as seen on a tank gauge

a) cutoff
b) oxbow lake

cut off 1) a channel eroded across the neck of a

meander by a stream leaving behind an abandoned
meander channel usually occupied by an ox-bow lake
2) the process of abandoning a meander channel
cutoff the upper or lower limit of a parameter. Cutoffs
are used in determining hydrocarbon saturations from
well logs. The cutoffs are the minimum porosity, clay
content, or saturation for computation. Porosities in
sandstone of 696-8% and 496-5% in carbonates are
often used.
cut-off line a line formedb y the intersection of a
surface such as a bedding and a fault
cut of oil the percentage of impurities in crude oil
cut oil an emulsion of oil and water. The emulsion
must be heated or treated with chemicals to separate
the oil and water, (bad oil)
cut point the measurement of the effectiveness of
a solid-liquid separator. The cut point is the particle
size that a given percentage is removed from the feed
under specific conditions.
cutter acid used to remove water from crude oil
cutterhead the ring-shaped cutting section on the
bottom of a core barrel. The cutterhead is usually
diamond impregnated for uses in hard formations.
(core head)
cutters downhole fishing tools with knives that are
rotated to cut stuck pipe in a well. The pipe left in
the well is then retrieved by other fishing tools. Cutters
can be either internal or external depending upon
whether they are lowered on the inside or outside
of the pipe.
cutting in the winding of a wire rope on a drum
into a space in the underlying layer of wire rope.
Cutting in can cause wire-rope damage.
cutting oil oil that is used to lubricate and cool metal
cutting tools

cuttings rock chips produced by chipping and

crushing action of the drill bit on the bottom of the
well. The cuttings are sampled every 10-20 ft during
the drilling of a well and at closer intervals in the
pay section. The cuttings are washed, dried, and stored
in cloth sacks or envelopes and labeled. The largest
cuttings are made by roller-cone bits, whereas those
made by diamond bits and by air drilling tend to be
smaller in size, (well cuttings) CTGS, Ctgs, ctgs, or
ctg
cuttings gas the gas obtained from the well cuttings
during mud logging
cuttings sampler a device that is used on a drilling
rig to automatically separate some of the well cuttings
from the drilling mud for sampling. A portion of the
drilling mud from the well flows into the sampler
where the well cuttings are separated, and the larger
cuttings are concentrated and washed. The sampler
is usually located over or near the mud tank.
cuttings time lag the time that it takes the drilling
mud to transport the well cutting from the bottom
of the well to the surface. Cuttings time lag is usually
longer than mud time lag. CTL
cutting tool a downhole tool that can cut through
either rock or a fish
cu yd cubic yard
CV control valve
C, or c, specific heat at constant volume
Cvg caving
CVGS, Cvgs, or cvgs cavings
CVL continuous-velocity log
CVS constant velocity stack
CVTY cavity
CW continuous weld
C^, weight percent solids concentration
C^, 1) formation water conductivity 2) water
compressibility or water coefficient of isothermal
compressibility 3) connate water saturation
cw clockwise
Cw water compressibility
C/W complete with
C^B bound water conductivity
CWE cold water equivalent
equivalent water conductivity
free water conductivity
CWI carried working interest
Cyber Log Systems a computed log analysis
cycle one complete revolution. A cycle is the piston
strokes in an engine pump, or compressor between
two intake strokes. One, two, and four strokes are
common in an engine, (stroke)
cycle condensate natural gasoline or condensate
that is stripped from wet gas before the cycle gas is
reinjected into the reservoir for pressure maintenance
cycle gas natural gas that is produced, stripped of
liquids, compressed, and reinjected into the reservoir
for pressure maintenance
cycle skip or skipping the effect caused by the first
signal during sonic logging being recorded on the

cycle time cylinder block

receiver closest to the transmitter but not on the
fbrthest receiver. One or more wave cycles are skipped
and this results in the recording of an erroneously
high transit time or low velocity for the rock layer.
cycle time 1) the time that it takes the drilling mud
to make a complete round trip from mud tanks back
to the mud tanks through the circulating system of a
drilling mud. Cycle time is twice the lag time.
(circulation time) 2) the time in a gas adsorption
plant that it takes the sorbent to go from the adsorption
tower through regeneration and back to the adsorption
tower.
cyclical marketing or make-up a condition in
which no gas is taken from a gas well during months
with a low gas price and the imbalance is made up
during peak price months
cyclic carbon-dioxide stimulation a type of wellstimulation process used to produce heavy oil. A well
is repeatedly put through three stages: injection, soak,
and production. During the injection stage, carbon
dioxide is injected down the well and into the reservoir
for a period of hours or days. During the soak period
which lasts for days to weeks, the well is shut in.
The carbon dioxide dissolves in the oil, causing the
oil to swell and become less viscous. During the
production phase which lasts from weeks to months,
the fluid, heavy oil, is produced by solution gas drive.
The efficiency of this process decreases with each
cycle.
cyclic producer a pumping well that goes through
repeated cycles of rod loading and then production.
A cyclic producer can be the result of gas interference
or too large a pump displacement.
cyclic steam stimulation a type of well-stimulation
process used on heavy oil reservoirs. A well is
repeatedly put through three stages: injection, soak,
and production. During the injection or huff stage,
steam is injected down the well and into the subsurface
reservoir for a period of time that ranges from days
to weeks. During the soak period, the well is shut
in for days to allow the heat to dissipate and to reduce
the viscosity of the heavy oil. During the production
or puff phase, which lasts for weeks to months, the
fluid, heavy oil, is pumped. This is continued until it
becomes uneconomical, (huff'n'puff or steam
injection)
cyclic water injection an improved oil recovery
method used on fractured reservoirs. Water is first
injected into the reservoir to fill the fracture network.
During the production phase, oil is expelled from
the matrix of the rock as the pressure on the water
is reduced. The cycle is then repeated. The water
injection is done only below bubblepoint pressure.
cycling the process of removing condensate out of
wet gas from a condensate gas reservoir and then
compressing and injecting the residue gas back into
the condensate gas reservoir. The injection of residue
gas helps maintain reservoir pressure and prevents
the condensate from separating (retrograde
condensation) from the gas in the subsurface reservoir.
cycling plant a surface installation that removes
condensate from wet gas by compression and cooling
or absorption with lean oil. The residue or dry gas
is then injected back into the subsurface reservoir

119

in a pressure maintenance program for the retrograde

condensate reservoir.
cyclone or cyclone cone a cone-shaped separator
that contains a spinning fluid and uses centrifugal
force to remove solids from the fluid. The fluid is
pumped tangentially into the cone and spun.
Centrifugal force separates the particles by weight. A
vortex finder in the center of the cone can be used
to remove gas. The desander and desilter on a drilling
rig's circulating system are hydrocyclones.
cyclonite a common explosive in shaped-charge
form used for perforating. RDX

H-C C-H
I
I
H
H
cycloalkane or cycloparaffin (cyclobutane)

cycloalkanes or cycloparaffin series a series of

saturated, closed-ring hydrocarbons with the formula
CnH2n. An example is cyclobutane C4H8. (alicyclic or
napthene series)
SILT
SHALE

DELTA FRONT

LIMESTONE

OFFSHORE

SHALE

NEARSHORE

COAL
SILT-SHALE

SWAMP
LEVEE

PRODELTA
MARINE

NONMARINE
SANDSTONE

cyclothem

cyclothem a vertical sequence of alternating marine

and nonmarine sedimentary rocks. One cyclothem
consists of one set of marine sedimentary rocks
overlain by one set of nonmarine sedimentary rocks.
CY/D cycles per day
cyl cylinder
cylinder the metal tube in which a) the fuel-air
combustion takes place in an engine or where b)
the piston moves in a pump, cyl
cylinder block the cylinder housing on an engine
or pump

120

cylinder drilling czar

cylinder drilling the drilling of a well with the wellbore contained in the dimensions of predetermined
cylinders from the surface down to total depth
cylinder head the seal on the end of a cylinder in
an engine or pump. The cylinder head often contains
valves and outlets or inlets.
cylinder liner a replaceable sleeve that fits in the
cylinder of an engine or pump

cylindrical fold a fold in sedimentary rocks with

the fold surface everywhere parallel to the fold hinge
line
CY/M cycles per minute
cy/S cycles per second
,
,
.
,
.
czar the oil scout that is elected to be in charge of
me s c o u t c h e c k s or meetings. The czar also assigns
s c o u t s to ^eiT d i s t r i c t s to be COVered. (bull scout)

D darcy

D
D 1) depth 2) deliverability 3) diffusion coefficient
4) dimensionless 5) displacement 6) density log 7)
distance 8) day 9) diameter 10) development 11) darcy
12) decline 13) deuterium 14) done
d 1) depletion 2) diameter 3) dew point 4) dip 5)
displaced 6) drainage 7) differential separation 8)
decay 9) geophone spread 10) penetration exponent
11) day 12) annual production decline rate 13) deciDA daily allowable
da deca
dagger skirt a steel base with downward spikes on
it that is used on the bottom of some gravity platforms
to inhibit current scour around the base of the
structure
DA1B daily average injection barrels
daily contract quantity the volume of natural gas
per day that a purchaser is required to take from a
gas reservoir as stated in a gas contract. A daily contract
quality has a specific price for the gas that is related
to the Btu content of the gas. (daily take or take)
DCQ
daily drilling report a report made by the tool
pusher on a drilling rig each morning that summarizes
the drilling results of the previous 24 hours running
from 6 a.m. to 6 a.m. The report is telephoned or
radioed to the drilling contractor who then reports
to the operator of the well. Daily drilling reports vary
between contractors. A daily drilling report commonly
includes total depth at report time, footage drilled
in 24 hours, activities such as tripping and repairs, a
time breakdown for each tour, mud measurements,
daily and cumulative costs, and formations drilled.
(morning report)
daily mud check report a description of the
physical and chemical characteristics of the drilling
fluid during a period while drilling a well. The report
is usually prepared daily by a mud engineer. The
daily mud check report contains the well depth, bit
size and number, pit volume, pump data, solids-control
equipment, and drillstring data. The mud properties
are listed with mud weight, pH, funnel viscosity, plastic
viscosity, yield point, gel strength, chloride content,
calcium content, solids cement, cation exchange
capacity, and fluid loss, (mud record or report)
daily take see daily contract quantity
Dalton's law of partial pressures see law of
additive pressures
damage clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that defines the payment that the lessee must pay to

121

lessor for any surface damage during drilling and

production. The damage is usually limited to crop
damage.
damage factor a measure of the formation damage
in a well. The damage factor is equal to 1 qlqp
where q is the production rate at a fixed drawdown
of the actual well and qt is the theoretical production
rate at a fixed drawdown of the well with no formation
damage. DF or D.F.
damage payments compensation made by an
operator to a surface rights owner for damages during
drilling a well
damage ratio 1) the theoretical flow capacity of a
well divided by the indicated flow capacity. 2) the
undamaged permeability of the reservoir divided by
the actual permeability measured during a drillstem
test. The damage ratio reflects skin damage in a
well. DR
damage release an agreement between the surface
owner or tenant of land and an operator who is going
to drill a well on that land. The surface owner or
tenant receives a settlement in advance and releases
the operator from any surface damage occurred during
drilling the well.
dampening bottle see pulsation damper
dampening sub a short section of pipe used in the
downhole assembly between the bit and drill collars
to absorb loads and vibrations during drilling. The
dampening sub uses steel wire woven into a mesh
or washers to absorb shocks, (damping sub)
damping the decrease in an oscillation or wave
damping sub see dampening sub
dance hall the flat bed of a semitrailer truck
D&A dry and abandoned
D&C drill and complete
D&D Desk and Derrick club
D&P platform drilling and production platform
Danian a global age of geological time that occurred
about 67-62 m. y. ago. It is the Lower Paleocene epoch.
D-API Degrees American Petroleum Institute
DAR discovery allowable requested
darcy the unit of permeability measurement. A darcy
is the rate of flow, measured in milliliters per second,
of a fluid having one centipoise viscosity through a
one square centimeter cross section of rock with a
pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter.
The fluid flows through the rock in viscous or laminar
flow. A millidarcy, a common permeability unit, is one1000th of a darcy and is abbreviated md. Reservoir
rocks generally have permeabilities of 5-1,000
millidarcies with some gas production from reservoirs
with as little as 0.1 millidarcies permeability.
Quantitative permeability measurements are made on
rocks with a permeameter. Darcy is named after HenriPhilibert-Gaspard Darcy (1803-1858), a French
engineer. D

122

Darcy's equation or law De

Darcy's equation or law a formula that describes

the flow of subsurface fluids and has a rate of flow
proportional to the hydraulic gradient. Darcy's law
(Henri Darcy, 1856) states that Q = K x / x A. Q is
the quantity of water or any fluid (cubic feet per day)
moving in laminar flow in a unit of time through a
unit cross-sectional area that is A (square feet). K (feet
per day) is the hydraulic conductivity, a measure of
permeability. / is the hydraulic gradient (loss of head
per foot of flow distance). In the metric system, Darcy's
law is expressed as q = ((k x A)/\x.) x (dp/dx), where
q is the volume per unit time, k is permeability in
darcies, A is the cross-sectional area in square
centimeters, \i is the fluid viscosity in centipoises,
and dpldx is the hydraulic gradient in atmospheres
per centimeter.
Darcy-Weisbach formual a formula used to
determine the loss of head in flowing water. The
headloss is equal to a coefficient that depends on
Reynolds number and the conduit surface roughness
times the length of the conduit divided by the diameter
of the conduit times the velocity head of the flowing
water.
dart 1) a protrusion on the bottom of a dart or dartbottom bailer. When the bailer touches the bottom
of a well, the dart lifts a ball valve to allow fluids
and well cuttings into the bailer. The valve closes
when the bailer is raised. 2) A pump down version
of an internal preventer. It operates in a landing sub
in the drill collars and is used when stripping under
pressure.
dart or dart-bottom bailer a bailer that has a check
or dart valve on the bottom. A dart bailer is run on
a sand or bailer line to remove fluids and cuttings
from a well.
DAS deconvolution after stack
dat datum
data acquisition the method used in seismic
exploration to emit a seismic pulse and to detect and
record the seismic signals in the field
data base a relatively complete collection of data
data brokerage or exchange see geophysical
library
datum a reference surface to which measurements
such as elevations are referred. For elevations, the
datum is commonly sea level and is given in feet
above or below sea level. On seismic, it is the surface
from which seismic reflection times or depths are
counted after corrections have been made for
weathering and local topography, dat or DM
datumization the flattening of a seismic reflection
by the introduction of an arbitrary time shift
datum pressure bottomhole pressure corrected to
sea level or a specific subsea level
day a non-System International (SI) unit that is
allowable in SI for time. One day is equal to 86,400
seconds, d
daylights or daylight tour the shift for a crew on
a drilling rig from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The daylights
tour is between the morning and evening tours, (day
tour)
day rate see day work drilling contract

day tour see daylight tour

daywork, day work, or day-rate drilling
contract a type of drilling contract in which the
contractor is paid for the time the rig is drilling down
to a specified depth or horizon. The operator directs
all drilling activities and is responsible for the well.
The crew and the drillpipe may or may not be supplied
by the operator. Allowances are made in the contract
for times when the rig is not drilling such as during
logging, coring, casing and cementing operations. A
daywork drilling contract is preferred by contractors
in areas where subsurface conditions such as abnormal
high pressures can extend the drilling operations,
during times when rigs are in short supply, and with
offshore rigs. A modified day-rate contract is based
on a basic day rate plus a footage-rate profit margin
for incentive. An offshore day rate can include a) an
operating and moving rate, b) a stand-by rate, c) a
repair rate, and d) a force majeure rate. The standby
rate can be changed due to weather, lack of supplies
or personnel, lack of license, or lack of completion
equipment. The repair rate covers unscheduled shut
downs except those for routine maintenance, (day
rate or rig-time work)
DB 1) drilling break 2) cement dump-bailer service
3) drilling barge 4) derrick barge 5) damaged bit
Db diabase
Db, dB, or db decibel
D.B. crew doodle bug crew
DBIT diamond bit
DBO dark brown oil
DBOS dark brown oil stain
DBS deconvolution before stack
DC 1) drill collar 2) direct current 3) dual completion
4) diamond core 5) depth correction
dc corrected d exponent
DCB diamond core bit
D.C.D.MA. Diamond Core Drill Manufactureres
Association
DCF discounted cash flow
DCFR discounted cash flow rate
DCOR diamond core
DCFROR discounted cash flow rate of return
DCLSP digging cellar and slush pits
DCM distillate-cut mud
do, normal corrected d exponent
DCQ daily contract quantity
DCS drill collars
DD 1) drilling deeper 2) drill 3) drilled 4) drilling
5) depth determination
dd dead
D.D. drilling deeper
DD&A deepened and abandoned
DD&C deepened and completed
DDC 1) direct digital control 2) deck decompression
chamber
DDL direct digital logging
De effective decline rate

de
de 1) electrode diameter 2) equivalent diameter
DEA diethanolamine
dead not connected dd
dead carbon kerogen that has no potential to
generate petroleum. Dead kerogen is Type IV kerogen.
dead center the location of the piston on a singlecylinder engine at the end of the stroke. The center
of the crank is on the center line of the cylinder
and the engine cannot start automatically, it has to
be moved off center.
dead end 1) the attached end of the drilling line
2) the closed end of a pipe
dead fluid fluid that contains no free gas
dead-in-a-hurry someone who transports
nitroglycerin
dead line or deadline 1) the fixed end of the drilling
line on a drilling rig that is attached to the deadline
anchor. The deadline is not reeled on the hoisting
drum in the drawworks. The opposite end is attached
to the drum in the drawworks and is called the fast
line. DL 2) The bottom of the oil window where crude
oil is generated
dead-line or deadline anchor the sheave or
rotatable drum on a base that is attached to the rig
floor or substructure on a drilling rig through which
the dead line end of the drilling line passes
deadline diaphragm a diaphragm that is attached
to the deadline on a drilling rig to measure the weight
on the hook
dead-load capacity the maximum vertical weight
that a derrick can support without collapsing
dead man an old term for a duster or dry hole
deadman a buried anchor that is used to attach a
guy wire for bracing a mast, derrick or other type of
tower. Deadmen are made of a short length of largediameter pipe, a concrete block, or a short section
of timber.
deadman control a type of control that stops the
machinery if the operator becomes incapacitated
dead oil 1) viscous oil that has no or little dissolved
gas, will not flow through the rock, and cannot be
recovered 2) residual oil after differential liberation
of gas at reservoir temperature measured at 60F and
14.7 psia. DOIl
dead sheave the wheel in the crown block through
which the deadline is run
dead time the length of time in microseconds that
a radioactive logging system takes to recover from
counting an event
dead trace a seismic trace in which there is no
variation possibly because of a disconnected
connection
dead weight tester an instrument used to measure
surface shut-in pressure of a gas well. The pressure
on the fluid is balanced by adding weights onto a
piston.
dead well 1) an oil well in which the oil needs a
pump to flow to the surface 2) a well, either gas or
oil, that has temporarily or permanently ceased to
produce 3) a well that has been killed and is under
control after a kick or blowout

decentralizer

123

dead wood any internal fixtures such as pipe and

valves that reduce the volume of an oil storage tank
dead wraps the first few winds of wire rope around
a drum. The dead wraps are never played off the
drum
Dean-Stark apparatus a device that uses refluxing
solvents to remove water and oil from cores
deasphalting 1) a natural process in a subsurface
oil reservoir caused by wet gas or retrograde gas from
outside the reservoir migrating through the reservoir,
or by an increase in temperature causing an
enrichment of the light ends of crude oil. The complex
asphaltene molecules become less soluble in the crude
oil and precipitated as a solid bitumen. The
carbonaceous residue can be seen as a black
precipitate on sediment grains in the reservoir rock
that can plug the reservoir and as a tar mat at the
oil/water contact, (natural deasphalting) 2) A refinery
process in which asphaltic residuum is treated with
liquid propane to remove the resins and asphaltenes.
Normal pentane is then used to dissolve the resins
and precipitate the asphaltenes. Deasphalting can also
occur in a gas lift well.
DEA unit a treating facility that uses diethanolamine
to remove acid gases such as hydrogen sulfide and
carbon dioxide from a production stream
Deb debris
debris apron a broad alluvial slope deposited on
an inland basin at he base of mountains bajada
debris flow a mass movement or landslide that
moves rapidly and contains a variety of particles, 20%
of which are greater than sand-size, along with
considerable water. A debris flow is similar to a mud
or earth flow but contains coarser particles.
debug to search for and correct malfunctions in a
computer program or an instrument
debutanizer the distillation column in a gas
processing plant where butane is separated from
natural gas or natural gas liquids
deca the metric prefix for 101. da
decanewtons the System International (SI) unit used
for weight on bit. The conventional unit is pounds
and can be converted to the SI unit by multiplying
by 0.445. daN
decanter or decanting centrifuge a centrifuge in
the shape of a conical steel bowl with a double-screw
conveyor rotating in it in the same direction but at a
slower speed. The decanting centrifuge is used to
remove heavy solids such as weighting material or
barite from lighter components in water-base drilling
mud. There is a mud inlet into the conveyor, and
the slurry is thrown against the walls of the bowl by
centrifugal force. Particles settle on the walls where
the conveyor scrapes the settled solids toward the
narrow end of the bowl where the discharge is located.
The liquid flows out ports on the larger end. (mud
decanter)
decentralize to position a tool or tubular against
the side of a wellbore. Decentralize is usually done
with an arm or bow spring.
decentralizer a decentralizing extension such as a
bow spring that pushes a sonde or tool against the
wellbore wall (eccentering arm)

124

dec! deep gas

deci the metric prefix for 10 1 d

decibel a unit of power of intensity ratio. A decibel
is used to measure sound intensity, loudness, or
pressure level. For sound, it is a unit of measurement
of the volume of sound equal to the logarithm of
the ratio of the intensity of the sound compared to
the intensity of an arbitrarily chosen standard. A
pressure of 0.0002 microbar is zero decibels soundlevel, the threshold of hearing, db, Db, or dB
decision tree a graphical presentation of a sequence
of events and their possible outcome. Branches on
the tree occur when there are alternative courses of
action. Decision nodes occur where a decision has
to be made and there will be several consequences
of that decision. A chance node is a point where chance
will determine the outcome. The decision tree ends
in several terminal points which are the final outcomes.
The decision tree is used in an economic analysis of
drilling.
deck 1) the flat working area on an offshore platform
or ship 2) the screen surface on the basket of a shale
shaker. A shale shaker can have either a single or
double deck.
deck barge a wide barge that is used to transport
jackets and modules offshore, (flotation or tow barge)
declared unit a unit formed by a lease under a lease
pooling clause
declination the angle between geographic north and
magnetic north. For any position on earth, the
declination will change with time as the magnetic
north and south poles move.
decline analysis or decline-curve method a
method used to determine the remaining production,
future production rates, and time of economic limit
of a producing oil well. A decline curve (a plot of
oil production rate versus time) of previous
production (barrels per day) is extrapolated into
the future. This is done by fitting a smooth curve
to the decline curve, either graphically or with a
mathematical formula. A semilogarithmic chart is often
used to make the decline curve approximate a straight
line.

ECONOMIC LIMIT

TIME
decline curve

decline curve a plot of rate of oil or gas production

against time. A decline curve can be for either a single
well or an entire field. The curve tends to smoothly
decline with the highest production rate at first and
the lowest production rate later when the wells
become stripper wells. Exponential (constant
percentage decline), hyperbolic, and harmonic curve

equations are often used to mathematically express

the decline curve.
declining balance an accounting method used to
calculate an accelerated depreciation on equipment
decollement a structure composed of strata that
have detached from the rocks below it. Decollement
is often associated with folding and overthrusting.
decon deconvolution
decontaminant a cement additive that counteracts
a contaminant
deconvolution a process that undoes the effect of
waves passing through a filter. In seismic exploration,
deconvolution removes the changes in the wave form
or seismic energy made by the passage of the seismic
wave through the subsurface rocks. Deconvolution
recompresses the seismic impulse and results in
clearer reflections and suppression of multiples.
(wavelet processing) decon
DECR, Deer, or deer 1) decrease 2) decreasing 3)
decreased
decreased spacing a reduction in the size of drilling
and spacing units in an area by a government
regulatory agency. Eighty-acre spacing could be
decreased to 40-acre spacing. Decrease spacing
requires a producing well on each decreased drilling
and spacing unit to hold the lease in contrast to
increased density.
DeDet depth determination
dedicated gas production from a unit, lease, or field
that is committed by gas contract to be sold to a specific
purchaser at a fixed or determinable price. The
purchaser has the right to all the gas production from
that defined area.
dedication the formal conveyance of private land
for public use
dedication of reserves the commitment, usually by
gas purchase contract, of all gas produced from a
unit, lease, or field to a specific pipeline company.
This assures the pipeline company of an adequate
supply of natural gas.
dedolomitization the process of recrystallizing
dolomite [CaMg(CO2)] into calcite (CaCO3).
Dedolomitization is seen in calcite beds and calcite
cemented sandstones as large, calcite rhombs.
deed a written instrument that conveys the title to
land. A warranty deed contains a guarantee of title,
whereas a royalty deed transfers an interest in
production.
deep as hell an ambiguous answer to how deep a
well is
deepen an operation on a well to drill below the
deepest zone that the well previously penetrated or
the deepest zone on the well's authority for
expenditure
deeper drilling dry-hole costs the cost of drilling
a dry hole below the deepest proven producing zone
in a well
deeper-pool test an exploratory well that attempts
to discover a deeper reservoir that has never been
tested in a producing field
deep gas deep gas is defined by the Natural Gas
Policy Act of 1978 as natural gas produced from

deep investigation degree

reservoirs below 15,000 ft depth. The price of deep
gas was deregulated.
deep investigation the sensing of a well-logging
sonde beyond the invaded zone near the well bore
deep propagation tool a down hole instrument that
radiates electromagnetic energy and uses four
receivers to measure the altenuation and velocity of
the energy. The tool measures resistivity and the
dielectric constant of formations and fluids. DPT
Deerparkian a North American age of geological
time that occurred about 400-395 m. y. ago. It is part
of the Devonian period.
deetfaanizer the distillation column in a gas
processing plant where ethane is separated from
natural gas or natural gas liquids. It is separated from
the natural gas liquids to stabilize the liquid petroleum
gas. The ethane is returned to the gas stream.
default the failure to comply with any provision in
a legally binding contract
default clause an oil and gas lease provision that
states if the lessee violates the terms of the lease and
does not remedy the violation after a certain number
of days after written notice by the lessor, the lessor
can terminate the lease
deferred bonus payments made to the lessor by
the lessee for a lease. The payments are spread over
a number of years, unlike the more common bonus
which is a lump sum paid on execution of the lease.
deferred-bonus bidding a type of lease bidding,
usually offshore, in which the operator pays the bonus
in installments and can terminate his rights and stop
bonus payments at any time
deferred-payment open-end sale a type of
operating properties sale in which the seller reserves
a production payment which ends when either a)
the buyer's production reaches a specified amount
or b) the reserves of the property are proven to equal
a specified amount. This protects the buyer of the
properties if the reserves turn out to be less than
originally estimated.
deferred-production agreement a type of gas
agreement between owners that are entitled to take
payment of gas in kind. One owner takes the gas as
produced and the other owner postpones his right
to the gas production.
deferred-production payment a type of
production payment that does not start until the
operator has received a specific amount of production
deferred working interest farmout a type of farmout in which the farmee pays a share, usually all, of
the cost of a well(s) on a property which is
disproportionately greater than the farmee's working
interest. The farmee has the right to have a similar
disproportionate share, usually all, of the operating
rights in the well(s) until payout. The farmer has a
deferred working interest and does not receive
production revenue until the farmee has reached
payout. In this manner, the farmee is able to deduct
all his IDCs.
deficiency gas the difference in the amount of gas
for which purchaser is obligated in a take-or-pay
contract and the amount of gas that is actually taken

125

deficiency payment a payment made by an

interstate gas pipeline company to a gas producer
for gas that was not taken under a take-or-pay contract
deficient well a well that cannot produce its
allowable
definite escalation clause a provision in a gas
contract that sets the specific price for the gas but
provides for specific increases in the initial price at
specific dates or after any specific changes, such as
in production or taxes, that might affect the seller
deflected hole a well that is intentionally deviated
from its normal course. A deflected hole is more
commonly called a deviated or directional well.
deflecting sub or substitute a short section of pipe
with an angle in it that is used to kick off a deviated
well, (offset sub)
deflection 1) the angle between a crooked or
deviated hole and vertical DFLN (angle of deviation,
deflection, drift, drift angle, hole deviation, or
inclination) 2) the excursion of a curve on a well
log 3) a change in the angle of a wellbore
deflocculation the use of a thinner or agitation to
break up floccules or lightly-bounded groups of finegrained particles called floes in a gel
defoamer or defoaming agent a substance that
reduces surface tension to reduce or eliminate foam.
Defoamers are surface-active agents such as aluminum
stearate, octyl alcohol, tributylophosphate, pine oil,
and organic silicones.
defoaming plate a series of inclined, parallel plates
or tubes located in a separator that are used to coalesce
foam bubbles
DEG diethylene glycol
deg degree
degasser equipment that is pan of the circulating
system on a drilling rig. The degasser is located on
or near the mud tanks and is designed to remove
any natural gas from the drilling mud when it returns
from the well. The gas bubbles are removed by either
a) spraying the mud against a baffle, b) flowing the
mud in a thin layer over a wide sheet, or c) flowing
through a vacuum cylinder. One type, a mud-gas
separator, is designed to handle high pressure gas.
The other type, a vacuum degasser, is designed to
handle low-pressure gas that occurs as foam in the
mud. It is usually horizontal, skid-mounted, three feet
in diameter and 10 ft long. If the gas is not removed,
the mud is less dense and viscous and cannot serve
its purpose when recirculated down the well. The
separated gas is then flared.
degassing the removal of natural gas from drilling
mud on a rig. Equipment called degassers on a rig
are designed to remove the gas.
degaussing demagnetization
DEG-C Degrees centigrade or Celsius
DEG-F Degrees Fahrenheit
DEG-K Degrees Kelvin
DEG-R Degrees Rankin
degree a non-System International (SI) unit that is
allowable in SI for plane angle. One degree is equal
to TT/180 radians.

126

"API or degrees API gravity delta

"API or degrees API gravity a scale reflecting the

density of a fluid such as crude oil, water, or natural
gas. It is computed by dividing the specific gravity
of the fluid at 60F into 141.5 and subtracting 131.5.
Fresh water has 10API. (API gravity, DAPI, or gravity)
grAPI
"API gravity see "API

C 1) degree Celsius 2) degree centigrade

"Celsius a non-System International (SI) unit that is
allowable in SI for temperature. It was originally the
centigrade scale. One degree Celsius is equal to 1
Kelvin. C
F degrees Fahrenheit
degrees of freedom the smallest number of
variables such as temperature, pressure, and
concentration that is needed to determine the
remaining variables in the system and the phases such
as gas, liquid, or solid that are present. The phase
rule states the F = (C P) +2 where C is the numer
of components and P is the number of phases. F
dehydration the removal of water. Natural gas is
dehydrated to pipeline or sales-quality specifications
by a) a liquid desiccant such as glycol, b) solid
desiccants such as silica gel, alumina, and molecular
sieves, c) expansion refrigeration, and d) calcium
chloride. The most common dehydration method uses
triethylene glycol (TEG) in an absorber. Expansion
refrigeration uses a low-temperature separation unit
and is commonly used to also remove liquid
hydrocarbons. Pipeline or sales-quality gas contains
less than 7 lb/MMscf of water and can contain a
maximum of 3-5 lb/MMscf of water for cold climates.
Adsorption is used for the greatest dew point
depression. It can reduce the water content to less
than V2 lb/MMscf, which depresses the dew point to
-40F.
dehydration plant equipment at the wellsite(s) that
often commingles gas streams from several wells to
separate water from the gas to prevent hydrate
formation. The plant is often either an absorber that
uses a liquid dessicant such as triethylene glycol (TEG)
or a solid dessicant such as activated alumina (bauxite)
or silica gel for the separation, (dehydrator)
dehydration tank see settling tank
dehydrator see dehydration plant
dekatherm a unit of thermal energy equal to
105 Btu
delay panel an electric memorizer that stores signals
from a sonde to coordinate all signals with the depth
reference of the sonde
/
delay rental a payment made to the mineral rights
owner (lessor) by the lessee in order to maintain a
lease during its primary term if drilling or production,
depending on which is required in the terms of the
lease, has not been initiated during the period
specified in the lease. It is a percentage of the bonus
and can be as high as the bonus in some areas such
as Louisiana. The delay rental is usually paid annually,
but delay rentals can be semiannual or quarterly in
the Midwest, (annual acreage rental or carrying
rental)
delay rental clause an oil and gas lease provision
that provides for the payment of a specific sum of

money (delay rental) to the lessor by the lessee at

certain times in order to maintain a lease during its
primary term if either production or drilling,
depending on the lease terms, has not commenced.
(drilling development or drilling and rental clause)
delimit to fix a boundary of an oil field by drilling
delineation well a general term for any well drilled
to the side of a discovery well to determine the
probable aerial extent of the reservoir on the location
of the oil/water contact. More precise terms are
extension test, outpost well, and step-out well.
deliquescence the liquefactor of a solid, such as
calcuim chloride, due to adsorption of water from
air
deliverability the flow rate of a gas well against a
specific pressure that is usually a working pressure
at the wellhead after a specific time has elapsed since
shut-in, delv or D
deliverability against pipeline pressure the
amount of natural gas that a well can produce and
deliver to a pipeline with a specific pressure (pipeline
pressure) on the gas already in the pipeline
deliverability plot a graph of flowing bottomhole
pressure versus production from a well
deliverability standard pressure the pressure that
is used in determining the amount of natural gas
(deliverability) that a gas well can produce
delivery the actual volume of a fluid passed through
a meter during meter proving
delivery in kind the acceptance by an owner of
an interest in a portion of the oil and/or gas produced
from a well in lieu of monetary payment for his interest
delivery pressure the pressure, stated in a gas
purchase contract, at which natural gas from a well
is to be delivered to a pipeline
delv deliverability
A 1) impulse 2) skin depth 3) loss tangent 4)
displacement ratio 5) difference
8 1) skin depth 2) hole deviation 3) acoustic
attenuation 4) delta value
RIVER CHANNEL

o c e A N

delta

delta sediments deposited by a river emptying into

a body of water such as a lake or ocean. Deltaic
sediments are often very thick and can include
sediment sizes from coarse sands to clays. Deltas are
often described by their aerial geometry (arcuate,
cuspate, lobate, or birdfoot), balance of river
deposition and wave erosion (constructive or

8a

ARCUATE

delta forms

destructive), or dominate process (river-dominated,

wave-dominated, or tide-dominated). The bedding in
deltas can be described as topset, foreset, and
bottomset beds. Depending on the type of delta,
various sand bodies such as distributary channel, bar
finger, beach, and delta fringe sands can be petroleum
reservoirs in ancient deltas. Deltas formed in tidal
inlets are described as flood and ebb deltas.
A a Accuracy of azimuth angle
A C 1) carbon isotope ratio 2) delta carbonate
A carbonate a method of geochemical prospecting
for petroleum. Surface soil samples are analyzed for
carbonates derived from hydrocarbons that have
seeped from subsurface reservoirs. A surface halo of
delta carbonates (A C) can occur over subsurface
reservoirs. AC
A C halo an anomalously high concentration of
carbonates derived from hydrocarbons in the surface
soil over a subsurface petroleum reservoir. The
anomaly occurs in the shape of an ellipse or halo.
AD density-log porosity correction

delta fringe sands

delta fringe sands a fan-shaped deposit of shallowwater sands created by wave reworking of distributary
mouth bar sands in front of a delta
Ah depth variation
Ai accuracy of slant angle
deltaic related to a river delta
AP differential pressure
Apf frictional pressure drop
AN neutron-log porosity correction

8^

127

delta plain the environment on a river delta that

occurs between the alluvial valley and the limit of
low tide. The delta plain is the area where the
distributary channels spread out and sediments are
deposited from periodic flooding by the river and
from high tides. The upper deltaic plain is the older
part of the delta and occurs furthest inland. It is above
tidal and marine influences and contains migratory
channel, lacustrine delta-fill, and flood plain deposits.
The lower deltaic plain occurs between high and low
tide. It contains bay fill and distributary channel
deposits.
Ap density difference
Apj density correction
A^ radius of invaded zone

delta switching

delta switching a process in which a river

periodcially abandons an old delta and deposits a
new delta on a shorter route to the ocean along a
shoreline. The abandoned delta is eroded by waves,
and the new delta progrades out into the ocean.
AT the difference in time between two time values
that were observed or interpolated from observed
or calculated values on a seismic reflection or
refraction stepout times
At 1) time increment 2) acoustic traveltime in a
formation 3) residence time
A t 1) sound velocity (usually the compressional
wave) measured in jtsec/ft through a rock layer or
formation by a sonic, continuous velocity or boreholecompensated log or Acoustilipg log; the official
symbol is t. (interval transit time) DT 2) the difference,
in time between the arrival times at different geophone
groups in seismic exploration 3) the time difference
between opposite ends of a single-ended geophone
spread or geophone groups at maximum offset on
opposite sides of a symmetrical spread after correction
for normal moveout (dip moveout) in seismic
exploration. It is due to the dip of the rocks in the
geological section.
At,, acoustic traveltime in coal
Atj- acoustic traveltime in fluid
At],,, acoustic traveltime in limestone
At,,,;, acoustic traveltime in rock matrix
or (At.^),, apparent matrix transit time
acoustic traveltime in mud filtrate
At,!, acoustic traveltime in shale
acoustic traveltime in sandstone
acoustic traveltime in water

128

delta value depletion gas expansion drive

delta value the deviation of an isotope ratio from

the standard value
demister a wire mesh pad that is used in a separator
to trap and coalesce liquid droplets out of gas
demonstrated reserves both measured and
indicated reserves
demulsiner a chemical, usually a surface active
agent, that is used to break up emulsions. A demulsiner
is used to reduce the surface tension of oil to break
up oil and water emulsions. A demulsifier is used as
a chemical additive in drilling mud to separate oil
and water. The relative amounts of oil and water are
important in selecting a demulsifier.
demulsify to break an emulsion into its components
demultiplexing a process in seismic exploration
that separates the individual seismic channels from
the field tape and reassembles the seismic data that
correspond to each detector onto an edit tape
Den density log
dend dendrite
dendritic drainage a stream drainage pattern which
is characterized by numerous, irregular branches of
tributary streams with no preference to direction or
orientation. Dendritic drainage develops on rocks of
uniform, erosional resistance with no structure.
Dendritic drainage is the most common drainage
pattern.
Den-G density, gamma ray log
DENL density log
dense limestone limestone with little or no
permeability, ds Is
Densilog a density log
densimeter or densitometer a through-tubing
production logging device that measures the resonate
frequency of a hollow cylinder with radial blades as
fluid flows through it to measure the density of the
fluids. A densimeter is used to differentiate gas from
oil and water flow in a well. The densimeter is
calibrated against air and water.
density mass per unit volume. The bulk density of
rock includes the density of the rock and the fluids
in the pores of the rock. Matrix density is the density
of only the rock. Liquid density is often expressed
in lbs/gal, lbs/bbl, or g/cc. Gas density is often
expressed in lbs/ft3. Density is often used
interchangably with specific gravity.
density current a gravity flow down a slope by a
denser fluid in a lighter fluid. A turbidity current is
a density current.
density log a radioactive type of wireline well log
that measures the density of subsurface formations
in gm/cc. A density log uses a pad-type sonde with a
spring-loaded back-up arm that also provides a caliper
measurement. By bombarding the subsurface rocks
with gamma rays and counting the backscattered
gamma rays, the density of the subsurface rock layers
can be computed. From the density of the rock, the
porosity of the rock can be calculated. The
compensated density log has a secondary detector
on the sonde that responds more to the mudcake
and borehole irregularities and is used to correct or
compensate the main detector for these undesired

effects. The density log is used for a) porosity

determination, b) gas effect, c) hydrocarbon density,
d) detection of overpressured zones, e) lithology
identification, and f) bit selection, (formation density,
gamma-gamma, or nuclear interface log)D, DL, Den,
DENL, or DIL
density order a regulatory commission ruling on
well locations
dentist a cement man
dep depreciation
deparaffin To remove wax from wells or flowlines.
The wax is removed by heat, chemicals, scrapers, or
bacteria.
departmental lease an oil and gas lease on federal
lands that was noncompetitive or issued without
bidding
departure the compass direction of a directional
survey location in a well from the wellhead location
(departure direction)
departure curves a set of curves that permits
apparent resistivities from normal and lateral logs to
be corrected for borehole, invaded zone, and bed
thickness effects
departure direction see departure
depl depletion
deplete to exhaust or use up
depleted field, reservoir, or formation a field,
reservoir, or formation that has produced all of its
recoverable oil and gas. The field can be depleted
after primary production has occurred and the natural
reservoir drive has been so diminished that the wells
are at or below the economic limit. Economics might
not justify waterflood or enhanced oil recovery. The
field can also be depleted after a waterflood or
enhanced oil production becomes economically
unjustified.
depletion 1) the reduaion in reserves by the
removal of petroleum from a reservoir 2) the removal
and sale of petroleum from a reservoir 3) the reduaion
in value of a field or lease by the production of gas
and oil 4) the time in the life of a well when
hydrocarbons can no longer be produced with a profit
5) an accounting method in which a reduction in
income is made for tax purposes that reflects the
removal of a mineral deposit that cannot be replaced
such as produaion of oil and gas. Depletion can be
either a) cost or b) percentage. Cost depletion
amoritizes the depletable basis in the property over
the life of the produaion. Percentage depletion is
based on a statutory percentage of gross income on
production for a year, depl or d
depletion allowance percentage of oil and gas
monies that are tax exempt
depletion decline the natural decline in produaion
of a well that occurs after the drainage has reached
the outer boundaries of the well's drainage in a
constant volume reservoir
depletion drive see dissolved gas expansion drive
depletion-drive pool see dissolved gas-expansion
pool
depletion gas expansion drive see solution-gas
expansion drive

depletion rate depth yardstick

depletion rate the production rate from a field,
reservoir, or well that will exhaust or deplete the
reserves within a specific period of time
depletory covenant the obligation of the lessee of
adjacent lands not to drain the oil from under the
lessor's lands by wells on the adjacent lands
depocenter an area of thick sediment deposition
depolarize the removal of a polarizing corrosion
agent
deposit a natural accumulation of oil and/or gas or
any other commercial substance
depositional environment the physical
environment in which sediments were deposited.
Examples include a high-energy river channel or
eolian sand dune in the desert.
depositional regression a retreat of the seas from
the land (regression) caused by the deposition of
sediments along the shoreline. A constructive delta
causes a depositional regression.
depositional-shoreline break a line on a shelf of
a basin that is defined in seismic or sequence
stratigraphy as having the depositional surface located
landward of the break at base level (sea level) and
seaward of the break at below base level.
depositional system a three-dimensional
assemblage of lithofacies in seismic or sequence
stratigraphy that are genetically linked by processes
and environments
depositional trap an oil and gas trap formed by
the deposition of the reservoir rock such as a limestone
reef or river channel sandstone. A depositional trap
is a type of stratigraphic trap.
depository bank the institution to which delay
rental payments must be made for the lessor of a
lease
depr depreciation
depreciation the annual deduction from income in
recognition for the loss of the value of equipment
due to age. The accounting methods used can be
either a) straight line or b) accelerated, depr or dep
deprop depropanizer
depropanizer the distillation column in a gas
processing plant where propane is separated from
natural gas or natural gas liquids, deprop
depth the distance from the top to the bottom of a
well. The top of a well is measured from the kelly
bushing (KB), rotary table (RT), or ground level (GL).
Total measured, logged, and driller's depth are
measured along the course of the wellbore, which
may not be vertical. True vertical depth is measured
vertically to the bottom of the well and is usually
shorter than total depth, dpt, D, Z, or z
depth-bracket allowable an allowable, the amount
of gas and/or oil that is permitted to be produced
by a government regulatory agency, that is based on
the depth of the well. Depth-bracket allowable is based
on a depth yardstick.
depth-bracket method of proration a method of
limiting oil and gas production by assigning a specific
amount of production to all wells of a specific depth
range
depth column see depth track

129

depth controller a 2-ft torpedo with two fins that

is used on a hydrophone steamer to regulate the depth
of the streamer. The fins are angled to keep the steamer
at the desired depth. The two halves of the torpedo
are hinged and clamp around the streamer. Four depth
controllers are used on each streamer.
depth-control log a gamma ray or neutron log run
in a cased hole for correlation with an openhole log
in the well for completion operations
depth datum the kelly bushing (KB), drilling floor
(DF), or ground level (GL) that is used for zero depth
in well logging
depth earned seefarmout depth
depth in the depth of a well when a new bit is run
in the well
depth of invasion the radius measured from the
wellbore to the point which the mud filtrate
penentrated back into a formation, (diameter of
invasion)
depth of investigation 1) the maximum subsurface
depth to which a surface exploration tool such as
seismic can reach and define features 2) the radius
around the wellbore in which a logging sonde is
influenced by the rocks and their fluids. It is measured
from the measure point on the tool to the point in
the formation where the tool response is centered.
The depth of investigation is described as shallow,
medium, or deep. The depth of investigation of a
normal device is about twice the A to M electrode
spacing.
depthometer an instrument that consists of a
counter on a calibrated wheel used to measures the
length of wireline as it is run in or pulled out of a
well
depth out the depth of a well when an old bit is
pulled out of the well
depth point in reflection seismic exploration, depth
point is a) the point of reflection for seismic energy,
or b) the point midway between the shotpoint and
geophone, assuming a horizontal reflector. In
refraction seismic exploration, depth point is the point
for which the depth of a horizon has been calculated.
depth rating the maximum depth that a drilling rig
is safety designed to drill using standard equipment
and tools. The size, weight and amount of equipment
increases with the depth rating of the rig. (rating)
depth track a vertical column down a well log with
recordings of depth (below kelly bushing, rotary table,
or ground level) in hundreds of feet. A detail log
has a scale of 5 in./100 ft, whereas a correlation log
has a scale of 1 or 2 in./lOO ft. Track 1 is located to
the left and Track 2 to the right, (depth column)
depth yardstick reservoir depths that are used by
a government regulatory agency to set allowables, the
amount of petroleum that is permitted to be produced
from a well, leasehold, or field per unit time. The
depth yardstick increases with depth of reservoir and
increased well spacing. The Texas Railroad
Commission has a depth yardstick allowable of 102
BOPD for a well on a 40-ac spacing production from
a reservoir between 5,000 and 6,000 ft depth. The
depth yardstick increases to 230 BOPD for a well on
40 ac spacing producing from a reservoir between

130

deranged drainage derrick man or derrickman

WELL LOG

DEPTH TRACK

depth track

10,000 and 10,500 ft depth that was discovered before

January 1, 1965; 192 BOPD for fields discovered after
January 1, 1965; and 515 BOPD for offshore wells.
deranged drainage a stream drainage pattern that
is characterized by irregular streams flowing in and
out of lakes with a few, short tributaries and extensive
swampy areas. Deranged drainage forms on an
recently exposed surface.
deregulation clause a provision in a gas contract
that outlines how the price of gas covered by the
contract will be determined in the event that natural
gas is deregulated

derrick a vertical tower made of special structural

steel on a drilling rig. A derrick consists of a) a gin
pole, b) crow's nest, c) water table, d) monkey or
racking board, e) legs, girts, brackets, and ladder.
There are nine API sizes of conventional derricks that
range from 80 to 189 ft high and have capacities from
86,000 to 1,392,000 lbs. A derrick usually has four
legs located at the corners of the derrick floor. The
horizontal structural members that support the legs
are called girts with braces connecting the girts. The
derrick is used to suspend the drillstring in the well
and is part of the hoisting system that raises and lowers
equipment in the well. The crown block is located
at the top of the derrick. The substruaure or derrick
floor is used to mount equipment such as the rotary
table and drawworks. The derrick window, V-door
or V-window is the open space in the derrick through
which drillpipe and equipment are brought onto the
drill floor. Derricks are rated for maximum pipe
setback load and wind velocity, both with and without
stands of pipe. The deeper the well, the larger and
stronger the derrick must be. A typical offshore derrick
is 150 ft high and 33 ft wide along the base. The API
size number for derricks refers to the number of
panels between the upper and lower girts. The API
safe-load for a derrick is computed by multiplying
the strength of the weakest point of a derrick leg
and multiplying by four. The derrick is often called
a standard derrick and must be assembled piece by
piece at the drill site or on the offshore drilling
platform in contrast to a unitized derrick or mast which
is lowered and raised in one piece. DRRK, Drk., drk,
or Dk.
derrick apple a small object such as a nut or bolt
that falls to the drill floor of a rig
derrick barge a barge that has a heavy lifting-capacity
crane on the stern. A derrick barge is used to lift
modules onto offshore platforms, (crane barge) DB
derrick climber a device that is used by a crew
member to escape from the monkey or tubing board
near the top of the derrick on a drilling or workover
rig. The derrick climber consists of a wheel used to
slide down a cable (Geronomi line) which is attached
to the rod basket or tubing board and a stake or
some other secure fastening on the ground, away from
the rig. It is equipped with a brake and brake handle.
(Geronimo or safety slide)
derrick efficiency factor the actual derrick load
divided by the maximum equivalent load on a derrick.
The derrick efficiency factor is expressed as a
percentage.
derrick floor the elevated platform supported by
the substructure on a drilling rig on which the derrick
sits. The rotary table, drawworks, driller's console,
and other equipment are located on the floor and
the well is in the center. Drilling operations occur
on the derrick floor. On an offshore drilling rig, the
tools and drillstring are run into the ocean from the
work area surrounding the opening, (drilling, drill,
or rig floor) DF

derrick

derrick height the length of a derrick leg measured

from the derrick floor to the bottom of the water
table beams
derrick man or derrickman the senior rigman of
the drilling crew who climbs the derrick to stand
on the monkey or derrick board to latch and unlatch

derrick monkey detail log

elevators to stack drillpipe during trips. The derrick
man mixes the drilling mud and can maintain the
mud tanks. The derrick man also maintains the
machinery and is second in charge of the crew on
that tour, (tower hand or monkey)
derrick monkey a derrick man
derrick ladder a steel ladder that goes up a derrick
from the drill floor to the crow's nest between two
legs. The derrick ladder is used to give access to the
racking board and the crown block through an
opening in the platform on the crow's nest.
derrick skinner a derrick man
derrick window the space in the derrick through
which drillpipe and equipment are brought onto the
drill floor. Three types of derrick windows are a)
V-window, b) drawworks window, and d) ladder
window.
des desiccation
desalt desalting plant
desalting a method of emulsion treatment in which
low-salinity water is mixed with the emulsion to dilute
the brine phase and lower the salt content of the
crude oil
desalting plant an installation that uses either
chemical or electrostatics to remove salt from crude
oil. desalt
desand to remove API sand (particles greater than
74 |JL in size)
desander a metal vortex cone on a drilling rig that
centrifuges drilling mud to remove a high percent
of API sand (particles greater than 74 \x. in diameter)
after the drilling mud circulates back to the surface
of a well and before it is returned to the mud tanks.
The desander can be operated mechanically or by
fluid flowing in a metal, cone-shaped device having
no moving parts called a hydrocyclone. A vortex pipe
extends from the top of the cone into the desander
and causes a whirling motion in mud that is pumped
tangentially into the desander. The heavier, coarse
particles exit the bottom of the cone, and the mud
with finer particles exits the top. A desander has a
larger cone than a desilter. Sand in the drilling mud
could cause excessive abrasion in the mud pumps.
Desc, desc, or Descr description
description the legal location of land covered by a
lease. Desc, desc, or descr
desiccant a drying or dehydrating medium such as
triethylene glycol (TEG) or silica gel that is used to
remove water
desiccator a metal or glass container that is used
to dry out a substance. The desiccator has a top and
bottom section. The desiccant that absorbs or adsorbs
moisture is placed in the bottom section, and the
substance or sample is placed in the top section.
design factor the ratio of the minimum load causing
failure in a structure to the maximum permissible
working load or the ultimate stress to the allowable
stress. The design factor is usually expressed as a
decimal. The design factor of wire rope is the nominal
catalogue breaking strength of the wire rope divided
by the calculated total static load on the wire rope.
The design factor for casing is 1.25 for plain-end yield
stress and 1.00 for internal-yield pressure, (safety
factor)

131

design life the maximum expected operational life

of equipment
design load the maximum force that a structure is
engineered to withstand
design pressure the maximum working pressure
that equipment is designed to withstand
design water depth the maximum water depth for
the operation of a specific drilling rig
desilter a metal, cone-shaped device that centrifuges
the drilling mud in a manner similar to a desander
to remove silt-sized and larger particles in the range
of 2-74 \x in diameter. The desilter has a smaller
cone than the desander and is used after the drilling
mud flows through the desander and before it is
returned to the mud tanks. It is a type of hydrocyclone.
The desilter typically removes 50% of all 10 \L size
particles.
Des Moinesian a North American epoch of
geological time that ended about 310 m. y. ago. It is
part of the Pennsylvanian period.
DESTRUCTIVE DELTA

BEACH
destructive delta

destructive delta a river delta dominated by

erosional marine forces such as waves. The delta
protrudes little, if any, from the shoreline. Sandstone
reservoirs can occur as beaches deposited in front
of ancient destructive deltas.
destructive testing a testing procedure that destroys
the sample. The testing could be a tensile or
compressive test or mass spectrometry. Destructive
testing is in contrast to nondestructive testing.
desulf desulfurizer
desulfurization the removal of sulfur. Hydrogen
sulfide is removed from sour gas with an amine
solution or iron sponge. In a high temperature
reservoir, the precipitation of reservoir bitumens by
hydrogen sulfide causes desulfurization. desulf
det 1) detector 2) detonator
detached structure a structure in overlying rocks
that does not involve the basement
detachment fault a large, low-angle fault that is
parallel to the bedding planes in sedimentary rocks.
Thrust and growth faults often become detachment
faults as they flatten out with depth, (sole fault)
detailed study or survey a geological and
geophysical investigation over a relatively small area
of interest. A detailed study is in contrast to a
reconnaissance study or survey.
detail log a well log with depth scale of at least 5
in./lOO ft in contrast to a correlation log at 1 or 2 in.

132

detail scale deviation drilling

/100 ft. A detail log is used to examine the subsurface

formations in more detail than on a correlation log.
detail scale a depth scale on a log of 5 in./100 ft
detectability the smallest object that can be resolved
on a remote sensing image.
detector 1) a sensor such as a scintillation counter
on a nuclear well logging tool 2) the part of a remote
sensing system that converts electromagnetic radiation
into a signal 3) a geophone used in seismic
exploration, see geophone det
detergent a drilling fluid additive that is used to
reduce the surface tension of the drilling fluid, to
increase the bit penetration rate, and to reduce balling
the bit. A detergent is a surface-active agent.
determinable fee a property interest that terminates
at a specific event or nonevent
detonator an electric blasting cap used for explosives
DETR or detr detrital
detrital particles that were formed by the weathering
and erosion of preexisting rocks and were transported
and deposited. A detrital mineral is formed from the
mechanical weathering of rock. A detrital rock is
composed of detrital mineral grains, (allogenic) DETR,
detr, or dtr
detrital grain allogenic grain
detrital remanent magnetism the magnetic
moment created by the alignment of ferromagnetic
minerals, primarily magnetite, in a sedimentary rock.
The mineral crystals aligned with the earth's magnetic
field as they were settling out of water. Detrital
remanent magnetism is in contrast to chemical and
thermal remanent magnetism. DRM
detritus particles of rock formed by mechanical
weathering
deuterium an isotope of hydrogen (2H) that is
heavier than common hydrogen. D
DEV development well
Dev devonian
dev deviation
developed reserves the amount of oil and/or gas
that can be recovered through existing wells
development the methods used to drill and bring
into production petroleum from a reservoir
development clause 1) a provision in an oil and
gas lease that allows for the payment of delay rentals
to the lessor at certain times to maintain the primary
term of the lease if drilling or production, depending
on the terms of the lease, has not commenced, (delay
rental clause) 2) a term in an agreement that specifies
the exact number of developmental wells that are to
be drilled
development contract a federal contract for
exploration on lands where development incentives
have been granted and acreage restrictions have been
relaxed as encouragement for exploration
development costs the cost involved in bringing
proven reserves to production. Development costs
include the cost of drilling developmental wells plus
the production equipment and its installation.
development length the distance, measured in pipe
diameters, that a single or multiphase fluid takes to
reach equilibrium as it flows into and along a pipe

development well a well drilled into a producing

reservoir that already is reasonably well delineated.
The development well will have several producing
wells on adjacent drilling and spacing units.
Development wells are drilled to efficiently drain the
reservoir and have very low risk. Drilling a
development well results in either an oil or gas
development well or a dry development well.
(exploitation well) DEV
development well success ratio the number of
successful development wells divided by the total
number of development wells drilled in that basin
DEVI 1) deviate 2) deviated 3) deviation
DEVIA deviation drilling
deviated hole or well a well intentionally drilled
at an angle from the vertical. The deviated well is
initiated by a whipstock or a bent sub with a downhole,
turbine or mud motor. Two types of deviated wells
are a straight (continuous) and S-curve kick. The
straight kick builds angle and then drills straight to
the target. The S-curve kick builds angle, drills straight,
and then drops angle and drills straight to the target.
Deviated wells can also be classified as Types I, II,
and III. Type I is deflected at shallow depth, and the
inclination is constant until the target is reached. Type
II is the S-shaped well. Type III is a well that is deflected
at a deeper depth and then has a constant inclination.
Wireline well logs are run with coiled tubing on a
deviated well. Deviated well depths are reported as
measured depth with vertical depth in parenthesis.
A deviated hole is in contrast to a crooked hole that
was unintentionally drilled, (directional hole or well)
deviation 1) the amount in which a well has been
drilled off vertical. Deviation is the minimum angle
between a straight line through the wellbore and a
true vertical line measured in degrees. The deviation
can be described as abnormal, abrupt, drift-induced,
and rotational. An example of deviation is 4N30E.
DEVI or dev 2) the angle between a tool axis and
vertical in a well 3) the difference between a predicted
or expected value and the aaual value that is measured
deviation bit a rotary drilling bit that is engineered
to reduce the tendency to drill a crooked hole

deviation drilling (straight and S-curve)

deviation drilling intentionally drilling a well at aa

angle from the vertical. Well deviation can be initiated
by the fulcrum, pendulum, packed-hole, and
bottomhole assemblies. To build angle, a fulcrum
assembly consists of a full-gauge, near-bit stabilizer
with collars. To maintain the angle, a packed-hole
assembly that is stiff and stabilized to full gauge can
be used. To drop angle, the pendulum effect can be

deviation survey diabase

employed with a stabilizer located several drill collars
from the drill bit. Deviation drilling is often used in
offshore wells, for sidetracking a well, for inaccessible
sites, or for testing numerous potential zones.
Deviation drilling is sometimes called controlled
directional drilling, (directional drilling) DEVIA

133

liquid

in

8
600' 1/2

400' 3/4c

800' 1/2*
O20<

qns

2 1/4*

1000' 3/4

TEMPERRTURE
dew point curve

deviation survey (multi-shot)

deviation survey a downhole survey that charts

the inclination or inclination and azimuth of a well.
A drift indicator measures only the hole inclination,
whereas the other instruments measure both
inclinaton and azimuth. The survey can be either
magnetic or gyroscopic (used in a magnetic
environment) and are single or multishot. Both the
gyroscopic and magnetic multishot surveys are
recorded on film. The single-shot measurement is
made by running the tool inside the drillstem on a
wireline. The multishot measurements are made with
a logging tool either a) in a drill collar that has to
be fished out, b) on a wireline, or c) dropped down
the well. The depth determination in made by timing.
One type of multishot measurement uses a stabilized
gyroscope that transmits the information to the surface
through an electric wireline. Deviation surveys can
be run every 1,000 ft in formations that don't deflect
the bit and as often as every 50 ft in areas of dipping
hard rocks and faults: (directional survey or directional
and directional drilling log)
deviatoric stress the component of total stress that
is greater than mean normal stress at a point
devit devitrified
DEVL 1) develop 2) developed 3) development
Devonian a period of geological time about 405365 m. y. ago. The Devonian is known as the Age of
Fish and Forests and is part of the Paleozoic Era. The
Devonian is subdivided into Upper Devonian, Middle
Devonian, and Lower Devonian global epochs. It
contains the Ulsterian, Erian, Senecan, and Chautaquan
North American epochs. Dev
Devonian shale shale deposited during the
Devonian period. Devonian shales in the Eastern
United States are fractured and contain natural gas.
Gas production from Devonian shales is given special
tax consideration as unconventional gas.
dew point the highest temperature at which water
vapor in a gas will begin to condense. The dew point
is used to indicate water vapor content of natural
gas. DP or d
dew point curve a line drawn along the dew point
in a pressure or temperature versus concentration
plot. It shows where dew first forms in a gas.

dew point tester an instrument that is used to

measure the dew point and water content of gas. A
refrigerant is used to cool the gas until liquid moisture
is formed and observed.
dewax dewaxing
d exponent drilling exponent
dextral rotation to the right or clockwise. A dextral
strike slip fault is also known as a right lateral strike
slip fault. Dextral is the opposite of sinistral.
DF derrick floor
DF or D.F. damage factor
D.F. drilling floor
d.f. diesel fuel
DFE derrick floor elevation
DFLD drilling fluid
DFLN deflection
DFN delayed fission neutron
DFO datum faulted out.
DFP date of first production
DFREC drilling fluid recovery
DFTS drilling fluid to surface
DG 1) dry gas 2) developmental gas well
DGAS dry gas
DGM downhole gravitymeter
Dgt Dip Rec digital dip-log recording service
Dgt Tp Rec digital tape recording service
dh downhole
dj, diameter of hole
DHC dry hole contribution
DHDD dry hole drilled deeper
DHL deviated hole logging
DHM dry hole money
DHR dry hole reentered
DHWO dry hole workover
DI dual induction log
d, 1) diameter of invaded zone (inner boundary,
flushed zone) 2) inside diameter of pipe
Dia or dia diameter
diabase an intrusive rock composed primarily of the
minerals labradorite and pyroxene, (dolerite) Dd

134

diachronous diastem

diachronous a rock unit such as a formation that

was deposited at different times in different areas.
(time-transgressive)

diag diagram
diagenesis the changes which occur in sediments
at shallow depths under low temperatures and
pressures. Diagenesis includes the processes which
form sedimentary rocks from loose sediments and
occur in sediments from the time they are buried
until metamorphism (high temperatures and/or
pressures). Diagenesis can include cementation,
compaction, solution, and recrystallization. Biogenic
gas forms during the diagenesis of sediments. Oil
generation occurs at greater depths and higher
temperatures through the process of catagenesis.
Diagn or diagn
diagenic dolomite dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] formed
by the alteration of limestone soon after the limestone
was buried in the subsurface
diagenetic porosity see secondary porosity
Diagn or diagn diagenesis
diagonal offset a well or lease that is located
immediately to the northwest, northeast, southeast,
or southwest of a well or lease. One corner of each
lease is shared. In contrast, direct offsets are located
immediately to the north, east, south, or west, and
one side of each lease is shared.
DIAM or diam diameter
diameter of invasion see depth of invasion
diamond an extremely hard mineral composed of
pure carbon with a specific gravity of 3-51-3.53

shearing or milling of the formation. The diamond

bit is operated at higher RPM than a roller-cone bit
and costs about four times as much as an insert bit
of the same size. Diamond bits are classified by the
International Association of Drilling Contractors with
a three-digit code preceded by D, such as D437. The
code indicates intended formations to be drilled,
shape, adaptations for special applications, and fluiddischarge design for coring bits. A diamond compact
bit is a type of drag bit that uses a synthetic diamond
matrix. DBIT
diamond near bit stabilizer a sub that is run on
the drillstring to maintain the proper position of the
drillstring in the hole during drilling. The stabilizer
has diamonds and hard metal on the portion that
comes in contact with the rock walls of the wellbore.
diamond-point bit a bit having one sharp point and
tungsten carbide cutting edges that is run ahead of
core bits to remove cuttings from the bottom of the
well
diamond steel-mill bit a bit with small diamonds
on its surface that is used to cut a window in the
casing for sidetracking a well

diamond washover shoe

diamond bit

diamond bit or diamond drill bit a type of drag

bit that has no moving parts and uses a large number
of small, natural, industrial grade diamonds arranged
geometrically on a solid steel or tungsten carbide
body to cut the well. There are about 150 types of
diamond bits that are used for either drilling and
coring. Diamond bits are most effective in hard
formations such as dolomite due to their scrapping
with some crushing action. A diamond bit typically
lasts for 200-400/hrs of drilling, and the well cuttings
are usually smaller than those made by a roller-cone
bit. Diamond bits are made with a steel blank that is
put in a mold containing tungsten covered diamonds
plus a binder, and then fused. The diamond weights
range from 2 to Vis carats and are typically 1 to Va
carat. Larger diamonds are used for softer rocks and
smaller diamonds for harder rocks. The diamonds
are arranged in radial blades on a face of solid steel
and tungsten-carbide casting to produce a continuous

diamond washover shoe a hollow tube with

industrial diamonds on its cutting edge. The diamond
washover shoe is designed to cut around a stuck tool
to loosen it during fishing operations.
diaphragm meter a type of positive-displacement
meter that uses a diaphragm in a meter case to measure
gas volume. The diaphragm is alternately filled and
emptied to measure the gas. The diaphragm meter
is used for low volumes of clean, dry gas and is the
type of gas meter used on homes.
diaphragm pump a reciprocating pump that uses
the action of a flexing diaphragm in a fixed chamber
to move fluids. The diaphragm pump has the advantage
that it can handle large amounts of suspended solids
in the fluid.
diapir a body that has pierced or appears to have
pierced the overlying rocks by the upward flow of
plastic, underlying rocks such as salt or shale. The
flow is often caused by pressure or density differences.
Examples of diapirs include a salt stock or plug and
a mud diapir. (piercement dome)
diapiric folding folding in sedimentary rocks such
as an anticline in which incompetent beds such as
shale or salt have been extruded through the crest
of the structure (piercement folding)
diastem a short interruption in the sediments
without erosion

diastrophesm
diastrophesm a general term that includes all
movements in the earth's crust
diatom a type of single-celled plant that floats in the
ocean. Diatoms have a SiO2 shell and are useful as
microfossils. Relatively pure deposits of diatoms are
called diatomaceous earth. Diatoms have existed from
the Cretaceous peroid to the present.
diatomaceous earth a white to light-gray,
unconsolidated sedimentary rock that is very porous
and is formed from diatom shells composed of SiO2.
Diatomaceous earth is used as lost-circulation material
and as an additive to cement slurry and drilling mud
to reduce density.
diatomaceous earth filter diatomaceous earth, a
natural deposit of siliceous microfossils (diatoms) on
a screen, with asbestos fibers that is used to remove
suspended solids from a fluid
diatomite a dense, chert-like form of diatomaceous
earth
die to have a well cease flowing
die collar a steel collar that is used in fishing
operations. The die collar has a thread die on one
end. The die collar is lowered into the well on a
fishing or drillstring and rotated to cut a thread on
the fish which screws onto the die collar. The fish
then can be retrieved. A die collar does not have a
releasing mechanism. A die collar is the female
counterpart of a taper tap.
dielectric a substance that permits the passage of
lines of electrostatic force but is a nonconductor of
electricity
dielectric constant a measure of the electrical
insulation properties of a substance. A good insulator
has a high number.
Substance
Dielectric constant
1.0
vacuum
1.0
gas and air
oil

fresh water
salt water
silica sand
limestone
dolomite
anhydrite

2.2
77
60
4.7
7.5
6.9
6.5

dielectric constant log a log used to measure the

dielectric constants of fluids in rocks adjacent to the
well bore. Both very high frequency and ultrahigh
frequency sondes are used. The dielectric constant
log is used to distinguish between fresh water and
oil, or in cases where the Archie equation does not
work such as low-salinity or variable-salinity connatewater formations. It has a very shallow radius of
investigation.
die nipple a pipe that has external cutting threads
in contrast to a die collar
dies the serrated steel teeth used on tongs for
gripping.
diesel-electric power a power system in which
diesel engines are used to drive electric generators
that supply electricity. Diesel-electric power is
commonly used on offshore drilling rigs and some
onshore rigs.

differential-pressure flowmeter 135

diesel engine an internal combustion engine that

is often used as a prime mover for drilling rigs and
some pumping units. The compression of air injected
into the combustion chamber heats the air and causes
the fuel to ignite when it is injected into the chamber.
The combustion drives the piston. Diesel engines
commonly have two or four strokes per cycle. The
diesel engine was invented by Rudolph Diesel.
diesel-oil cement a type of cement used in wells.
Diesel-oil cement is a mixture of cement (API types
A,B,G, or H), diesel oil or kerosene, and a surface
active agent. It has an unlimited pumping time and
will not set until the cement comes in contact with
water. Diesel-oil cement is used to control water
problems during drilling and in producing wells and
is also used to repair casing leaks and plug lostcirculation zones and channels.
diesel-oil plug see gunk plug
diesel squeeze the pumping of dry cement and
diesel oil under pressure through perforations in a
well. Diesel squeeze will cement and seal off waterbearing sections when the water is absorbed by the
cement, but it will not affect oil-bearing zones.
diflf difference
differential 1) the premium in price that is added
to some oils for such characteristics as low sulfur or
high "API 2) the pressure difference between the two
sides of a choke 3) the difference between two
measurements
differential caliper the difference in the calipermeasured diameter of the well and the bit size
differential entrapment the preferential
accumulation in a basin of natural gas, crude oil, and
saline water, in that order, in traps located in an updip
direction from the source rock. Differential
entrapment is due to the relative differences in
densities of the fluids.
differential liberation gas coming out of solution
because of a gradual decrease in pressure. Differential
liberation can occur in an oil reservoir due to
production
differential liberation, expansion, or
vaporization a method used in a reservoir fluid
study. As gas is released from an oil sample in a
laboratory cell with increasing volume and decreasing
pressure, the gas is collected and analyzed. The
remaining oil is called residual oil.
differential pen a marker on an orifice meter that
records the differential pressure between upstream
and downstream, usually in inches of water
differential pipe sticking see differential-pressure
sticking
differential pressure 1) the difference in pressure
on a fluid at two different points such as across an
orifice plate 2) the pressure difference between the
hydrostatic head of drilling fluid and formation
pressure at a given depth in a well 3) the difference
between flowing and static pressure in a well. DP or

K
differential-pressure flowmeter a type of gauge
used to measure the velocity of a fluid. The velocity
is calculated from the drop in fluid pressure as the
fluid accelerates through a restriction. An orifice plate
is often used to restrict and measure gas flow.

136

differential-pressure sticking dim

differential-pressure sticking the adhesion of the

drillstring against the well walls due to the difference
in the hydrostatic pressure of the circulating drilling
mud in the well and the formation pressure at that
level. The condition is called stuck pipe. The vertical
movement of the drillstring in the well is restricted,
but circulation can be maintained. This condition is
aggravated by permeable formations and is more
frequent when the drillstring is left motionless in the
well for a period of time. Freeing the stuck pipe can
be accomplished by a) reducing the hydrostatic
pressure in the well, b) the use of a spotting fluid,
or c) a back-off operation. The spotting or releasing
fluid is made of diesel oil with special additives or
an oil mud that is used to dissolve the mudcake and
equalize the pressure. Dissolving agents such as
hydrochloric acid can be used for limestones. The
soaking process takes 6-12 hrs before the assembly
is worked loose. Spiral-grooved pipe can be used to
reduce the contact between the drillstring and the
well walls to alleviate differential pipe sticking.
(differential pipe sticking or wall sticking)
differential pressure switch a pressure gauge that
has a predetermined pressure range set on it. If the
pressure varies out of the range, an indicator and
alarm is triggered.
differential pressure unit a flowmeter that consists
of a U-shaped tube partially filled with mercury. On
one end is a range tube that is used to measure the
height of the mercury in one arm of the U-tube. The
gas flows by the other arm of the U-tube that is open.
It is very accurate, and the response is linear to flow
rates. The differential pressure unit was the original
type of flow meter used by the gas industry.
differential separators multiple separators that
reduce oil pressure in stages in a process called stage
separation to minimize shrinkage and loss of lighter
hydrocarbon fractions. Differential separators are in
contrast to an instantaneous separator that results in
maximum shrinkage.
differential SP a well-log curve made from two
spontaneous potential (SP) measurements using two
electrodes that serve as each others' reference
potential to minimize uninvaded SP circuit effects
differential temperature log or survey a wireline
type of well log that records wellbore temperatures
and temperature gradients. The differential
temperature log is used to locate a) gas flowing
into the well, b) cement setting behind casing,
and c) to determine bottomhole temperature and
the geothermal gradient.
differential thermal analysis a technique used to
determine the mineral composition of a sample. The
sample is uniformly heated at a constant rate. The
temperatures at which various minerals use heat as
they decompose are recorded to identify the minerals.
Clay minerals can be identified using this
technique. DTA
diffraction a phenomenon in which waves are
modified or scattered from the end of an abrupt
discontinuity. In seismic exploration, seismic waves
are diffracted by the end of a rock layer, such as one
cut by a fault. Diffraction causes a diffraction curve
to travel out and downward from the end of the rock
layer.

diffuser a passage located downstream from an

impeller in which velocity energy is converted into
static pressure. The diffuser also directs the fluid to
the next impeller in the pump.
diffusion alloy an alloy used to decrease corrosion,
erosion, and wear. The diffusion alloy is formed by
a layer of intermetal compound made by the addition
of elements to the surface.
diffusivity equation a partial differential equation
that describes transient flow behavior of single-phase
gas flowing through porous rock. It is called the
diffusivity equation because it is the same form as
the equation that describes heat flow and unsteady
mass diffusion.
DIFL dual induction focused log
DIFL-GR dual induction focused log, gamma ray log
DIF-T differential temperature log
digger see driller
digging pits to excavate the mud pits for a drilling
rig
digital a system in which the information is recorded
or contained as discrete numbers. Digital is in contrast
to analog.
digital computer a computer that records all
information as a decimal or binary number with a
specific number of digits. Modern computers are
digital as compared to the older analog computers.
digitize to quantify or put the values into discrete
numbers

fc:::::::::r::v^:""^:::::t--

dikes

dike an igneous intrusion that cuts across pre-existing

rock layers
DIL dual induction log
DIL dual induction laterolog
dilatancy the expansion of a substance such as a
rock
dilut diluted
dilute 1) a solution with relatively small amounts
of solute 2) to add more solvent to a solution. Dilute
is in contrast to concentrate.
dilutent 1) a liquid added to thin a solution 2) a
gas that occurs in natural gas and has no heat value
such as water vapor or nitrogen
dim 1) dimension 2) diminish

dimensionless permeability dip slope

dimensionless permeability the actual
permeability (kv divided by the average permeability
of the formation (kavg). K'
dimensionless pressure a number that is based
on the initial reservoir pressure minus the present
flowing pressure of a well. At a fixed flow rate, the
dimensionless pressure will decrease with time as
the flowing pressure decreases. Dimensionless
pressure is used to calculate the change of pressure
in a well with time.
dimensionless well length the length of a
horizontal well divided by twice the reservoir height.
It is then multiplied by the square root of the ratio
of the vertical permeability to the horizontal
permeability of the reservoir. LD
dim spot the lack of a seismic reflector on a rock
interface. A dim spot is caused by an abnormally low
reflection coefficient. Shale overlying a porous or gassaturated reef could cause a dim spot.
ding or dinge a dent or flattened area caused by
impact
dinoflagellate a one-celled marine organism that
resembles both a plant and animal. Some have a shell
(theca or test) and are useful as microfossils.
Dinoflagellates have existed from the Triassic period
to the present.
Dinoseis a seismic source that is similar to
Vibroseis and uses a gas explosion on a plate that
is resting on the land surface. Several units in an
array are often used.
diode an electronic device made by two
semiconductors that allows an electrical current to
flow in only one direction
d,op inside diameter of outer pipe
DIP dipmeter
Dip resistivity dip log
dip 1) the angle from horizontal of a plane such as
a bedding or fault plane. Dip is measured
perpendicular to the strike or horizontal direction
of the plane. 2) the angle between a reflection or
refraction seismic wave front and horizontal
dip bob the weight used on the end of a gauge tape
that is lowered through the dip hatch on a crude oil
storage tank for gauging. The dip bob touches the
strike plate at the bottom of the tank which is zero
on the tank gauging table. Bobs are usually made of
brass to avoid sparks and can be serrated along an
edge for chalk or indicator paste. They can have a
spring snap at the end for attachments, (gauge or
gauging bob, weight or dp weight)
dip hatch an opening on the top of an oil stock
tank or storage tank that is opened to gauge or measure
the level of oil and to take an oil sample. The hatch
is fitted with a lid. (gage, gauge, or thief hatch)
dip line a or seismic section that is parallel to the
dip of the subsurface sedimentary rocks. The dip line
is oriented perpendicular to the strike or horizontal
direction of the sedimentary rocks. A dip line is in
contrast to a strike line.
Diplog1" a dipmeter log
dip log a tradename for a dipmeter
DIPM dipmeter log

137

dipmeter or dip meter a wireline device used to

a) calculate strike and dip of subsurface formations,
b) locate faults and unconformities and c) make
structural and stratigraphic interpretations. The
dipmeter has three, four, or six arms with pads that
are in contact with the rocks on the side of the well
as the dip meter is brought up the well. Each pad
has microresistivity sensors that detect when a rock
layer is contacted. A gyroscope or magnetometer is
used to record the orientation of the dipmeter in
the well. The dip of each rock layer is calculated from
the orientation of the dipmeter and at what depth
each microresistivity sensor touched the rock layer.
The information is plotted on a dipmeter log or a
stick or tadpole plot. Modern sondes have four pads
that make focused microresistivity measurements of
the microlaterolog type. The measurements are
digitized and transmitted by cable to the surface. DM
dipmeter log a well log showing the orientation
or dip of each rock layer in a well as measured from
a dipmeter. Two methods of presenting the data are
a) a tadpole plot and b) a stick plot. DIPM
dip moveout the difference in seismic arrival times
at detectors that are located symmetrically opposite
each other on either side of the source divided by
one-half the separation distance of the detectors
dipping the European term for gaging or gauging
dipping reference point a mark on the thief hatch
of a crude oil storage tank from which the dip tape
is lowered in gauging (gaging or gauging reference
point)
dip plate the heavy metal plate that is attached to
the bottom of a crude oil storage tank below the
thief hatch. The dip plate is designated zero on the
tank gauge table and protects the bottom of the tank
from the gauging weight or bob. (strike plate)
dip point the point of the bottom of the tank where
the dip weight or bob touches the strike plate. The
dip point is designated zero on the tank gauge table.
(gage or gauge point)
dip rejection the use of a filter to remove selected
dips and apparent dips from seismic data. Dip rejection
is used in areas of flat bedding to remove steep noise
lineups and taking out multiples, (moveout or velocity
filter)
dip rejection filter see movement filter
dip rod a wood or steel rod with markings that is
lowered through the dip hatch into a crude oil storage
tank for gauging (gage or gauge rod)
dip section a cross section oriented perpendicular
to the depositional shoreline. A dip section is oriented
perpendicular to the strike section.
dip separation the displacement of a rock layer by
a fault measured along the dip of the fault
dip shooting running seismic with the primary
objective of determining the dip of reflectors
dip-slip fault a break in the rocks with movement
predominantly vertical. Two types of dip-slip faults
are normal and reverse.
dip slope the surface formed by the exposed top
of a resistant formation such as a limestone that is
dipping at an angle into the ground

138

dip tape directional well

dip slip fault

dip tape A reel of measuring tape with a weight on

one end. The tape is lowered through the gauge hatch
to measure the level of a liquid in a tank, (gage or
gauge tape, gage or gauge line)
dip tube the oil inlet tube mounted inside a gas
anchor on the bottom of a sucker-rod pump, (mosquito
bill) see dp bob
DIR or dir direction
direct connection a connection between a prime
mover and driven equipment without using a gear
reducer or other device to reduce the speed
direct current electric current that continuously
flows in one direction. Direct current is in contrast
to alternating current. DC
direct-fired or direct-heated vessel a tank such
as a heater-treater in which the fluid comes in direct
contact with the fire tube. It is used for low pressure
service and is in contrast to an indirect fired or heated
vessel in which the fire tube heats another fluid, usually
water, which then heats the fluid.
direct index a chronological and alphabetical index
of grantors of oil and gas leases. A direct index is
located in the country or parish courthouse and is
used for lease checks. An indirect index is an
alphabetical list of grantees, (grantor index)
direct-indicating viscometer an instrument that
uses an electric motor or hand crank to rotate blades
to measure apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield
point, and gel strengths of liquids. V-G meter or
viscosity-gel viscometer

directional charge an explosive charge or array of

charges used in seismic exploration and designed so
that the explosive front travels at approximately the
seismic velocity. This causes the energy to add up
constructively.
directional deviation an intended variation in the
course of a well
directional drilling intentionally drilling a well at
an angle from vertical. Well deviation can be initiated
by a fulcrum assembly. A fulcrum assembly consists
of a full-gauge, near-bit stabilizer with collars. To
maintain the angle, a packed hole assembly that is
stiff and stabilized to full gauge can be used. To drop
angle, the pendulum effect can be employed with a
stabilizer located several drill collars from the drill
bit. Deviation drilling is often used in offshore wells,
for sidetracking a well, for inaccessible sites, or for
testing numerous potential zones. It is sometimes
called controlled drilling, (deviation drilling) DRDR

directional drilling

directional-drilling clause an oil and gas lease

provision that states that drilling a deviated hole from
a surface location that is not on lease and completing
or bottoming the deviated hole under the lease shall
satisfy the terms in that lease
directional-drilling log see directional log
directional-drilling data sheet a data report
describing the downhole assemblies and drilling
parameters at various depths in a deviated well
directional drilling supervisor
directional engineer a petroleum engineer who
specializes in directional drilling
directional hole see directional well
directional log or survey a downhole survey that
charts the inclination or inclination and and azimuth
of a well. A drift indicator measures only the hole
inclination, whereas the other instruments measure
both inclination and azimuth. The survey can be either
magnetic or gyroscopic (used in a magnetic
environment) and is single or multishot. Both the
gyroscopic and magnetic multishot surveys are
recorded on film. The single-shot measurement is
made by running the tool inside the drillstem on a
wireline. The multishot measurements are made with
a logging tool either a) in a drill collar that has to
be fished out, b) on a wireline, or c) dropped down
the well. The depth determination in made by timing.
One type of multishot measurement uses a stabilized
gyroscope that transmits the information to the surface
through an electrical wireline. Directional surveys can
be run every 1,000 ft in formations that do not deflect
the bit, and as often as every 50 ft in areas of dipping
hard rocks and faults, (deviation survey or directionaldrilling log) dir sur, DS, DR, or DIRSV
directionally oriented coring coring operations
in which the core is taken in reference to magnetic
north. The core is scribed with grooves cut by a scribed
shoe along the axis of the core. The orientation of
the grooves is controlled by a gyroscope.
directional plug a cement bridge used to deviate
a new well from an old well
directional turbodrill a downhole motor that uses
turbines and circulating drilling mud to rotate the
bit. The directional turbodrill is shorter than a straighthole turbodrill so that it can follow the well curvature
in a deviated hole.
directional well a well intentionally drilled at an
angle from the vertical. The directional well is initiated
by a whipstock or a bent sub with a downhole turbine
or mud motor. Two types are a straight (continuous)

direction of facing
and S-curve kick. The straight kick builds angle and
then drills straight to the target. The S-curve kick builds
angle, drills straight, and then drops angle and drills
straight to the target. Directional wells can also be
classified as Types I, II, and III. Type I is deflected
at shallow depth and the inclination is constant until
the target is reached. Type II is the S-shaped well.
Type III is a well that is deflected at a deeper depth
and then has a constant inclination. Wireline well logs
are run with coiled tubing on a directional well.
Directional well depths are reported as measured
depth with vertical depth in parenthesis. A directional
hole is in contrast to a crooked hole that was
unintentionally drilled, (deviated hole or well or
directional hole) DEVIA
direction of feeing the direction in the axial surface
of a fold that is at right angle to the fold hinge line
and points toward younger beds
direct line drive a type of waterflood pattern in
which the injector and producing wells are on the
same straight lines oriented north-south and east-west.
A direct line drive is in contrast to a staggered line
drive in which the injector and producing wells are
offset and are located on separate straight lines
oriented north-south and east-west.
direct offset a well or lease that is located
immediately to the north, east, south, or west of
another well or lease. The leases share a common
side. In contrast, a diagonal offset is a well or lease
that is located immediately to the northwest, northeast,
southeast, or southwest of another well or lease, and
the leases share a common corner.
direct operating expenses costs that are attributed
to a specific project or unit. These could be workover,
electricity, repair, pumper, and other expenses on a
well. Direct operating expenses are in contrast to direct
overhead.
direct overhead expenses that reflect the overall
administrative costs of a company and are not directly
chargeable to a specific unit or project. Direct
overhead is a part of the operating expenses. It is
prorated over all the company's operations.
direct purchase gas natural gas bought on the spot
market, (self-help, interruptible, best efforts, and spot
gas)
direct sale an agreement under which a producer
contracts with a local distribution company or ultimate
industrial consumer (industrial end-user) of natural
gas to sell and deliver natural gas to that purchaser,
utilizing pipelines and gatherers of natural gas as
transporters. Direct sales is in contrast to selling the
gas to the pipeline or gatherer which then resells
the gas to the local distribution company or ultimate
consumer in a method called sale for resale.
DIRSV or dir sur directional survey
dirt tanks see earthen pits
dirty containing clay-sized particles or shale. Dirty
is in contrast to clean, dy
dirty sands 1) poorly sorted sandstone with silt and
clay. The sandstone is relatively dark in color and is
generally a poor reservoir rock. 2) well cuttings that
must be removed from drilling fluid
DISC discovery well

discounted cash-flow rate

139

disc discovery
disch discharge
discharge line the pipe on the circulating system
of a drilling rig that connects the mud pumps to the
rotary hose
disclaimer by tenant or surface owner as
statement by the surface rights owner that he has no
interest in the mineral rights of that land
discoaster a very small, calcareous plate from an
extinct marine planktonic organism. Discoasters are
common Tertiary peroid microfossils that became
extinct at the Pliocene-Pleistocene epoch boundary.

1
v-

; : . ; V ; '.';

1
*.*.: ".Vv".'/."

disconformity

disconformity a subsurface erosional surface

formed by a channel, having parallel rock layers both
above and below it
disconnection clause a provision in a gas purchase
and sales agreement authorizing the buyer to cease
purchasing gas and discontinue maintaining a
connection with its gathering and transportation
facilities from any well for which it is no longer
economical to purchase gas. (well disconnection
clause)
discontinuous spacing a drilling and spacing unit
that is made up of several smaller tracts of land, some
or all of which are not adjacent, (noncontinuous
spacing)
discordant fold a fold in rocks such as an anticline
in which the fold axis is not parallel to other fold
axes in the regional area
discordant folding folding such as anticlines in
sedimentary rocks that are both competent and
incompetent. The incompetent layers will thick and
thin with the stresses of folding, whereas the
competent beds will not flow. As a result of flowage,
the folds have bedding planes that are no longer
parallel to each other.
discounted cash flow income, such as from future
oil and gas production, for which the time value of
money has been accounted. Discounting uses a
percent (discount factor) to decrease the present value
of future income. DCF
discounted cash-flow rate the discount percentage
which reduces to zero the cash flow stream on an
investment such as drilling a well. The discount
percentage takes into account the time value of money.
At zero cash-flow stream, the discounted monies paid
out equal the discounted monies made, (investor's
interest rate) DCFR

140

discounted cash-flow rate of return displacement meter

discounted cash-flow rate of return a method of

economically evaluating an investment such as drilling
and completing a well. It is the return rate on the
investment that is discounted for time, (internal rate
of return, investor's rate of return, scientific rate of
return, or profitability index) DCFROR
discounted payout a method of economically
evaluating an investment such as drilling a well. The
discounted payout is the time that it takes for the
petroleum production revenue, discounted for time,
to equal the monies paid out, discounted for time,
for drilling, completing, and operating the well. DPO
discounted profit-to-investment ratio a method
of evaluating a project such as drilling and completing
a well. The profit (income minus expenses),
discounted for the future value of money, is divided
by the discounted expenses. DPIR
discounted return on investment a method of
evaluating a project such as drilling a well. The value
of the expected income on the project, discounted
for time, is divided by the discounted cost of the
project. DROI
discount factor or rate an annual percentage that
is used to discount or reduce the value of future
income for the time value of money. The discount
factor is based on estimated future interest and
inflation rates. Rates from 10% to 20% are commonly
used. io
discovery 1) a new oil and/or gas field that is located
by exploratory drilling 2) a new pool (reservoir) in
an old field that is located by exploratory drilling
disc
discovery pressure the initial or original reservoir
pressure
discovery well an exploratory well that locates a
new oil and/or gas field or a new pool (reservoir)
that is either deeper or shallower than existing
production in an established field. DISC
discovery well allowable the amount of petroleum
production from a discovery well that a government
regulatory agency permits during a certain time
(allowable). The allowable is higher than the standard
depth yardstick to encourage exploration. The
discovery well allowable can be unrestricted
production until pay out. NPX
disharmonic folding folding is rocks in which the
number and position of folds in sucessive surfaces
do not match in contract to harmonic folding
disk the computer storage medium. Disks can be
either floppy disks, which use a disk drive to read
and write and can be stored separately, or hard disks,
which are permanently installed in the computer and
are peripheral devices. Magnetized iron oxide needles
on the disk store the information. Binary digits 0 and
1 are represented by the magnetic direction of the
needles which are oriented or detected by a readwrite head. The data is stored on concentric circles
called tracks on the disk. Each track is divided into
sectors.
disk bit a type of drag bit with the cutting edges
mounted on two or four vertically rotating disks. The
Guiberson disk bit used in Texas in the early 1930s
had four disks, whereas the Hughes disk bit had two
disks with teeth.

disk drive the computer device that uses a read-write

head to record and decipher information from a disk.
dismlcrite a fine-grained limestone (less than 1%
allochems or coarse grains) composed of micrite with
irregular patches of sparry calcite
DISP 1) displace 2) displaced 3) displacing 4)
displacement
dispersant 1) a chemical that breaks up
concentrations of liquid and solid materials or reduces
the surface tension between two liquids 2) an additive
that is used to decrease the viscosity of cement
dispersed a suspension of clay platelets with no faceto-edge associations
dispersed drilling fluid a drilling mud that contains
chemicals such as lignosulfonate to keep clay platelets
separated. A dispersed drilling fluid has a higher
viscosity and gel strength, better filtration control, and
higher solids tolerance than nondispersed fluids.
dispersed phase the scattered solid, liquid, or gas
in a dispersion that is surrounded by the continuous
phase. In a water-in-oil emulsion, water is the
dispersed phase. Oil is the dispersed phase in an
oil-in-water emulsion. Dispersed phase is in contrast
to the continuous phase, (internal phase)
dispersed shale shale that occurs in the pores of
sedimentary rocks and originates as authigenic clay
minerals. The dispersed shale can act as a cement
for the clastic particles.
dispersent an agent that holds finely-divided
particles in a dispersed state
dispersible a substance such as an inhibitor that can
be evenly distributed in a fluid by agitation
dispersion the change in the shape of a wave train
as it travels through a medium because of the different
velocities of different frequency waves
dispersoid a colloid
displ 1) displaced 2) displacement
displaced fluid the fluid in the reservoir that is
moved by injected fluids during enhanced oil recovery.
Displaced fluid is in contrast to the displacing fluid.
displaced pool a subsurface oil reservoir with a
tilted oil water contact. A displaced pool could be
due to either hydronamics of water flowing under
the oil or the formation of a tar mat at the oil water
contact followed by regional tectonic tilting.
displacement 1) the weight of a fluid displaced by
an object floating or submerged in that fluid 2) the
total net volume of fluid that is moved by a rotary
pump measured in cubic inches per revolution 3)
the distance on a combination logging tool between
the various measure points 4) the replacement of
formation fluids by mud filtrate in the invaded zone
displacement efficiency a ratio of the volume of
oil swept from a zone by an enhanced oil recovery
process to the volume of oil present in the zone prior
to the process. ED or Ed
displacement fluid a liquid, usually drilling mud
or salt water, that is pumped down the casing during
a cement job after the cement slurry and the top wiper
plug
displacement meter a type of flowmeter in which
the fluid displaces a piston in a cylinder. The number

displacement pressure distillate

of piston strokes is counted to determine the volume
of fluid flow.
displacement pressure the pressure that is
required for one fluid to replace another fluid in
the pores of a rock. Displacement pressure is the
minimum capillary pressure that will force a
nonwetting fluid such as oil into a capillary opening
that is saturated with a wetting fluid such as water.
Displacement pressure varies inversely with the pore
diameter, (entry or forefront pressure)
displacement rate the rate in which cement slurry
is pumped down a well
displacement tanks graduated tanks that are used
on a slurry pumping unit to measure the amount of
displacement fluid, such as drilling mud, during a
cement job on a well.

141

dissolution boxworks a carbonate residue with

angular pores that is left from the solution of an
evaportie raubwacke
dissolution porosity porosity formed by the
solution of the rock
dissolved gas natural gas that is dissolved in oil in
the subsurface reservoir under formation pressure.
It bubbles out of the oil on the surface as the oil is
produced and the pressure is reduced to surface
conditions. Dissolved gas is in contrast to
nonassociated and associated gas. (solution gas)

GAS/OIL

displacement time the time expressed in minutes

that is required to completely replace all the fluid
in a drillstring or casing string with another fluid at
a given flow rate.
displacement-type prover the most common type
of meter prover used. A displacement-type prover
consists of a calibrated section of pipe with a cylindrical
or spherical displacer in the pipe. The flow goes
through the meter to be tested and into the
displacement-type prover. The true volume is then
compared to the indicated volume from the meter,
and a meter factor is calculated. Other methods of
meter proving include the volumetric prover and the
master meter.
displacement volume the volume of a fluid in a
well that is displaced by the drillstring. It is equal to
about 0.39 times the weight of the pipe in lbs/ft.
displacing fluid the fluid that is injected into a
reservoir during enhanced oil recovery. Displacing
fluid is in contrast to the displaced fluid.
display the representation of data
disposal pile a large-diameter (24-48 in.), openended pipe that extends from the deck of an offshore
platform to below the water surface and is used to
discharge treated, produced water and deck drainage.
A skim pile is a type of disposal pile that uses baffle
plates to coalesce oil droplets.
disposal well a well used to inject the salt water
that is produced along with oil into the subsurface
DSPL

disproportionate sharing or allocation an

agreement in which the working interest and the net
revenue interests are not proportional.
Disproportionate sharing can have unfavorable tax
consequences, (special allocation)
disproportionate working interest a working
interest in a well that bears a greater portion of the
working interest costs than the working interest
revenues from production. Disproportionate working
interest is in contrast to a proportionate or undivided
working interest.
dissem disseminated
dissociation the breakage of a compound into atoms
or ions
dissolution a solution cavity in a rock

% ULTIMATE PRODUCTION
| PRIMARY

10

RECOVERY)

dissolved gas drive

dissolved-gas drive a type of reservoir drive
mechanism in which the expanding gas bubbles
forming from gas coming out of solution in the
subsurface oil drives the oil into the well. The gas
bubbles form because production has decreased
reservoir pressure to below bubblepoint. It tends to
be relatively inefficient and produces only 20%-30%
of the oil in place, (volumetric depletion-gas, internalgas, solution-gas, or solution-gas expansion drive)
dissolved gas/oil ratio see solution gas/oil ratio
dissolved-gas pool an oil field with a dissolved- gas
drive (expanding gas bubbles) supplying the energy
to cause the oil to flow from the reservoir rock into
the well. The reservoir has a characteristic rapid
decline in pressure with production and a rapidly
increasing gas/oil ratio with minimum water
production, (depletion-drive, internal-gas, solutiongas, or solution-gas expansion pool)
dissolved solids the total organic and inorganic
matter in solution. Dissolved solids are usually
measured in parts per thousand (ppt), parts per million
(ppm), or milligrams per liter (mg/1). Dissolved solids
is also called total dissolved solids.
dissolving agent an additive to drilling mud that
is used to dissolve a formation that is causing sticking
pipe. A dissolving agent for salt formations can be
fresh water.
DIST district
Dist or dist distillate
dist distance
distal bar the subaqueous environment on a river
delta located between the distributary mouth bar and
the prodelta. The distal bar is a transition zone
composed of fine sands and coarse silts.
distillate see retrograde gas. Dist, dist, or dstl

142

distillation divisible sharing arrangement

distillation the process in which a liquid is vaporized

by heat, condensed by cooling, and then collected
dstn
distortion a change in shape or position of
something in relation to its actual shape or position.
In seismic, distortion is the undesired change in the
waveform.
distortional wave an S-wave
distributary 1) a river channel outlet on a delta 2)
a channel on a deep sea fan. The sand is deposited
from the bed load of the distributary when the water
slows down as it flows into the ocean and overrides
the salt water.
distributary mouth bar sand bar deposited in front
of a distributary (channel) on a river delta
distributing rack A wheel disk located near the
bottom of a settling tank that spreads an emulsion.
(Spreader)
distribution the allotment, based on production
tests, of daily production for wells on a lease
distribution system a small unit that transmits
seismic data in digital form by fiber optics or radio
telemetry from several geophone groups to a main
recording unit
distributor an apparatus that directs the timing and
amount of fuel flow
district a relatively restricted area in a basin that
contains two or more productive structures that are
similar in age, style, and hydrocarbon content
district office a company office engaged in
exploration and production from one of several
smaller offices that report to a larger regional office
that oversees a geological province. Tulsa, Oklahoma
City, and Wichita could be district offices that report
to the Mid-Continent regional office.
disturbed belt an area of thrust faulting. A disturbed
belt is the result of compression. Large drag folds
that are located both on and below the thrust faults
can form petroleum traps. Basement rock is sometimes
thrust on top of sedimentary rocks in an overthrust.
(overthrust belt)
disulfide a colorless liquid that is composed of a
chemical with a -S-S- linkage. A disulfide is miscible
with hydrocarbons but not with water and is sweet
in the doctor test.
DITCH ditch samples
ditch the mud flow channel from the conductor-pipe
outlet of a drilling rig
ditch gas 1) natural gas detected from well cuttings
2) natural gas removed from drilling mud in a flowline
ditch magnet a permanent magnet that is 2-3 ft long
and is used in the drilling-mud return line between
the shale shaker and mud tanks to remove milled
iron particles from the drilling mud. The metal
particles could damage the mud pumps.
ditch sample a common term for well cuttings, the
flakes of subsurface rock cut by the drill bit. DITCH
DIT-D dual induction-SFL tool
DIU drilling in unit
div division

dive hose a flexible rubber hose that connects a

compressor with a diver. The compressor pumps a
certified breathable output, either air or heliox, to
the diver, (umbilical hose)
divergence the decrease in amplitude of a wavefront
due to the spreading of the wavefront as it travels
outward. As body waves spread out spherically, the
energy density varies inversely with the square of the
distance. As surface waves spread out, the energy
density varies inversely with the distance.
divergent margin the boundary between two
lithospheric plates that are pulling apart to form a
rift. A divergent margin is in contrast to a convergent
margin.
diversification the process in which an oil company
invests in other energy sources such as geothermal,
coal, or uranium
diverter equipment that is attached to the bell nipple
on a wellhead or marine riser. The diverter can be
closed to prevent fluids from flowing vertically and
to divert the fluids out a blooey line, away from the
rig. Two types of diverters are a) a bag-type unit and
b) a modified rotating blowout preventer.
diverter bag a low-pressure tool that provides for
the controlled release of a kick away from a drilling
rig through a blooey line
diverters temporary plugging agents used during
acidizing a well to redirect the acid into untreated
sections of the reservoir. Oil-soluble resins, wax, and
soluble materials are often used.
diverter valve a valve that will direct fluid flow back
through a loop or around some equipment when
activated. A diverter valve can be either hand or
pneumatic operated. A diverter valve is used on a
lease automatic custody transfer unit. When the oil
quality is sensed to be below pipeline quality, the
diverter valve redirects the oil back to the stock tanks
and shuts down the pump motor, (diverting valve)
diverting agent material that is used to limit the
zone being hydraulically fractured and directs the frac
fluid to the fractures. Some diverting agents are
polymer-coated sand, wax buttons, rock salt,
naphthalene, and benzoic acid flakes.
diverting valve see diverter valve
divestiture 1) to break up an oil company into
several independent companies that each operate a
certain aspect of the oil business such as exploration
or refining 2) to sell off some assets of the oil company
that are not related to the oil business
divided type of unit operating agreement an
arrangement between parties to explore and develop
a specific area. The sharing of costs and benefits
between the participating parties is dependent on the
formation of participating areas which can be formed
at various times during the agreement. This is in
contrast to an undivided type of unit operating
agreement in which the sharing of costs and benefits
is according to a formula established at the initiation
of the agreement, (unit operating agreement)
diving wave a curved raypath that reaches the surface
divisible sharing arrangement an agreement
between parties to acquire, explore, and/or develop
a specific property. The grantor gives not only cash

division-order opinion DOL, Dol, dol, or dolo

for the development of the property but also additional
considerations to the grantee such as monies or
property.
division-order opinion a title opinion by an
attorney that establishes the division of royalty
payments
division orders instructions on the distribution of
payments. Division orders can be either for royalties
or delay rentals to royalty owners or proceeds from
production sales to interests of a well(s). The division
orders are prepared and signed by all interest owners
in a well prior to the sale of oil or gas. They are
used to pay the correct owners and include the interest
owner's name, address, and amount of interest owned.
Division orders also include a description of the
property, give the operator the authority to sell gas
and oil, show the procedures and times for paying
the interest owners, and how to transfer an interest.
D.O.
Dj diameter of invaded zone (outer boundary, invaded
zone)
dj uninvaded zone diameter
DK or dk dark
Dk. derrick
dkr darker
DL 1) driller's log 2) dead line
D/L density log
Dl dolomite
DLC GR densilog, caliper, gamma ray log
DLL dual laterolog
DLS dogleg severity
DLT dual laterolog tool
DM 1) datum 2) drilling mud 3) dipmeter
dm decimeter
dm3 cubic decimeter
dm3/s cubic decimeters per second
Dmax maximum depth
DML disintegrating metal liner
DMO dip moveout
DMPEG dimethyl either of polyethylene glycol
DMS data management system
DMWD downhole measurement while drilling
Dn nominal decline
dn down
d,, normal d exponent
DNL dual-porosity compensated neutron log
DNLL dual-detector neutron lifetime log
DNS or dns dense
DO 1) drilled out 2) development oil well, 3) drilling
obligation
do outside diameter of casing
D.O. division orders
D/O division office
DOC drilled out cement
doctor to rework a well

143

doctor solution sodium plumbite used in a doctor

test to determine the sulfur content of crude oil
doctor test a qualitative test to determine the sulfur
content of crude oil that utilizes an instrument
containing a test fluid composed of sodium plumbite
that reacts with sulfur
doctrine of correlative rights the right of the
mineral owner in a producing field to his share of
the reservoir energy and production and to be
protected from harmful practices by adjacent mineral
owners
DOD drilled out depth
DOE Department of Energy
dog a poor geological prospect or oil deal
dog chaser or catcher a lazy worker
dog clutch lever a lever on a drilling-rig floor that
is used to engage the drawworks power train as a
backup to the air clutch
doghouse or dog house 1) a portable, one-room
shed that is used at the drill site to shelter the drilling
crew and wellsite geologist and to store equipment
and records. The Geolograph or Drill-o-graph is often
housed in the doghouse. 2) the field shed or cab
that houses seismic recording instruments 3) a small
shelter used for keeping lease records and changing
clothes on a lease 4) the enclosure on an offshore
drilling rig where the driller operates the hoist and
rotary and circulating equipment (control cabin) 5)
to falsify a report (boiler house or boilerhouse)
doghouse commando a drilling crew member who
loafs and spends a lot of time in the doghouse
doghouse dope gossip about the oil field
doghouse or dog house samples inaccurate wellcutting samples collected by a roughneck on a drilling
rig. Sometimes the roughnecks are negligent in taking
the samples at regular intervals and will take one
sample, divide it up, and label it with several depths.
dogleg, dog leg, or dog's leg a sharp deviation
or bend in a) a well's direction or inclination, b) a
joint of pipe, c) a survey traverse, or d) a wire rope.
A dogleg in a well can cause a keyseat. Doglegs are
decribed as abrupt, decreasing, increasing, excessive
(severe), long, and permissible. A dogleg is also known
as an elbow.
dogleg angle the angle between two intersecting
center lines of sections of a deviated well
dogleg severity a measure of a well's change in
inclination, usually expressed in 7100 ft
dogman a person responsible for slinging loads and
directing the crane operator
dog pipe to move pipe
dogs 1) a spring-activated core catcher 2) steel prongs
used on a straddle packer to grip the side wall of a
well when weight is applied to set the packer 3) the
serrrated steel teeth used on slips to grip drillpipe
DOI Department of the Interior
DOIL dead oil
D-OIL diesel oil
d olp outside diameter of inner pipe
DOL, Dol, dol, or dolo dolomite

144

dolerite DOT

dolerite an intrusive rock composed primarily of the

minerals labradorite and pyroxene, (diabase)
doline see sinkhole
doll head a wooden block with a groove cut on
the top to guide and hold pull rods off the ground
Dolofrac a service company trade name for hydraulic
fracturing
dolomite 1) a mineral composed of CaMg(CO3)2.
The mineral dolomite is commonly white with rhombfaced crystals. The rock has physical properties similar
to calcite except that it will not bubble in cold, dilute
acid. Dolomite has a hardness of 3-5 to 4 and three
perfect cleavages at oblique angels. 2) a carbonate
sedimentary rock consisting of more than 50% of the
mineral dolomite. Most dolomite is formed by the
alteration of limestone rock. Magnesium-bearing
waters perculating through limestone cause a chemical
reaction that alters limestone into dolomite.
Dolomitization can occur soon after the limestone is
deposited (diagenic or supratidal dolomite) or later
as the waters percolate through fractures or permeable
zones in the limestone (secondary or epigenic
dolomite). X-ray diffraction or chemical staining is
used to distinguish limestone and dolomite. Dolomite
tends to be good reservoir rock. Dolomite has a matrix
density of 2.876 gm/cc, a matrix velocity of 23,00026,000 ft/sec, and an interval transit time of 43.5-38.5
sec/ft, (dolostone or calcareous dolostone) DOL, Dol,
Dl, dol, or dolo
dolomitic a sedimentary rock that has from 5%-5O%
dolomite
dolomitization the natural conversion of limestone
(CaCO3) into dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]
dolst dolostone
dolostone a carbonate sedimentary rock consisting
of more than 50% of the mineral dolomite. Dolomite
tends to be good reservoir rock. If the rock contains
between 50%-90% dolomite, it is called a calcareous
dolostone. The term dolostone is used to avoid
confusion with mineral dolomite, (dolomite) dolst
dom dominant
D.O.M. dissolved organic matter
domain association with an independent variable
such as time or frequency domain

dome-roof tank a liquid storage tank with a roof

in the shape of a dome that projects upward
domicile a legal residence
dominant frequency one divided by the dominant
period. Dominant frequency is an approximate
measurement taken from a wave spectrum made by
Fourier analysis, usually of seismic data.
dominant period the time for the passage of two
consecutive peaks or troughs on a wave spectrum
dominant wavelength the distance from peak to
peak or trough to trough on a wave spectrum
Donald Duck a centrifugal pump used to pump
drilling mud from the reserve pit to the mud tanks
(Yellow Dog)
donation letter an agreement in which one party
contributes money to another party in order to drill
a well but does not receive an interest in the property
on which the well is drilled. In a dry-hole donation
letter, the money is given only if the well that is drilled
is a dry hole. In a bottomhole donation letter, the
money is given only if the well is drilled to a specific
depth.
donkey pump a small transportable pump
doodle bug 1) a forked stick, made of peach, willow,
or other wood that is alleged to be of value in finding
a location for a water, oil, or gas well. The doodle
bug is held by both hands and pointed out in front
of a person called a dowser while walking over the
ground. Natural attraction of the far end of the forked
stick toward the subsurface is used to indicate a
potential wellsite. 2) geophysical equipment 3) a
seismograph. D.B. crew
doodlebug crew a seismic crew
doodle bugger or doodlebugger a geophysicist
DOOH drilling out of hole
doormat a lease barely large enough to hold a
drilling rig
DOP drilled out plug
dope 1) a viscous material such as grease used as a
lubricant and a corrosion-resistant covering on the
threads of pipe and tubing 2) a tar-based coating used
to prevent corrosion on pipelines
dopebook a well log
dope brush a soft-bristled brush that is designed
to apply pipe dope to pipe threads

dome
dome a circular or elliptical arch. A dome is caused
by a central uplift such as a salt plug or intrusion. A
subsurface dome in reservoir rocks can form a
petroleum trap. D

doppler effect the apparent shift in frequency caused

by the movement of a source in relation to a receiver
or a receiver in relation to a source. The frequencies
increase if they are moving together and decrease if
they are moving apart.
dorag dolomite a type of dolomite formed by a
natural chemical process in which the rock limestone
(CaCO3) is replaced by dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]. Fresh
water mixing with seawater under a limestone shelf
causes calcite solution and dolomite precipitation. The
word is derived from an Eastern European word for
mixed blood.
dosing the addition of a measured amount of
chemicals to accelerate or decelerate a reaction
DOT directional orientation tool

double doughnuts

145

UNSATURATED
DOLOMITE WINDOW

20
FRESH WATER

50

100

double section

SEA WATER

dorag dolomite

double two joints of tubulars such as drillpipe or

tubing screwed together
double-acting pump a pump in which the pistons
discharge fluid on both the forward and backward
stroke of the piston. A duplex mud pump on a drilling
rig is double-acting.
double barrel separator see double table separator
double block valve a valve that can close both the
upstream and downstream sides of the valve.
double board a platform, commonly called the
monkeyboard, near the top of the derrick where the
derrickman stands to stack doubles (two joints of pipe)
when tripping out of a well
double bond a linkage between atoms involving two
electron pairs. Hydrocarbons with double bonds are
called unsaturated.
double Bouguer correction a correction used on
a seafloor gravimeter measurement to compensate
for the mass of seawater above the gravimeter
double box a tubular coupling having two box ends
with female threads
double core-barrel drill a core drill with an inner
barrel suspended on ball bearings. The inner barrel
is stationary to receive the core as the outer barrel
rotates to cut the core. Drilling mud is circulated
between the core barrels.
double-drum hoist lifting apparatus with two reels
of wire rope. The main drum pulls tubulars, whereas
the second drum is used for swabbing and coring.
double-packer test see straddle-packer test
double pin a tubular coupling having two box ends
with male threads
double-pole mast a portable derrick used on a wellservicing unit that is constructed with two steel tubes.
A double-pole mast is often used for pulling rods
and tubing.
double-rubbered pipe drillpipe in a cased,
crooked, or deviated hole with pipe rubbers or casing
protectors on every second joint. The rubbers are
designed to reduce casing wear.
doubles see double
double section the same section of rock layers
drilled twice in the same well. A double section is
caused by drilling through a reverse fault. Double
section is in contrast to a lost section caused by a
normal fault.

double stack two sets of blowout preventers located

on one oflshore drilling operation. One stack is located
on the seafloor, whereas the other stack is located
on the drilling rig.
double substucture two substructures located on
top of each other. Double substructure are used to
raise the elevation of the drill floor.
double suspension plug a piece of equipment that
is used at the top of an oil well to suspend the tubing
down the well
double tilt a bent downhole drill motor with a bend
on both ends for high angle building in a deviated
well

double-tube separator

double-tube horizontal separator a separator

with two horizontal vessels on top of each other. The
incoming fluid goes into the upper vessel first where
it flows over baffles to make the initial gas-oil
separation. The liquid is drained into the bottom
section to complete the separation. A mist extractor
in located in the upper barrel along with a pressure
control valve and gas outlet. The double-tube separator
can handle a higher fluid volume than a single
horizontal separator, (double barrel separator)
double-wall drillpipe two drillpipes, one inside the
other. The outer pipe is in tension, and the inner
pipe in compression. Double-wall drillpipe is used
to replace drill collars in directional wells.
double wall packer test see straddle-packer test
doubly-plunging anticline an anticline with an
axis that is inclined to horizontal in two opposite
directions
doughnut the concrete structure used around a
subsea wellhead to form a 1-atm chamber
doughnuts see slips

146

downcomer down the center line

downcomer a pipe with fluid flow directed

downward
down dip located down the slope of a plane such
as a rock layer or fault
down-dip well a well located low on a structure
or lower along a formation. Because gas and oil rise,
a down-dip well usually will not produce as much
as an up-dip well.
down-draft retort a device that heats a core to 350cF
to distill the fluids out of the core. The fluids are
than condensed and measured.

downhole mud motor

- DRILL COLLARS

STABILIZERS-

VIBRATION DAMPENER

HOLE OPENER
BIT
downhole assembly

downhole closure the horizontal distance

measured from the bottom of a well to a vertical
line extending down from the surface location of the
well (drift)
downhole gas separator a bottomhole device
designed to separate liquid and gas before they are
pumped up the well. The separator is attached to
the bottom of the tubing below the standing valve
and is the only fluid entry into the pump. Fluids flow
through a tortuous path in the separator causing the
gas to separate from the liquid and flow into the tubingcasing annulus. The downhole gas separator is used
to increase the efficiency of the pump and prevent
gas lock, (bottomhole gas separator or bottomhole
separator)
downhole ground an electrode used on a logging
cable above the electronic sonde as a reference
electrode instead of a surface electrode
downhole motor or downhole mud motor a
positive displacement or turbine motor that is run
just above the bit on a drillstring. The downhole motor
gives rotation and torque to the bit while transmitting

the drill-collar weight to the bit. The motor is driven

by the circulating drilling fluid that is pumped through
the drillstring. The turbine or turbodrill has blade
rotors in stators, whereas the positive-displacement
motor has a solid steel, spiral shaft in a lined stator.
Downhole motors are used a) to initiate a wellbore
kick-off for a directional hole and drill a smoothly
curved hole in a buildup or drop-off section, b) to
drill with diamond or high-speed insert bits in soft
formations, and c) to be combined with measurement
while drilling tools for use in navigational drilling.
The downhole motor turns at 40-200 rpms to drive
the bit up to 800 rpm. Downhole motors are usually
acquired on a rental basis and are good for 25-30
hours of drilling, (mud motor)
downhole packer See production packer
downhole pump efficiency see field efficiency
downhole steam generator a device for generating
steam in a well at the level of the producing reservoir.
Air or oxygen-rich air, fuel, and water are used to
generate steam for a steam flood, a type of enhanced
oil recovery for heavy oil. Steam generation on the
surface of the ground causes environmental problems
and decreases in temperature as it is injected down
the well.
downhole storm choke type of safety valve that
is located in the tubing of flowing wells on the sea
bottom. The downhole storm choke automatically
shuts off the well if there is an abnormal flow of oil
up the well.
downstairs the derrick floor
downstream 1) transportation, refining, and
marketing operations for petroleum 2) the end or
direction of the pipe that faces in the direction of
the fluid flow. The opposite end or direction is called
upstream. Downstream is the location on a gas pipeline
that is furthest from the wells.
downstroke the downward movement of a piston
or plunger in a cylinder
down structure a location or well that is not on
the crest (top) of a trap such as a dome or anticline.
(off structure)
downsweep a Vibroseis seismic signal with the
frequency decreasing with time. Downsweep is in
contrast to an upsweep.
down the center line a type of reservoir-scale
waterflood pattern in which the injection wells are

down-the-hole drainage radius

located along the centerline of the field, and the
production wells are located along the sides
down-the-hole measurements or procedures made
in a well
down-the-hole IP a method used to explore the
region near a wellbore using induced polarization
from a single potential or current electrode in the
wellbore and other electrodes on the surface
down-the-hole treatment a process in which a
reagent is pumped in well to treat emulsions
downthrown the side of a fault that apparently
moved downward
downtime 1) the period of time during which a well
is not producing or is shut in. Downtime could be
due to a workover 2) the time in which a rig is not
drilling due to weather, logging, an equipment change,
or other reasons 3) the time in which any equipment
is not being used 4) the time that it takes circulating
drilling mud to travel from the drill floor to the bit
through the drillstring
down-to-the-basin fault a fault in which the basin
side has moved down relative to the other side
down-to-the-coast fault a fault in which the coast
side has moved down relative to the inland side
dowser someone who uses a forked stick to explore
for subsurface water or petroleum
dozer a bulldozer, a self-propelled machine with a
blade on the front that is used for grading and digging
DP 1) dew point 2) drillpipe 3) datum plane 4)
differential pressure
dp dynamic positioning
D.P. 1) drive pipe 2) drillpipe
D/P drilled plug
DPD deeper pool discovery
DPE deeper pool extension
DPF drillpipe failure
dpg deepening
DPI depthmeter potential
DPIR discounted profit-to-investment ratio
DPL drillpipe electric log
DPL Drilling Porosity Log
DPM drillpipe measurement
dpm/g disintegrations per minute per gram
dpn deepen
DPND deepened
DPO 1) during payout 2) discounted payout
DPROB drilling problems
DP ship dynamic-positioning ship
DPSIP drillpipe shut-in pressure
DP system dynamic-positioning system
DPT 1) deeper pool test
DPT Deep Propagation Tool
dpt depth
DPU drillpipe unloaded
DR damage ratio
Dr drift log
dr 1) drain 2) drive 3) drum

147

Draeger detector a hydrogen sulfide detector used

on a drilling rig. The detector consists of a calibrated
glass tube filled with lead acetate granules. A pump
or bellows is used to draw a gas sample into the
detector. The hydrogen sulfide concentration is
reflected in the degree of color change. There are
scales for both high and low concentrations.
draft the vertical distance from the bottom of a ship
or floating platform to the water surface (draught)
drag the additional force or torque necessary to move
the drillstring due to friction against the wellbore
(pipe drag)
drag bit a type of rotary drill bit with no moving
parts and steel cutting blades on the bottom. The
fixed blades drag and cut the sediments on the bottom
of the well. A drag bit is used for soft formations. A
type of drag bit is the fishtail bit wi$i two curved
blades oriented similar to a fishtail. Drag bits can
also have three or four blades. The blades are often
hard surfaced or have tungsten carbide inserts. Drag
bits were the original type of bits used in rotary drilling.
drag fold a fold located along a fault plane. The
folding is caused by friction as one side of the fault
moved against the other side during faulting. There
can be a drag fold located on either side of a fault.
The axis of the drag folds will be parallel to the strike
of the fault plane. Large drag folds form on large
thrust faults in overthrust or disturbed belts and can
form petroleum traps.

drag folds

dragway ramp the incline leading up to the V-door

in the derrick of a drilling rig where pipe and other
equipment are pulled or dragged up onto the drill
floor.
drainage 1) the movement of subsurface oil and gas
in a reservoir due to the pressure gradient in the
reservoir caused by producing wells. The drainage
direction is toward the producing wells. Field drainage
is the movement of oil and gas in the entire reservoir.
drng 2) The displacement of a wetting fluid with an
nonwetting fluid. Drainage is in contrast to imbibition.
drainage area 1) the subsurface area of a reservoir
that is effectively depleted by one well 2) the area
of source rock that expulsed hydrocarbons
drainage pattern the orientation and plan of streams
in aerial view. The drainage pattern is often influenced
by the underlying geology. Some common drainage
patterns are dendritic, trellis, rectangular, radial,
deranged, centripetal, barbed, and parallel.
drainage radius the radius of a cylinder of pressure
drop in a reservoir centered on a well producing
fluids from that area of the reservoir

148

drainage relative permeability dresser coupling

drainage relative permeability the displacement

of crude oil out of a reservoir by increasing the
nonwetting phase saturation. This is in contrast to
imbibition relative permeability that increases the
wetting phase saturation.
drainage sale leasing of lands that might be drained
by producing wells on adjacent lands
drainage tract a lease adjacent to a lease with
production
drainage unit the maximum area in a petroleum
pool that can be drained efficiently by one well
drainhole 1) a horizontal well or a lateral offshoot
from a vertical well 2) the portion of a horizontal
well that drains the reservoir
drainhole length the length of a drainhole that
drains the reservoir
drain sample A sample taken from the outlet of a
tank
drape sedimentary rock layers overlying topography.
The topography causes a warping of sedimentary rock
layers above a limestone reef, bedrock hill, or other
type of hard core. The draping is caused by both
initial deposition and differential compaction of the
sediments.
draped anticline a domal structure formed by
compaction of sediments over and along the flanks
of harder rocks of limited aerial extent such as a buried
reef, channel sandstone, bedrock hill, or cuesta. The
overlying sediments compact and decrease in
thickness more than the overlying harder rocks.
Because the sediments are thicker to the sides of the
harder rocks, they compact more, and their thickness
decreases more to the sides creating the compaction
anticline on originally horizontal sediments. A draped
anticline in sedimentary rocks can form a petroleum
trap, (compaction anticline, compaction or plains type
fold)
drape fold a fold in sedimentary rocks caused by
the deposition of sediments over an uplifted or rotated
block in the basement, (forcedfault)
draping the conformance of overlying sediments
above an area of relatively high rocks such as a
basement fault block or a limestone reef. Draping
causes an initial dip of the sediments.
DRATE drilling penetration rate log
draught see draft
draw a blank to drill a dry hole
drawdown or draw down 1) the difference between
static bottomhole pressure and flowing bottomhole
pressure (in psi) at a constant fluid production rate
2) the vertical distance between the static level and
the level during pumping (flowing) in the annulus
of a well 3) The flow rate divided by the drawdown
pressure in bopd/psi or Mcfd/psi 4) a reduction
drawdown or draw-down curve a plot of
bottomhole pressure versus production from a well.
The curve is used to compute the rate of production
and rates of production for maximum economic
recovery with different bottom-hole pressures.
drawdown or draw-down pressure the static
reservoir pressure minus the bottomhole flowing
pressure in psi

drawdown or draw-down test a test used to

evaluate the limits of an reservoir. The drawdown
test uses the effect of production and downhole
pressure reduction of a well on the neighboring wells
to determine the extent of the reservoir.

1
-

/*'

Hi
drawworks

drawworks or draw works the machinery on a drill

floor that contains the reel of drilling line used to
raise and lower equipment. All drawworks are very
similar, and the components include drumshaft group,
catshaft and catheads, coring reel, main drive shaft,
jackshaft, rotary counter shaft, brakes, and controls.
Power is from a direct-current motor or from the
main drive shaft through the jackshaft using roller
chains and sprockets. The drum around which the
drilling line is reeled has a spiral grove to start the
first wrap. The drawworks normally has four gear
speeds, and a clutch is used to change speed and
direction. There are three forward and one reverse
speeds for the high and low drum drives for a total
of six forward and two reverse speeds. Drawworks
are manufactured in many sizes and are rated for
load capacity by the manufacturer based on input
horsepower that ranges from 500 to 3000 hp,
maximum hook load, and depth rating that is based
on 4V2 in. drillpipe (5 in. drillpipe for deeper wells).
In general, one horsepower is necessary for each 10
ft to be drilled. Two brakes are used. The mechanical
brake is water cooled and is used to hold the drum
in a stopped position and to control the lowering of
a load. The auxiliary brake is used during tripping
and is either hydrodynamic, that works like a
centrifugal pump, or eddy current, that uses magnetic
force. The drawworks also enable the roughnecks to
make or break pipe with the use of catheads, dwks
drawworks console the control panel on the drill
floor where the operator controls the mud pumps,
rotary drive, and drawworks
drawworks-drum socket the attachment fixture for
the drilling line on the drawworks drum of a drilling
rig
DRBP drillable bridge plug
DRDR directional drilling
Dresbachian a North American epoch of geological
time that occurred about 515 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Cambrian period.
dress 1) to repair equipment 2) to sharpen a bit
dresser coupling a metal sleeve that is used to
connect two joints of unthreaded pipe

dresser-drawer contact drill collar

dresser-drawer contract an instrument or contract
that was never recorded
dressing 1) to shape and sharpen a cable tool or
drag bit 2) the fitting together of the parts of a tool
3) the surfacing of material
dressing a bit repair of a worn bit
dressing off to condition the top of a fish in a well
to receive a fishing tool. The top of a fish is often
broken, twisted, or bent, and a clean top has to be
milled or cut to accept the fishing tool.
Drg. drilling
drift 1) see drift angle 2) The horizontal distance
measured from the bottom of a well to a vertical
line extending down from the suface location of the
well (doivnhole closure) 3) a gradual change in a
reference value with respect to measurements that
are being made 4) poorly-sorted glacial deposits
covering the surface of the ground 5) a gauge to
measure the inner diameter of loops, nipples, and
flowlines
drift angle the angle between a crooked or deviated
hole and vertical (angle of deviation, deflection, drift,
hole deviation, or inclination)
drift diameter the minimum inner diameter of a
well or a tubular such as drillpipe or casing
drift indicator an instrument that is used to
determine how much a wellbore deviates from vertical
at a specific depth in the well. One type, an acid
bottle inclinometer, uses hydroflouric acid to etch
the deviation of the well on the side of a glass bottle.
Another type uses a plumb bob or mechanical
pendulum in a barrel and punches a hole with a stylus
into a paper disc that is graduated with 1 circles.
The drift indicator is activated by a timing device and
can make two punches. The time is set, and the
instrument is dropped from the surface onto a baffle
plate located on top of the drill bit. The disc moves
up to the pendulum stylus, (inclinometer)
drift log or survey a record of how much a well
deviates from vertical at various depths in the well.
A drift log is made with a drift indicator and does
not measure azimuth, (inclination survey) Dr ~
drift mandrel a cylinder of specific size that is run
through casing or tubing to insure its size. The drift
mandrel is dropped through each joint of new tubing
as it is picked off the pipe rack to be run in the
well. If the drift mandrel hangs up in the tubing, the
tubing is rejected as out of gauge, (jack rabbit or
rabbit)

drift test the passage of a drift mandrel through

casing, liner, or tubing to determine the drift diameter
of the tubular
Drig or Drig. drilling
DRILL drilling information
drill 1) the mechanism for boring holes in earth
including cable-tool and rotary rigs 2) the act of boring
a hole in the earth, drl or DD 3) see drill bit
drillable any tool such as a packer that is designed
and constructed with material such as plastic or cement
that can be removed from a well by drilling through
it

149

drillable packer a permanent packer that can be

retrieved by milling the slips
drillability the ease in which a formation can be
drilled. The drillability of formations are classified
as soft, medium, hard, very hard, and abrasive.
Drillability also increases with lower mud weights
and viscosities.
drill ahead to continue drilling
drill around to deviate or sidetrack a well around
a fish in the well
drill bit the cutting tool used in drilling. On a cabletool rig a percussion bit is used. The percussion bit
is a pointed or wedge-shaped weight that pulverizes
the rocks on the bottom of the well as the bit is
raised and lowered. On a rotary rig, a rotary bit is
used. The rotary bit is turned by the drillstring to
chip and flake the rocks at the bottom of the well.
The most common rotary bit is the rock or rollercone bit that has two, three, or four rotating cones
on the bottom of the bit. The tricone bit with three
cones is most common. The tricone bit has three
legs welded to a shank. The legs hold journals around
which bearings rotate to allow the cone on each leg
pin to turn. Roller-cone bits are either a) milled toothsteel teeth or b) insert-button bits. Drag bits are rotary
bits having blades that tear into soft formations.
Diamond bits have no moving parts and have
diamonds imbedded into the matrix on the bottom
and sides of the bit. Diamond bits are used for drilling
through hard rocks and coring. A polycrystalline
diamond bit (PCD bit) is a drag bit with blanks of
man-made polycrystalline diamonds. Regular bits have
an opening in the center of the bit body for drilling
fluid. Some are full-bore openings and others are
ported. The jet bit has fluid courses through the body
of the bit or between the cones that are equipped
with jet nozzles. On a conventional tricone bit, there
are nozzles are located between the cones. The drilling
fluid jets out the nozzles and impacts directly on the
teeth of the cones of a roller-cone bit. Extended nozzle
bits have elongated fluid paths to reduce the distance
between the nozzle exit and the bottom of the hole.
Rotary cone drill bits are good from 8 to 200 hours
of rotating and wear out after an average of 24 hours
of rotating, (bit)
drill blank the cutting edge on a polycrystalline
diamond bit. The blank is made with a layer of manmade, polycrystalline diamonds that are cemented
under high temperature and pressure to a tungsten
carbide cylinder called a carbide stud. A blank has
greater abrasion resistance than natural diamonds.
(blank)
drill by or around to sidetrack a well

drill collar

drill collar a heavy, thick-walled, large-diameter pipe

that is used on the bottom of the drillstring just above
the drill bit to add weight to the bottom of the
drillstring. The weighted drillstring puts tension on
the drillpipe, keeps the drillstring stiff, and reduces
bending. Drill collars come in many sizes and shapes.
They can be round, square, triangular, or grooved.
Typical collar sizes are 31 ft long with an outer

150

drill collar safety clamps drilling

diameter of 6'/4, 8, or 10 in., just slightly smaller than

the well being drilled. The inner diameter is 2 V-A
in. or 27/s in. The pin and box connections are cut
from the pipe body. Drill collars can have slip and
elevator recesses. Spiral-grooved drill collars are used
to reduce contact with the well walls and reduce
differential wall sticking. Nonmagnetic drill collars
made of K-Monel are used on the lower end of a
downhole assembly in directional drilling. Usually
2-30 drill collars are located on the drillstring. A square
drill collar is used with a packed-hole assembly to
control the direction of the well. DC
drill collar safety clamps clamps that are bolttightened onto a drill collar and have two handles
drill column the drillpipe and drill collars in the
well
drilled pilings heavy steel pins that are used to fix
the jacket of an offshore platform to the seafloor. Holes
are drilled into the seafloor through the supporting
legs of the jacket using a slant rig. The piling pins
are then inserted in the seafloor using a pile driver
and then cemented. The pins are bolted to the jacket.
drilled solids well cuttings from subsurface
formations.
driller an employee of the drilling contractor who
is directly responsible for the rig and its crew on
that tour or shift. The driller is responsible for the
drilling operations on the drill floor and operates
the hoist and rotary equipment. This is done from
the driller's position on the drill floor near the driller's
console on a land rig, and in the control cabin or
doghouse on an offshore rig. The driller is also
responsible for preparing the driller's report and pipe
measurements. The driller is accountable to the
toolpusher at the rig. (digger) DRLG or drlr

driller's console (Cities Service)

driller's BOP control panel a series of controls
used to operate valves on the control manifold that
directs hydraulic pressure to the closing elements of
a blowout preventer stack on a drilling rig. The panel
is located on the drill floor in contrast to the remote
BOP control panel that is located away from the drilling
rigdriller's console or control panel the control
panel on the drill floor that contains the drilling gauges
that record pump pressure, pump speed, drillstring
rotary torque, drillstring rotary speed, tong torque

indicator, air pressure, and a weight indicator for total

weight-on-bit and total hook weight. On an offshore
rig, it shows not only mud and drilling variables but
also has controls for the blowout preventers,
drawworks, mud system, and derrick along with an
alarm system and an elapsed rig-downtime recorder.
driller's dial an instrument on the drill floor used
by a driller during navigational drilling. It shows the
orientation of the tool face and the azimuth and
inclination of the well.
driller's log 1) see driller's report DL or DRL-L 2) a
sample log made by the driller by examining the well
cuttings
driller's method a method used to control a well
by circulating the kick fluids out of the well and then
circulating a higher-density kill mud through the kill
line into the well through an adjustable choke. The
original mud is circulated, and pressure is kept
constant by adjusting the choke setting. The casing
pressure continuously varies as all the formation fluid
is circulated out of trie well. When the heavier kill
mud is circulated into the well, the casing pressure
is kept constant by adjusting the choke setting at the
choke manifold until the well is filled with kill mud.
Driller's method is in contrast to the wait-and-weight
method.
driller's position the location on the drill floor of
a drilling rig around the driller's console
driller's report an abbreviated record of the drilling
operations and progress during a tour or shift on a
drilling rig. The driller's report is similar to a daily
drilling report and is used by the tool pusher to make
that report. The driller's report includes geological
and mechanical information such as formations
encountered, footage drilled, mud tests, oil and gas
shows, and equipment breakdowns along with a
drilling time log. The report also includes the names
of crew members, hours worked, list of pipe and
downhole equipment used, ton-miles of drilling line
used, and general maintenance and repair. The report
is signed by the driller, tool pusher, and company
representative. A copy is kept on the rig. (driller's or
drilling log, tour or drilling report)
driller's work station the pan of the drill floor
located by the right, front corner of the drawworks
near the drawworks brake handle. The driller's
console is located on the driller's work station.
drill floor the elevated platform supported by the
substructure on a drilling rig on which the derrick
sits. The rotary table, drawworks, driller's console,
and other equipment are located on the floor and
the well is located in the center. The drill floor is
where the drilling operations occur. On an offshore
drilling rig, the drill floor is the work area surrounding
the opening where the tools and drillstring are run
into the ocean, (derrick, drilling, or rig floor) D.F.
drill head the chuck on the bottom of the downhole
assembly to which the bit is attached
drill in to make a discovery by drilling into a
productive reservoir
drilling the act of creating a hole through the
subsurface rocks. Drilling can be done with a cabletool rig that pounds a weighted, chisel-shaped bit down
through the rocks, or a rotary rig that rotates a bit

drilling ahead drilling foreman

on the bottom of a string of steel pipe in the well to
chip and flake the rock. DRLG, drlg, Drig, Drig., or
drg
drilling ahead to drill a straight hole without a
deviation along a length of the well
drilling and belling tool a large-diameter drill in
the shape of a cylinder that is used to dig holes in
the sea bottom for offshore piles. After the tool digs
out the hole to a depth of several hundred feet, cutting
blades are extended out the sides of the tool to dig
a large cavity at the bottom of the hole. This cavity
is used to cement the piles in place.
drilling and operating restrictions provisions by
a government regulatory agency or lessor that regulate
the drilling and operating activities of the lessee. These
can include provisions for damage to crops or burying
pipelines.
drilling and rental clause an oil and gas lease
provision that provides for the payment of a specific
sum of money (delay rental) to the lessor by the lessee
at certain times in order to maintain a lease during
its primary term if either production or drilling,
depending on the lease terms, has not commenced.
(delay rental clause and drilling clause)
drilling and spacing unit the acreage upon which
only one producing well from a certain producing
zone can be located. The drilling and spacing unit is
set by a government regulatory agency. Forty acres
is common for an oil well and 640 ac for a gas well.
(proration unit) DSU
drilling barge a general term for any floating drilling
rig. DB
drilling block the area where an exploratory well
is proposed
drilling bond an indemnity bond that is required
by some states when a well is drilled
drilling break a sudden increase in the rate of drillbit penetration. A drilling break could be caused by
subsurface layers of different rocks, a porous zone,
or a zone of abnormal high pressure. DB
drilling capacity the maximum depth to which a
specific rig is designed and equipped to drill
drilling clause see drilling and rental clause
drilling collision a well drilled into another well
(intersection)
drilling contract an agreement between a drilling
contractor and the operator that holds the mineral
rights or represents the mineral rights owner of a
lease to drill a well in a specific location to a certain
depth or horizon. The drilling contract defines the
obligations and rights of each party. Compensation
for drilling is structured on a footage (by-the-foot to
TD), daywork (by-the-days drilling to TD), or turnkey
(fixed amount) basis. The International Association
of Drilling Contractors has a standard drilling contract
form.
drilling contractor the person or company that
owns and operates a drilling rig
drilling control a hydraulic or pneumatic device
that is connected to the drawworks brake handle on
a drilling rig and maintains a predetermined weight
on the bit without input from the driller (automatic
driller or automatic drilling control unit)

151

drilling costs monies spent per foot or meter of

hole drilled
drilling crew one of three or four teams that drill
shot holes on a seismic crew using explosives
drilling curve a plot of well depth versus drilling
time
drilling-delay rental clause an oil and gas lease
provision that enables the lessee to maintain the lease
during the primary term without commencing drilling
by periodically making payments called delay rentals
drilling department the part of an oil company that
is responsible for the operational details of drilling
and completing wells. The drilling department is
headed by a drilling superintendent or manager who
is a petroleum engineer. The department also includes
an assistant drilling superintendent or manager and
several drilling engineers or supervisors. There can
also be a materials supervisor along with the support
personnel. The drilling department keeps in constant
communication with rig operations, (operations
department)
drilling efficiency the number of wells drilled per
drilling rig per year
drilling engineer a petroleum engineer who
specializes in the mechanics and techniques of drilling
a well
drilling exponent a calculated number that is used
to detect undercompacted shale with abnormally high
pressure. The drilling exponent is calculated by log
(j^\ divided by log (^\ in which R = drilling rate
in ft/hr, K is rock drillability with shale about 1, N is
rotary speed in rpm, W is weight on bit in pounds,
and D is bit diameter in inches, d exponent
drilling floor see drill floor
drilling fluid the fluid circulated down the well
during rotary drilling to a) cool and lubricate the
bit and b) remove the well cuttings. Some drilling
fluids can also 1) control subsurface fluids and 2)
build a filter cake along the well walls. Three types
of drilling fluids are a) water-base muds, b) oil-base
muds, and c) gas. The drilling muds are the most
common. The salinity of the waters in water-base muds
ranges from fresh to brines. If oil is present, water
is the continuous phase in an oil-base mud. Solids
in the drilling mud include clays such as bentonite
and additives. Gas includes both air and natural gas.
The gas can be a) dry gas, b) mist, c) foam, and d)
stable foam. If water is present when drilling with
gas, a water-foaming agent is used. DFLD
drilling-fluids engineer an engineer who works
for a service company, drilling contractor, or operator
on a drilling rig and is in charge of the drilling fluid.
The drilling-fluids engineer prepares, tests, and adjusts
or conditions the drilling fluid as the well is drilled.
The drilling fluids engineer works with all types of
drilling fluids including water, air, natural gas, and
foam in contrast to a mud engineer or mud man.
drilling-fluid weight recorder an instrument
located on the circulating system of a rotary drilling
rig that continuously measures the drilling-mud
density
drilling foreman see toolpusber

152

drilling fund drilling record

drilling fund a variety of techniques used to obtain

venture capital from investors for drilling oil and gas
wells. The most common drilling funds are limited
partnerships and joint ventures. The drilling fund can
be either private or public, which is registered with
the Securities and Exchange Commission, (drilling
program)
drilling hose see rotary or mud hose
drilling in drilling into a producing formation
drilling island an artificial island that was
constructed in shallow water to serve as a foundation
for drilling wells. An ice island is used in Arctic waters.
drilling jar a tool that is used to deliver a sharp,
upward blow to free stuck pipe in a well. The drilling
jar consists of a mandrel that slides in a sleeve with
a hammer end. Types of drilling jars include a)
mechanical, b) hydraulic or oil jar, and c)
hydromechanical. The drilling jar can be run on a
drillstring and is located three or four drill collars
below the top of the drill collars. The drilling jar is
also used to free a stuck bit in a tapered hole or a
bit stuck on a ledge or by cuttings or cavings.
drilling line heavy-duty wire rope on a rotary
drilling rig that is used to raise and lower equipment
in a well. Drilling line is usually braided steel wire
that ranges in diameter between Vi and 2 in. and is
commonly between 1 and 15/S in. Drilling line is
identified by the number of strands and the number
of wires in each strand. It is a round-strand type that
is usually wound in a right-regular lay and is typically
6 x 19 with an independent wire-rope core. Drilling
line is also described by nominal diameter, mass/unit
length, and nominal strength, (hoisting, rotary, or
block line or hoisting cable )
drilling liner a liner used when drilling in areas
of hard rock that serves the same function as
intermediate or protective casing to isolated zones
such as lost circulation or abnormal high-pressure
zones in the well. The liner does not extend to the
surface in contrast to a casing string.
drilling log 1) a record of the rate of penetration
of drill bit with depth in the well plotted in minutes
per foot drilled. The drilling log is used to a) accurately
determine the top and bottom elevation of formations
by the change (drilling break) in drilling rate, b) locate
porous zones in dense rocks, and c) identify
lithologies. The drilling log was originally made in
the 1920s by marking 1-ft intervals on the kelly and
timing each mark to the kelly bushing. Since 1943,
drilling logs have been recorded mechanically by such
devices as a Geolograph. (chilling-time log) DTML 2)
see drilling report
drilling mud a mud that is circulated in the well
during drilling to a) cool and lubricate the bit, b)
remove the well cuttings, c) control subsurface fluids,
and d) build a filter cake along the well walls. Drilling
mud is either a) water-base (fresh to saline water),
b) oil-base (usually diesel oil), or c) emulsion mud.
The mud contains clays such as bentonite or attapulgite
to give it weight, viscosity and yield strength. The
clays can be either native or, most commonly,
commercial. Various chemicals and substances called
additives can be added to change the properties of
the drilling mud such as density and water loss. The
oil-base mud is commonly called an invert mud. An

emulsion mud is made with water at the continuous

phase and 5%-l 0% oil as the dispersed phase. A typical
bentonite drilling mud weighs 9-10 lbs/gal in contrast
to fresh water that weighs 8.3 lbs/gal. A heavy drilling
mud can weight 15-20 lbs/gal, (gel or mud) DM
drilling operation the erection of a drilling rig with
support equipment in the boring into the subsurface.
drilling operations clause an oil and gas lease
provision that maintains the lease after the primary
term of the lease has expired if drilling that
commenced before the primary term expired is still
occurring on the lease. If the well that was being
drilled as the primary term expired does not obtain
commercial production, the lease expires. In the
similar, but different, continuous-drilling operations
clause in an oil and gas lease, any well drilled on
that lease after the primary term expires that obtains
commercial production will maintain that lease as long
as drilling on that lease did not cease for longer than
a specified time after the primary term expired.
drilling option a contract in which a party that drills
a well and shares that information with another party
will receive a farmout from that party. (farmout option)
drilling out drilling the cement out of casing after
a cement job or to drill a cement plug in a well
drilling party 1) a company that is obliged to
contribute money to drilling in a unit operating
agreement 2) any company or individual that agrees
to join in and share the costs of any operation under
a joint operating agreement. Drilling party is in contrast
to nondrilling party, (consentingparty) 3) the operator
of a well being drilled
drilling permit the authorization from a
government regulatory agency to drill a well. The
drilling permit lists the location and depth of the well.
(wellpermit)
drilling platform an offshore drilling structure with
legs attached to the sea bottom. See steel template
jacket platform and gravity base platform.
Drilling Porosity Log a porosity log that is
computed from drilling parameters such as rate of
penetration, rotary speed, weight on bit, and pump
pressure and strokes. DPL
drilling program see drilling fund
drilling prospect a location or tract of land that
has both economic and geological potential for drilling
a commercial well. A drilling prospect can be either
explorational or developmental.
drilling rate the rate, usually expressed in minutes
per foot, that the bit is penetrating the subsurface
rock. Drilling rate is recorded on a drilling-time log.
(penetration rate)
drilling-rate curve see drilling-time curve
drilling recorder a chart recorder that is capable
of recording up to ten drilling parameters on a drilling
rig. A drilling recorder normally records a) rotary
speed, b) rotary torque, c) pump speed, d) pump
pressure, e) hook load, and f) weight-on-bit along
with g) the time to drill each foot. A six-pen single
recorder records a) hook load, b) penetration, c)
rotary rpm, d) rotary torque, e) pump SPM, and 0
pump pressure. Total depth is read to the nearest
Vio of a foot, (geolograph)

drilling report drillpipe

drilling report an abbreviated record of the drilling
operations and progress during a tour or shift on a
drilling rig. The drilling report is similar to a daily
drilling report and is used by the toolpusher to make
that report. The drilling report includes geological
and mechanical information such as formation
encountered, footage drilled, mud tests, oil and gas
shows, and equipment breakdowns, along with a
drilling time log. The report also includes the names
of crew members, hours worked, list of pipe and
downhole equipment used, ton-miles of drilling line
used, and general maintenance and repair. The report
is signed by the driller, toolpusher, and company
representative. A copy is kept on the rig. (driller's
log or report, tour report or drilling log)
drilling rig the equipment used in drilling a well.
Two types of drilling rigs are cable tool (an older
method) and rotary. The cable-tool rig raises and
lowers a wedge-shaped weight on a cable in the well
to pulverize the rocks. The rotary rig, which is
commonly used today, turns a length of steel pipe
(called the drillstring) to rotate a rotary bit that chips
away at the rocks at the bottom of the well. The four
major systems on a rotary drilling rig are the prime
movers, hoisting, rotating, and circulating.
drilling rod a 15-18-ft section of solid, wrought iron
about 1 in. in diameter that was used to connect the
tools to the walking beam of a cable-tool rig. Drilling
rods were used in some early versions of the cabletool rig and were later replaced by Manila rope.
(boring rod)
drilling spool 1) the drum in the drawworks of a
rotary drilling rig that holds the drilling line. See drum
2) a large, spool-shaped metal pipe that is used
between the preventer elements on a blowoutpreventer stack to attach choke and kill lines. The
choke and kill lines can attach to one spool or two
spools with a blowout preventer in between. The
spools can be studded, flanged, or clamp-on
connected. The spool has an internal diameter equal
to the bore of the blowout preventers, (cross or spacer
spool or spool)
drilling superintendent the person in charge of
a contractor's or oil company's drilling department
drilling supervisor a drilling engineer who reports
to the drilling superintendent of a drilling contractor
or an oil company. The drilling supervisor is in charge
of the drilling crews and their procedures.
drilling tender a support ship for an offshore
drilling operation. The tender can contain mud tanks,
cementing equipment, storage, power, or other
auxiliary equipment.
drilling the well in an old method of drilling into
a high-pressure hydrocarbon zone and allowing the
well to blow in while collecting the oil in ponds and
drainage ditches around the well until the well is
capped
drilling-time curve the rate, usually expressed in
minutes per foot, that the bit is penetrating the
subsurface rock. The drilling-time curve is recorded
on a drilling-time log. (drilling-rate curve)
drilling-time log a record of the rate of drill-bit
penetration with depth in a well, plotted in minutes
per foot drilled. The drilling log is used to a) accurately

153

DRILLING TIME- MINUTES/FT.

6000 0

10

6050

6)00
drilling time log

determine the top and bottom elevation of formations

by the change (drilling break) in drilling rate, b) locate
porous zones in dense rocks, and c) identify
lithologies. The drilling-time log was originally made
in the 1920s by marking 1-ft intervals on the kelly
and timing each mark to the kelly bushing. Since 1943,
drilling-time logs have been recorded mechanically
by such devices as a geolograph. (drilling log) DTML
drilling unit 1) the area or drilling and spacing unit
fixed by a government regulatory agency for drilling
one well 2) a drilling rig 3) the entire barge, jackup,
semisubmersible, or drillship used in offshore drilling
drill or forfeit lease a type of oil and gas lease
that requires the lessee to drill a well on the lease
within a specific time or loose (forfeit) the lease. The
drill or forfeit lease is in contrast to a drill or pay
lease.
drill or pay lease a type of oil and gas lease that
requires the lessee to drill a well on the lease within
a specific time or pay delay rentals to the lessor. The
drill or pay lease is in contrast to a drill or forfeit
lease.
drill off to fill the well with well cuttings
drilloff test a test run on a rotary drilling rig to
determine the response of bit penetration rate to
weight on bit. A large weight on the bit is applied
and the drawworks break is locked. The decrease in
weight on bit with time is measured while maintaining
constant rotary speed.
Drill-o-graph an instrument on a drilling rig that
records the drilling-time log
drill-out or drill out 1) to use the drill bit on the
drillstring to remove a plug in the well 2) to drill as
many wells as permitted

drillpipe

drillpipe a section of hot-rolled, pierced, seamless,

high-strength steel pipe (some are made of aluminum)

154

drillpipe or drill-pipe cutter drillstem safety valve

that is made in several sizes but is commonly 30 ft

(31ft with the tool joints) long. Outer diameters range
from 2% to 6% in. Common sizes include y/i in.
with 133 lb/ft nominal weight, 4Vi in. with 16.6 lb/ft
nominal weight, and 5 in. with 19.5 Mb nominal
weight. Wall thickness ranges from 0.362 to 0.415 in.
and the inner diameter from 2.151 to 4.670 in. Drillpipe
grade (D, E, X, G, and S) identifies the minimum
yield strength of the pipe. Class 1 (new, premium),
Class 2, and Class 3 are used to describe drillpipe
wear. Drillpipe ranges are 1 (18-22 ft), 2 (27-30 ft)
and 3 (38-45 ft). The American Petroleum Institute
has a color-coding system for drillpipe classification.
Each grade and size is specified by a) nominal weight
per foot or meter, b) internal diameter, c) collapse
resistance, d) internal yield pressure, and e) pipebody yield strength. Drillpipe usually has tool joints
welded on both ends. The drillpipe is part of the
drillstring that is rotated by a rotary drilling rig to
turn a bit on the bottom of the well to cut the well.
Each section of drillpipe is called a joint. DP or D.P.
drillpipe or drill-pipe cutter a fishing tool that is
rotated on a fishing string to mechanically cut, either
externally or internally, stuck pipe in a well
Drill Pipe Log a type of well log made by a tape
recorder as the drillstring is tripped out of the well.
The tool is lowered down the center of the drillstring
and the flexible electrodes are pumped through a
port in the bit. The drillpipe log records spontaneous
potential and short and long resistivity measurements.
drillpipe or drill-pipe elevators elevators that are
usually center-latched and clamped onto squareshouldered or taper-shouldered drillpipe tool joints.
The drillpipe elevators are attached to the traveling
block or triple hook by two elevator links that are
forged steel bars with eyes on both ends. The elevators
are used to raise or lower drillpipe in the well.
drillpipe or drill-pipe mill a device that has
tungsten-carbide cutting edges and is rotated on the
bottom of a fishing string to grind or pulverize (mill)
sections of drillpipe stuck in a well
drillpipe or drill-pipe protector a rubber or steel
sleeve that can be attached to a joint of drillpipe to
reduce wear by friction in a cased hole
drillpipe or drill-pipe safety valve a valve with
threads that match those on the drillstring. The drillpipe safety valve is kept on the drilling-rig floor and
is used to close the drillstring during a kick.
drillpipe or drill-pipe tongs wrench-like devices
used on the floor of a drilling rig to screw togetner
(make up) and unscrew (break out) joints of drillpipe,
collars, and casing. Two sets are required. The
breakout tongs unscrew the pipe, whereas the backup
tongs keep the pipe steady so that it can be screwed
or unscrewed. When the pipe is screwed together,
the backup tongs become the makeup tongs, and the
breakout tongs become the backup tongs.
drillship or drill ship a ship with a drilling rig
aboard. Drillships are commonly 200-450 ft long. The
well is drilled through a hole (moon pool) in the
hull from a derrick mounted on the ship's center of
buoyancy. A marine riser is used to connect the ship
to the wellhead on the seafloor and complete the
closed system for circulating drilling mud. Heave
compensators and a telescoping joint are used to

drillship

drillship

compensate for wave motions. Drillships are used

for drilling in deep water and use eight anchors or
dynamic positioning with a ship-board computer and
thrusters to keep the ship directly above the drillsite.
A drillship is not as stable as a jackup rig or
semisubmersible when drilling. DS
drillsite 1) the exact location of a proposed well
2) the oil and gas lease on which a proposed well is
located
drillsite arrangement an agreement in which the
lessee assigns all of his interest in a drillsite along
with a fractional interest in the remaining portion of
the lease, reserving an overriding royalty or net-profits
interest in the drillsite
drillsite royalty a payment (royalty) made to the
lessor in order to locate a well on one tract of land
and drill a deviated hole to produce oil from under
another tract of land
drillsite title opinion a thorough analysis by an
attorney, usually in the form of a letter, concerning
the title of the land, mineral rights, and working
interests, along with any provisions for a lease on
which drilling is about to start
drillstem or drill stem 1) all the rotating pipe on
a rotary drilling rig from the kelly to the drill bit.
The drillstem includes the kelly, drillpipe, drill collars,
subs such as stabilizers, reamers, keyseat wiper, and
hole opener and the bit. 2) on a cable-tool rig, the
drillstem is the heavy, solid steel shaft with a chisel
point into which the bit jars are screwed. The drillstem
puts weight on the bit and was also called an auger
stem or sinker bar guide. The drillstem is 5 in. in
diameter and 30-40 ft long. DS or D.S.
drillstem pressure loss the pump pressure
necessary to circulate drilling fluid from the bottom
of the kelly, down the drillstring to the drill bit
drillstem safety valve a short sub containing a fullbore ball valve that is activated by drilling mud

drillstem or drill stem test drillstring float or drillstring float valve

pressure and is located just below the kelly saver
sub. When the mud pumps are pumping, the valve
is open. When the pumps are stopped, the valve closes.
This prevents drilling mud from flowing out of the
kelly when it is unscrewed from the drillstring to
make a connection. The drillstem safety valve also
acts as a safety valve to prevent high pressure mud
from flowing up the drillstring. The valve can be closed
with a hexagonal wrench to remove the kelly under
pressure and can be stripped in the well during
snubbing, (lower kelly valve)

155

are measured. The flow rates are controlled by an

adjustable choke. The sample of the formation fluids
is collected near the end of the final flow period.
During the final shut-in (FSI), the tool is closed. If
liquid flows to the surface, it is sent to a separator
where the gas is metered and the liquids gauged.
The results are reported in amount of fluid flowing
through a choke in a certain amount of time. If it
does not flow to the surface, the driller measures
the height of liquid in the drillstem by counting the
stands of pipe in the derrick. The test determines
the type of fluids in the formation and how fast they
can be produced. Pressure records made during the
drillstem test are used to calculate the formation
pressure, permeability, and the amount of formation
damage. DST or D.S.T.

drillstem test chart

drillstem or drill stem test a method used to

temporarily complete a recently drilled formation in
a well in order to evaluate it. The test can be made
either in an open hole or in a case hole with
perforations. A flow string, usually a drillstring, or
sometimes a tubing string, is used to carry the
packer(s), perforated pipe, pressure gauges, and valve
assembly into the well. Packers are used to isolate
the formation from drilling-mud pressure. A hookwall or casing-packer test is used in a cased well. An
openhole, single-packer test with one compressional
packer is used when the formation is on or near the
bottom of the well. An openhole, double-packer, or
straddle-packer test with two packers is used when
the formation is located off the bottom of the well.
A cone-packer test is used over a core hole and a
wall-over-cone packer test is used over a core hole
with a soft shoulder. During the test, formation fluids
are allowed to flow into the drillstem, and a sampling
chamber is used to collect uncontaminated formation
fluids at the end of the test. A Bourdon tube pressure
recorder is used in the drillstring to record well
pressures on a black, coated-metal chart by a movable
stylus that is driven by a mechanical clock. The time
of the test is limited by the chart space on the downhole
recorder. The test is run from 20 minutes to three
days. The important measurements are a) initial
hydrostatic pressure, b) initial flow pressure, c) initial
shut-in pressure, d) final shut-in pressure, e) final
flow pressure, and f) final hydrostatic pressure. The
pressures are recorded on a pressure-buildup curve.
The drillstem test is run in four steps. There is an
initial flow (IF) period in which the tool is opened
for usually 5-15 minutes but can be up to 60 minutes.
The tool is then shut in for the initial shut-in (ISI)
that lasts twice as long as the flow period while the
bottomhole pressure is recorded along with surface
shut-in and flowing pressure. The tool is then opened
again for the final flow (FF) for 30 minutes to 24
hours while the flow rates, pressures, and volumes

drillstem test tool

drillstem or drill stem test tool the tool used to

run a drillstem test. The tool has three or four valves,
a packer or packers, perforated anchor pipe, and up
to three pressure recorders. The valves include a
bypass or equalizing valve, a main test valve, a
circulating valve, and sometimes a disc-type valve. A
safety joint is run above the packer. DSTT
drillstring or drill string 1) the entire drillstem
including kelly, drillpipe, drill collars, the bit, and
subs such as stabilizers, reamers, key seat wiper, and
hole opener on a rotary drilling rig. The term
drillstring comes from cable-tool drilling and refers
to the drilling bit, stem, jars, and rope socket below
the drilling line. 2) the drillpipe 3) the drillpipe and
drill collars
drillstring compensator a passive device that is
used to nullify rig heave on an offshore drilling rig.
The types are a) deadline, b) crown block, and c)
traveling block. All are air-spring tensioning with a
set tension level. DSC
drillstring drag the actual surface load required to
raise or lower a drillstring in a well minus the
drillstring's neutral weight
drillstring float or drillstring float valve a check
valve that is used in the drillstring to allow drilling
fluids to be pumped down the well but to prevent
fluids from flowing up the inside of the drillstring
(backpressure valve)

156

drill through drop off

drill through a fitting that has a full, round bore

that allows a drillstring to pass through
drill-through-the-leg platform an offshore
production platform in which the legs serve as large
conductor pipe and contain several well slots. The
platform has two large-diameter legs for drilling and
two smaller diameter, sloped legs. These types of
platforms were designed to resist underwater
mudslides.
drill to granite to drill a well to basement rock
drill under pressure to rotary drill while
maintaining a high pressure in the well by using a
rotating head for a seal. Drilling under pressure
increases the rate of penetration.
drill water the liquid in water-base drilling muds.
The water can vary in salinity from fresh through
sea-water and brines.
drillwell the hole in the hull of a drillship or
semisubmersible through which the drilling occurs.
The drillwell is located on the center of gravity of a
floating rig and is generally 20-25 ft in diameter.
(moon pool, moonpool or moonwell)
drip 1) a small tank on a pipeline that traps liquids
condensing out of gas flowing through the pipeline
2) equipment in the form of iron tubes that was used
on gas wells to separate condensate and water from
the gas. It had four vertical iron tubes with the inner
two tubes connected with a cross tube through which
the gas flowed. The liquid would accumulate in a
tube called the tail piece that was occasionally blown
out. 3) see separator
drip gasoline liquid hydrocarbons of very light
crude oil composition that occur as a gas under
subsurface reservoir conditions (high temperature and
pressure) and condense into a liquid upon production
and surface conditions. Gas condensate typically grade
from colorless to light-colored liquids with tints of
red, green, or blue. Condensates have very high API
that range between 45 and 60 and are very valuable
commercially. Natural gas that contains gas condensate
is called wet gas. If condensate is recovered on the
lease with standard field separator equipment, it is
often combined and recorded with the crude oil. The
Natural Gas Processors Association has defined drip
gasoline as having a vapor pressure between 10-34
psi, a percentage evaporated at 104F of 24%-85%, a
percentage evaporated at 275F of not less than 90%,
and an end point in distillation of not higher than
375F. Retrograde gas is the preferred term for dip
gasoline, (casinghead, natural, raw or wild gasoline,
drips, condensate, gas condensate, distillate, gas
distillate, retrograde gas, or white oil)
drips 1) a separator 2) see drip gasoline
Dri-spiral a horizontal absorber-contractor that
uses absorption, centrifuging, and blending for gas
dehydration
drive the natural energy or pressure on the oil in a
subsurface reservoir that causes the oil to flow through
the reservoir rock and into a well. The most common
are dissolved gas, free gas cap, water, and gravity.
Gas reservoirs have a gas expansion drive.
drive block a heavy weight used to pound conductor
casing into the ground
drive bushing see kelly drive bushing

drive casing see drive pipe

driven to grade piles or pins in the legs of an
offshore platform jacket that have been pile driven
to the desired depth. The piles or pins are cemented
into the seafloor and bolted to the jacket.
driven to refusal a point in which hammering the
drive pipe or casing down in the ground has little
effect. It is commonly measured in hammer blows
per foot of penetration and is often 140-150 ft.
driven well a well that is made by driving casing
without any drilling rig
drive-in unit a self-propelled service unit or
workover rig that has the cab and steering on the
same end as the mast. The drive-in unit is in contrast
to a back-in unit.
drive pipe 1) a short string (20-100 ft) of largediameter pipe or casing with 26-42 in. outside
diameter that is often formed by several joints welded
together and is pounded into the ground with a diesel
hammer until driven to refusal. Drive casing is used
to start a well only in areas of vegetation and very
soft ground. It prevents a washout and provides a
conduit for drilling mud circulating back into the mud
tanks. No wellhead equipment is mounted on the
drive pipe. The drive pipe is pile driven to the seafloor
from a production platform, (drive casing or stove
pipe) D.P. 2) An old name for thick casing with a
sharp shoe that was used when the casing had to be
driven into the well.
driver the prime mover on a pump
drive rollers wheels or cylinders that are mounted
in the kelly bushing and contact the kelly. Drive rollers
allow the kelly to move up and down inside the kelly
bushing, (kelly bushing rollers)
drive shaft a rod that transmits rotational power
drive shoe a short section of closed pipe that forms
the protective end of a drive pipe or casing when it
is run (casing shoe)
drive unit the engines for a deep drilling rig
drive water pressurized water that is injected into
a reservoir from injection wells to push slugs of
chemicals and oil toward producing wells during
enhanced oil recovery
drk 1) dark 2) derrick
Drk. derrick
drl drill
DRLD or drld drilled
DRLG or drlg drilling
DRL-L driller's log
DRL-M drilling media

DRLR or drlr driller

DRM detrital remanent magnetism
drng drainage
DROI discounted return on investment
drop tTo drop a weight to generate seismic energy
using a thumper type of seismic exploration system
drop a line to gauge a tank
drop off the part of a wellbore in which the
inclination decreases toward vertical

dropped coverage dry-hole agreement

dropped coverage a section of the seismic line that
was not shot because of access, permit, or other
problems
drop point the surface location of a weight drop
using a thumper type of seismic exploration system
drop time the time that it takes a go-devil instrument
to fall through a drillstem to its location in a well
dropping-the-plug technique a method of
emplacing a cement slurry in a well with a lost
circulation problem. The cement slurry plug is heavier
than the drilling mud and sinks through the drilling
mud to the lost circulation zone.
drop weight a heavy weight of lead or cast iron
that can be released from the bottom of a
semisubmersible to give it more buoyancy
drowned a well that produces too much water to
make production profitable
drowning the flowage of water from the wellbore
into an oil formation
drowning out the gas zone the restriction of gas
flow from a low-pressure, low-volume gas zone from
flowing into a flowing oil well by oil from another
reservoir in the well
drpd dropped
DRRK derrick
dru drusy
drum 1) a metal shipping barrel. A drum is usually
larger (about 55 gal) than the barrel (42 gal) used
to measure oil volume. 2) the cylinder of a hoisting
system such as the drawworks on a drilling rig where
the wire rope is wound. The hoisting drum on the
drawworks is designed for a) maximum barrel
diameter, b) length between flanges, and c) adequate
breaking surface. The drum has a spiral groove to
start the first wrap of wire rope. 3) a separator
drum brake the apparatus used to slow or stop the
rotation of a drum on a hoisting system. Mechanical
and electrodynamic brakes are used on the drawworks
on a drilling rig.
drunken thread an irregularity on the threads of
a pin
drusy a rock that contains irregular cavities with
mineral crystals lining the walls and projecting into
the cavities dru

drusy cement

drusy cement a type of cement found in limestones

in which the cement crystals line the surfaces of larger
particles and protrude as teeth into the pore spaces
DRY dry hole
dry a pump with no fluid to pump (starved)
dry acid an oil-soluble, nonaqueous acid that is used
for acidizing carbonate reservoirs. Acetic acid is often

157

used and is blended with oil. The dry acid will not
react with the carbonate reservoir until contacted with
water in the formation.
dry-bed dehydrator a contactor vessel that contains
a layer of a solid material, such as silica gel that removes
liquid from gas that is passed down through it
dry box method the removal of H2S from sour gas
by passing the gas through a bed of wood chips
impregnated with iron oxide in a contactor. The bed
must be kept moist with a small stream of soda ash
solution. The iron oxide can be regenerated with air.
(iron oxide method)

dry completion

dry completion a subsea completion that has an

atmospheric chamber surrounding the subsea
completion system. Divers can assemble and service
the wellhead in the gas atmosphere contained in the
chamber. The dry completion is in contrast to the
more common wet completion.
dry drilling drilling in which no drilling fluid is
circulated back to the surface
dry gas or dry natural gas 1) natural gas that
contains no or insignificant amounts of liquid
hydrocarbons and is over 95% methane. Dry gas
contains less than 0.1 gal of natural gas liquids per
Mcf. Ethane, propane, and butane can be present in
minor amounts. Dry gas is in contrast to wet gas. 2)
natural gas with water removed. DGAS or DG
dry gas reservoir a gas reservoir in which a decline
in reservoir pressure will not result in formation of
a condensate in the reservoir. Condensate can form,
however, on the surface with a drop in temperature.
The reservoir temperature is above the
cricondentherm.
dry hole 1) a well that did not encounter commercial
amounts of gas or oil. (duster or wet well) 2) a well
being drilled without circulating drilling fluid and
very little or no ground water in the well. DRY
dry-hole agreement a type of support agreement
between two parties in which the supporting party
receives geological or drilling information in return
for a promise to make a cash contribution to the
drilling party if a dry hole is drilled. In a dry-hole
donation letter, a party that owns leases in the area
agrees to contribute a sum of money to drill a well
to a specified depth on a lease that it does not own
if the well turns out to be a dry hole. The party that
made the dry-hole contribution usually receives copies
of the well logs from the dry hole. In a dry-hole

158

dry-hole clause DUAL

purchase letter, a party agrees to contribute a sum

of money to drill a well to a specified depth on a
lease that it does not own if the well turns out to be
a dry hole. In return, the driller transfers or sells
specific leases or portions of leases to the party that
made the dry-hole contribution.
dry-hole clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that defines what a lessee must do to maintain that
lease during the primary term if a dry hole is drilled.
The provision can be to make a delay rental payment
at a specific time. It can also provide for the suspension
of the delay rental payment in a year in which a dry
hole was drilled with delay rentals effective in later
years.
dry-hole contribution see dry-bole support
dry-hole costs the cost of drilling a well up to the
casing point not including lease costs
dry-hole donation letter or dry-hole letter a type
of dry-hole agreement in which a party owning leases
in the area agrees to pay a specific amount of money
(dry-hole money) to drill a well on a lease that it
does not own if that well is a dry hole. Usually the
party that contributes the dry-hole money receives
copies of the well logs from the dry hole.
dry hole or dry-hole money the amount of money
specified in a support agreement between two parties
to be paid by the supporting parn to the drilling
party if the well drilled is a dry hole. DHM
dry-hole plug a cement plug that is emplaced into
a dry hole in order to prevent salt waters from flowing
up the well and polluting fresh water reservoirs. The
plug is required by a government regulatory agency.
dry-hole purchase letter a type of dry-hole
agreement in which a party agrees to pay a specific
amount of money if a well drilled on a lease that it
does not own is a dry hole. In return, the driller
agrees to transfer or sell leases or portions of leases
to the party that makes the dry-hole contribution.
dry-hole support consideration, usually money
(dry-hole money), given by one party to another party
in a support agreement after a well is drilled to contract
depth, necessary tests are run, and the well is plugged
and abandoned as a dry hole. The consideration is
not given if the well is completed as a producer, (dryhole contribution)
dry oil crude oil that contains less than a specified
amount of basic sediment and water. The specified
amount is defined by contract and can be 1%. (clean
oil)
dry pipe drillpipe without drilling mud in it
dry plugging the sticking and plugging of fine
particles in a hydrocyclone such as a desander or
desilter
dry pumping the pumping of a well when the level
of liquid in the well is below the downhole pump.
Dry pumping can damage the downhole pump.
dry storage the supplies of dry cement, drilling mud
materials, and additives that are stored in sacks, tanks,
or silos
dry string a string of pipe without any drilling mud
in it. Dry string is in contrast to a wet string.
dry test a drillstem test with no formation fluid
flowing from the test zone into the drillstem tool.

the pressure is flat on the pressure chart, and there

is zero pressure when the tester is opened during
the flow period
dry tree a Christmas tree-type of completion of
valves, chokes, and gauges over a flowing well on
land or on a dry completion on the seafloor. Dry
tree is in contrast to a wet tree on the sea bottom.
dry watch the period of time in which a rig is not
drilling and is shut down
dry watchman the person who guards a shut-down
drilling rig
dry well a dry hole
DS 1) directional survey 2) drillstem 3) drillship 4)
dual seal
ds dense
D.S. drillstem
DSA downhole seismic array
DSC drillstring compensator
DSD deep seated salt dome
DSDP deep-sea drilling project
dsgn design
DSI drilling suspended indefinitely
dsl diesel oil
ds Is dense limestone
dsmt dismantle
DSN dual spaced neutron log
DSN II dual-spaced neutron II log
DSO dead oil show
DSP deliverability standard pressure
DSPL disposable well
DSS days since spudded
DST or D.S.T. drillstem test
dstl distillate
dstn distillation
DSTT drillstem test tool
DSU drilling and spacing unit
DSV diving support vessel
DT 1) drilling time 2) interval transit time 3)
differential temperature log 4) drilled tight
D/T driller's tops
Dt true depth
DTA differential thermal analysis
DTD driller's total depth
DTF t (interval transit time) of fluid
DTH down the hole
DTIM drilling time
DTL 1) differential temperature log 2) drill-throughleg platform 3) dual-spaced thermal decay log
DTM t (interval transit time) of mud
DTML drilling-time log
DTOP driller's tops
DTOR downhole torque
dtr detrital.
DTS s-wave interval transit time
DUAL dually completed

dual completion or dually completed well

TUBING
STRINGS

CASING

dual completion

dual completion or dually completed well a well

completed to produce from two separate pay zones.
The zones are separated by tubing packers in the
well and the oil and gas is brought up the well in
separate strings of tubing and stored in separate tanks.
The tubing strings have 2-2 V4 in. outer diameters
which are smaller than usual. Dual completion is in
contrast to a commingled well in which the oil and
gas from different zones are mixed. DUAL or DC
Dual Dipmeter a stratigraphic high resolution
dipmeter tool that uses four dual electrodes on pads
to record eight microconductivity curves for highdensity dip calculations. The tool orientation is made
by a triaxial accelerometer and three magnetometers.
dual emulsion an emulsion in which the external
phase is oil and the dispersed phase is an oil-in-water
emulsion.
dual-fuel engine a prime mover on a beam
pumping unit that can use either natural gas or gasoline
dual guard log a shallow and very deep guard log
that measures formation resistivity. The dual guard
log is recorded with a gamma ray and/or spontaneous
potential log.
dual induction laterolog see dual laterlog DIU*
dual induction log or dual induction focused
log a type of wireline log that induces an electric
current into the rocks adjacent to the wellbore. Two
induction curves of electrical conductivity of different
depths of investigation, a deep investigation (lid) and
a medium investigation (Ilm), are recorded. The log
is usually run along with a spontaneous potential and
a focused, shallow resistivity log such as a shallow
laterolog or guard log. The dual induction log is used
when drilling fluid invasion is great and is used
primarily for a) determining true resistivity, b)
correlation, and c) determining the distance of drilling
mud invasion. DIV
dual laterolog a focused log that records deep and
shallow resistivities. A dual laterolog is used with high
resistivities and deep invasion. The dual laterolog
records both a deep and shallow laterolog curve along

ductile

159

with a gamma ray or spontaneous potential curve.

DLL

dual polarity vertical section a velocity analysis

display of seismic data with the peaks of normal
polarity filled in with one color and the troughs
reversed and filled in with another color
dual porosity compensated neutron log a
compensated neutron log that has two thermal and
two epithermal neutron detectors. Two porosities are
derived. In a clean formation, the porosities agree.
In a shaly formation, the epithermal-derived porosity
reads lower than the thermal and agrees more with
a density-derived porosity.
dual-spaced density log a compensated formation
density log
dual-spaced thermal decay log a compensated log
of the pulsed-neutron type
dual-spaced neutron log a compensated neutron
porosity log. DSN
Dual-Spacing Decay Time log a compensated log
of the pulsed-neutron type. TDT
dual-spacing formation density log a
compensated formation density log
dual-string Christmas tree or wellhead a series
of valves, gauges, and chokes that are attached to the
top of a well that produces from two different zones
through two different strings of tubing. A dual string
Christmas tree is used to regulate the flow from both
zones and has two master valves to control each
production string along with two production wing
valves.
dual system a drilling rig that uses rotary equipment
to drill to the pay zone and cable-tool equipment to
drill the pay zone (standard tool drilling-in outfit)
dual water method a method used for computer
analysis of well logs in shaly formations. Water in
shaly formations is considered to occur as both a)
water bound to clay minerals with a conductivity of
Q.B and b) water at a distance from the clay minerals
with a conductivity of formation water C,,-

duck's nest (off rotary drilling rig chart)

duck's nest 1) a tank for standby drilling mud 2)

an overflow tank used during a gas kick 3) the crow's
nest and the pigpen that goes around near the top
of the derrick of a drilling rig 4) a small pit that is
lined with fire brick. The wood, coal, or oil fuel for
a steam rig was burned in the duck's nest.
ductile a substance that rupturea above the yield
point. A ductile substance is in contrast to a brittle
substance.

160

ductility dynadrill or Dyna-Drillu

ductility the ability of a substance to deform and

flow without visible fracturing
dud a dry hole
due diligence a comprehensive review and
verification of data used in oil and gas reserve
evaluations and the conclusions made from that data.
The due diligence is made by a professional such as
a geologist or petroleum engineer. Due diligence is
often performed before a sale of interest in a property,
acquisition, merger or loan.
dull grading a system used to describe the wear
on drilling bits. Dull grading is based on tooth, bearing,
and gauge wear. The International Association of
Drilling Contractor's dull grading ranges from
T1-T8 for tooth dullness and B1-B8 for bearing
condition. The scale on an insert bit ranges from TOTS. Bit wear increases the grading number.
dulls worn drill bits
dummy a blank tool that is used to fill a side pocket
gas mandrel landing nipple
dummy pump a tool that is run on a tubing string
to check for leaks during acidizing and treating wells.
The dummy pump has a fluid passage through a
dummy or blanking tool.
dump 1) an unintentional shutdown of a computer
2) a readout from data storage
dump bailer a bailer that is run on a wireline and
is designed to deposit fluids or cement slurry at a
specific location in a well. The dump bailer is filled
with cement and lowered to dump cement on a bridge
or plug.
dump box the box where the cuttings from a bailer
on a cable-tool rig are dumped, (mud box)
dump flood an unscientific and inefficient method
of waterflooding an oil reservoir in order to produce
more oil. A dump flood involves the cutting, shooting,
or pulling of casing in a well to allow water to flow
into a producing reservoir from a well. The water
can flow from a water reservoir, located higher in
the well from the producing reservoir, down the well
and into the producing reservoir. This forces the oil
through the reservoir rock toward producing wells.
A dump flood often results in by-passing and wasted
oil in the reservoir.
dump gas the gas covered under a dump-gas contract
dump-gas contract a gas purchase contract for gas
left over after the specific amount of gas that a firmgas contract calls for is purchased. A dump-gas contract
does not call for a specific amount of gas to be
purchased and is usually at a lower price than the
firm-gas contract price for gas.
dump meter a type of flowmeter that uses a
measured volume tank called a dump tank that is
continuously being filled and emptied to measure
the flow volume and rate
dump oil crude oil shipped in barrels and not a
pipeline
dump tank a calibrated tank that is used in a lease
automatic-custody transfer (LACT) unit to measure the
volume of a liquid such as crude oil. The dump tank
is continuously being filled and emptied to measure
the flow volume with a dump meter, (measuring tank)

dump valve 1) a valve on a production vessel that

is usually activated by a float to open at a high liquid
level in the vessel and close at a low level. A dump
valve is used on a separator to allows a specific volume
of water or oil through the outlet. 2) a valve used
on a positive displacement downhole motor to prevent
the motor from running while tripping in and out.
dune a mound of loose sand deposited and shaped
by wind or flowing water
Dunham's classification of limestones a
limestone classification that is based on the presence
of micrite or sparry calcite and whether the sandsized particles are mud or grain supported. Types of
limestones include grainstone, packstone, wackestone,
mudstone, and boundstone.
duopoly a market with only two sellers in contrast
to a monopoly or an oligopoly
duplex pump a mud or slush pump that uses two
reciprocating pistons that move back and forth in two
removable liners. It is a double-acting pump; the
pistons pump mud into the discharge line on both
the forward and backward strokes.
duster a well that did not encounter commercial
amounts of oil or gas (dry hole or wet well) DRY
dusting 1) air drilling with no water in the hole 2)
the use of high-pressure air during air drilling to
increase the drilling rate
Dutchman 1) the threaded section of pipe or fitting
that broke off in a collar or female connection. The
Dutchman must be cut, burned, or chiseled out. 2)
a short section that is used to lengthen equipment
3) a plate used to align two flanges
DVI displaceable volume injected
D.V. tool a stage cementing tool that is used for long
casing strings to prevent weak formations from being
exposed to high pressures during a cement job. The
D.V. tool contains two sleeves, an upper and lower,
that are held inside a collar with ports by shear pins.
It is opened by a bomb, (stage cementer)
DWA drilling with air
dwks drawworks
DWM drilling with mud
dwn down
DWO drilling with oil
DWOB downhole weight on bit
DWP dual wall packer
DWSW drilling with salt water
DWT 1) deadweight ton 2) deep well thermometer
dwt deadweight tonnage
DX distance
dy dirty
dye penetrant testing a nondestructive testing
technique for metals. The metal is cleaned with a
solvent, then the dye penetrant and a developer is
applied. Metal flaws appear with bright colors, (liquidpenetrant testing)
dynadrill or Dyna-Drill a type of positive
displacement, downhole mud motor. The dynadrill
is a three-stage motor assembly with a spiralled cavity
lined with rubber along its length. Flowing mud drives

Dynaflex tool dysmigration

a solid steel shaft mounted eccentrically in the cavity.
The motor is driven at relatively low rpms and is
used for directional drilling.
Dynaflex tool a wireline tool that is used to kick
off a deviated well

dynameter card (dynagraph)

dynagraph a continuous record of the forces acting

on a polished rod during the pumping cycle. The
forces are measured with a dynamometer and
recorded in reference to the sucker-rod position. The
rod position is recorded on the abscissa and the load
on the ordinate. A dynagraph is used to analyze stress
and the downhole pump performance, (dynamometer
card)
dynamic compressor a rotary compressor that has
a continuous gas flow. A dynamic compressor uses a
spinning impeller that rotates on a shaft. Two types
of dynamic compressors are centrifugal and axial.
dynamic loading the sudden application of a weight
dynamic positioning, positioning system, or
stationing a method used to keep a drillship or
semisubmersible on station. The early dynamic
positioning systems used the angle on a taunt wire
secured by a clump weight. The system is still used,
but not in deep water, where a hydro-acoustic position
system is used. Transponders or beacons are
positioned on the seabed. The signals are picked up
by hydrophones (usually four) on the
semisubmersible or drillship and sent to a shipboard
computer for processing. If the ship drifts off the

161

drillsite because of waves, currents, or wind, the

computer detects the drift from the seabed sound
transmissions and uses the ship's thrusters to put the
drillship back on station. The thrusters have
controlled-pitch propellers to adjust the position of
the drillship. Another system uses prepositioned radio
transmitters on fixed structures such as production
platforms that transmit signals to the antenna on a
vessel. This is used to determine range and bearing.
(ask system) dp or DP system
dynamic range the variation from the weakest to
the strongest seismic signal that can be recorded.
Dynamic range is about 40 dB on an analog recorder
and 80 dB on a digital recorder using magnetic tape.
dynamite a seismic source that is exploded with
weights ranging from 100 g to a few kilograms on
the ground surface or in a shot hole at the base of
the weathered zone. Dynamite is composed of an
absorbent, usually sodium nitrate and wood pulp,
saturated with nitroglycerin. The advantage of
dynamite is the wide range of seismic frequencies
that are generated. Disadvantages include storage and
transportation problems and shot hole drilling costs.
Dynamite is not commonly used on marine surveys
because of the bubble affect and environmental
impact.
dynamometer mechanical or electric instrument
that measures load or stress. A dynamometer can be
used on a sucker-rod pumping unit to monitor the
downhole pump and rod string condition. The
dynamometer is used as a rod weight indicator. It
measures the load on the polished rod and forces
such as peak load, peak torque, and horsepower
requirements exerted on the pump system during
the pumping cycle. The forces are recorded on a
dynagraph or dynamometer card.
dynamometer card see dynagraph
dyne a force in the cgs system that gives a 1 gram
weight an acceleration of 1 cm/s. Dyne has been
replaced by the System International (SI) unit newton.
dysaerobic water that is between aerobic and
anaerobic in oxygen content. Dysaerobic has between
0.1 and 0.2 ml/1 dissolved oxygen.
dysmigration the leakage of petroleum from a trap.

162

E Ec

E l ) east 2) Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity

3) electric field strength 4) efficiency 5) experimental
6) force (electromotive) 7) energy 8) electrode 9)
empirical 10) wave intensity 11) Eotvos unit 12)
efficiency factor 13) gas expansion factor 14) exa-15)
specific energy 16) effective elasticity
e l ) effective 2) influx rate 3) cumulative influx 4)
external boundary conditions 5) equivalent 6) electric
7) electrical 8) external 9) base of the natural logarithm
(2.7182)
EA expected allowable
EA or Ea area sweep efficiency
ea earthy
ea. each
early mature a stage in kerogen maturation between
immature and peak mature. During early mature, the
source rock has generated some oil or gas but has
not reached peak generation. Early mature is 2.2-2.3
on the Thermal Alteration Index, 0.5-0.65 on vitrinite
reflectance, and 35-50 on spore colour index for
oil-prone rocks. For gas-prone rocks, it is 2.5-2.6 on
the Thermal Alteration Index, and 0.7-1.3 on vitrinite
reflectance.
earned depletion the depletion allowance for
Canadian tax calculations. Earned depletion is based
on a percentage of eligible expenditures.
earnest money money that is exchanged to show
an obligation or interest of one party before a binding
agreement is signed (hand money)
earning block the drilling and spacing unit area
of an earning well in a farmout agreement. The earning
block can also include any boot acreage.
earning conditions see eaming-well requirements
earning well a well specified in a support agreement
or farmout which the drilling party or farmee must
drill in order to acquire the farmout acreage or
support. The earning well must be drilled to
specifications in the agreement such as to a specific
contract depth or horizon. The farmout depth is the
depth the farmee earns by drilling the earning well.
There is often an excuse provision in the agreement
for a substitute well should the earning well
Rencounter impenetrable substances, or because of
other conditions making further drilling
impracticableS. The farmee can then terminate drilling
of the earning well and drill a substitute well.
eaming-well costs all costs that were incurred and
paid by the farmee in drilling, testing, completing,

and equipping an earning well. Cash contributions

are subtracted from eaming-well costs. The costs can
include those incurred with a substitute well.
eaming-well drilling-and-spacing unit the
drilling-and-spacing unit on which the earning well
is located
earning-well requirements provisions in a
support agreement or farmout that define the earning
well. Earning-well requirements specify the well
commencement and completion dates, location, and
contract depth, (earning conditions)

earthflow

earth current a natural electrical current that is

either static or alternating at a very low frequency
that flows through the ground. Earth currents extend
over large areas and are caused by variations in the
earth's magnetic field, (telluric current)
earthern pit an escavation that was dug by a bull
dozer to store drilling mud at a drillsite. The earthen
pit can be divided by earthen or wooden dividers.
Steel mud tanks are now commonly used, (dirt or
groundpits)
earth oil crude oil
earth pressure the subsurface pressure exerted by
the weight of the overlying rocks. Earth pressure
increases about 100 psi/100 ft of depth. Earth pressure
is in contrast to the pressure on the fluid in the pores
of the rock which is called reservoir, fluid, or formation
pressure, (geostatic, lithostatic, overburden, or rock
pressure)
earth trap a subsurface petroleum trap
earth wax 1) solid paraffin from crude oil 2)
ozokerite
earthy 1) a mineral that has a dull luster or
appearance 2) a rock that appears similar to earth
or soil, ea
E^ areal sweep efficiency
easement written permission to use specific surface
lands for a specific purpose. Implied easement can
be for entrance and exit. Easements can involve the
drillingsite and access road.
E/BL east boundary line
Ec electrochemical component of the spontaneous
potential

eccentering arm
eccentering arm a decentralizing extension such
as a bow string that pushes a sonde or tool against
the wellbore wall (decentralizer)
eccentric a curved metal plate that is not circular
and has a long and short axis. An eccentric is attached
to a central power unit that turns the eccentric on a
vertical axis. The eccentric is attached by jack or
transmission lines to several pumping units that
operate off the central power unit.
eccentric bit a type of cable-tool bit in which the
cutting edge is lower on one end than on the other
eccentricity a measure of being off center or out
of round. A pipe is eccentric when the difference
between the inner and outer diameters varies around
the circumference of the pipe and the pipe-wall
thickness varies.
ECD equivalent circulation density
Ech echinoid

echinoderms

echinoid a marine invertebrate that has a globular

body encased in an external skeleton composed of
plates that have movable spines. Echinoids belong
to the class Echinoidea of the phylum Echinodermata
and include sea urchins and sand dollars. Echinoids
have existed from the Ordovician peroid through the
present. Ech
ECM equivalent circulating density
economic allowance the amount of oil and/or gas
that a Canadian regulatory agency permits a well to
produce per formation in the well
economic basement the subsurface level below
which there is no current exploration interest
economic cost the costs of capital, materials, and
labor that are necssary to produce and market a
particular resource (resource cost)
economic interest an interest in minerals in place
that was acquired by investment. The investor has

eductor

163

legally secured a share of the income derived from

the mineral extraction as a return on the investment.
economic limit the production level in a well in
which the production revenue equals the well
operating cost The well is usually plugged and
abandoned when it reaches the economic limit. EL
economic zone the seabed and ocean extending
320 km or more out from the land. A country, based
on a United Nations commission, can claim exclusive
mineral rights in the economic zone.
ECP effective core penetration
Ej, 1) displacement efficiency 2) dynamic elasticity
modulus of deformation
Ed displacement efficiency
EDC EROS Data Center
eddy current testing a nondestructive testing
method used primarily to measure casing thickness.
An exciter coil generates a magnetic field in the casing,
and the effects of eddy currents are measured on a
pick-up coil below it. The measured eddy currents
are compared to eddy currents generated in a known
thickness of casing.
Edenian a North American age of geological time
that started about 455 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Ordovician period.
edge lease an oil and gas lease that is located on
the boundary of a field. The oil/water or gas/water
contact lies below the lease.
edge player a person or company who tries to obtain
leases and drill wells around the margins of plays
and fields as they are being developed.
edge unit system an agreement in Louisiana in
which the lessee of a drilling unit on the edge of an
oil and gas pool is not forced to drill an unnecessary
well to produce the oil or gas. Instead, the lessee of
the edge lease shares in the cost of drilling and
completing a well on an adjacent lease and shares
proportionally to productive acreage in the production
from that well.
edge values the hydrocarbon concentration peaks
on the surface of the ground that are formed by
microseepages above the oil/water contact on a
subsurface reservoir. Edge values occur in the form
of a hydrocarbon halo. The hydrocarbons have lower
values on the inside of the halo and background values
outside the halo.
edge water free water located to the sides of the
oil or gas reservoir
edge well a well drilled down the flanks of a structure
or on the outer limits of a producing formation. An
edge well often penetrates the oil/water contact.
EDM electronic distance meter
EDP electronic data processing
EDR estimated damage ratio
EDTA ethylene diamine tetracidic acid
educated guessers engineers
eduction valve an exhaust valve
eductor a tube that uses a fluid flowing through it
with a high head from a jet to create a vacuum. An
eductor is used a) to remove degassed mud from a
vacuum-type degasser, b) to pump water, c) to remove

164

Edward balance EIR

mud from a mud tank, d) to pull solids through a

hopper, and e) to clean the cellar on a well. A Venturi
nozzle throat is often used.
Edward balance an instrument used to determine
the specific gravity of natural gas in the field by
weighing
EDX energy-dispersive X-ray
E/E end to end
Eeff effective atomic number
EEZ exclusive economic zone
EFD engineering flow diagram
E/4 east quarter
eff efficiency
effective confining pressure the overburden
pressure minus the pore pressure (effective
overburden stress)

effective date of a lease the day that a lease is first

in force. The effective date of a lease is shown on
the top of a lease form and is not the date of lease
execution.
effective decline rate the decrease in production
from a well over a period of time, such as 1 month
or 1 year, divided by the production rate at the
beginning of the period. De
effective fluid level the height of a static fluid
effective horizontal permeability the square root
of the product of permeability in the x direction (kx)
times permeability in the y direction (&,,), in which
both x andj' are horizontal directions in the reservoir
effective lift the lift in feet by imput gas during gas
lift as determined by a pressure survey
effective overburden stress the pressure that is
equal to the overburden pressure minus the pore
pressure (effective confining pressure)
effective pay factor a calculation that is used in some
unitization agreements to determine the lessor's, and
possibly the lessee's, share of production. Effective
pay factor is based on depth, potential productivity
saturation, and other factors.
effective permeability the permeability of a fluid
when it shares the pore spaces with another fluid.
When two fluids share the pore space, the effective
permeability is usually less than the absolute
permeability. ke
effective porosity the porosity (percent volume of
a rock occupied by pores) which includes only the
interconnected pores
effective radius the radius of drainage area around
a well
effective reservoir permeability the square root
of the product of vertical permeability (/fe,) times
horizontal permeability (kh)
effective shot depth the vertical distance from the
surface to the shot charge in a shot hole used in
seismic exploration (shot depth or elevation)
effective source rock source rock that has already
generated and expelled petroleum, in contrast to a
potential source rock
effective stress a principle stress at a point in a
formation minus pore pressure

effective viscosity the viscosity of a fluid flowing

through a porous rock with another fluid sharing the
pores of the rock (apparent viscosity)
effective wave base the depth in the ocean below
which wave action no longer moves sediments.
Effective wave base depends on the period of the
waves but is about 10 ft.
effective weight the weight of an object submerged
in a liquid such as drilling mud. Effective weight is
in contrast to weight in air. (submerged weight)
efficiency factor a measure of the power loss from
a prime mover to the driven equipment. The efficiency
factor is equal to (energy output - energy input)/
energy output. E
effl effluent
effluent liquids flowing out effl
effort the number of separate raypaths that are mixed
together to make the final display in seismic
exploration. Effort is the number of energy sources
per shot point times the number of geophones per
group times the number of records that are stacked.
EF-GR extremely fine grained
E/4 east quarter
EG ethylene glycol
eg gas influx
egg 1) a dynamite charge 2) a Microdot package
EGMB ethylene glycol monobutyl ether
EH pattern sweep efficiency
E,, the voltage difference between inert electrodes
immersed in a reversible oxidation-reduction system.
Ej, is a measure of the system's oxidation state. The
P

equation is Eh = K log TT, where K is approximately

70, R is the concentration of reduced substances and
O is the concentration of oxidized substances.
(oxidation-reduction or redox potential)
EH controls electrohydraulic controls
EHD entry-hole diameter
EHF extremely high frequency
EHP effective horsepower
E, invasion efficiency
Ei vertical sweep efficiency
Eifelian a global age of geological time that started
about 390 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle Devonian
epoch.
eight-point mooring system a pattern of eight
anchor cables and anchors that are spread out
symmetrically to moor a semisubmersible
eighty board the monkey board on a derrick
designed to hold fourbles or four joints of pipe
88 lease a general term for a lease form. Producer's
88 was originally a lease form printed by Burkhart
Printing Company in Tulsa, Oklahoma, in 1916 as a
lease (number 88) for Producer Oil Company that
later became synonymous with all lease forms.
(Producer's 88 lease)
eg strain tensor
EIPS extra improved plow steel
EIR Environmental Impact Report

EIS electric submersible centrifugal pump

EIS Environmental Impact Statement
Ek electrokinetic component of the spontaneous
potential
EL 1) electric log 2) Electrolog 3) economic limit
E/L east line
El elevation
el electron
elasterite an elastic pyrobitumen that occurs
associated with base metal deposits in Carboniferous
limestones of northern England.
elastic a substance that deforms instantly and totally
returns to its original shape when the stress is removed
elastic collision a collision in which the total kinetic
energies of the particles are the same after the collision
as the total kinetic energies before the collision. Elastic
collision is in contrast to inelastic collision.
elastic deformation the temporary distortion of a
substance. The substance will return to its original
shape after the stress is removed. Elastic deformation
is in contrast to brittle or plastic deformation.
elastic limit the maximum unit stress that a
substance can sustain without permanent deformation
when the force is relaxed. The elastic limit occurs at
the yield point.
elastic scattering a type of scattering in which a
neutron strikes the nucleus of an atom and transfers
some kinetic energy to the atom. The neutron loses
the same amount of kinetic energy and bounces off
the atom with decreased energy. The amount of energy
transferred depends on the mass of the nucleus and
the angle at which the neutron scatters. Elastic
scattering is in contrast to inelastic scattering.
elastic wave a wave that propagates through a
medium without permanent deformation of the
medium, such as a seismic wave
elastomer natural or synthetic rubber material that
will return to its original shape after deformation.
Elastomer is used in blowout preventers and packers.

elbow

elbow 1) a bend or deviation from the vertical in a

well 2) a pipe fitting with an angle less than 180
elbow meter a head-type device that is made with
a pipe elbow and is used to measure elbow velocity.
The pressure differential between the inside and
outside of the pipe curve due to centrifugal force is
measured to calculate the flow velocity.
Elec log electric log.
Elec, elec, or elec elearical
election at casing point a decision after testing the
well to run casing or plug and abandon the well
electraflex an electromagnetic exploration
technique use to detect subsurface structures and
possibly hydrocarbons. An energized signal is
introduced into the subsurface by electrodes to create

165

a megahertz current. Electrodes are used to measure

the return current in microvolts/ampere.
electrical basement the subsurface level below
which the rocks have very high electrical resistivities
electrical dehydrator an installation used to
separate an oil/water emulsion. Heat is applied from
a firetube to reduce the viscosity of the emulsion
and the emulsion is then exposed to a high-voltage
alternating current in grids oriented perpendicular
to the fluid flow. Water molecules which are polar,
coalesce and sink by gravity. The electric dehydrator
ranges in size from 6 ft in diameter and 12 ft long
to 12 ft in diameter and 80 ft long. The dehydrator
converts 440 v at the switchboard to 16,500 v at the
electrodes, (electrostatic or electrochemical treater)
electrical log or survey see electric log
electric coring an early name for wireline well
logging
electric-drive rig see electric rig
electric line an electrical wire that goes down a
well with the wireline and is used in well logging
and perforating (conductor line)
electric log 1) a general term for a wireline well
log that measures and records the elearical properties
of rocks and the fluids in the pores in a well. The
electric log can include spontaneous potential (SP),
normal resistivity (R), lateral, laterologs, induaion,
and microresistivity logs, (electric well log or electric
survey) 2) An early type of resistivity log that emits
current from a constant electrode and measures the
current at a distance relative to a reference electrode.
Elec log, EL, or E log

electric logging a drill hole induced polarization

or resistivity survey in a well which uses closely spaced
electrodes to investigate the elearical properties of
the rocks adjacent to the wellbore (IP, hole and
resistivity logging, and hole probe)
electric rig a drilling rig in which the rotary table
is driven by an electric motor. The first type was dieselelectric with the prime mover direaly coupled to
the DC generator. Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR)
systems are more common now. The diesel engine
is coupled direaly to an AC generator. Power is
transmitted by bus bar and is converted by transformer
feaifiers to DC and distributed according to need
to the DC motors on the rig. This is in contrast to a
diesel engine used on many drilling rigs, (electricdrive rig)
electric submersible centrifugal pump a pump
that is suspended by the tubing string into the well
fluid on the bottom of an oil well and is powered
by an electric motor. An electric submersible
centrifugal pump consists of a) an elearic motor, b)
a seal section, c) an intake section, d) a multistage
centrifugal pump, e) a three-conductor armored
electrical cable strapped to the tubing string, 0 a
surface installed switchboard, g) a junction box, and
h) a transformer. The electric motor on the bottom
is an induaion-type, three-phase, electric motor with
a seal seaion and a multistaged centrifugal pump on
top of it. The motor has 12-18 in. rotors that are
stacked on top of each other. The motor speed is
determined by the frequency of the power supply
that can be controlled by a power inverter. The seal

166

electric survey electron volt

pump

motor

electric submersible centrifugal pump

section, protector, or equalizer is located between

the motor housing and the pump housing and contains
the shaft that connects the motor with the pump. Each
stage of the centrifugal pumps consists of a rotating,
floating or fixed impeller, and a stationary diffuser.
The fluids in the well cool the pump. The pump often
contains a centrifugal gas separator to divert free gas
around the pump. The surface equipment typically
consists of a) three single-phase transformers, b) a
three-phase transformer or an autotransformer, c) a
motor controller or switchboard, d) a junction box,
and e) a submersible wellhead. An electric
submersible centrifugal pump is used for a) lifting
large volumes of liquid, b) in directional wells, c) in
gassy wells, d) in high temperature wells, and e) for
lifting high-viscosity fluids, (submersible pump)
electric survey see electric log. ES
electric swivel a type of top-drive power swivel that
uses an electric motor. An electric swivel eliminates
the rotary table and kelly and allows for a longer
string of pipe to be drilled before making a connection.
electric-welded pipe a tubular with one
longitudinal seam formed by electric-flash welding
or electric resistance
electric well log see electric log
electric wireline a wire rope, with electrical wires
running down the center, used in well logging.
electric wireline tool a fishing tool used to cut
the electrical cable from an electric submersible pump.
The electric wireline tool is used with a sinker and
bumper jar on a work string of sucker rods or small
diameter tubing. The tool contains a cutter that is
attached to a spring-loaded arm extending from a
mandrel. The tool is rotated to cut the electric cable
against the tubing which has already been chemically
cut.
electrochemical treater see electric dehydrator
electrode one of two terminals of an electrical source
such as a battery. The positive electrode is the anode,
whereas the negative electrode is the cathode. E

electrodynamic brake an auxiliary brake used on

the drawworks of a drilling rig. The brake uses an
electric current and magnets to slow or stop the
drawworks shaft, (magnetic brake)
Electrolog a wireline well log that consists of a
spontaneous potential, a short normal, a long normal,
and a lateral resistivity. EL
electrolyte a substance that dissolves into positive
and negative ions in water and can conduct an
electrical current. Elearolytes include salts, bases, and
acids and are in contrast to a nonelectrolyte.
electromagnetic propagation log a wireline log
that measures propagation time and attenuation of
very high-frequency electromagnetic waves through
formations close to the wellbore using microwaves.
It is a shallow investigation log (1-4 in.). The tool is
used to estimate, the cementation factor (m), and water
saturation and to identify hydrocarbon zones. EPTm
electromagnetic thickness tool a tool with a
transmitter and receiver coil that uses an alternating
magnetic field to measure the thickness of casing and
locate vertical splits ETC""
electromagnetic waves radiation that is associated
with periodically varying electric and magnetic fields,
travels at the speed about 186,000 miles/s (2.997924
x 108m/s), and can propagate in a vacuum. The
electromagnetic spectrum includes gamma rays,
X-rays, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, microwaves and
radio waves in order of increasing wavelength.
electromotive force a force that produces or
maintains an electric current in a circuit. Electromotive
force is not a force but is the electrical energy that
is developed per unit charge. Electromotive force is
measured in volts and is generated by a) primary
cells, b) storage batteries, c) electrical generators, d)
the thermoelectric effect, e) the pyroelectric effect,
and f) the piezoelectric effect. Electromotive force is
the voltage that causes current flow in a conductor.
EMF, E, or emf

electron a subatomic particle with very little mass

(9.109 x 10~28g) and a -1 electrical charge. Electrons
occur as orbiting clouds of 1 to over 100 electrons
around the nuclei of atoms. Flowing electrons form
an electrical current. Beta radiation is made of
electrons, el
electron density electrons per unit volume
electronic cable see cable
electronic distance meter a device that measures
the travel time of electromagnetic radiation from the
meter to a reflector and back to accurately measure
distance. Some electronic distance meters use
microwave, whereas others use laser radiation. The
accuracy of the meter is 1 part in 10.5 EDM
electronic notice a message sent by Telex,
telecopier, fax, or similar electronic means
electron-spin resonance an analytical method
used to determine the number of unpaired electrons
or free radicals in a substance. Electron-spin resonance
is used to estimate the maturity of kerogen in
sedimentary rocks.
electron volt a unit of energy that is equal to one
quantum of charge in an electron times one volt. An
electron volt is equal to 1.60 x 10"19 joules or 1.6 x
10"12 erg. eV

electrostatic precipitator
electrostatic precipitator 1) apparatus that uses the
electrostatic field on a water-in-oil emulsion to
coagulate water particles. Two plates with a voltage
of 10-25 KeV with 60 cps is used to polarize and
distort the water droplets 60 times each second. The
water is then separated by gravity. The precipitator
cannot be used on an oil-in-water emulsion. 2)
Apparatus that uses an electric field and charge
collector plate to remove fine sediments suspended
in a gas.
electrostatic treater electrical dehydrator
element a substance composed of all the same atoms
with the same chemical and physical properties. There
are 106 different natural elements. Iron (Fe) and
silicon (Si) are examples. The properties of elements
can vary slightly between isotopes of an element.
Elements have the same number of protons and
electrons, but isotopes of an element differ in the
number of neutrons.
elemental analysis the qualitative or quantitative
chemical analysis of a substance into its elemental
compositions such as Fe, Al, C, and O
elephant a giant oil or gas field
elephant hunt exploration for a giant oil or gas
field
Elev or elev elevation
elevation correction the Bouguer and free-air
corrections used for gravimeter data
elevator bails or links the bars that fit in the hook
below the traveling block on a drilling rig to hold
the elevators.

OLLAR

ELEVATORS

SLIPS

elevators

elevators a heavy, clamp-like device on a drilling

rig that hangs from elevator bails on the traveling
block and is used to grip with the elevator spider
the tubular and raise or lower the drillstring, casing,
or tubing in the well. Elevators can be a) drillpipe
elevators, b) casing elevators, or c) tubing elevators
which are sized to fit the tubular.

emissivity

167

elevator spider the hinged, gripping device that is

attached to the elevators on a drilling rig. The spider
is manually or air activated to latch around tubulars
that are being raised or lowered in the well.
el gr elevation of the ground
elimination clause a provision in a unit agreement
that automatically eliminates certain lands from the
unit area after a specific date unless certain
developmental operations are being done (automatic
elimination clause)

It
SHORT

It
LONG

electric logs

E log electric log

elong elongate
elongate anticline an anticline that is at least four
times longer than wide
elongation the increase in gauge length after rupture
divided by the original gauge length. Elongation is
expressed as a percentage of gauge length.
ELSBM exposed location single buoy mooring
EL/T electric log tops
ELY easterly
EM electromagnetic
EMA equivalent methane in air
embd embedded
emer emergency
emergence the relocation of a land position to above
sea level. Emergence is in contrast to submergence.
emergency blowout preventer valve a safety valve
stored on a drill floor that can be stabbed and screwed
into the drillstring
emergency shutdown system manual stations in
a production platform that can deactivate the
equipment
emergency support vessel a ship designed to aid
an offshore platform during a crisis. ESV
EMF or etnf electromotive force
EMI electromagnetic inspection
eminent domain the taking of private lands with
compensation by a government agency for public use
emissivity the ratio of radiant flux from an object
to the radiant flux from a blackbody at the same kinetic
temperature e

168

empirical endless tubing unit

empirical a relationship or formula that was

determined by measurements rather than theory. E
empty hole a well filled with air or gas
Emsian a global age of geological time that existed
about 395-390 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Devonian epoch.
EMUL or emul emulsion
emulsified water an oil-in-water emulsion
emulsifler or emulsifying agent a substance that
is used to produce an emulsion from two liquids
that normally do not mix. Lignosulfonate and
surfactants are used as emulsifiers in drilling mud.
Emulsifiers can be a) ionic (anionic, cationic, or
amphoteric) and b) nonionic.

WATER
DROPS

emulsions (water in oiloil in water)

emulsion 1) the stable mixture of droplets of one

fluid in another fluid that normally does not mix.
Produced fluids can be an oil-in-water in which
droplets of oil are suspended in water and, less
commonly, a water-in-oil in which droplets of water
are suspended in oil. The droplets are called the
dispersed phase, whereas the liquid surrounding the
droplets is the continuous phase. A tight emulsion
has small closely-spaced droplets and is hard to break
in contrast to a loose emulsion that has large, farapart droplets and is easier to break. Produced
emulsions are commonly treated with heat,
electrostatics, and/or chemicals to separate them.
EMUL or etnul 2) The accumulation of basic sediment
and water on the bottom of the tanks.
emulsion block a viscous emulsion of oil and water
in a formation near a wellbore. The emulsion block
is a type of formation damage and can occur in a
carbonate after acidizing. A surfactant additive can be
used in the acid to prevent an emulsion block.
emulsion breaker equipment or a process such as
a heater, mechanical device, electrostatic treater, or
chemicals that break up an emulsion into its
components.
emulsion frac a hydraulic frac method that uses a
water and oil emulsion. The frac fluid has good
proppant carrying properties and is cheaper than highviscosity gelled oil or water. The frac fluid, however,
can form a stable emulsion with the formation fluids.
emulsion mud a water-base drilling mud with a
small amount (l%-40%, but commonly 8%-12%
by volume) of 25-5O API oil for lubricating
characteristics and inhibiting bit balling. Emulsion
mud uses a sodium soap emulsifier. There is a fire
danger in using emulsion mud, and it is difficult to
dispose.
emulsion test a test to qualitatively determine the
components such as water, oil, and sediments in an
emulsion

emulsion treater a type of vertical or horizontal

field separator that uses heat to break an emulsion
such as oil-in-water or water-in-oil. A temperature of
80-180 F is necessary to separate emulsions. The
steel tank has a U-shaped pipe in it called a fire tube.
A fire-tube furnace directs a flame down the center
line of the pipe to heat and break the emulsion in
the direct-fired type of emulsion treater. In the
indirect-fired type of emulsion heater, the flame is
used to heat water that is in contact with the emulsion.
The exhaust gases exit the stack which extends
10-15 ft above the separator. The burner uses either
natural gas or heavy oil. (heater-treater or fire-tube
heater)
emulsion treating the use of an emulsion breaker
which can be a) heat, b) chemicals, c) mechanical,
or d) electrostatic to separate an emulsion, usually
water-in-oil, into its components.
emulsoid colloidal particles that take up water
EMV expected monetary value
EMW equivalent mud weight
EN eroded nozzle
En Enstatic
encapsulation The adsorption of long-chained
polymers to the surface of shale
encroaching water waters entering a producing
formation from the sides (edge water) or below
(bottomwater) as oil and/or gas is produced from
the formation
encroachment the flow of water into an oil or gas
reservoir as the petroleum is produced
end damage damage to the pin or box end of a
tubular
end effector a tool used on the manipulator of a
remote-operated vehicle for work on a subsea
production system. On the end is usually a socket
wrench for installing and removing equipment such
as valves.
endless tubing high strength, ductile steel tubing
with an outer diameter of \Vi in.being common. The
tubing is made of low-carbon steel alloy with very
low sulfur along withchromium, copper, and nickel
for ductibity in length up to 19,000 ft. (coiled,
continuous reeled, or reeled tubing)
endless tubing unit a well service unit that uses
flexible, small-diameter steel tubing wound as a
continuous length on a hydraulically powered tubing
reel. The reel can store up to 16,000 ft of tubing
with an outer diameter of *-VA in. Endless tubing
is in contrast to other types of well service units that
use joints of relatively stiff pipe. The endless tubing
unit is usually used on producing wells that need
pressure control. Endless tubing is used for sand or
paraffin clean out in tubing, initiating flow, and well
stimulation and cementing. A limited amount of
drilling can be done with a downhole hydraulic motor.
The blowout-preventer stack usually includes four
rams including hydraulic cutter, pipe, blind, and slip
rams. As the tubing feeds off the tubing reel, it goes
through a counter which is attached to a level wind
assembly and a pipe straightener. An injector head
with friction blocks' pushes or pulls the tubing in or
out of the well. The coiled tubing greatly reduces

Endo entitlemen program

trip time. Other equipment on the unit includes a
circulating system for nitrogen, acid, or other fluids;
blowout preventers; lubricator; tubing injector head;
and hydraulic crane. The unit usually has a crew of
two. (coiled tubing, continuous tubing, or reeled ppe
unit)
Endo endothyra
endo 1) to lay pipe end to end 2) to slide something
endways
end of curve the depth at the point in a deviated
well in which the curved portion of the build curve
ends. EOC
end-on an arrangement in seismic exploration with
the shot point at or near the end of the geophone
spread
endothermic a chemical reaction during which heat
must be added. Endothermic is in contrast to an
exothermic reaction
endothyrids a type of microfossil that existed from
the Devonian through the Permian periods
end-point a specific time during a reaction. During
titration, it is the point at which the chemical indicator
changes color.
end-to-end 1) a type of reservoir scale waterflood
pattern in which the water injection wells are located
on one end of the field and are progressively moved
toward the other end 2) the length of a valve measured
from one end to the other end of the valve (face-toface)
endurance limit 1) the stress at which a sucker
rod will break after it has been subjected to 10 million
stress reversals 2) the stress at which a substance will
break after hundreds of millions of stress cycles. The
endurance limit is significantly less than rupture stress.
endurance ratio the ratio of endurance limit to static
tensile strength (fatigue ratio)
end user the final purchaser and utilizer of natural
gas from a pipeline. An end user is usually an industrial
user or a power plant.
en echelon a parallel but offset or staggered
arrangement that is similar to shingles on a roof. Folds,
faults, and joints in rocks can be oriented en echelon.
energized acid a mixture of nitrogen in the gas state
and hydrochloric acid in a ratio of about 1,000-1,500
SCF/bbl. Energized acid is used in acidizing to increase
the flowback or cleanup rate.
energy audit an accounting of all the energy
consumed in a particular installation. An energy audit
is used to measure energy efficiency.
energy of adhesion the attraction of surface
molecules across the interface of two immiscible fluids
or one fluid and a solid.
energy of the environment a description of the
power of the erosional process that was active during
the deposition of sediments. A high-energy
environment such as the surf zone on a beach or a
fast-moving river channel will deposit only coarsegrained sediments. A low-energy environment such
as the lagoon behind a reef will deposit fine-grained
muds. If a sedimentary rock contains detrital mud, it
was deposited in a low-energy environment. If it
contains only coarse detrital particles, it was deposited

169

in a high-energy environment. Limestones with micrite

are deposited only in low-energy environments.
eng engine
engine a machine that is designed to convert
combustion of fuel into rotary motion that is used
to drive equipment. An engine is not a motor, eng
engineering technician a skilled employee who
installs and maintains instruments and control devices
in the field
engine house the shed that contains the engine,
often steam, on a cable-tool rig
English ton a weight of 2,240 lbs used in Great
Britain. A short ton of 2,000 lbs is used in the United
States and Canada. The metric ton equals 1,000 kg
or 2,204.62 lbs and is often used as a measure of oil
volume, (long ton)
enhanced oil recovery artificial methods used to
recover more oil after primary production by the
natural reservoir drive and, possibly, waterflooding.
Common enhanced oil recovery methods include
thermal (cyclic steam stimulation, streamflooding, and
in-situ combustion), chemical (polymer, micellarpolymer, and alkaline flooding), and gas miscible
(cyclic carbon-dioxide stimulation, carbon-dioxide
flooding, and nitrogen flooding). In older terminology,
waterflooding was considered part of enhanced oil
recovery. Enhanced oil recovery is sometimes called
tertiary recovery if it occurs after waterflooding. EOR
or ER
enhancement the improvement of data by filtering
enriched gas injection or process an enhanced
oil recovery method that uses miscible displacement
and involves injection into an oil reservoir of natural
gas that either a) naturally contains intermediate
hydrocarbons or b) has been enriched on the surface
by addition of propane, butanes, or pentanes. The
transfer of the intermediate hydrocarbon components
from the displacing gas into the residual oil swells
the residual oil and makes it less viscous. Lean gas
or lean gas and water is then injected to drive the
oil toward a producing well, (condensing gas drive)
enriching gas mixing a natural gas with a higher
heat-content gas in order to increase its Btu content
enstatite a grayish white to yellowish, olive green,
or brown mineral of the pyroxene group that is
composed of MgSiO3. Enstatite is common in
intermediate and basic igneous rocks and occurs in
some sedimentary rocks.
enthalpy the total energy of a system minus the
kinetic and potential energy. Enthalpy is defined as
the sum of an object's internal energy plus the product
of its volume multiplied by the pressure. Enthalpy is
sometimes called heat content.
entirety clause an oil and gas lease provision that
stipulates that later subdivisions or transfers by the
lessor will not affect the lessee's development and
operation on the lease. The lease will be developed
as a unit. Royalties will be paid to owners in proportion
to their acreage.
entitlement the right to refine one lower-tier barrel
of oil.
entitlement program a Federal Energy
Administration requirement that a refiner buy or sell

170

entrain epoch

the right to refine one barrel of lower-tier oil or

entitlement in relation to the amount of lower-tier
oil that the refiner uses. Refineries using new oil or
imported oil received entitlement tickets. Refineries
using old oil purchased entitlement tickets. The
entitlement program was initiated to average the costs
to all refiners. The program has been discontinued.
entrain to drag into a fluid flow
entrained gas gas bubbles in a liquid
entrained liquid mist-sized droplets of liquid in gas
entrained oil crude oil that occurs in very small
amounts in natural gas
entrainment velocity the gas velocity in tubing
necessary to force liquids from the tubing
entry pressure the pressure that is required for one
fluid to replace another fluid in the pores of a rock.
Entry pressure is the minimum capillary pressure that
will force a nonwetting fluid such as oil into a capillary
opening that is saturated with a wetting fluid such
as water. Entry pressure varies inversely with the pore
diameter, (displacement or forefront pressure)
environmental baseline the natural or
predevelopment conditions at a site before
development
environmental impact study a written report of
research performed to determine the environmental
effect of a proposed project. An environmental impact
study includes a) a description of the project, b) a
description of the predevelopmental conditions of the
site, c) the expected effects of the project, d) suggested
solutions to lessen adverse effects of the project, and
e) alternatives of the project
environmental oil-emulsion mud drilling mud
made by water emulsified in a paraffinic oil
enzyme an organic catalyst
eo oil influx
E/O east offset
EOC end of curve
Eoc eocene
Eocene an epoch of geological time about 55-38
m. y. ago. The Eocene is part of the Tertiary period.
Eoc
E of W/L east of west line
Eogene see Paleogene
eogenitic porosity porosity that forms in sediments
after deposition but is characteristic of the
environment of deposition and is affected by changes
in that environment. Eogenitic porosity is formed just
a foot below the surface. Penecontemporaneous
dolomite is an example of eogenitic porosity.
EOL expected opportunity loss
eolian deposited or shaped by wind (aeolian)
eolianite a clastic sedimentary rock composed of
consolidated, wind-blown sediments. An eolianite is
a dune sand that is naturally cemented, (aeolianite)
EOM extractable organic matter
EOR enhanced oil recovery
EOS equations of state
EOSAT the commercial firm that distributes Landsat
data

Eotvos correction a correction for the centrifugal

force of the spinning earth used on a shipboard
gravimeter. If the ship is traveling eastward, the
centrifugal force is larger and the gravimeter will read
low.
Eotvos torsion meter a type of gravity meter that
is used to measure horizontal gravity variations. The
Eotvos torsion meter uses two masses suspended on
a torsion fiber. Differences in gravity cause a rotation
of the masses on the fiber.
Eotvos unit a unit of gravity change over horizontal
distance used with the Etvs torsion balance. An Eotvos
unit is equal to lCT9/cm. E
EP 1) extreme pressure 2) electromagnetic pipe
inspection log 3) explosion proof 4) electric pump
Ep epidote
Ep pattern sweep efficiency
EPA environmental Protection Agency
EP additive a drilling-fluid additive that is used to
lubricate drilling bit bearings under high pressure
(extreme-pressure lubricant)
epeiric sea a broad, shallow extension of the ocean
onto the continental interior
epeirogenic or epeirogenetic Large-scale
structural deformation of rocks by broad uplifts and
downwarps
epiclastic a sedimentary rock composed of
weathered and eroded particles
epifauna animals living on the seafloor rather than
buried in the sediments. Epifauna is in contrast to
infauna.
epigenic tectonic structures such as folding and
faulting that occurred after the deposition of the
sedimentary rock
epigenic dolomite dolomite, a mineral composed
of CaMg(CO3)2, that has replaced calcite in limestone
along natural fractures such as joints in the limestone.
The fractures were routes through which Mg-rich
waters perculated through the limestone when it was
transformed into dolomite. Epigenic dolomite is in
contrast to primary, syngenetic, evaporite, supratidal,
and diagenic dolomite, (secondary, stratigraphic or
tectonic dolomite)
Epilog a computer center-processed log
epithermal neutron a relatively fast neutron, an
atomic particle with the mass of a proton but without
electric charge. Epithermal neutrons have a kinetic
energy level of 100 eV to 0.02 eV. Epithermal neutrons
are emitted by a source, such as an alpha-berillium
reaction or a neutron generator, in a neutron-logging
device. Slower neutrons are called thermal neutrons.
epithermal neutron log a neutron log that detects
high-energy epithermal neutrons to determine the
porosity of the rock. The source and detectors are
skid mounted and pressed against the wellbore. The
epithermal neutron log is often used in air-drilled
holes, (neutron-epithermal-neutron log)
EPM equivalents per million
EPOC extract percent organic carbon
epoch a time subdivision of a period, e.g., Miocene
epoch

E-POR equivalent mud weight

E-POR excellent porosity
EPS early production system
E l ) hydraulic diffusivity 2) capacity 3) dielectric
constant
e l ) relative dielectric constant 2) emissivity
E^SORT extremely poorly sorted
EPT electromagnetic propagation tool
Eq equipment
eq 1) equal 2) equivalent
EQMT equipment
eqnt equant
equalize the exchange of cash between pooled or
unitized parties to balance each party's investment
in the unit. The balance is based on each party's
participation factor.
equalizer 1) the horizontal steel beam that connects
the two pitmen on a beam pumping unit with the
walking beam through an equalizer bearing (cross
yoke) 2) a device used with the mechanical brakes
on the drawworks of a drilling rig to distribute the
braking force to each brake band equally. Some
equalizers are automatic. 3) a hole in the wall between
tanks or compartments that is used to equalized the
liquid level in both tanks
equalizing sub a tool that is designed to equalize
the pressure across subsurface production controls
in the tubing string of a well before reopening or
removing the controls from the well
equalizing valve a valve that is used on a drillstem
test tool. The valve allows drilling fluid to bypass
thepacker through the inside of the drilpipe and is
normally open.
equant a sedimentary particle with a length less
than 1.5 width, eqnt
equations of state the mathematical relations
between volume, pressure, and temperature of a pure
substance and between volume, pressure,
temperature, and composition of a mixture. EOS
equigranular a substance such as a rock that is
composed of crystals of about the same size. The term
homogranular is preferred.
equilibrium a state that exists when all forces or
processes that are acting on an object or substance
are in balance. In physics, an object in equilibrium
will be at rest or be moving with a constant velocity.
In chemistry, a substance is in equilibrium when the
amount of one phase such as solid, liquid, or gas
that is going to another phase is equal to the amount
coming back to the original phase.
equilibruim calculation a compulation of the
phase behavior of a process or reservoir oil and gas
(flash calculation)
equilibrium constant Yt/Xt where Yt is the mol
fraction of a component in the vapor phase and Xt
is the mol fraction of the component in the liquid
phase. The equilibrium constant is a function of
temperature, pressure, and composition. (Kfactor,
partition coefficient, or vapor-liquid equilibrium) K
equilibrium gas drive crude oil displacement in
a reservoir by gas with little or no exchange between
the gas and oil in contrast to miscible drive

171

equilibrium point the location on a depositional

profile at which the rate of eustatic change of sea
level is equal to the rate of subsidence or uplift. The
equilibrium point is used in seismic or sequence
stratigraphy to separate rising from falling sea levels.
equilibrium profile the characteristic longitudinal
profile of a graded stream which has a gradient at
each point along the stream that is just sufficient to
transport the stream load without erosion or
deposition. The profile is a smooth parabolic curve
that is concave upward and is steeper at the source
and flatter at the mouth, (gradedprofile)
equip equipment
equipment costs monies spent for salvageable,
tangible, and personal property. Equipment costs do
not include the cost of installing the equipment.
Equipment costs are amoritized more rapidly than
lease costs but are not currently deductable as are
IDCs.
equipment production payment a type of
production payment, a share of the oil or gas produced
from wells, that is free of the costs of production
and continues until a specific time. Money from the
equipment production payment which is contributed
by the owner of a working interest in the wells is
used to equip and complete the wells being drilled.
equipotential line a contour line of groundwater
pressure head (isopiestic or isopotential line, or
piezometric contour)
equipotential surface a surface of equal fluid
potential
equitable balancing a system developed by the
courts on behalf of working interest owners
(underproduced party) who have not taken an amount
of gas equal to the percentage of cumulative gas
production that they own. This system permits an
owner to correct the imbalance by making up the
underage through disproportionately higher takes
(volumetric balancing) or cash payments from the
overproduced party (cash balancing). Equitable
balancing can be done without a contract or statute
that applies.
equitable servitudes land use restrictions such as
zoning or deed covenants that are enforceable by
law
equity crude or oil the proportion of production
that is allotted by contract to the operating company
by a county (concession crude)
Equiv or equiv equivalent
equivalent the amount of a substance that will react
with one mole of H+ or OH~ ions (gram equivalent
weight) Equiv or equiv
equivalent circulating density the effective mud
density at a specific depth in a well as the mud is
circulating. Equivalent circulating density is the
hydrostatic pressure plus the annular circulating
pressure drop above a point in the well. It is expressed
as the static mud weight that would exert the same
pressure at that point in the well. Equivalent circulating
density is controlled by the mud properties, the flow
rate, and the geometry of the wellbore. It is usually
expressed in lb/gal. ECD
equivalent mud weight the effective mud density
at a specific depth in a well as the mud is circulating

172

equivalents per million ethane

and hydrostatic pressure is superimposed. Equivalent

mud weight is the sum of the hydrostatic, circulating,
and surface pressure at a point in a well. It is expressed
as the static mud weight that would exert the same
pressure at that point in the well. Equivalent mud
weight is controlled by mud properties, flow rate,
geometry of the wellbore, and annular surface
pressure. It is usually expressed in lb/gal. BMW
equivalents per million the unit chemical weight
of a solute dissolved in one million unit weights of
solvent. Equivalents per million of a solute is equal
to the part per million divided by the equivalent
weight. EPM
equivalent weight the atomic weight of an ion
divided by its valence
ER enhanced recovery
ER reservoir recovery efficiency
Er oil recovery efficiency
er detector elevation with respect to datum
ERA Energy Regulatory Agency
era a major time division of earth history, e.g.,
Paleozoic era
erection load the stress or load on the drilling rig
caused by the raising and lowering of the mast
Erian a North American age of geological time that
occurred about 390-385 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Devonian period.
EROS earth resources orbiting satellite
erosion 1) the wearing away and removal of a
material 2) the formation of sediments from rocks
by weathering and their transportation to another
location
erosional drilling drilling using the hydraulic
action of high-velocity jets of drilling fluid from the
nozzles of a jet bit. Sometimes abrasives are added
to the drilling fluid to make the drilling more efficient.
erosional transgression an advance of the seas
onto the land caused by erosion along the shoreline
erosional velocity the gas velocity that will abrade
and remove the protective coating in a flowline and
accelerate corrosion
error map a map showing the expected variation
in the estimates of a mapped surface
ERTS Earth Resources Technology Satellite
ERW electric resistance weld
ES electric survey
es source elevation with respect to datum
esc escavation
escalator or escalation clause a provision in a gas
contract that provides for an increase in the base price
of the gas because of the long contract time
escape clause A disclaimer that is used on log
interpretations that limits the liability of the interpreter
on the accuracy of the interpretations.
escheat the reversion of property ownership to the
government where there are no legal heirs
escrow a written document, or possibly money or
goods, that provides an obligation between parties
escrow seismic an arrangement in which
exploration companies contribute money in escrow

for use by a seismic contractor. The contractor runs

seismic and shares the seismic with the companies
that contributed. After a period of time, the seismic
is sold and the proceeds are put in the escrow to
run more seismic.
ESD emergency shutdown
Eshka method e technique used to determine the
sulfur content of crude oil
Esopusian a North American age of geological time.
It is part of the Devonian period.
ESP expanding spread profile
ESP measured spontaneous potential
essay an old term for a wildcat well
Egsp static spontaneous potential
Est estate
est 1) estimate 2) estimated
ESTA estimate
established reserves unproduced oil and gas whose
location and estimated amounts are reasonably
established by existing wells and other geological and
engineering data. Established reserves include all of
the proven reserves and some of the probable
reserves.
ester a compound formed by the reaction between
an organic acid and alcohol
estuary a coastal indentation usually formed by a
drowned river mouth caused by rising sea level. Fresh
water and seawater mix in an estuary.
ES-IT-S salt dome profilin
ESV emergency support vessel
E,- volumetric efficiency
e, tubing stretch
t| 1) kinematic viscosity 2) overvoltage 3) hydraulic
diffusivity
et al. and others
etching the chemical solution by acid of a substance
such as a rock
etch tube the acid bottle used in an acid bottle
inclinometer. It is often made of soda-lime-glass

H
I

H
I

H-CC-H
I
I
H H
ethane

ethane a hydrocarbon (C2H,;) of the paraffin or

methane series found in some natural gases. Ethane
is the second most common natural gas after methane
but is a minor constituent of biogenic and dry gas.
Ethane has a molecular weight of 30.07, a specific
gravity of 0.36, a boiling point of 127F at 14.7 psia,
a vapor pressure of 800 psia at 100F, a critical
temperature of 90F, a critical pressure of 708 psia,
and a gross heat content of 1768.8 Btu/cu ft . Ethane

ethene or ethylene excess cash

as plastic. The concentrated brine is disposable in

another location, (evaporative pit or pond)
evaporative dolomite a mineral [CaMg(CO3)2] that
is formed by the replacement calcite of limestone.
Evaporative dolomite is caused by evaporation of
lagoonal waters in a tropical climate which causes
CaCO3 to precipitate and the water to become
enriched relative to Mg. The Mg-enriched waters
perculating down through recently deposited
limestone between the shoreline and lagoon alters
the calcite into dolomite. Evaporative dolomite is in
contrast to primary, syngenetic, supratidal, epigenic,
and tectonic dolomite.
Evaporative pit or pond see evaporation pit or pond
evaporative unit an apparatus that is used in the
field to reduce the volume of produced water from
wells. The unit uses a fire tube to form steam and
concentrate the salts into a brine with a liquid volume
reduction of about 90%. (steamer unit)
evening tour the shift on a drilling rig that goes
from 4:00 p.m. to midnight. The evening tour is
between the day and morning tours.
i

T ?

it

4
|

5 MILES

i f
f
-US

l-

-in

is considered part of natural gas liquids and is used

as a fuel and a feedstock to make ethylene. C2
ethene or ethylene a hydrocarbon (C2H4) of the
olefin or alkane series that can occur naturally or be
formed by refinery process. In petroleum-bearing
basins, ethylene is the most common hydrocarbon,
along with methane, dissolved in ground water.
Ethylene can also be formed by cracking in a refinery
or in an olefins or ethylene plant. Ethylene is an
important feedstock for the petrochemical industry.
ethylene glycol a colorless liquid that is often used
as a desiccant in a glycol dehydrator.
E/2 east half
ETR early-time region
et seq and those that follow
ETT electromagnetic thickness tool
et ux and wife
et vir and husband
EU 1) environmental unit 2) external upset
eu-bitumen a fluid bitumen. Eu-bitumen is easily
soluable in organic solvents and includes petroleum,
ozokerite, and asphalt.
euhd euhedral
euhedral a mineral crystal with well developed faces
in contrast to anhedral. euhd
EUR estimated ultimate recovery
eustatic a worldwide sea level change
eux euxinic
euxinic an anaerobic environment. In water, euxinic
occurs where the circulation is restricted (restricted
basin), and animal respiration and decay uses up the
oxygen dissolved in the water. The water in a basin
can be stagnant and euxinic below a certain depth
due to a sill or because of temperature or salinity
stratification. Organic matter deposited in a euxinic
environment will not decay, and highly organic
sediments, such as black shales, can be deposited and
preserved as potential source rocks for future
petroleum generation, eux
EV expected value
Ey or Ey volumetric sweep efficiency
eV electron-volt
EVA evaluation of velocity and attenuation
evacuated container a method used to take a gas
sample for analysis. A sample container with a vacuum
is used to obtain the sample.
eval evaluate
Evap or evap evaporite
evaporite or evaporites 1) minerals deposited from
the evaporation of a saline solution 2) a sedimentary
rock layer composed of salts precipitated from the
evaporation of water. The minerals and rocks
commonly include salt layers of halite, gypsum, and
anhydrite along with chemically precipitated
limestone. Evap or evap
evaporation pit or pond an excavation with a large
surface area of a fraction to several acres that is used
to reduce the volume of produced water from wells
by evaporation. The pit is either dug in impermeable
soil or lined with clay or an impermeable liner such

173

IS
T

-?-

SECONDS

event

event a line of traces on a seismic record that could

be a reflection, refraction, diffraction, or other
phenomenon from the subsurface (seismic event)
even time the arrangement of crew shifts on an
offshore drilling rig so that each crew spends tour
weeks offshore with 12-hour tours followed by two
weeks ashore. There are three 12-hour tours; the crew
from one tour is ashore while the crew from the
other two tours work offshore.
Eys vertical sweep efficiency
EW 1) electric weld 2) exploratory well
ew water influx
EWR electromagnetic wave resistivity
EWSRT extremely well sorted
ex excellent
EX east extension
exa the metric prefix for 1018. E
EXC excellent
exc excavation
exception well a well that was authorized or drilled
as an exception to the well spacing allocated by a
government regulatory agency
excess cash money that is not committed to
development or property and is unrelated to the
project. Excess cash is passed as additional

174

excess factor expansion gas drive

consideration between parties in a sharing

arrangement.
excess factor the amount of cement slurry used in
a cement job that is greater than the computed or
theoretical volume that is needed
excess oil excessive production
excessive dogleg a change in a well's direction and/
or inclination that is abrupt enough to cause sticking
tools and excessive stress for equipment and tubulars
in the well. Excessive dogleg is in contrast to a
permissible dogleg.
excessive production petroleum produced in
excess of the allowable granted by a government
regulatory agency (excess oil, hot oil, or illegal oil)
excess royalty 1) royalty (payment) in excess of one
eighth 2) an overriding royalty
exch exchange
exchange agreement an arrangement between two
parties to deliver oil or gas to one party at one location
in exchange for the delivery of oil or gas to the other
party at another location
exchange and renewal lease a new lease that is
issued in trade for an older lease
exchange cation a positive ion such as Ca++, Mg++,
K+, NH4+, Na+, or H+ that is located on a clay mineral
surface and can be easily replaced by another cation.
The ability of a clay mineral to exchange cations is
measured with the cation-exchange capacity.
exchange of property for services a barter
agreement in which property such as leases or
equipment is traded for services such as drilling a
well. An exchange of property for services can have
unfavorable tax consequences.
exchanger see heat exchanger
exciter a small direct current generator that is used
to generate the field for a main generator
excl excellent
Exclas or exclas extraclast
exclusive license permit granted by a country to
explore, drill, and produce petroleum from a block
without any competition. An exclusive license is in
contrast to a nonexclusive license.
EXC-T excessive temperature
excursion the lateral movement of a curve on a well
log
excuse provision a clause in a farmout agreement
that states the conditions under which a farmee can
stop drilling an earning well. The conditions are
usually that the drilling has become impossible or
impracticable, and a substitute well could be
permitted.
executive right the legal right to sign a document
such as a lease
exempt allowables the amount of petroleum that
is permitted to be produced from a well, leasehold,
or field by a governement regulatory agency during
a certain time that is not subject to a proration factor
or reduction in amount. Exempt allowables are
granted in special instances such as discovery,
marginal, and waterflood wells.

exempt gas categories of gas that are exempted by

Section 107 of the 1978 Natural Gas Policy Act from
federal price ceilings. Deep gas is exempt gas.
exh exhaust
exhaust the burned gases from an engine, exh
exhausted well a well in which production has
declined below profitability
exhauster a dynamic compressor with an inlet
pressure that is less than atmospheric
exhaust manifold the system of pipes that collects
the burned gases from the cylinders of an engine
and directs them to the exhaust pipe
exhaust valve the cam-operated valve on the
cylinder of an engine that allows the burned gases
to pass into the exhaust manifold
exhibit an attachment that specifies details on an
agreement. On a lease, an exhibit is a separately listed
provision, (allonge or rider)
exinite kerogen derived from pollen grains and
spores in sedimentary rocks
exist existing
exothermic a chemical reaction during which heat
must be removed. Exothermic is in contrast to an
endothermic reaction.
exp exposed
expanded perlite a cement additive that is made
from a volcanic glass of rhyolite composition that has
been finely ground and intensely heated to drive off
water. Expanded perlite is used to decrease the weight
of the cement and increase yield.
expanding cement a type of cement used in wells
that expands against the filter cake and pipe on setting.
Expanding cement is a mixture of anhydrous calcium
sulfoaluminate, calcium sulfate, and lime along with
Portland cement.
expanding spread profile A marine seismic
technique in which two ships are used. One ship
tows an air-gun array firing about every 20 seconds,
and the other ship tows the streamer cables. The ships
steam at 25 nautical miles (50 km) toward each other
from a distance of about 25 nautical miles (50 km),
pass and steam apart for another 50 km. ESP
expansion bend or loop a U-shaped bend in a pipe
that is designed to compensate for expansion and
contraction of the pipe
expansion bit a drill bit that can be adjusted to
several sizes
expansion chamber an enlarged pipe on a choke
manifold that slows the fluid flowing out of the choke
manifold
expansion dome a cylindrical tank used on the top
of a storage tank to allow liquids to expand without
overflowing the storage tank
expansion factor the change in gas density at a
pressure change across an orifice, -y
expansion fit a very tight union formed by placing
a cooled part inside a warmer part. The expansion
of the cooled part as it warms forms the expansion
fit. Expansion fit is in contrast to a shrink fit.
expansion gas drive see pressure depletion drive

expansion refrigeration explosive fracturing 175

expansion refrigeration a method used to remove
water from natural gas in order to meet pipeline
specifications. A horizontal, vertical, or T-bone tank
is used, with the horizontal tank being preferred. The
fluid is passed through a jet that causes cooling by
expansion, and the water liquifies into a hydrate. A
coil is used to melt the hydrate. The gas, water, and
any oil is then separated by gravity.
expansion vessel a first-stage separator on a lowtemperature or cold-separator unit. The expansion
vessel is often equipped with a heating coil or a glycol
injector.
expected monetary value the expected value (risk
times value of that consequence), expressed in money,
of a decision such as drilling and completing a well.
EMV
expected value a method of analyzing the riskadjusted return on a project such as drilling a well.
All possible financial results of drilling a well from
dry hole to large discovery are calculated and then
multiplied by the estimated probability of that
occurrence expressed as a decimal. The sum of these
is the expected value of the proposed well. EV
Expend expendable (perforating gun)
expendable gun a type of perforating gun that has
individually pressure-sealed cases of ceramic,
aluminum, glass, or cast iron for shaped explosive
charges that disintegrate in the well. The gun is
lowered on an insulated shooting cable and detonated
electrically. The explosive blast shoots fragments of
the case into the formation. There may or may not
be a steel carrier to contain the blast, and the debris
remains in the well, (nonretrievable gun) Expend
expendable hole a slim hole that is drilled offshore
to define a structure outlined on seismic before a
platform is set. The slim hole is drilled, logged, and
then plugged and abandoned.
expendable-retrievable gun a type of perforating
gun that is run on wire and is a cylindrical, hollow
tube with strip jets in ceramic or glass cases. The
gun leaves a minimum amount of debris in the well
but cannot be reused, (semiexpendable gun)
expendable well an exploratory well drilled for the
purpose of obtaining geological information rather
than oil or gas production
expense 1) monies spent on purchasing
hydrocarbons, equipment, supplies, leases, and/or
services 2) the deduction of monies for purchases
from income in the year that the purchases were made.
Expense is in contrast to capitalization, which is
generally less favorable.
expense-bearing interest see working interest
expensed an accounting method in which the costs
are deducted from income in the year that the costs
were incurred. Expensed is in contrast to capitalized
and is the generally preferred method from a tax
position.
expense-free interest an interest in oil and gas
property, such as a royalty interest, that does not share
the expense of production of the oil and gas
expir expiration
EXPL exploratory

expl exploration
exploitation the development of a petroleum
reservoir
exploitation well see development well
exploration the activities involved in the search for
petroleum reservoirs. Exploration can be geological,
geophysical, and geochemical.
exploration agreement or contract a three-phase
joint operating agreement. In the first phase, geological
and geophysical information is shared. In the second
phase, exploratory wells are drilled. In the third phase,
the developmental wells are drilled. There is a
nonconsent penalty if one party does not participate
in the drilling.
exploration costs the costs of geological,
geochemical, and geophysical exploration and the
drilling of exploratory wells
exploration license a permit granted by a country
to a party to explore for petroleum in any part of a
large designated area not covered by a production
license, (prospecting or reconnaissance license)
explorationist a geologist who explores for
petroleum
exploratory period or term the time during which
a lessee can maintain a lease by drilling wells or paying
delay rentals. It is the primary term of a lease.
exploratory well a well drilled in order to locate
an undiscovered petroleum reservoir, either by
discovering a new field or a new shallower or deeper
reservoir in a previously discovered field. An
exploratory well can also be drilled to significantly
extend the limits of a discovered reservoir. Exploratory
wells have high risk but can have great returns on
investment by discovering significant reserves. A
wildcat well is sometimes differentiated from an
exploratory well; the wildcat well does not have
seismic data to support the prospect. Types of
exploratory wells include a) new-field wildcat, b) newpool wildcat, c) deeper pool test, d) shallower pool
test, and e) outpost or extension test, or step-out
well. EW
explosimeter a device that detects flammable gases
and is calibrated in percentages of the lower explosive
limit of those gases in air
explosion proof EP
explosure cord explosives in a woven sleeve
covered with plastic. An explosive cord is used to
connect seismic charges or is planted in a trench as
a seismic source.
explosive fracturing a technique that uses an
explosive such as nitroglycerine which is detonated
in the well to increase the size of the wellbore and
to fracture the reservoir rock to increase production.
The Robert's torpedo, which was first developed in
1865, was a 4-ft tin cylinder that was originally filled
with gun powder and lowered into the well. The
torpedo was detonated by lowering an iron weight
on a wire. The gun powder was replaced with
nitrogycerine. The casing above the explosion can
be protected with a temporary plug of cement, plastic,
or gravel. Sand and gravel can be packed around the
nitroglycerine shell to contain the explosion. The

176

explosive jar external upset

explosive can be detonated with a time bomb. After

the explosion, the debris is cleared from the well.
Casing cannot be set in a well after explosive fracturing,
and an openhole completion must be used. The
explosive fracturing porcess is called giving the well
a shot. Explosive fracturing has been replaced by
hydraulic fracturing and acidizing, (nitro shooting or
shooting)
explosive jar a jar that uses an explosion to deliver
a very hard blow to a hammer. The explosive jar is
used to loosen a stuck choke or production control
in the tubing. The jar can be rearmed and used again.
explosive limits the upper and lower percentages
of gas concentration in an air-gas mixture that will
result in an ignitable mixture
explosive snuffing a technique used to extinguish
the fire on a burning well. An explosion of dynamite
over the well drives the oxygen out and snuffs the
fire. The metal surrounding the fire must first be
cooled by water so that it does not reignite the fire.
exponential decline an oil well production decline
rate or curve that is a constant percentage such as
10% per year. Plotting the average rate versus
cumulative production forms a straight line on regular
coordinate paper. The equation for constant
percentage decline is: Q, = Qfi~Dt where Q, =
production rate at a certain time, Q, = initial
production rate, e = base of the natural logarithm
(2.7182), D = decline as a fraction of production rate,
and t = time. Constant percentage decline is the most
commonly used method to duplicate a well's decline
curve, (constantpercentage decline)
exp pig expendable plug
express covenant a specific promise in a lease.
Express covenants could refer to the burial of
pipelines, damage for crops, free gas, or a variety of
other provisions. An express covenant is in contrast
to an implied covenant.
express drilling clause an oil and gas lease
provision that requires a well to be drilled by a specific
party to the lease
expropriation the seizure of private property by
a government. In some instances, the owners have
been fully or partially compensated for the lost
property, and in other instances, there has been no
compensation. Multinational oil companies with their
production, transportation, and refining equipment
have been frequent targets of expropriation by foreign
countries, (nationalization)
expulsion the migration of oil and gas out of a source
rock. Expulsion is caused by primarily by the
expansion of organic matter into petroleum. The
pressure generated by the formation of petroleum
fractures the source rock to create routes of migration.
(primary migration)
expulsion efficiency the amount, usually expressed
as a percentage, of generated hydrocarbons that have
been effectively expulsed from the source rock.
Expulsion efficiency often ranges from 0% to 70%.
exst existing
EXT 1) extension well
ext 1) external 2) extrapolated
extended nozzle bit a roller-cone bit with drillingfluid channels that are extended farther out than on

a normal roller-cone bit, so that the drilling mud is

jetted out directly onto the teeth of the cones. The
extended nozzle bit is used for drilling soft, sticky
formations.
extender a filler type of additive that has little or
no effect on the chemical or physical properties of
the substance to which it is added. Bentonite is
commonly used as an extender in cement.
extension 1) additional reserves given to a reservoir
because of an increase in the proven area of the
reservoir 2) an increase in the area of a field's boundary
due to drilling
extension fracture a natural fracture in a rock
caused by tensional forces. The fracture is oriented
parallel to a,, the maximum stress, and perpendicular
to cr3, the minimum stress.
extension and renewal clause a provision in an
agreement that provides for the continuation through
all future renewals and extensions on the lease of
the overriding royalties or oil payments that were
created from a working interest on that lease
extension test or well a well drilled in the expected
extent of a reservoir that is being developed but at
a significant distance, usually two or more drilling
and spacing units, from the nearest producer in that
reservoir (delineation well, outpost or step-out well)
EXT
external casing packer an expanding device that
is used to seal the area between the casing and the
sides of the wellbore. The external casing packer can
be seated and filled with cement to obtain a very
positive seal between the casing and well walls. It is
often used in cement jobs to limit vertically the area
of cement along the sides of the casing.
external cutter a fishing tool that is lowered on a
fishing string over a pipe in a well and rotated to
cut the pipe from the outside with mechanical knives.
An external cutter is in contrast to an internal cutter.
external guylines the wires that run from a mast
or derrick on a drilling rig or workover unit to anchors.
External guylines provide stability.
external patch a patch made to repair casing or
attach casing to another casing string in the well. The
external patch is applied with a casing-patch tool and
is be made of neoprene or lead, (casing bowl or
patch)
external phase the fluid that completely surrounds
the globules of the dispersed phase (suspended phase)
in an emulsion. Oil is the continuous phase in a waterin-oil emulsion and water in an oil-in-water emulsion.
(continuous phase)
external rate of return a method for evaluating a
project such as drilling a well. External rate of return
is the investment rate required so that the
compounded value of all the money obligations are
equal to the ultimate value of the compounded returns.
external thread a thread located on the outside
surface of a connection. An external thread mates with
an internal thread, (male thread)
external upset a section of thicker wall that
protrudes outward along the threaded end of a tubular
such as drillpipe. External upset is in contrast to an
internal upset. EU

extr Exv or exv

extr extremely
extraclast a calcarious detrital particle produced by
erosion of an older rock from outside the area of
deposition. Exclas or exclas
extract the organic matter removed from sediments
or sedimentary rocks by organic solvents. Two
methods of extraction are soxhlet and ultrasonic.
(kerogen)
extraction plant equipment such as a contactor or
absorber that is used to remove liquids from
casinghead or wet gas
extradune area the environment that is marginal
to eolian (wind blown) sediments in the desert. The
sediments deposited on the extradune area are not
wind blown and could be saline lake or alluvial fan
in origin.
extra-gauge larger than the diameter of the wellbore
extra-heavy crude crude oil that is less than 10
API
extra-heavy oil crude oil that has a "API of less than
10
extraneous gas 1) natural gas that is produced but
is not covered by a pooling or unitization agreement

177

2) gas injected into an underground gas-storage

reservoir
extra-weight drillpipe heat-treated, seamless
heavy-weight drillpipe that has a longer box end and
pin end than normal drillpipe. The outer diameter
is the same as a normal drillpipe but the walls are
thicker and it weighs about twice as much as a normal
drillpipe. Extra-weight drillpipe is used in directional
drilling and between the drillpipe and drill collars
to prevent drillstring failure.
extreme-pressure lubricant a drilling fluid
additive that is used to lubricate drilling bit bearings
under high pressure (EP additive)
extension fracture a fracture caused by tensile
stress. The fracture surface will be oriented normal
to the maximum tensile stress direction (crj).
extrusive rock an igneous rock that flowed onto
the surface of the earth and solidified. Extrusive rock
is typically composed of very small mineral grains.
Volcanic lava such as basalt is an example of extrusive
rock. Extrusive rock is in contrast to an intrusive
igneous rock that solidifies in the subsurface.
Exv or exv extrusive

178

F Fahrenheit temperature scale

F 1) from 2) Fahrenheit 3) factor 4) force

(mechanical) 5) formation-resistivity factor 6) fuel 7)
free 8) flowing 9) torque factor 10) number of degrees
of freedom 11) farad
f 1) fine 2) frequency 3) fraction 4) fluid 5) formation
6) front 7) fugacity 8) flash separation. 9) coefficient
of friction 10) fracture 11) fathom 12) femto- 13)
Fanning friction factor (dimensionless)
F* apparent formation factor
F/ 1) flowing 2) flowed 3) fractured with
F Degrees Fahrenheit
FA foaming agents
Fa orifice thermal expansion factor
Fab fabricate

SAND

SHALE

facies map

Fac or fee facet

face ejection bit a type of rotary coring bit in which

drilling fluid passes through longitudinal holes in the
wall of the bit to the face of the bit. A face ejection
bit is used in soft formations, bottom-discharge bit
face-to-face the length of a valve measured from
one end to the other end (end-to-end)
facies a distinctive part of a rock layer that is different
from the rest of the rock layer in either composition
(lithofacies) or fossils (biofacies). A sedimentary facies
is an areally restricted part of a stratigraphic unit,
such as a formation, that is significantly different in
character from other parts of the unit.

facies triangle a triangle with sandstone, shale, and

limestone, carbonates, or nonclastics at the apexes.
The percent composition of a sedimentary rock can
be plotted on the triangle.
sandstone

limestone

50%

shale

facies triangle
facies change

facies change the change in one rock layer, either

laterally or vertically, from one rock type to another
such as a sandstone to a shale, or in fossil content.
Facies changes are often gradational or interfingering.
facies map a map that illustrates the aerial variations
in rock composition (lithofacies) or fossil content
(biofacies) in a particular rock unit

factor of safety see safety factor

Fahrenheit temperature scale the temperature
scale based on the freezing point of fresh water at
32 and the boiling point at 212. Degrees Centigrade
or Celsius can be converted into degrees Fahrenheit
by multiplying 9A and adding 32. Degrees Fahrenheit
can be converted into degrees Centigrade or Celsius
by subtracting 32 and multiplying by 5/<>. The scale
is named after Gabriel Fahrenheit, a German physicist
(1686-1736). F

Fail or fail farewell sand

FAIL or foil 1) failure 2) failed

failed arm

Sailed arm one arm of a triple-junction spreading

center that stopped spreading. In the theory of seafloor
spreading and plate tectonics, spreading centers often
originate as triple junctions, three spreading arms
radiating out from a point. One arm eventually fails
or stops spreading and the other two arms continue
to spread as a single continuous rift. The failed arm
is a basin that eventually is filled with sediments.
fail safe equipment that is designed to automatically
shut down or stabilize if a component fails
fail to go to not explode
failure the yield of a substance by ductile flow or
brittle fracture
fairlead 1) the guidance device used to spool wire
rope on a reel 2) a rope or wire that is protected
from wear
fair market value the price that something would
receive if put on the market for a reasonable time
by a willing seller from a willing buyer. Fair market
value is "the amount a willing buyer will pay a willing
seller, with the property or interest exposed to the
market for a reasonable period, neither the buyer
nor the seller being under a compulsion to buy or
to sell, both being competent and having reasonable
knowledge of the facts." FMV
fairway 1) the area along the trend of gas and/or
oil deposits of a particular type in a particular area.
For example, the fairway could be a trend of reefs
or folds along the shelf margin of an ancient basin.
2) the area of thickest pay or best porosity in a long
field 3) a shipping lane in federal waters where
permanent drilling and production structures are
prohibited
FAL 1) RUM log 2) formation-analysis log
FAL flow analysis log
fallback the downward flow of produced fluids in
a well during artificial lift, (slippage)
falloff test a pressure transient test that is similar
to a buildup test but is used on water-injection wells.
The injection rate is held constant, the well is shut
in, and the decrease of bottomhole pressure is
recorded.
Fa thermal-expansion factor
false cap the hard, calcite-cemented sedimentary
rocks, usually sandstone, that can occur above the
cap rock of a salt dome
false-colors the deliberate shift or change of colors
on an aerial or satellite photograph. False colors are

179

used when a portion of the visible and near infrared

spectrum are imaged. The colors on the photograph
are then shifted to show the infrared response as
red, the visible red as green, and the visible green
as blue.
false horizon a seismic reflection that is not real
and is due to multiple reflections
Famennian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 380-365 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Upper Devonian epoch.
Fancher holder a core holder used with a
permeameter to measure the permeability of a core
or a rectangular-shaped sample. The sample is put
in the holder where a rubber compression ring is
forced around it to form a seal along the sides of
the sample. Dry air is then passed through the sample.
The permeability of the core is" calculated from Darcy's
law. A Hassler chamber or holder serves the same
purpose.
flan delta a deposit of sediments similar to an alluvial
fan. A fan delta is deposited by a high energy mountain
stream flowing into the ocean.
F&FA fooling and fiddling around
F&L fuel and lubricant
fanglomerate alluvial fan sediments that have been
cemented into sedimentary rock
Fanning friction factor a dimensionless number
that is used to determine flow-friction pressure losses.
The Fanning friction factor is denned a s / = (-TA I
/U2p\

(-^1 in which p is the flow-friction pressure loss

in lb/ft2, d is the pipe diameter in ft., L is the length
of the pipe in ft., U is the average flow velocity in
ft/sec, p is the fluid density in lb/ft3, and g is the
acceleration of gravity (32.174 ft/sec.2)./
fanning the bottom drilling a well with relatively
little weight on the bit in order to prevent drilling a
crooked hole
Fann viscometer an instrument used to accurately
measure the properties of a drilling fluid. The Fann
viscometer works similar to a blender. Plastic viscosity,
yield point, apparent viscosity, and gel strength are
measured.
fan shooting refraction seismic exploration with
geophone lines located in fan-shaped arrays radiating
from the shot point. Fan shooting was used to detect
salt domes.
Fan viscometer or V-G meter an instrument
commonly used to measure the viscosity and gel
strength of drilling mud. The Fann viscometer uses
a rotating outer cup driven by an electric motor. The
drilling mud is contained in the space between the
inner and outer cup, and the torque on the stationary
inner cup is measured. The scale is in centipoises
(cp) when the outer cup is rotated at 300 rpm.
farad a derived unit in System International (SI) for
electrical capacitance. Farad is calculated by C/V. A
1-farad capacitator stores an electrical charge of 1
coulomb (C) when 1 volt is applied. F
farewell sand the lowest possible producing zone
in an area

180

farm boss fault gouge

farm boss the foreman who is in charge of some

oil leases
farmee or farminee the party in a farmout
agreement who is obliged to drill a well (earning
well) to certain specifications in the arrangement in
order to receive support interest in mineral rights
acreage from the other party who is called the farmor.
(farmoutee)
farmer a clumsy oilfield worker
farmer's oil royalty payment to the lessor
farmer's sand 1) the oil formation that occurs below
"every" landowner's property 2) a producing
sandstone that the mineral rights owner claims is
located below the bottom of a well drilled on the
land
farmer's well 1) a well dug by hand 2) any very
shallow well
farmin or farm-in 1) an interest in mineral rights
obtained through a farmout agreement 2) to obtain
a farmout agreement from another party FI
farmor or fat-minor the party in a farmout
agreement who contributes an interest in mineral
rights acreage to the other party, called the farmee,
in return for a well (earning well) being drilled.
(farmouter)
farmout or farm out 1) the interest in mineral rights
given through a farmout agreement 2) to give a farmout
agreement to another party 3) see farmout agreement

FASB Financial Accounting Standards Board

FAST fracture-assisted steamflood technology
fastice immoble ice in Arctic waters
fast line the end of the drilling line on a drilling
rig that is attached to the drawworks. The fast line is
reeled on and off the reel to raise and lower equipment
in the well. The fast line moves with greater velocity
than any other portion of the drilling line. The other
end is called the deadline. FL
FAST Process fracture-assisted steamflood process
fast sheave the sheave on the crown block through
which the fastline is reeled
fathom a nautical measure of depth that is equal to
6 ft or 1.8288 m./
fatigue metal failure under repeated stress
fatigue endurance limit the maximum bending
stress that will not result in permanent failure or fatigue
of a tubular
fatigue ratio the ratio of endurance limit to static
tensile strength, (endurance ratio)
fat oil the oil from an absorption plant that is rich
in gasoline. Natural gas is bubbled through lean oil
in an absorption tower. The oil absorbs liquid
hydrocarbons and becomes fat oil. The light
hydrocarbons are then distilled out of the fat oil and
it becomes lean oil.
Fau or fau fauna

FO or F/O

farmout agreement an agreement between two

parties in which one party, the farmor, contributes
interests in mineral leases in compensation to another
party, the farmee, who drills a well(s) called the
earning well(s) on the leases. The farmor usually
retains an interest in the leases that were farmed out.
In the conventional farmout, the farmor assigns a 100%
working interest in the well to the farmee and reserves
an overriding royalty interest. After payout, the
overriding royalty interest converts to a working
interest. The interest assigned to the farmee can be
either a present assignment or assigned when earned.
In an off-lease farmout, the interest earned is not on
the earning well drilling and spacing unit.
farmout area the acreage covered by a farmout
agreement. The farmout area can consist of one or
more earning blocks.
farmout depth the depth below an earning block
to which a farmee earns the right to produce by drilling
an earning well in a farmout agreement. The farmout
depth can be a) unlimited, b) to a specific true vertical
depth, or c) to a specific horizon.
farmoutee see farmee
farmouter see farmor
farmout leases all the leases owned by a farmor
that are within the farmout area
farmout option a contract in which a party that drills
a well and shares the information with another party
will receive a farmout from that party, (drilling option)
FARO flowed at rate of
faro a relatively small oblong-shaped reef with a
lagoon that that forms part of the rim of a larger
barrier or atoll reef

fault

fault a natural break in the rocks with one side

moving relative to the other side. Faults are described
by the relative movement of each side. Dip-slip faults
(normal, reverse, and thrust faults) move primarily
up and down. Strike-slip faults (right and left lateral)
move primarily horizontally. Oblique-slip faults move
about equally up or down and horizontally. FIT, Fit,
orflt
fault block a unit of rocks bounded by faults
fault breccia a tectonic breccia located along a fault
surface. The fault breccia is formed by the crushing
of rocks along the fault surface as the fault moves.
fault closure the permeability barrier formed by a
fault along the side or top of a petroleum reservoir
fault grooves scratches on a fault plane or surface
that are caused by gouging and are oriented parallel
to the fault movement, (fault striae)
fault gouge soft, unconsolidated, very fine-grained
rock fragments found along a fault surface. Fault gouge

fault line fee land

is formed by the grinding action of the fault movements
on rocks and later, by mineral decomposition. Fault
gouge can act as a permeability barrier to make the
fault a sealing fault, (gouge, clay gouge, or selvage)
fault line the trace of a fault on the surface (fault
trace)
fault plane a flat surface along which a fault has
moved. If it is not flat, it is called the fault surface.
fault-propagation fold a fold located at the tip of
a thrust fault where the fault loses slip and is
terminated. The fold takes up the criestal shortening
line
fault set a group of parallel faults that are related
to the same deformation
fault striae scratches on a fault plane or surface that
are caused by gouging and are oriented parallel to
the fault movement, (fault grooves)
fault surface the uneven face along which a fault
has moved
fault trace the line of a fault on the surface, (fault
line)
fault trap a type of structural petroleum trap in which
faulting displaces the reservoir rock. Oil and/or gas
migrating up the dip of the reservoir rock is trapped
against the fault plane. A single fault usually forms a
relatively small trap as faults tend to be straight and
linear and do not have sides. Two intersecting faults
or a curved fault can form larger traps.
fault zone an area along a fault surface that has been
deformed by fault movement and is characterized by
numerous small faults, fault breccia, and/or fault gouge
fauna fossil or modern animals. Fauna is in contrast
to flora. Fau orfau
Fb 1) basic orifice factor 2) formation factor (rock
matrix)
FBD formation breakdown
FBF friction-ball-friction
FBG 1) formation breakdown gradient 2) formation
balance gradient
FBH flowing by heads
FBHP 1) flowing bottomhole pressure 2) final
bottomhole pressure
FBHPF final bottomhole pressure flowing
FBHPSI final bottomhole pressure shut in
FBP 1) final boiling point 2) formation breakdown
pressure
FBR full bore retrievable
FC 1) float collar 2) full cost 3) field code
FC or fc filter cake
FC accounting full cost accounting
FCC 1) fixed carbon content 2) false-color composite
F.C. casing flush-coupled casing
FCD dimensionless fracture conductivity
FCMP first contact miscibility pressure
FCP 1) flowing casing pressure 2) final casing
pressure
FCPF final casing pressure flowing
FCPSI final casing pressure shut-in

181

FCV flow control valve

FD finite difference
F-D formation density
FDC 1) compensated formation-density log 2)
formation-density content log
FDC formation density compensated
F DIP focused diplog
FDL 1) formation density log 2) fluid density log
fdn foundation
FE frequency effect
fj 1) sampling rate 2) gauge location factor
FEA Federal Energy Agency
Fe acid an acid with a sequestering agent to control
the reprecipitation of iron and control the pH when
acidizing a well. The low pH helps control clay
swelling.
feathering deviation of a hydrophone streamer from
the true seismic line behind a boat. Feathering
displaces the midpoints of the reflections.
fecal pellet a fossilized excrement, usually ovoid
shaped, of an invertebrate animal. Fecal pellet is in
contrast to the larger caprolite.
FED 1) federal 2) four electrode dipmeter
federal exploratory unit an area composed of
federal, state and/or fee land that has been unitized
by several parties to explore and develop an area. It
can be done either a) on individual units according
to acreage positions in the entire federal exploratory
unit or b) on divided units according to leaseholders
in that particular unit.
fee the ownership of record for surface and/or
mineral rights on land
feed see feed mud
feeder head A pipe that carries slurry to two or
more hydroclones
feeder line 1) a pipeline that conducts the gas or
oil from the lease to the trunk line, which is a larger
pipeline that conducts it to a refinery or transportation
center 2) the flowline that connects a subsea well to
its manifold
feed mud drilling mud that is about to be processed
feed off to lower a drillstring or tool in a well by
disengaging the brake on the drawworks and allowing
the drilling line to reel off the drum
feed-off rate the speed in which the drilling line
unwinds from the drawworks drum
feedstock a chemical refined and manufactured from
hydrocarbons and used to produce petrochemicals.
Methane, ethylene, propylene, butylene, and
napthenes are common feedstocks.
feedwater the water used in steam generators
fee in surface the surface rights owner of a lease
fee interest the ownership of both surface and
mineral rights interest
feel ahead to drill a small-diameter well
fee land private land located in parts of the United
States and Canada that has both a surface and mineral
rights ownership. Fee land is in contrast to public
lands.

182

feeler fenestral pore

feeler a pipe run into a well to test the well's ability

to take a string of casing
fee royalty the share or payment of the gas and/or
oil production that is free of the costs of production
and is paid to the lessor. Fee royalty was originally
one-eighth but can now be from one-eighth to onefourth, (landowner, landowner's, or gross royalty)
fee simple land owned without restrictions by a
person
fee simple absolute an estate of inheritance that
is limited absolutely and without limitations to a
person and his/her heirs and assigns forever
fee simple defensible an estate that is less than
fee simple absolute in that it is subjected to a specific
limitation
fee tail a freehold estate with a definite line of
inheritance that extends from the original grantee to
the present generation
FEL from the east line
feldsarenite a type of sandstone that has less than
75% quartz and greater than a 3:1 ratio of feldspar
to rock fragments
feldspar a common group of minerals that are
potassium aluminum silicates (potassium feldspar or
orthoclase) or sodium-calcium aluminum silicates
(plagioclase feldspar). Feldspars are common in
igneous and metamorphic rocks and immature
sediments. Feldspars range in color from white, gray,
pink, to pale yellow, have a specific gravity of 2.52.7, hardness of 6-6.5 and two cleavage planes at 8690. Feldspars can decay to form clay minerals. Fspr,
fspr or Fs

feldspatfaic a sedimentary rock containing feldspars

feldspathic arenite a sandstone with 10%-25%
feldspar, less than 10% argillaceous matrix, and
abundant quartz, chert, and quartzite
feldspathic graywacke 1) a sandstone with less than
75% quartz and chert, 15%-75% detrital clay matrix
and more feldspar than rock fragments 2) a sandstone
with 25%-9O% micas and metamorphic rock
fragments, 10%-50% feldspars and igneous rock
fragments, and 0%-65% quartz and chert 3) a

sandstone with 25%-90% micas and micaceous

metamorphic rock fragments, 10%-50% feldspars and
feldspathic rock fragments, and 0%-65% quartz, chert,
and metaquartzite rock fragments
feldspathic litharenite a sandstone that has less
than 75% quartz and either a) between a 1:1 and 1:3
ratio of feldspar to rock fragments or b) between
5O%-25% feldspar, granite, and gneiss rock fragments
as compared to other unstable rock fragments and
detrital clay.
feldspathic quartzite 1) a sandstone composed of
70%-95% quartz, chert, and metaquartzite rock
fragments, 5%-15% feldspars, and feldspathic rock
fragments and 0%-15% micas and micaceous rock
fragments 2) a subarkose
feldspathic sandstone a sandstone that is
intermediate in composition between an arkose and
a quartz sandstone. A feldspathic sandstone has 10%25% feldspar and less than 20% clay matrix.
feldspathic subgraywacke a sandstone with 10%25% feldspars and igneous rock fragments, 10%-25%
micas and metamorphic rock fragments, and 50%80% quartz and chert
feldspathic wacke a sandstone with 10%-25%
feldspar, more than 10% argillaceous matrix, and
abundant quartz, chert, and quartzite. The feldspar
grains are more numerous than fine-grained rock
fragments.
FEM finite-element method
Fe-mag ferromagnesian
female connection or thread a thread located on
the inside surface of a coupling that mates with a
male thread, (internal thread)
femto the metric prefix for 10~ 15 ./
Fen or fen fenestra
fence diagram a three-dimensional representation
of wells and the geological cross sections (panels)
between them. The cross sections interconnect to form
a network.
fenestral pore elongated pores parallel to bedding
in limestone rocks. Fenestral pores are common in
algal mat deposits and are thought to form by organic

PANEL OF

fence diagram

FERC field development

Fenestral Pore
fenestral pores

decay along laminations in the limestone mud

(micrite).
FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
FERC out clause a provision in a gas purchase and
sales agreement authorizing the buyer to cease
purchasing the gas if the purchaser is not permitted
by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC)
to include the amounts paid in the costs which are
used to calculate the buyer's own regulated resale
rates which is called the cost of service.
fermenter a type of bacteria that thrives on organic
matter in the absence of oxygen and sulfate. The
fermenters form biogenic gas from a few feet below
the surface to about 1,000 ft below where they are
inhibited by high temperature.
few ferrigenous
ferricyanide process a wet scrubbing technique
using iron to remove hydrogen sulfide from crude
oil and natural gas
ferrigenous iron-bearing, ferr
ferromagnetic a substance that has a large positive
susceptibility to a magnetic field and a large hysteresis
resulting in remnant magnetization. In rocks, certain
mineral crystals such as magnetite will align
themselves with magnetic moments when the rock
is molten. Two types of ferromagnetic minerals are
ferrimagnetic and antiferrimagnetic.
ferromagnesian containing iron and magnesium.
Fe-mag

ferrimagnetic a substance such as the mineral

magnetite that will align itself with a magnetic moment.
Some of the grains will be oriented in the opposite
direction, but when the magnetic moment is removed,
some magnetic moment remains in contrast to an
antiferrimagnetic substance.
ferrous oxide a black compound (FeO) that can
be made from the oxidation of ferrous sulfide. (iron
monoxide)
ferrous sulfide a black compound (FeS2) that can
be made from iron and hydrogen sulfide. (iron sulfide)
ferrule see guide ring
Fe-st ironstone
FF 1) frac finder log 2) full of fluid 3) fishing for
Ff 1) free fluid 2) flushing factor
F.F.&W. furnish fuel and water
FFI free-fluid index
FFM fracture finder microseis

183

FF-MGS frac finder microseismogram log

FF-MGS-G frac finder microseismogram, gamma ray
log
FF-MGS-N frac finder microseismogram, neutron log
FFP final flowing pressure
FG fine grained
F.G. fracture gradient
Fg, ideal-gas relative density factor
FGIH finished going in hole
FGIW finished going in well
FGLR formation gas/liquid ratio
F/GOR formation gas/oil ratio
fgr fine grained
F-Gr or f-gr fine grained
F gr real-gas relative density factor
FH full hole
l?hgm mercury manometer factor, correction for gas
column
F hgt mercury manometer temperature factor
FHP final hydrostatic pressure
FI 1) flow indicator 2) fracture initiation
f, sampled operator
fibr fibrous
fibrous a substance that can be separated into
threads, fibr
FID flame ionization detector
fiduciary a person, the trustee, who is appointed
to hold something in trust or trusteeship for another
person
field 1) the surface area underlain by one or several
petroleum reservoirs that are related to a single
geological feature such as an anticline. The field is
often named after a geographic landmark. The
American Petroleum Institute assigns a six-digit field
name code to each specific field name. This is followed
by the state abbreviation and county code. An example
is the Clark field in Texas, which is 145385TX285.
Oil and gas fields are classified according to their
reserves. An A field has more than 50 MMBO or 300
BCF of natural gas. A B field has between 25-50 MMBO
or between 150-300 BCF of gas. A C field has between
10-25 MMBO or between 60-150 BCF of gas. A D
field has between 1-10 MMBO or 6-60 BCF of gas.
An E field has less than 1 MMBO or less than 6 BCF
of natural gas. An .F field is abandoned as nonprofitable.
FID or fid 2) the space under the influence of a force
such as a potential field 3) a general term for an
outdoor area 4) a specific reservoir or subsurface
producing zone sometimes applied by a government
regulatory agency
field appraisal the delineation of a petroleum field
and the characterization of its reservoir mechanics
field butanes the mix of natural gas liquids from a
gas processing plant
field compression test a test used to determine
the gasoline content of casinghead or wet gas
field development the drilling of wells and the
installation of processing and storage equipment for
a petroleum field

184 field development well fill-up curve

field development well a well drilled in the
reasonably proven extent of a producing petroleum
field. The extent of the field is defined by extrapolation
of subsurface data. The well should have several
producing wells on adjacent drilling and spacing units.
A field development well has small risk, see
development well
field drainage the migration of petroleum under a
field due to production. Wells in the field cause a
pressure gradient between the producing wells and
the remaining petroleum in the reservoir causing the
petroleum to flow toward the wells.
field efficiency the measured production divided
by the computed production of a downhole pump,
field efficiency is about 80%.
field end the end of a pipe on the other side from
a coupling or box
field facility equipment such as separators or
absorbers that serve several leases
field foreman see production foreman
field grade butane normal butane and isobutane
that is separated from wet gas at a natural-gas
processing plant (mixed butane)
field intensity force per unit such as length or mass
field noise test see noise test
field plant equipment located on a pipeline that is
used to remove ethane, propane, butane, and
condensate from natural gas (straddle plant)
field potential the capacity (production of gas and/
or oil) that a field is able of producing during a 24hour peroid
field price a natural gas price that is either a) the
current price that a buyer needs to get a gas contract
or b) the weighed, average gas contract price
field print a preliminary well log printed at the well
in contrast to a final print
field processing the separation and treating of
natural gas and crude oil on the lease before it is
delivered to a pipeline or refinery
field processing unit apparatus such as an
absorption unit, LTX unit, or separator system through
which natural gas from wells passes before it goes
to a processing plant or pipeline
field rate the contract price for drilling a well
field rules the regulations issued by a government
regulatory agency that are used to efficiently develop
and produce petroleum from a field. Field rules can
include spacing, density, an allocation formula, a gas/
oil ratio limit, and surface casing requirements. Field
rules can apply to one, several, or all reservoirs in
the field.
field scale the large-scale application of an enhanced
oil recovery process to an oil field. Field scale is in
contrast to a pilot-scale.
field-size distribution a histogram of the number
of fields discovered in a basin plotted against the
reserves in those fields. The field-size distribution is
usually lognormal in shape.
field static pressure the reservoir pressure that is
uniform throughout an oil or gas field after all the
wells have been shut in for a period of time. Ps

field superintendent an employee of the operator

who supervises all drilling and production activities
in a field, area, or district. The field superintendent
works through the production foremen.
field tank see stock tank
field tape a magnetic tape that is used to record
geophysical data in the field. After the data have been
modified by computer processing, it is a processed
tape. The processed tape can be either intermediate
or final. FT
field terminal platform an offshore production
platform that acts as a central processing facility for
a field. The platform accepts risers from the wells
and processes the gas and oil before it is transported.
FTP
15-minute percentage timer an electric
programmer that turns a sucker-rod pump on and
off every 15 minutes
50-50 allowable the amount of gas and/or oil that
a field is permitted to produce in a given time by a
government regulatory agency. Fifty percent of the
allowable allotted to individual wells and 50% to the
acreage.
figure of merit the excellence of magnetic
compensation for a specific aircraft. The figure of merit
is computed by summing without regard to sign the
twelve magnetic signatures recorded when the aircraft
carries out 20 rolls, 10 pitches and 10 yaws, peak
to trough on north, east, south, and west headings.
FOM
FIH fluid in hole
FIL fracture identification log
file for record to send an instrument to the county
or parish clerk for recording
filing date the date in which an instrument was
recorded in the county or parish records
fill 1) well cuttings on the bottom of the well 2)
large pieces of rock on the bottom of a well
fill connection see fill-up line
filler a small-diameter wire that is used to fill in the
space between different diameter wires used in the
strand of a wire rope. The fillers give the wire rope
greater strength and service life, (seale)
filler material a cement slurry additive used to
increase the yield of the slurry
filling the hole pumping drilling mud into the well
to maintain the fluid level in the well
fill line a pipe that connects the s'sndpipe manifold
with the bell nipple above the biwvvout preventers
and the annulus of a well. The fill line is used to
pump drilling mud directly from the mud tanks into
the annulus during tripping out during lost circulation.
(fill connection or fill-up line)
fill the weevil to put grease in a lubricator
fill up the height in the annulus from the bottom
of a well to the top of the cement
fill-up line see fill line
fill-up curve a plot of pressure increase with time
for a shut-in well after production. The fill-up curve
is used to measure the permeability of the reservoir
rocks and to estimate productive capacity. The time

fill-up period final tape

necessary to reach static equilibrium is a measure of
the effective permeability of the reservoir rock and
also measures the well's productivity index, (buildup curve)
fill-up period the time at the start of a waterflood
during which the injected water forces gas back into
solution in the formation fluids. The injection rate is
relatively high.
FILT or filt filtrate
filter 1) the part of a system that screens or removes
some of the input information. In seismic exploration,
filters are often used to limit the frequency of the
energy being recorded. A high-cut filter transmits
frequencies below a certain level, whereas a low-cut
filter transmits frequencies above a certain level. 2)
a physical device such as a screen that is designed
to remove solid particles larger than a certain size
from a fluid. A dry-type scrubber is a filter that removes
dust from a gas stream.
filter cake solid particles from drilling mud that are
plastered to the sides of the borehole as the drilling
mud is forced into the rocks surrounding the well.
The fluid from the drilling mud that is forced into
the rocks is called filtrate. The volume of the filtrate
and the thickness of the filter cake can be determined
in the laboratory by a filter press. The thickness of
the filter cake is measured in VM in. and described
as soft, firm, or tough, (mudcake or wall cake) FC

orfc
filter element A perforated metal sleeve with
compression-gasketed ends. A simple one is used for
removing dry solids.
filtering the discrimination between signal and noise
on the basis of frequency or velocity. Filtering is used
in seismic analysis.
filter loss see filtrate loss
filter press a device that forces drilling mud or
cement slurry through a filter or porous medium
according to API standards to separate fluid from solids
in a filtration test. The filter press is used to measure
fluid loss and mud cake properties of a drilling fluid.
The filtration rate through a standard filter paper and
the rate of mudcake thickness increase under standard
test conditions are measured. The filter press has a
sample container, pressure source, the filter, and a
graduated measuring cylinder. The filter cell has a
fine screen with a cylinder drain that is covered with
filter paper. The mud sample is forced through the
filter cell at either 100 or 500 psi and at temperatures
from 200-300 F. The volume of filtrate produced
in 30 minutes is measured. The filter cake on the
filter paper is measured in ]/32 in. and described as
soft, firm, or tough.
filter separator a horizontal or vertical vessel that
uses high-quality filtering medium to separate very
small liquid and/or solid particles from gas. The filter
separator contains filter tubes or elements that cause
the coalescence of mist and removable of solids. A
filter separator can remove 98% of l|x particles and
100% of 5|x particles. A filter separator is commonly
used on field compressor inlets and as final scrubbers
of glycol contact towers and on horizontal separators.

filter test frequency display or scan several

versions of the same short seismic section made with

185

different frequency filters. The display is used to show

which frequency filters show the reflections best and
select the filters for the entire program.
filtrate the liquid portion of the drilling mud that
is forced into the rocks adjacent to the borehole during
drilling. Filtrate occupies the pores of the reservoir
rock in the flushed zone. The solid particles are
plastered to the side of the wellbore to form the filter
cake. FILT or filt
filtrate loss the loss of fluid base from a liquid forced
through a porous medium. As a well is being drilled
with circulating drilling mud, a filter cake of solid
particles is build up on the sides of the well as the
liquid (filtrate) enters the rock. Filtrate loss is
measured in the laboratory by the amount of liquid
(filtrate) that passes through a filter in a filter press
during a specific time under a specific pressure. Filtrate
loss is a common test for drilling mud. (filtration,
filter or fluid loss)
filtrate reducer a drilling-fluid additive such as
bentonite, pregelatinized starch, or sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) that is used to inhibit
filtrate penetrating a formation. Filtrate reducers used
in cement slurries are either finely divided materials
such as bentonite or water-soluble polymers made
of latex. Filtrate reducers such as silica flour and
hydrocarbon resins are used in hydraulic fracturing
to stop the flow of treating fluid away from propagating
fractures in the formation, (fluid loss additive,
preventer, reducer, or fluid-loss control agent)
filtration the process of using a filter to remove
solids in suspension from a fluid
filtration loss see filtrate loss
filtration system equipment used to remove solids
from a fluid
filtration test a laboratory test used to measure the
volume of filtrate and thickness and quality of a filter
cake formed by a specific drilling mud. The test
instrument is a filter press with a filter cell that has
an inside diameter of 3 in, a height of at least 2'/2
in, a frame mounting, a pressure source, and a
graduated cylinder to receive the filtrate. The filter
cell is covered with a fine screen that holds filter
paper. Drilling mud is subjected to 100-500 psi at
200 -300F. The filtrate volume that collects in the
graduated cylinder every 30 minutes is reported in
cm3. The filter cake is measured in V32 of an inch
and described as soft, firm, or tough.
FIN finished
fin 1) final 2) finished
fin a ridge formed on the shoulder of a tool joint
that was caused by using boxes and pins with different
sized shoulders
final to complete a well
final print the permanent print of a well log made
on high-quality paper with appropriate heading
information and calibration. Final print is in contrast
to field print.
final squeeze pressure the surface pressure of a
well at the finish of a squeeze cement job. FSP
final tape a magnetic tape with seismic data that has
hieen modified into final form. A final tape is in contrast
t<b a field and intermediate tape.

186 finder's fee fire-tube heater

finder's fee a cash consideration, override, or other
compensation for a third party for promoting a deal
between two other parties.
finding and development costs a method used
to evaluate exploration economics. The cost of locating
and developing a field per barrel of oil or thousand
cubic feet reserves is calculated. The cost includes
lease costs, G&G, overhead, and the drilling and
completion of all wells in the field. The cost is divided
into the estimated reserves of the field. Maximum
acceptable values will determine the feasibility of the
project.
finding costs a method used to evaluate exploration
economics. The cost of locating a field per barrel of
oil or thousand cubic feet of gas reserves is computed.
The cost includes lease costs, G&G, overhead, and
the discovery well drilling and completion. The cost
is divided into the estimated reserves of the field.
Examples would be $2.02/BO or $0.51/Mcf. Maximum
acceptable values will determine the feasibility of the
project. Finding costs can be either risked or unrisked.
fin drig finished drilling
FENDS an inertial navigation instrument
fineness the size of cement particles formed by the
grinding process in cement manufacturing. Fineness
is used to calculate total particle surface area per gram
of cement.
fines small particles.

fingers

fingers (off rotary drilling rig chart)

finger a metal or wood, horizontal bar-like

protrusion that is part of the fingerboard located under
the monkeyboard on the derrick of a drilling rig.
The fingers on the fingerboard form slots for the
derrickman to rack the upper ends of tubular stands
during tripping out.
finger board or fingerboard a rack with fingerlike projections located under the derrick of a drilling
rig. The fingers are used to separate and hold the
upper ends of tubular stands such as drillpipe or tubing
when they are pulled from the well.
fingering 1) the invasion of water or gas into an
oil reservoir with finger-like intrusions during
production of oil. The bypassed oil is often not
recoverable. 2) the formation of finger-shaped
irregularities at the front of an injected fluid slug in
a reservoir during enhanced oil recovery
Fingerlakesian a North American age of geological
time that started about 385 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Devonian period.
fingerprinting the correlation of oil to oil, or oil
to source rock by using gas chromatography and gas

chromatography-mass spectrometry to qualitatively or

quantitatively identify and correlate biological markers
such as isoprenoids, steranes, and triterpanes. Oils
from the same source will have similar fingerprints.
finish a well to complete a well
fin-tube a tubular with a flat, protruding surface
projecting outward that is used in a heat exchanger
to cool fluids flowing through the tube
fire box the equipment, usually in the slope of a
U-tube, where fuel such as natural gas is burned to
heat up a fluid. The part of the fire box in contact
with the fluid is called the firetube. A fire box is used
in a fire-tube heater to separate emulsions.
fire flood a method of enhanced oil recovery in
which the subsurface oil in the reservoir is set afire.
The subsurface oil burns and breaks down into coke
and lighter oil. As the coke burns, the heat reduces
the viscosity of the oil ahead of it and the heated
gases formed by the combustion drive the oil ahead
of it toward producing wells. Some of the combustion
gases dissolve in the oil, further reducing the viscosity
of the oil. Large volumes of air must be injected into
the reservoir in order to maintain the subsurface
combustion during the fire flood. Air injection is a
major expense of a fire flood. The air is heated by
an electric heater or gas burner at the sand face and
injected at 400-l,200F to ignite the fire. The zones
of fire flood include a) burned region, b) burned
front, c) coke, d) cracked hydrocarbons, e) hot water,
f) light hydrocarbons, and g) oil bank. The burning
front moves about 0.25-1 ft per day. Forward
combustion occurs when the burning front moves
from the injection well towards the producing well.
Reverse combustion occurs when the burning front
moves from the producing well toward the injection
well. Water can be injected along with air. The water
is flashed to steam and reduces the volume of air
needed to be injected, (in-situ combustion)
fire loop a pneumatic control line on a production
platform that uses temperature sensors to shut down
the equipment in case of a fire
fireman the crew member on a steam-powered rig
who maintains the boilers
fire tube the U-shaped tube or series of tubes in
which fuel such as natural gas is burned to heat a
fluid in a fire-tube heater. The fire tube is part of a
fire box that is in contact with the fluid being heated
in a direct heater and with a water bath in an indirect
heater. The temperature in the fire tube is above 1,000
F. Two common types of fire tubes are 100,000 and
250,000 Btu/hr. The fire tube can be either continuous
or intermittent.
fire-tube heater a type of vertical or horizontal field
separator that uses heat to break an emulsion such
as oil-in-water or water-in-oil. A temperature of 80180 F is necessary to separate emulsions. The steel
tank has a U-shaped pipe in it called a fire tube. The
direct-fired type of fire-tube furnace directs a flame
down the center line of the pipe to heat and break
the emulsion. In the indirect-fired type, the flame is
used to heat water that is in contact with the emulsion.
The exhaust gases exit the stack which extends 1015 ft above the separator. The burner uses either
natural gas or heavy oil. (emulsion treater or heatertreater)

fire up fishing neck

fire up to start an engine, heater, or boiler
fire wall an earthen or concrete bank that surrounds
an oil tank or any oil handling equipment. The fire
wall is used to contain the oil in the event of a spill.
firm gas the gas that is delivered and taken under
the provisions of a firm gas-purchase contract. After
the required amount of firm gas has been taken, any
other gas is called dump gas.
firm gas contract a gas purchase contract that
provides for the delivery and purchase of a specific
amount of gas during a certain period of time
firm service natural gas sold with a guarantee for
delivery in contrast to interruptible gas
first arrival or break the first recorded signal of a
seismic wave from a known source in seismic
exploration. First arrival is used in reflection seismic
to determine the effect of the weathering zone.
first-contact miscibility the mixture of two fluids
in any proportion without an interface formirig
between the fluids
first curve a spontaneous potential curve on a well
log
first fold out of basin the first anticline that is
located up dip from the deep part of a basin. It is
first in line to receive and perhaps trap any oil and
gas that was generated in the deep basin as it migrates
up dip along the flanks of the basin.
first out indicator information on a shut-in panel
that identifies the end element that caused the shutdown
first right to refusal preferential right to purchase
first-tier oil old oil in the United States that was
subjected to price controls under the Emergency
Petroleum Allocation Act of 1973. First-tier oil is in
contrast to second-tier oil that could be sold at market
price, (lower-tier crude oil)
fis 1) fissure 2) fissile
fish fishing
fish 1) a tool, pipe, cable, rod, packer, or other piece
of equipment that has fallen to the bottom of the
well or is stuck in the well. Lost roller cones followed
by failed tool joints and drillpipe are the most common
fish. The fish must be removed (fished) out of the
well before drilling can resume. A fishing string with
fishing tools is used to remove the fish, (junk) 2)
operations on a drilling rig to recover a fish in the
well 3) a sensor towed in water 4) a portable surface
electrode that is used to make an electrical ground
for well logging. The fish is buried in a shallow hole
that has been dug in the ground and filled with mud.
fisherman a person who is part of a crew that fishes
for junk in a well, (fishing hand)
fisheye structure a seismic display pattern of
reflections that is similar to a fisheye and is often
formed by a reef
fishing any operation to release, remove, or recover
a fish or junk that has fallen to the bottom of a well
or is stuck in the well and adversely affects drilling
and completion operations on the well. Fishing tools
are used for fishing. Fishing expenses are generally
50%-75% higher than normal drilling costs and

187

fishing

represent about 3% of drilling costs. FSH, fish, fsg,

fsgfishing assembly see fishing string
fishing bell a neck or reduced diameter on the cable
end of a housing that anchors the connectors on the
bottom of a survey cable. The fishing bell is designed
for an overshot during fishing operations.
fishing bid a small bonus bid that is made in a
competitive lease sale in hope that no other bids are
filed
fishing hand a person who is part of a crew that
fishes for junk in a well, (fisherman)
fishing head the top part of a downhole tool that
allows the tool to be easily fished from the well

fishing magnet

fishing magnet a permanent magnet run on a

wireline during fishing operations. Fishing magnets
are used for small pieces of junk and can have a
skirt extending downward to keep the junk from being
knocked off as the magnet is being raised. Three types
are a) cut-lip, b) mill-tooth, and c) flush guides. The
well is circulated before fishing to wash away other
debris so that the metal can contact the fishing magnet
surface. The magnet is used for ferrous materials and
will not work if the fish is covered with debris or is
made of brass, aluminum, carbide, or stainless steel.
There is also a fishing electromagnet.
fishing neck 1) a groove in the top of wireline tools
that is designed to permit a fishing tool to be attached
to the tool and remove it from the well 2) a reduaion

188 fishing specialist fish tail or fishtail bit

in the diameter of drill collars near the pin or box
end that is used to receive the overshot and grapple
fishing specialist a consultant or company that
supplies advice and fishing tools on a lease or rental
basis for a fishing job
fishing string the drillpipe or tubing and downhole
assembly that is used with a fishing tool in fishing
operations. The drillpipe or tubing is usually normal
weight except when heavy pipe is used. Drill collars
are usually run without stabilizers. For most fishing
operations, drilling jars and a bumper sub are run
just above the fishing tools. In milling operations,
they are run with four to six drill collars between
them and the fishing tool. In wireline fishing, the
sinker bars are run below the rope socket and the
jars below the sinker bars, with the other tools below
the jars, (fishing assembly)
fishing supervisor a specialist who directs fishing
operations
fishing tap a fishing tool that is lowered on a fishing
string and rotated to cut an internal thread on pipe
in the well
fishing time the time on a rig spent fishing for junk
in the well
fishing tool a device that is lowered into a well to
retrieve an object (fish or junk) that has fallen to
the bottom of the well or become stuck in the well.
Fishing tools are designed to grip or hook and lift,
cut, jar, or mill the object. There are many different
types that include a) spears, b) overshots, c) internal
and external cutters, d) milling tools, e) tap and die

collars, f) washover pipe, g) jars, h) safety joints, i)

junk retrievers, and j) impression blocks. Small
particles are removed with a fishing magnet or junk
basket. Fishing tools are usually rented.
fishing-tool operator a service company employee
who directs fishing operations on a well
fishproof any equipment that is used over the well
and does not have any parts that can fall into the
well
fish scales scale or chemical precipitate on pipe or
vessels

fishtail bit

fish tail or fishtail bit a type of rotary drag bit that

has on its bottom two curved steel blades shaped

eccentric
swage nipple
swage
nipple

ell
tee
fittings

fishtail valve
like a fish tail. An outlet for drilling mud is located
near the bit shank. The fixed blades drag and cut
the sedimentary rocks on the bottom of the well. A
fishtail bit is used primarily for soft formations and
were originally called drag bits.
fishtail valve a type of quick-opening valve that uses
a disc or wafer on a pivot in a chamber to open and
close. The fishtail valve is used to turn the flow on
and off (butterfly or wafer valve)
fish trap a conservation officer assigned to a seismic
crew
fisl fissile
fissile a rock that is easily split into thin sheets. FISSL,

fis, or fisl
FISSL fissile
fissure a fracture with separation in a rock, fis
fissure theory an old theory dating back to the 1860s
that crude oil occurs in crevices in the subsurface
rocks
FIT formation interval tester
fittings small pieces such as pipes, nipples, and
elbows that are used in a pipe system. Fittings do
not include couplings or valves, fig
555 termination the automatic termination of a
lease if there is no well producing on the lease and
the delay rental is not paid on time
five-foot stick a measuring stick that is used to
determine the depth of a cable-tool well by measuring
the length of the drilling line used, (knowledge stick)
five-point test a flow-after-flow test used to
determine the flow rates at different flow pressures
in a gas well to determine the open-flow potential.
The shut-in pressure of the gas well is measured along
with the flow rates at five different bottomhole or,
less desirably, tubing pressures. A curve is then plotted
that can be used to determine the optimum flow rate.
a
A
! o !
i
&

op
,'

'

/
V

i
A

\ /
O

\
s
O tf

five-spot waterfloods

5-spot or five-spot a type of waterflood pattern.

Four water injection wells are located in a square. A
producing oil well is located at the center of the square.
fix an accurate location determination
fixed carbon content a coal ranking scale that is
based on the percentage of volatile matter and

flagging

189

nonvolatile fixed-carbon content of vitrinite and coals

on a dry ash basis. A fixed-carbon content of 0% is
equivalent to 100% volatile matter. A higher fixedcarbon value indicates higher maturity. FCC
fixed choke a choke that is not adjustable and has
only one size orifice in contrast to an adjustable choke.
(positive choke)

fixed cost a cost that once spent cannot be recovered.

(sunk)

fixed platform

fixed platform or fixed offshore platform a

relatively permanent offshore platform made of
welded tubular steel in which the legs are attached
to the sea bottom by piles. Because it is hard to move
a fixed platform, it is used primarily in developmental
drilling over known offshore fields. The most commor}
is the steel template jacket platform. A gravity-base
platform can be used when there is a need for crude
oil storage. The platform is located at least 50 ft above
sea level. The deck area is commonly 150 ft by 150
ft. On the platform, producing wells can be located
as close as 6 ft apart.
fixed-rate royalty a common type of royalty in which
the mineral interest is paid a fixed percentage or
fraction such as Vs
fixed-term royalty an interest that exists during a
specific time period
fizz a gas leak
FJ flush joint
FJ. casing flush-joint casing
F-K frequency-wave length
FL 1) floor 2) flowline 3) flush 4) fluid level 5) fast
line
fl 1) fluid 2) flat
fl/ 1) flowing 2) flowed
FLAC fluid-loss control agent
flagging cloth, plastic, or paper strips that are used
to mark shot locations or instruments

190

flaggy

flash gas

flaggy the tendency of certain sedimentary rocks to

split along bedding planes or joints into thicknesses
(1-10 cm) suitable for flagstones, fig
flags 1) cloth or nylon strips on a sand line. The
flags are inserted by twisting the sand line to separate
the strands. Flags are used to show how much of
the line is in the well. 2) an indicator in a computer
program to inform the rest of the program about an
earlier condition
flag the line to put cloth or nylon strips on a sand
line on a drilling rig. Flagging the line is used to
show how much of the line is in the well. Flags warn
the crew chief when most of the sand line has been
pulled out of the well when swabbing.
flambeau lights a flare that is used to burn
casinghead gas that is produced with oil. The use of
flambeau lights is generally restricted and regulated
by government agencies.
flame arrestor a fitting on the vent of an oil storage
or stock tank that is used to prevent fire from entering
the tank and igniting the oil vapors. The flame arrester
uses a very fine-mesh screen that allows the vapors
to pass through but prevents fire from entering the
screen. It is also used on a fire box.
flame ionization detector the hydrocarbon
detection system used in gas chromatrography that
ionizes the organic compounds in a hydrogen flame
and electrostatic field. The ions are conductive and
the current is measured. FID
flame snuffer a metal clapper that is attached to
the vent line of a tank and can be closed in case of
a fire
flammable material that can burn
flammable limits the lower and upper percent
volume concentrations of a gas in a gas/air mixture
that will result in a mixture that can be ignited

flange

flange 1) a raised edge or projection on a pipe or

connection. A flange can have holes in it for bolts
or it can be threaded. The flange can also be connected
by welding or with clamps, fig 2) to make a raised
edge or projection 3) a tool used to make a raised
edged or connection
flanged union a connection using bolts to join
together two raised rims (flanges) on the ends of
two pipes
flange up to complete an operation. Flange up is
often applied to the process of finishing piping
systems.
flank one side of a fold in rocks as divided by the
axial surface. A fold will have two flanks, (limb)
flank well a well located on the edge of the known
extent of a field
flare burning gas

flare or flaring the burning of gas. Flaring was

common in old oil fields, but it is currently illegal
in most areas of the world. Flaring occurs today only
during well testing, when unavoidable before a gas
pipeline is being laid, or on offshore platforms when
gas cannot be-disposed of in any other manner.

flare boom

**"* *~"
flare boom

flare arm or boom a steel projection off the side

of an offshore platform that carries gas pipes and
supports the flare burner for safely flaring gas
flare bridge a walkway on a flare boom on an
offshore platform that leads out to the burners
flare jacket a trianglar-shaped, tubular, steel truss
structure having three legs that is used to flare natural
gas on an offshore platform. The flare jacket extends
from the mudline to 10-13 ft above mean water level.
Tubular piles hold the flare jacket in position, and
the flare tower is mounted on the ends of the piles.
flare stack a metal, vertical tower that carries pipe
and supports the flare burner for safely flaring gas
on an offshore platform
flare tripod a flare stack on an offshore platform
with three legs
flash the sudden vaporization of a liquid due to either
a rapid decrease in pressure or increase in
temperature
flash breaking the instantaneous change of a gel
from viscous to fluid
flash calculation a computation of the phase
behavoir of a process or reservoir oil and gas.
(equilibrium calculation)
flash chamber a conventional oil and gas separator
that is operated at a low pressure to flash separate
the oil and gas. The flash chamber is often the second
or third stage in separation, (flash drum, trap, or vessel)
flash cut the rapid leaching of crude oil by a solvent
from well cuttings or a rock sample in the laboratory.
Flash cut implies good permeability.
flash drum see flash chamber
flash expansion see flash vaporization
flash gas high Btu content gas that is vented from
a low-pressure separator

flash liberation flexible weight pipe

flash liberation 1) gas coming out of a solution
because of a sudden drop in pressure 2) see flash
vaporization
flash point the lowest temperature at which vapors
rising off the surface of a particular volatile such as
crude oil will ignite with a short flash as an open
flame is passed over the surface
flash separator field equipment that uses a rapid
pressure drop to purify glycol used to remove water
from natural gas
flash set the sudden solidification of cement usually
caused by mixing two different types of cement
flash tank a vessel that uses either a rapid rise in
temperature or decrease in pressure to separate liquid
from gas
flash trap or vessel see flash chamber
flash vaporization a test used in a reservoir fluid
study. A sample of reservoir liquid is placed in a
laboratory cell, and the pressure and temperature are
adjusted to reservoir conditions. The pressure is
reduced by increasing the volume of the cell in
increments, and the pressure and volume of the
reservoir fluid are measured. The pressure is plotted
versus total volume to determine bubblepoint
pressure.
flat 1) the flat surface that runs along the length of
a four- or six-sided kelly. (kelly flat) 2) a thrust fault
surface that is subparallel to a incompetent bed. Flat
is in contrast to ramp.

191

flatten out to dismantle a drilling rig

FLC-A fluid-loss control agent
FLD rield
fld 1) field 2) failed 3) flowed 4) filled
fleet angle the angle between the drilling line
extending up from the drawworks drum to the crown
block and the drilling line hanging vertically from
the crown block. The fleet angle should be kept at a
minimum and less than 1.5.
flex collar an articulated drill collar
flex flexible
flexible coupling a link between two shafts that
bends to allow for the two shafts not being exactly
aligned
flexible joint a connection between two pieces of
equipment that can rotate due to a ball and socket.
(ball or flex joint)
flexible marine-riser joint the flexible connection
between the lower riser package and blowoutpreventer stack and the marine riser on a subsea
wellhead. The flexible marine-riser joint compensates
for the surface movement of the surface vessel and
permits up to 10 movement of the riser. The joint
is part of the lower riser package. There can also be
a flexible joint at the top of the marine riser above
the telescopic joint.

flexible mud hose

lat bottom mill

flat-bottom mill a common type of junk mill with

a flat bottom used in fishing operations
flat gel a gel with a 10-minute gel strength that is
the same as the initial gel strength
flat hole a cable-tool well that is oval rather than
round in cross section
flat spot a horizontal seismic reflector. A flat spot
can be caused by a gas/liquid contact in a reservoir
and will be out of place in a background of dipping
reflectors. Flat spot reflectors are always positive off
a gas/liquid contact.
flattened section a seismic section in which an event
on the seismic record has been made horizontal.
Flattening is used when there is a problem with lowvelocity glacial drift and to restore a section to a
particular time.

flexible mud hose a flexible, armored rubber hose

that is commonly 4 in. in diameter, and transmits
the drilling mud from the standpipe to the gooseneck
on the swivel of a drilling rig. The flexible mud hose
ranges 35-75 ft longhand is commonly 50-60 ft long.
The inner diameter is 2-3 Vi in. Some flexible mud
hoses are made of steel pipes with swivel joints. API
grades of flexible mud hoses vary by length and
pressure rating, (kelly, mud, or rotary hose)
flexible overriding royalty interest a share in a
well in which the size of the interest in production
varies with the amount of production from the well.
The interest usually increases during months in which
the average production exceeds a specific amount.
(variable overriding royalty interest)
flexible weight pipe a joint of heavy drillpipe that
is run along with several other joints of flexible weight
pipe on the drillstring between the drill collars and
pipe to strengthen the location between compression
and tension on the drillstring. (weight pipe)

192 flex joint floes or flocculates

flex joint a connection between two pieces of
equipment that can rotate due to a ball and socket.
(flexible or ball joint)
Flexotir a marine seismic source that uses a small
explosive charge. The explosive charge is flushed
down a hose to a submerged steel cage. The oscillation
of the explosion bubble is inhibited by the cage when
the charge is fired electronically.
flexural rigidity the stiffness of an elastic plate under
bending forces
flexure a hinge or very gentle fold in sedimentary
rocks
flexure zone a line in a formation that marks the
spot where the formation rapidly thickens downdip
from the line
flg 1) flange 2) flowing 3) flaggy
flights a curved metal blade that is wrapped around
a centrifuge shaft
FL IN flow into well
flipped a reversal of the continuous and dispersed
phases in a drilling mud
Flk or flk flaky
Flo flora
flo flow
float 1) the buoyant chamber that floats in a liquid
and is used to activate equipment, depending on the
level of the liquid 2) to be suspended at the upper
interface of a fluid by depressing an equal weight of
that fluid 3) a trailer or truck bed with two sets of
wheels.
float collar a small length of steel pipe with a
constricted orifice on the inside that is used to connect
two joints of casing during a cement job. The wiper
plugs seat on the float collar. The collar is usually
located one joint of casing above the guide shoe. The
float collar orifice has a valve, either flapper or ball,
to prevent slurry backflow, in contrast to a baffle collar
that lacks a valve. A float collar is similar to a float
shoe that would be located on the bottom of the
casing string. FC
floater a drilling platform that floats above the
offshore drillsite without any legs attached to the
seafloor. A semisubmersible and a drillship are
floaters.
floating charge an explosive charge used in seismic
exploration that is not as deep in the shot hole as
intended. The floating charge produces an early
uphole time and delayed reflection times.
floating pad a pad on a logging tool that does not
make a good contact with the wellbore wall
floating point recording a method of gain control
in seismic recording using binary numbers in
exponential notation. Large numbers have large
exponents and small numbers have small exponents
to handle a large range of data with the same number
of bits on magnetic tape. Seismic data recorded by
floating point retains the exact energy amplitude.
floating storage unit a tanker that has been
converted to serve as a fixed floating storage tank
for offshore oil. The floating storage unit is fed oil
by pipelines from offshore platforms for transfer to
smaller tankers.

floating tank a crude-oil storage tank with the main

gate valve to the main line left open so the oil can
flow through the tank as pumping rates on the main
line vary
floating the casing a method that is used to lower
casing into very deep wells when the weight of the
long casing string could break the casing. The lower
end of the casing is plugged, and the well filled with
fluid. When the plugged casing string is lowered into
the well, the casing and the volume of space in the
casing displaces the fluid. The buoyant effect of the
displaced fluid eases the weight of the casing string.
float out to transport a floating steel platform from
its construction site to its offshore location. One
method is to build the structure onshore with attached
flotation tanks. The platform is then winched into the
water and towed to the site. At the offshore site, it is
rotated from horizontal to vertical by adjusting its
ballast. The platform is sunk into position and the
flotation tanks are removed. Another method is to
construct the platform in a graving dock with an
attached flotation raft. The graving dock is then sunk
with its gates open to release the platform. The
platform is then towed vertically out to its fitting-out
location.
float shoe a type of casing shoe that has a check
valve, either flapper or ball, to prevent slurry backflow
into the casing during a cement job. The float shoe
guides the casing string into the well and seats the
wiper plugs. A float shoe is similar to a float collar
that would be located further up the casing string.
floatstone a wackestone limestone with the grains
greater than 2 mm in size
float switch a switch that is activated by a float on
liquid in a vessel. The float switch is sensitive to the
level of the liquid.
float valve 1) a valve that is activated by a float which
is affected by the level of a liquid 2) a one-way valve
of the flapper, spring-loaded ball, or dart type that is
located in the drillstring. The float valve can be either
permanent or pumpdown. The valve prevents drillpipe
blowouts, minimizes flowback during connections,
and prevents bit clogging.
float valve sub a short section of pipe placed on
the bottom and near the top of the drillstring during
air or gas drilling. The float valve prevents a backflow
of cuttings into the drillstring during connections or
shutdown of flow.
flocculant or flocculating agent a substance such
as an electrolyte that causes flocculation. The
flocculating agent is used to thicken drilling mud and
to increase yield point and gel strength. Polymers
are used to clump solids into large aggregates for
separation by settling or screening.
flocculation the attraction and aggregation of finely
divided, suspended particles into lightly bonded
groups (floes) in which the platelets are joined edgeto-face. Flocculation can occur in drilling mud between
clay platelets. Flocculation can result in gelation and
the precipitation of colloids, (coagulation)
floes or flocculates groups of aggregates of finergrained particles in suspension that can be broken
by normal shaking. The platelets are joined edge-toface.

flood or flooding flow efficiency

flood or flooding the process of displacing oil, the
displaced fluid, in a subsurface reservoir by injecting
fluids, the displacing fluids. Flooding includes
waterflooding and several enhanced oil-recovery
processes.
flood blocks and pulleys he system on a drilling
rig that directs a wireline into the well
flooding 1) the inability of a screen to process fluids
due to solid particles clogging the screens 2) the
drowning of a well by water
flood plain the flat depositional plain surrounding
a river channel. The flood plain is covered with water
during floods when the river overflows its banks. Finegrained sediments are deposited on flood plain which
includes the backswamp or overbank environments.
floor 1) the contact of a salt layer and/or plug with
the underlying rocks 2) see drill floor
floor crew the workers on the floor of a workover
or drilling rig
floorman or floor man a junior member of the
drilling crew, an assistant to the driller, who works
on the floor of a drilling rig. The floorman set the
slips, manipulates the tongs, latches and unlatches
the elevators, and handles other equipment on the
drill floor. Two to four floormen are used on each
tour, (rotary helper or roughneck)
floppy disk a 51/*-, 8- or y/2-in. computer storage
medium. Floppy disks are made of plastic with a
magnetic coating. The 5V4- and 8-in. floppies are
covered with a jacket. A 3V2-in. diameter disk has a
hard covering. A disk drive is used to read and write
on the floppy disks. The capacity of a floppy disk is
measured in kilobytes. Floppy disks can be removed
from the disk drive and stored. The hard disk is a
permanent installation in the computer.
flora fossil or modern plants. Flora is in contrast to
fauna. Flo
F-LOS fluid loss
flotation the removal of oil from water using either
a) froth flotation or b) dissolved gas flotation. Flotation
is very effective up to 100 ppm oil concentration.
flotation barge a wide barge that is used to transport
jackets and modules offshore (tow or deck barge)
flotation can a spherical or cylindrical tank that is
used to float a production platform and rotate it into
position. It can be used individually or joined into
flotation rafts.
flotation jacket or raft a structure made by joining
flotation cans with steel supports. The flotation raft
is made in a graving dock and is used to float a platform
jacket to its offshore position.
flotation unit a type of produced water treater. There
are two types, a) A dissolved gas unit saturates treated,
produced water with natural gas in a contactor under
high pressure. On release of the pressure, the gas
bubbles out of the water causing oil droplets to rise
to the surface in a froth, b) A dispersed gas unit uses
gas bubbles dispersed by an inductor device or rotors
to cause a vortex that brings oil droplets to the surface.
flotel or floatel a floating hotel for workers
assembling an offshore drilling and production
platform. The floatel is often a semisubmersible rig

193

fitted with living quarters and is a type of

accommodation platform.
floundering see bit floundering
FLOUT flow out of well

P - Pit.

Flow Rate MCFD

flow-after-flow test

flow-after-flow test a test used to determine the

open-flow potential of a gas well. The flow-after-flow
test is made by measuring several flow rates and their
corresponding bottomhole pressures. Starting with a
shut-in well, a series of increasing flow rates are run
at fixed time intervals. The flow versus the difference
of the squares of the average reservoir and wellbore
pressures are plotted on log-log paper. The plot will
be a straight line and can be used to determine
optimum flow rate. A flow-after-flow test is called a
three-, four-, or five-point test, depending on the
number of flow rates used in the test, (multipoint
test)
flow a well hard to let a well flow at capacity
flowback or flow back 1) the flow into the well
of fluids that were injected into a formation. Flowback
is used to remove the frac fluids from a formation
and the well after a frac job. 2) the flow of drilling
mud out a connection that has been unscrewed.
Flowback often happens when the kelly is unscrewed
and is caused by an underbalance because of air or
gas in the mud or an excess of cuttings in the annulus.
(pressure differential)
flow bean 1) a constriction in the line that is used
to restrict and control flow during a test or production
2) the replaceable orifice on a positive choke (choke
bean)
flow by heads intermittent flow of fluids from a
well
flow chart a paper chart, usually circular, that records
flow rates with time by a pen on an arm
flow check a pause in circulation during drilling
to determine if fluids are flowing into a well
flow coupling a thick-walled section of tubing that
comes in joints of 5, 10, or 20 ft. Flow couplings are
designed to minimize erosion and are installed above
and below diameter changes in the tubing string.
flow cross a T-shaped pressure fitting with three
openings, two on a line and one at a 90 angle to
the other two openings. A flow cross is located where
the wing connects on a Christmas tree, (tee)
flow efficiency the actual well production divided
by the amount the well would produce without either

194 flow fitting flowpoint or flow point

stimulation or damage. Flow efficiency is expressed
as a percentage or decimal. A flow efficiency of 200%300% is characteristic of a good well-stimulation job.
(completion efficiency)
flow fitting a tee or cross pipe with a full round
bore that allows the passage of both tools and
production fluids
flow or flowage fold a fold in rocks that have
undergone plastic strain and have flowed with no
slip surfaces toward the synclinal trough
flowing artesian well a well in which the water
has enough pressure to flow to the surface
flowing bottomhole pressure the pressure on the
fluid measured at the bottom of a well when the well
is producing. Flowing bottomhole pressure is in
contrast to static bottomhole pressure.
flowing gas natural gas from a well in the United
States that was already committed or dedicated to
interstate commerce on November 8, 1978
ORIGINAL PRESSURE

SHUT IN PRESSUE

SHUT IN

TIME

flowing pressure

flowing pressure the pressure on the fluid at the

top or wellhead of a well as the fluids are being
produced. Flowing pressure is in contrast to static
pressure. FP
flowing well a well that flows to the surface under
its own pressure. A flowing well does not use artificial
lift.

flowline
tee

flowline tee

flowline or flow line pipes and pipe fittings that

carry fluids. Flowlines are used to collect produced
fluids from wells and transport them to treating and
storage facilities. Steel pipe is the most common, but
fiberglass, cement-lined steel pipe, and flexible plastic
pipe are also used. The flowline from an artificial
lift well is usually low pressure (<125 psi). Flowlines
are usually buried 3-5 ft in cultivated or populated
areas. FL
flowline bundle a cluster of flowlines with hydraulic
hoses and electric cables on a subsea production
system.
flowline header the piping that receives flow from
several wells, commingles the fluid and directs it to
separation and treatment facilities on the lease
flowline heater a heater that is used to prevent
hydrates from forming in the flowline. The indirect
heater is most common and consists of a shell, fire
tube, coil assembly, and burner assembly filled with
fresh water. The heater is used when dehydration of
the gas is not economical.
flowline treater a heater or electrostatic treater that
is used to break an emulsion
flowline treatment a process in which a reagent
is continuously added to treat emulsions at the
wellhead to the flowline
flowline valve the valve on the wing of a Christmas
tree. The valve is used to open or close flow to the
flowline. A flowline valve can also be found on the
wellhead of a pumping well, (tubing flow valve)
flowmeter or flow meter a gauge used to
determine the velocity of a fluid. Some common types
of flowmeters include a) positive displacement, b)
differential pressure, c) turbine or propeller, d)
ultrasonic, e) vortex shedding, and 0 electromagnetic
flowmeters. A flowmeter is also a type of throughtubing production tool. Three types are a) continuous,
b) full bore spinner, and c) inflatable packer.
flow nipple a constriction in a line (usually Vfes-l
in. diameter) used to restrict and control the rate of
flow during a test or during production. Flow nipples
can be fixed or adjustable. Adjustable flow nipples
use a needle, sleeve, or cone-shaped stem with a seat
to change the size of the orifice. A positive or fixed
flow nipple has a specific diameter. Some types of
flow nipples include bottomhole, surface, and storm
chokes. Production of oil or gas is often reported in
barrels or cubic feet on a certain sized flow nipple.
(choke, bean or flow plug)
flow nozzle a head-type meter that is used to
measure fluid velocity. The flow nozzle consists of a
short restriction or narrowing of the diameter of a
flowline with a smooth entry and sharp exit. The
restriction causes a drop in the fluid pressure where
the differential pressure is measured. The square root
of the differential pressure varies proportionally with
the flow velocity.
flow period the time during a drillstem test, usually
from a few minutes to several hours, during which
formation fluids are free to flow to the surface through
the drill stem
flow plug see flow nipple
flowpoint or flow point 1) the gas flow rate that
occurs at the entrainment velocity 2) the minimum

flow recorder control agent

195

temperature at which solid noncrystalline

hydrocarbons begin to flow
flow recorder a gauge that records gas or liquid
velocity or volume. FR
flow-recorder chart a chart used to record flow
velocity or volume measured by a flowmeter. The
standard flow-recorder chart used on a flowmeter is
circular with a diameter of 12 in. The chart has two
common scales. One is a linear scale that goes from
0%-100%. The other scale is a square root chart with
the graduations closer at the bottom and spread out
at the top of the chart. A Vee, bucket, capillary, or
cartridge pen is used to record the data. The ink colors
for a gas chart are standard. Red is for differential
pressure, blue for static pressure and green for
temperature. The most common chart drive makes
one revolution in 24 hrs. (meter chart)

FLS fluid sampler

fls flesh
flshd flushed
FLT, Fit, or fit 1) fault 2) faulted
fit float
fltg floating
flu fluid
flue gas gas produced from burning fuel. Flue gas
usually consists of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water
vapor.
fluid a substance, either a liquid (inelastic fluid) or
gas (elastic fluid), that can flow. A fluid will conform
to the shape of its container. The flow of fluids can
be either a) Newtonian or b) non-Newtonian. flu,fl,

flow regime a stage in the life of a producing well.

The infinite-acting state occurs just after the well is
put on production and the flow into the well has
been unaffected by any physical or artificial boundaries
in the reservoir. The transient state of a well occurs
when the flow production is sensed by one physical
boundary but has not been sensed by the other
boundaries. The pseudosteady state occurs when the
pressure of the well responds all the physical
boundaries of the reservoir. During the pseudosteady
state, the average reservoir pressure will decrease with
time. The steady-state stage occurs when a constant
pressure can be maintained at both the wellbore and
at the boundaries of the reservoir.

fluid cleanup the removal, often by swabbing, of

treating fluid from a well after stimulation. Liquified
gases such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide can be
used in the treating fluid to speed the cleanup.
fluid density the density of a fluid (water, oil, and/
or gas) in the pore spaces of the rock. The liquid
fluid density is often assumed to be 1.0 g/cc.
fluid end the side of a pump where the suction
and discharge valves, pump cylinders, liners, and rods
are located
fluid-expansion drive a reservoir energy that
produces crude oil in some reservoirs when the
pressure on the oil is above the bubble point. Fluidexpansion drive is caused by the volumetric expansion
of undersaturated crude oil in the reservoir with the
relief of reservoir pressure due to production. It has
a very rapid decline curve and an extremely low
recovery factor of less than 5%.
fluid-injection well a well that is used to put either
a gas or liquid into a producing formation for pressure
maintenance, waterflood, or enhanced oil recovery.
A fluid- injection well can also be a disposal well for
oilfield brines.
fluidity or fluiditivity the ability of a gas or liquid
to change shape when a force is applied. Fluiditivity
is in contrast to viscosity. The cgs unit of fluidity is
the rhe.
fluid level the vertical distance in a well from the
surface to the top of a liquid in the casing or tubing.
Fluid level can be either static or flowing. F-LVL
fluid-level log a sonic tool used in a pumping well
to determine the distance to the top of the liquid in
the annulus during pumping and shut in. A sound
impulse emitted by the tool at the surface reflects
off tubular collars and the liquid surface. The number
of tubular collar reflectors is used to determine the
depth to the larger liquid surface reflection.
fluid loss see filtrate loss
fluid-loss additive, preventer, reducer, or
control agent a drilling-fluid additive such as
bentonite, pregelatinized starch, or sodium
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) that is used to inhibit
filtrate penetrating a formation. Fluid-loss additives
used in cement slurries are either finely divided
materials such as bentonite or water-soluble polymers
made of latex. Fluid loss additives such as silica flour
and hydrocarbon resins are used in hydraulic

flow schedule the production schedule for a well

flowstack a casing nipple or short pipe that is
attached to the top of a blowout-preventer stack on
a drilling rig. It has an expandable flanged top that
guides drilling tools into the well. The flowstack also
has connections for the fill line and the mud-return
line, (bell nipple or mud riser)
flow station a central processing, treatment, and
measurement facility for oil and gas
flowstream fluid flow in a pipe
flowstream samples fluid samples from a wellhead
or flowline, Flowstream samples are used for fluid
composition tests.
flow string the deepest and last length (string) of
casing that is run down to or through the producing
zone. The casing adjacent to the producing zone can
be perforated or shot with holes to complete the well.
Flow string has the smallest diameter, ranging 2 %9 Vs in., but typically 5 Vi or 7 % in., and is the longest
string of casing in the well. Flow string protects the
hole, isolates formation fluids, prevents fluid
migration, and protects the downhole equipment.
(capital, long, oil, pay or production string,
production casing or inner conductor)
flow tank 1) an oil heater 2) oil and water heater
3) a tank used to separate oil and gas 4) see stock
tank
flow treater a combined separator, heater, and
treater
flow unit a zone in a reservoir that has a relatively
uniform porosity and permeability. Fluids will flow
relatively uniformly through a flow unit.

orf

196 fluid-loss control fluxgate magnetometer

fracturing to stop the flow of treating fluid away from
propagating fractures in the formation, (filtrate
reducer) FLCA
fluid-loss control methods used to reduce filtrate
loss in a well
fluid packed an operating horizontal heater filled
with liquid, (liquidpacked)
fluid pound a condition producing extreme stress
on the sucker rods in a well. Fluid pound is caused
by gas (solution gas or water vapor) above the liquid
in the barrel of a downhole sucker-rod pump. The
gas is compressed on the downstroke, and the traveling
valve is not opened until it reaches the liquid level
in the pump. The stress on the rod string drops by
thousands of pounds in a fraction of a second as the
valve opens. Fluid pound can be corrected by a)
slowing the pumping unit or b) shortening the stroke.
Fluid pound is the extreme of gas interference that
delays the opening of the traveling valve.
fluid pressure the pressure on fluids in a subsurface
formation. Fluid pressure is usually measured in psi,
psia, or atmospheres. Normal fluid pressure is affected
by the hydrostatic pressure increase with depth, which
in turn is affected by the density of the ground water.
The hydrostatic pressure increase is 45 psi/100 ft for
water with a salinity of 55.4 ppt and 46.5 psi/100 ft
for water salinity of 100 ppt. Abnormal high and low
pressures deviate significantly from normal hydrostatic
pressure, (formation or reservoir pressure)
fluid-travel log a recording of fluid flow around a
stationary logging tool in a wellbore. The fluid-travel
log is made by injecting a radioactive slug into the
fluid in the well from holes in the logging tool. Flow
of the radioactive material by the tool is measured
on two detectors on the tool. The fluid-travel log is
used to locate leaks in the casing. FTL
fluid wave a compressional wave in a liquid
flume a long, straight channel that is used to study
sediment transport by flowing water in a laboratory
FLUOR, Fluor, or fluor fluorescence
fluorescence a luminescence caused by ultraviolet
light. Crude oil and some minerals fluoresce. To detect
the presence of oil in well cuttings, the cuttings are
put in a solvent and viewed under ultraviolet light
through a binocular microscope. The oil, as it dissolves
in the solvent, causes a flash of fluorescence called
a streaming cut. Aromatic compounds cause the
fluorescence in oils and kerogen. The fluorescent
colors of oil range from yellow to green to blue
depending on their "API. From 2-10, oil ranges
from nonfluorescence to dull brown; from 10-18,
it ranges from yellow-brown to gold; from 18-45
degrees it ranges from gold to pale yellow; and above
45 , it ranges from blue-white to white. The
fluorescence can be described as none, spotty, streaky,
patchy, and uniform. Fluorescence can be also used
to indicate the level of kerogen maturity. Longer
wavelength fluorescence indicates higher maturity,
and fluorescent intensity decreases with maturity. The
fluorescence used to detect oil in drilling mud is
described as traces, shows, good shows, and very good
shows. FLUOR, Fluor, or fluor
fluorescent magnetic-particle inspection the use
of fine, fluorescent ferromagnetic particles and an

ultraviolet light to detect flaws in metal such as

tubulars. See magnetic-particle inspection
fluormeter an instrument used to detect and
measure the intensity and wavelength of fluorescence
of well cutting extract
flush to clean out a pipe, vessel, or well with a flow
of water
flush-coupled casing casing with female threads
on both ends. Joints of flush-coupled casing are joined
with a coupling that has the same outer diameter as
the casing. F.C. casing
flushed zone the area near the wellbore were mud
filtrate has almost completely replaced the formation
water and hydrocarbons. The flushed zone extends
only a couple of inches back from the wellbore and
occurs between the mud cake and the transition or
annulus zone. The flushed zone is part of the invaded
zone and is represented by the subscript xo.
flushing factor the logging tool response in the
absence of flushing of the reservoir divided by the
logging tool response with flushing, /y
flushing oil oil that is designed to clean used oil,
particles, and sludge from moving parts
flush-joint casing casing without a shoulder or
collar on the end. A flush-joint casing has the same
outside diameter along the full length of the casing.
The treads are cut into the casing body, and the casing
has a male thread at one end and a female thread at
the other end.
flush-joint connection a connection between
joints of pipe that does not have a protruding shoulder
or collar. FJ
flush-joint pipe tubular without any protrusions
flush production the unrestricted, initial
petroleum-production rate of a recently drilled well.
It is the result of the natural reservoir energy. Flush
production is considered to be finished when the
well will no longer flow and has to be put on pump.
flush-production stage the stage in the history of
a field that occurs between the initial development
period in which the wells are drilled and the settledproduction stage in which the oil is produced at a
relatively level, but slightly declining rate. During the
flush production stage, the oil is produced in relatively
large, but rapidly declining amounts from the natural
reservoir energy.
flute cast a sole mark on the bottom of a sandstone
that was formed by the filling of a flute The flute is
a depression that was formed by turbulent flow around
an object on a muddy bottom. The flute depression
is V-shaped with a scoop-shaped depression at the
apex. The V points upstream.
fluvial river environment
fluvial-dominated delta a river delta that is
characterized by river deposition of sediments in
contrast to erosion by waves or tides. The delta will
prograde out from the shoreline and has characteristic
distributary lobes. The Mississippi River delta is an
example. A fluvial-dominated delta is in contrast to a
wave- or tide-dominated delta (constructive delta)
fluxgate magnetometer an instrument that detects
changes in the geomagnetic field of the earth. The
fluxgate magnetometer has two cores of Permalloy,

F-LVL focus or focused log

a highly permeable material which approaches the
saturation of the earth's magnetic field. A 1,000-Hz
cyclic field caused by a coil around the cores completes
the saturation of the core. The energy needed to
saturate the core is a measure of the earth' magnetic
field parallel to the core. The fluxgate magnetometer
is sensitive to changes in the order of 1 7. The Gulf
magnetometer has three perpendicular fluxgates so
that one of the fluxgates will measure the maximum
component of the earth's geomagnetic field. Other
types of magnetometers include proton and optically
pumped magnetometers. Magnetometers are used for
exploration of the subsurface.
F-LVL fluid level
flw flow
fhvd flowed
flwg flowing
fly-in rig a drilling rig that is dismantled into many
small sections and flown to the wellsite by several
trips in an airplane. A standard derrick is used instead
of a mast. The number of suspended drilling lines is
increased, and a larger number of smaller-sized pumps
is used. The rig might even be designed to drill a
slim hole. An airstrip must be constructed next to
the drillsite.
flysch relatively deepwater marine sediments
deposited during an uplift or orogeny. Flysch
sediments are separated from their mountain source
by molasse sediments. Flysch contains calcareous,
sandy shales, marls, and muds. The sedimentary rocks
contain few fossils and are thinly bedded, often
containing turbidites.
flywheel a large circular disk that is attached to the
crankshaft of an engine which stores inertial energy
while spinning. The flywheel causes the engine to
run smoothly.
FM or fin frequency modulation
FM, Fm, or fin formation
Fm manometer factor
FMBDP formation breakdown pressure
FM-GR fine-to-medium grained
FMS formation microscanner
FMT formation multitester
FM/T formation top
F-MUD fresh mud
FMV fair market value
Fm W formation water
FMWTR formation water
fin fine
I?ND formation factor deduced from neutron and
density logs
FNEL from the northeast line
FNL from the north line
filly finely
fiit faint
FNWL from the northwest line
FO 1) farmout 2) faulted out 3) fuel oil
Fo formation factor deduced from total porosity
F/O farmout

197

foam bubbles of gas covered with a liquid film. Foam

is neither a true liquid nor a true gas. Foam is used
in drilling fluids, well cleanouts, fracturing fluids, and
gas-well deliquification. Surface foam has gas bubbles
only on the surface of the liquid, whereas body foam
has gas bubbles throughout the liquid. The time the
foam is maintained is called foam stability.
foam acidizing a well-stimulation treatment in
which a gas, usually carbon dioxide or nitrogen, is
mixed with water and acid and pumped down a well.
It is followed by a backflow during which the foam
is removed from the well. Foam acidizing is used
on carbonate reservoirs, often chalk, because it is more
retarded and has better fluid-loss control than normal
acid.
foam agent see foaming agent
foam drilling drilling with foam mud as a drilling
fluid. A soap tank that holds 10-20 bbl of a dilute
soap and water mixture is used next to the rig. Foam
has a higher viscosity than air, so foam flow rates do
not have to be as high to remove well cuttings as
drilling with air. Common additives that are used
during foam drilling are detergents, corrosion
inhibitors, lubricants and viscosifiers. Foam drilling
prevent mud rings from forming.
foamed cement a type of cement used in a cement
job that is made of a mixture of cement slurry and
nitrogen in the gas state. The advantage of foamed
cement is decreased slurry weight.
foaming agent a substance used to form stable
bubbles due to aeration or agitation of a liquid. A
foaming agent is used with water in mist drilling and
when excessive water is encountered while drilling
with air or gas. FA
foaming oil crude oil with solution gas bubbling
out of it. The gas bubbles are encased in a thin oil
film and are not stable or long lasting. Foaming oil
decreases the efficiency of a separator.
foam mud a drilling fluid that is made by a) injecting
water and foaming agents to create a stable foam or
b) injecting a gel-base mud containing a foaming agent
into an air or gas stream
foble board a fourble board
FOCB Federal Oil Conservation Board
FOCL focused log
FOCUS focus log
focused correlation curve a resistivity
measurement taken by an arm of a dipmeter and
displayed on a dipmeter log
focused electric log see focused log
focused gamma ray a type of well log run while
drilling that measures gamma ray emissions from both
the top and bottom half of the hole
focus or focused log a type of wireline well log
that has a measuring electrode and guard electrodes
designed to direct the electrical current through the
formations around the wellbore as a horizontal disk
or ring. Focused logs yield measurement curves with
sharper bed boundaries and yield improved R,
measurements. The log was developed for highresistivity formations and for use in low-resistivity
muds where electric and induction logs do not work
well. Laterologs, guard logs, induction logs, spherically

198

FOE foraminiferan

focused logs, microlaterologs, and dual laterolog are

examples. FOCI or FOCUS

FOE flanged one end

F-OIL frac oil
fol foliated
CREST
AXIS

fold

fold 1) a curve, bend, or arch in a rock layer. The

hinge line of a fold joins points of maximum curvature
on the fold. The axial surface of the fold is the surface
along the points of maximum curvature occur on the
fold. Some types of folds include anticline, syncline,
upright, inclined, recumbent, horizontal, plunging,
and vertical fold limbs are the areas on either side
of the hinge. A fold is usually the result of deformation
of that rock layer from external forces. A buckle fold
is formed by forces parallel to the layering in
sedimentary rock, whereas a bending fold is formed
by forces perpendicular to the layering. 2) The number
of common depth points used in stacking a seismic
record.
fold-back a geophone cable used in seismic
exploration that is doubled back on itself so that two
geophones are located at each position
folding 1) the process of bending a rock layer 2)
the change of a wave shape as it passes through a
linear filter, (convolution)
foliated a rock with foliations. Gneiss is an example.
fol

FOM figure of merit

fool's gold seepyrite
foot an English unit of measurement equal to Vi yd,
12 in., and 0.3048 m
footage the depth of a well
footage-rate contract a common type of drilling
contract that is based on a per-foot payment, usually
contingent upon drilling to a specific depth or to a
specific event such as reaching a formation, kick-off
point, or pressure. Other operations such as coring,
logging, testing, and casing are covered on a day rate.
Move-in, rig-up, rig-down, and move-out charges are
included in the footage rate or as a fixed amount.
The footage-rate contract is in contrast to a day-rate
or turnkey contract.
footing the structural seabed support on the legs
of a platform or jackup rig. The footing on a jackup
rig is either a mat for soft bottoms, spuds for a hard
bottom or a combination of both
foot-pound the unit of energy or work in the footpound-second system. A foot-pound is the work done
in raising 1 lb a height of 1 ft against gravity.
foot throttle a pedal on the floor of a drilling rig
that regulates the power to the drawworks
foot valve the check valve on the inlet of a pump
suction line that keeps the pump filled with liquid

footwall

foot wall the side of the fault which protrudes under

the opposite side which called the hanging wall
Foram or foram foaminifera
foliated texture

foliations bands of light and dark minerals in

metamorphic rocks
Folk's classification of limestones a limestone
classification that is based on the presence of
transported (allochemical), precipitated
(orthochemical), and in-situ (autochthonous)
particles, the presence of sparry calcite or micrite,
and the type of sand-sized particles (fossils, pellets,
oolites and intraclasts). Types include intrasparite,
intramicrite, oosparite, oomicrite, biosparite,
biomicrite, pelsparite, pelmicrite, micrite, dismicrite,
and biolithite.
follower an adjustable device that fits into a stuffing
box or packing gland on a pumping well to compress
the packing around the moving polished rod

foraminifera

foraminifera, foraminifer, or
foraminiferan small one-celled animals with shells
that are composed predominantly of CaCO3 (calcite
or, rarely, aragonite or less commonly, agglutinated

foraminiferal limestone formation damage

particles). Most foraminifera lived in the ocean. They
are excellent microfossils that have existed from the
Cambrian period to the present. The planktonic
(floaters) and benthic (bottom dwelling) are guide
fossils for the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods.
Fusulinids, large football-shaped foraminifera, are
guide fossils for the Pennsylvanian and Permian
periods. Foram orforam
foraminiferal limestone a limestone rock
composed primarily of the very fine-grained shells
of foraminifera. The rock usually lacks a fine-grained
matrix.
forced fold a fold in sedimentary rocks caused by
the deposition of sediments over an uplifted or rotated
block in the basement, (drape fold)
forced pooling a state law that requires a lessee
in a majority interest in a unit to include lesser lessees
in pooling to form a unit. Forced pooling is usually
initiated by a petition to the regulatory agency. In
some states, if a lessee refuses to join, the proportional
costs of that lessee's drilling will come out of the
lessee's share of production. Some states allow for a
change in the risk of drilling the well when computing
the compensation, (compulsory pooling)
force feed the pumping system that is used to
lubricate bearings
force-majeure"clause a provision in an oil and gas
lease or operating agreement that states that the lessee
will not have violated the terms of lease if prevented
froni fulfilling the lease by conditions beyond the
lessee's control. Force majeure is often specifically
defined as "an act of God, strike, lockout, or other
industrial disturbance, act of the public enemy, war,
blockade, public riot, lightening, fire, storm, flood,
explosion, governmental restraint, unavailability of
equipment, and any other cause, whether of the kind
specifically enumerated above or otherwise, which
is not reasonably within the control of the party
claiming suspension." Force majeure translates to
superior force.
fore-arc basin an elongated basin located between
island arc volcanoes and a deep ocean trench on a
convergent plate margin
forefront pressure the pressure that is required for
one fluid to replace another fluid in the pores of a
rock. Forefront pressure is the minimum capillary
pressure that will force a nonwetting fluid such as
oil into a capillary opening that is saturated with a
wetting fluid such as water. It varies inversely with
the pore diameter. (displacement or entry pressure)
foreign tax credit the portion of foreign taxes paid
by a United States company that are deductible from
federal taxes
foreland a stable area adjacent to a mountainbuilding belt. The foreland is generally part of the
continental crust, and rocks from the mountainbuilding belt are thrust and folded toward it.
forelimb the shortest and steepest limb on an
asymmetrical fold in sedimentary rocks. The other
limb is called the backlimb.
fore reef or forereef the steeply dipping, seaward
side of a reef. The fore reef is usually composed of
poorly sorted carbonate sediments that have eroded
off the reef.

199

foreset beds

foreset the sloping beds of sediments deposited in

front of a delta. The foreset beds are located between
the topset and bottomset beds.
forfeiture clause an oil and gas lease provision that
allows the lessor to terminate the lease if the conditions
of the lease (drilling a producing well or paying delay
rentals) are not met
forfeiture of lease termination of lease
forging plastically deforming hot metal
formal contract a legal document that states the
conditions in an agreement between parties,
beginning with the words "This agreement entered
into this
day of
,
." A formal contract
is legally enforceable in contrast to a letter agreement.
format 1) an arrangement of data that is stored or
displayed 2) the size of a remote sensing image
formation a mappable layer of rocks. The formation
has a sharp top and bottom boundary and is often
the unit of rocks shown on a geological map. A
formation is named after a geographical location
where it crops out and after its dominant rock type.
If the layer is a mixture of different rock types, it is
called formation. Examples of formations are the
Bartlesville Sandstone and San Andres Formation. FM,

Fm,fm, orf
formation-analysis log a log computed from fluid
resistivity and porosity measurements from an
induction log together with either a sonic or density
log. (Rua analysis log)
formation-balance gradient the formation porepressure gradient at a particular point in reference
to the flowline. FBG
formation-breakdown pressure the minimum
pressure that will cause a subsurface rock layer to
fracture. Formation-breakdown pressure is often 6585% of overburden pressure, (formation fracture
pressure) FBP or FMBDP

formation cleaner an acid additive used with

hydrochloric or mud acid in acidizing a well. The
formation cleaner is an inhibited oxidizing agent and
is used to restore permeability to formations damaged
by nonpetroleum organic residues such as bacterial
slimes or injected gum and polymers.
formation damage a problem caused by water-base
drilling mud infiltrating a potential subsurface
reservoir rock and reducing its permeability adjacent
to the well. Formation damage can be caused by clay
minerals swelling or dispersing, causing them to clog
or bridge pore throats. Monovalent cations or low
pH methanol can be used in drilling mud td stabilize
the particles. Oil-base mud filtrates with emulsifying

200

formation-density log formation solids

agents can cause emulsion blockage. Formation

damage can also be caused by wax or asphalt from
the crude oil being produced. A formation that is
damaged can be treated with organic cationic polymers
or given a frac job. Formation damage can also occur
during well treatment such as a frac or acid job.
formation-density log a radioactive type of wireline
well log that measures the density of subsurface
formations. By bombarding the subsurface rocks with
gamma rays and counting the backscattered gamma
rays, the density of the subsurface rock layers can
be computed. From the density of the rock, the
porosity can be calculated. The compensated density
log has a secondary detector on the sonde that
responds more to the mudcake and borehole
irregularities and is used to correct or compensate
the main detector for these undesired effects. Besides
porosity, the log is also used with other logs as an
aid to identifying the composition of the subsurface
rocks, (density, gamma-gamma log, or nuclear
interface log) FDL
formation evaluation the analysis of the nature and
fluid content of a subsurface formation from well data
such as wireline well logs and drillstem tests
formation factor see formation resistivity factor
formation factor log a formation resistivity factor
curve derived from a resistivity or porosity device
formation fluid the water, gas, and/or oil that
occupies the pore spaces in a subsurface rock layer
formation fracture pressure the minimum
pressure that will cause a subsurface rock layer to
fracture, (formation breakdown pressure)
formation fracturing a well-stimulation process in
which frac fluids are pumped down casing or a
temporary workstring under high pressures up to
20,000 psi to artificially fracture a reservoir rock in
order to increase permeability and production.
Fracturing equipment includes pumping equipment,
blenders, bulk handling equipment such as sand
transports, and frac-fluid transports, a trailer-mounted
manifold and frac bus. The frac fluid flows out of
perforations in the casing or, if the well is not cased,
packers are used to isolate the formation. The frac
fluid is usually water (possibly with acid) or diesel
oil. Higher injection rates form longer fractures.
Thickening agents can be used to increase frac-fluid
viscosity. Propping agents (small spheres) such as sand
or aluminum oxide pellets, are suspended in the fluid
and are used to hold the fractures open after the
pumping stops. The proppant or sand concentration
is usually '/2-4 lbs/gal. The frac job is measured by
the pounds of sand used which usually varies from
20,000 to 1,000,000 lbs in a massive hydraulic frac.
Fracturing can be done in stages during which different
fluids are injected into the well. Some types of
formation fracturing include a) hydrafrac, b) sandfrac,
c) waterfrac, d) acidfrac, e) superfrac, f) gelled
waterfrac, g) gelled oilfrac, h) emulsion frac, and i)
vapor frac. Formation fracturing was developed in
1948 and was originally done through a tubing string
to below a packer, (frac job, fracturing, or hydraulic
fracturing)
formation gas natural gas produced with crude oil
from an oil reservoir

formation gas/oil ratio the amount of gas dissolved

in a unit volume of oil under subsurface reservoir
conditions. The formation gas/oil ratio is expressed
as SCF/STB or SCM/SCM with standard conditions
being 60F and 1 atm pressure. The amount of gas
that can be dissolved in a liquid increases with
increasing pressure and decreases with increasing
temperature. The effect of increasing pressure
increases faster than the effect of increasing
temperature with reservoir depth on the solubility
of gas in crude oil. In general, the formation gas/oil
ratio increases with increasing depth of reservoir.
Formation gas/oil ratio is in contrast to producing
gas/oil ratio which is the gas/oil ratio as the oil is
produced, (gas/oil ratio)
formation interval test see formation test
Formation MicroScanner a wireline tool that
makes of picture of the wellbore by mapping
microresistivity variations from an array of small padmounted button electrodes mounted on a four-arm
sonde. The microscanner is similar to a dipmeter. It
records four 7-cm wide borehole images in shades
of gray. Its orientation is determined by a triaxial
accelerometer and tool orientation by three magnets.
The Formation MicroScanner is used for a) fracture
detection, b) identification of thin beds, c) rug
detection and porosity determination, and d) core
orientation. EMS
formation pore pressure the pressure exerted by
the formation fluid on the wall of the pores in the
formation. Normal pore pressure is hydrostatic
pressure and abnormal high pressure or geopressure
is higher than hydrostatic pressure. Formation pore
pressure is the same as formation, fluid, or reservoir
pressure, (pore pressure)
formation pressure the pressure on fluids in a
subsurface formation. Formation pressure is usually
measured in psi, psia, or atm. Normal formation
pressure is affected by the hydrostatic pressure
increase with depth, which, in turn, is affected by
the density of the ground water. The hydrostatic
pressure increase is 45 psi/100 ft for water with a
salinity of 554 ppt and 46.5 psi/100 ft for water salinity
of 100 ppt. Abnormal high and low pressures deviate
significantly from normal hydrostatic pressure, (fluid
or reservoir pressure) PFP

formation-resistivity factor a ratio of the electrical

resistivity of a reservoir rock saturated with water (Ro)
to the resistivity of the water (/?,). The formationresistivity factor is used in Archie's formula to
determine water and hydrocarbon saturation of a
formation in a well from electrical wireline well logs.
The formation-resistivity factor is equal to P~m where
P is the porosity of the rock and m is the cementation
factor. The formation-resistivity factor is also expressed
as equal to Kr/Pm where A; is a constant between 0.8
and 1.0. The formation-resistivity factor can be
measured directly from a core with an AC conductivity
bridge, (formation factor) F or FR
formation sensitivity the sensitivity of a producing
formation to formation damage by drilling-mud filtrate
formation solids sand and other rock and mineral
material from the producing formation. Formation
solids can cause a sand control problem in producing
wells

formation test 4 spot

formation test a drillstem test in a wejl. The drillstem
test can be either an openhole or hook-wall packer
test.
formation-volume factor the number of reservoir
barrels of crude oil that are needed to be lifted to
the surface and shrink to one barrel of stock tank
oil after the solution gas has bubbled out. Deeper
reservoirs usually have higher solution gas/oil ratios
and larger formation volume factors. The formation
volume factor generally varies between 1.1 and 1.6.
The formation volume factor curves are determined
experimentally from an oil sample or can be estimated
from the gas/oil ratio, specific gravity of the gas, "API
of the oil, and reservoir temperature, (reservoir volume
factor) FVF or B

formation water 1) original water in sedimentary

rocks from the time of sediment deposition 2)
subsurface water that has been out of contact with
the atmosphere for a great period of time 3) water
in the pores of subsurface rock that is very saline
(connate water) FMWTR orFmW
formatter a set of logic circuits used in seismic
exploration to format digitized information before it
is recorded on magnetic tape
formic acid an organic acid (HCO2H) that is less
corrosive than hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids.
Formic acid is used for acidizing high-temperature
wells.
FORS formation strength
forward toward the bow of a ship. Forward is in
contrast to aft.
forward combustion a type of fire flood, an
enhanced oil recovery method, in which the burning
front moves from the injection well toward the
producing well. Forward combustion is in contrast
to reverse combustion.
forward contract a contract for future delivery of
natural gas at a predetermined price
FoRro" Log a focused resistivity log made with a
button electrode surrounded by a guarding electrode
on a pad. The log measures the resistivity of the Rm
zone.
FOSS, Foss, or foss 1) fossil 2) fossiliferous
fossil preserved remains of an ancient plant or
animal. Fossils are useful in determining the age of
the sedimentary rocks in which they are contained
and how those sediments were deposited. Fossils are
studied by paleontologists. The fossils are often shells
or bone, their mineral replacements, or the imprints
of the plant or animal. The preserved tracks, burrows,
roots, and other indirect remains are called trace
fossils. A microscope is necessary to identify
microfossils because of their size. Microfossils are
common in sedimentary rocks and are often used in
petroleum exploration because they can be obtained
from well cuttings. Microfossils are studied by
micropaleontologsists. FOSS, Foss, or foss

201

fossiliferous a rock that contains fossils. FOSS, Foss,

orfoss
fossiliferous micrite a limestone that contains over
two-thirds lime-mud (micrite) matrix compared to
sparry calcite and contains l%-10% coarse grains of
allochems, which are composed of shells
fossil oil crude oil
fossil water water that has been in sedimentary rocks
since the sediments were deposited. Fossil water is
connate water.
FOT 1) flowing on test 2) final open time
fouling marine growth on an offshore structure
foundation pile a short string of casing that is run
in an offshore well to anchor equipment such as
blowout preventers on the seabed, (anchor string or
outer conductor)
fountain an old term for a gusher
fountain well a flowing well
fourble a stand containing four joints of drillpipe
or tubing
fourble board a platform, commonly called the
monkeyboard, near the top of the derrick where the
derrickman stands to stack fourbles (four joints of
pipe) when tripping out of a well
four-cycle or four-stroke engine an internal
combustion engine that has intake, compression,
power, and exhaust strokes. The four-cycle is in
tontrast to a two-cycle or two-stroke engine.
Fourier analysis the representation of a waveform
such as recorded seismic exploration data as a weighed
series of sine and cosine functions. Fourier analysis
determines the amplitude and phase of component
sine and cosine waves of different waveforms. Fourier
analysis is part of Fourier transform and is named
after the French physicist Baptiste Joseph Fourier
(1768-1830). (frequency or harmonic analysis)
Fourier transform a series of computations that is
important to seismic processing. The seismic data is
converted by Fourier transform from the time domain
in which it was recorded into a harmonic domain as
a function of frequency (frequency domain). This
breaks down the seismic recording into sinusoidal
components that can be frequency filtered to eliminate
noise and enhance the signal.
four-point test a flow-after-flow test used to
determine the flow rates at different flow pressures
in a gas well to determine the open-flow potential.
The shut-in pressure of the gas well is measured along
with the flow rates at four different bottom-hole or,
less desirably, tubing pressures. A curve is then plotted
that can be used to determine the optimum flow rate.
four-sided closure a potential petroleum trap that
will not allow the petroleum to leak out on any side.
There is either a downdip component to the reservoir
rock or a permeability barrier such as a fault on each
of the four sides.

fossil assemblage a specific group of fossils that

identifies a particular geological time or rock zone

467 plan a pipeline's plan for natural gas delivery

curtailment based on end use

fossil fuel a combustible natural deposit such as

natural gas, crude oil, or coal that formed from ancient
organic matter

4 spot a type of waterflood pattern in which three

injecting wells in a triangle surround a producing
well

202

four-stage separation frac job

/
O

/ o

/ o

o
O

A^

A'

>

O
skewed four-spot

regular four-spot
four-spot waterfloods

four-stage separation a system that uses three

separators connected to a stock tank on a lease to
separate natural gas and crude oil. The separators
each have decreasing pressures until the stock tank
is reached. Four-stage separation is used when high
gas pressure is necessary for delivery to a pipeline
or pressure maintenance system.

four stage separation

four-way drag bit a drag bit with four blades

four-wing pattern bit drilling bit with a crossshaped tip
FP 1) flowing pressure 2) final pressure 3) freezing
point
F p pump friction
F p b pressure base factor
FPC Federal Power Commission
FPD fluid per day 2) flame photometric detector
FPE fluid properties evaluation
FPH fluid per hour
FPIT freepoint indicator tool
fom feet per minute
FPO field purchase order
F-POR fair porosite
fos 1) feet per second 2) foot-pound-second system
FPT female pipe thread
Fpy supercompressibility factor
F p w l local gravitational correction for deadweight
tester static pressure standard
FQG or F.Q.G. frosted quartz grains
FR 1) flow recorder 2) flow rate 3) from 4) first
recording 5) first reading
FR formation resistivity factor
Fr formation resistivity
Fr Reynolds number factor

fr 1) fractional 2) from the 3) front 4) frosted 5)

fair
FRA friction reducing agent
FRAC, Frac, or frac 1) fracture 2) fractured 3)
fracturing
frac bus the enclosure that contains the control
panels and recording equipment used on a hydraulic
frac job.
fracd fractured
frac finder log a fracture finder log
frac fluid the fluid pumped down a well during
hydraulic fracturing. Frac fluid is commonly water,
water with acid, diesel oil, or nitrogen. Less commonly,
liquified petroleum gas, alcohol, and foam are used.
FRAC-GR frac log, gamma ray log
frac head the device that is attached to the blowout
preventers during a frac job. Fluid and sand are
pumped under pressure into the frac head and down
the well.

frac job

frac job a well-stimulation process in which frac

fluids are pumped down casing or a temporary
workstring under high pressures up to 20,000 psi to
artificially fracture a reservoir rock ia order to increase
permeability and production. First, a pad, which is
frac fluid without proppants, is pumped down the
well until formation breakdown. Then, the frac fluid
with proppants is pumped. At the end of the frac
job, a clear fluid flush is pumped down the well to
clean the well of proppants. The flush can also be
an underflush or overflush depending on the amount
of flushing fluids pumped. Fracturing equipment
includes pumping units, blenders, and bulk handling

FRAC L fracture gradient

equipment such as sand and frac fluid transports, a
manifold trailer, and frac bus. The frac fluid flows
out of perforations in the casing or, if the well is
not cased, packers are used to isolate the formation.
The frac fluid is usually water (possibly with acid)
or diesel oil. Higher injection rates form longer
fractures. Thickening agents can be used to increase
frac fluid viscosity. Propping agents (small spheres),
such as sand or aluminum oxide pellets, are suspended
in the fluid and are used to hold the fractures open
after the pumping stops. The proppant or sand
concentration is usually Vi-4 lbs/gal. The frac job is
measured by the pounds of sand used, which usually
varies from 20,000-1,000,000 lbs in a massive hydraulic
frac. Higher injection rates form longer fractures.
Fracturing can be done in stages during which different
fluids are injected into the well. Some types of frac
jobs include: a) hydrafrac, b) sandfrac, c) waterfrac,
d) acidfrac, e) superfrac, f) gelled waterfrac, g) gelled
oilfrac, h) emulsion frac, and i) vapor frac. Formation
fracturing was developed in 1948 and was originally
done through a tubing string to below a packer.
(formation fracturing, fracturing, or hydraulic
fracturing)
FRAC L frac log
fract 1) fractionator 2) fracture

frac tank

frac tank the container that stores the frac fluid

(typically 580 bbl) for hydraulic fracturing and the
spent frac fluid and oil
Fractg fracturing
fraction a separate hydrocarbon cut or part made
by distillation or a similar process (cut)
fractional analysis an analysis of the percentage of
each hydrocarbon such as methane and ethane in a
gas sample. The fractional analysis also determines
the gal/1,000 ft3of liquid and the heating value of the
gas.
fractional distillation the separation of
components of different boiling points from a solution.
The heated vapors of the solution are passed up a
fractioning column where they are cooled as they
rise. The various components condense as liquids at
various heights in the column.
fractional flow the ratio of the volumetric flow rate
of one fluid phase to the total fluid volumetric flow
rate within a volume of rock
fractional flow curve the relationship of the
fractional flow of one fluid and its saturation during
simultaneous flow of fluids through a rock

203

fractional township a township with less than 36

normal sections. A fractional township could be due
to a shoreline.
fractional wettability local fluctuation of
wettabilities on the surface or a rock due to different
mineral grains with different wettabilities
fractionator a device that uses temperature and
pressure to separate specific hydrocarbons such as
ethane, propane, and butane. The fractionator is a
vertical tower with overhead condensers and reboilers
to regulate the top and bottom operating temperatures.
The temperature gradient and different boiling and
condensing temperatures are used to separate the
fractions. The feed point for the liquid or liquid and
gas is near the midpoint or top of the fractionator.
fract
fracture 1) a break or discontinuity in a rock due
to mechanical stress along which there was no
cohension along the fracture surface at some time
in the past. If there is no apparent movement, one
side relative to the other, the fracture is a joint. If
there is movement, the fracture is a fault. A fraaure
can be either natural or induced, caused by drilling
or well stimulation. Fractures can be either open or
closed to fluid flow due to healing or minerlization.
Fractures can be described as tensile, extension or
shear-based on the stress that formed the fracture.
Natural fractures can be classified as tectonic, regional,
contractional, and surface-related. FRAC, Frac, fract,
frac, orf 2) a break in a mineral along an irregular
surface that is not a smooth cleavage plane. Fractures
in minerals are described as conchoidal, splintery,
or fibrous. 3) a discontinuity surface in a subsurface
which at one time one side of the surface was not
attached to the other side
fracture acidizing a hydraulic fracture job on a
carbonate reservoir using an acid solution as the frac
fluid
fracture assisted steamflood process. Hydraulic
fracturing using high-pressure steam. FAST process
fracture density the number of fractures per unit
length in a rock or core measured perpendicular to
the fracture orientation
fractured reservoir a subsurface reservoir of oil,
water, or gas in which natural fractures in the reservoir
rock have increased the reservoir porosity and/or
permeability or contributed to an increase in reservoir
anisotropy
Fracture Finder log an acoustic log that uses the
attenuation of compressional and shear waves to locate
fracture
Fracture Finder/Micro-Seismogram log a type
of wireline well that is used to locate fractures. The
fraaure finder/micro-seismogram log uses an acoustic
logging tool and photographs the acoustic signal that
passes through a formation. Attenuation of the signal
on the log indicates fractures.
fracture flow capacity fracture permeability times
fracture width expressed in either md-ft or md-m.
The fraaure flow capacities of fracture sands is in
thousands of darcy-feet.
fracture gradient 1) the minimum total in-situ stress
divided by the depth in drilling 2) the pressure per
unit depth necessary to fracture the formation

204 fracture identification log free pipe

free-fluid log a wireline well log used to measure
free fluids (fluids not bound to surfaces) in formations
adjacent to the wellbore. A magnetic field causes an
alignment of the magnetic movement of hydrogen
nuclei in the formation. When the magnetic field is
removed, the protons return to their original
orientation giving off a radio-frequency signal which
is recorded. The amplitude of the radio-frequency
signal is recorded as the free-fluid index (FFI), a
reflection of the amount of water or hydrocarbons
that are not bound. Gas will give a low reading due
to its low-hydrogen density. The rate of alignment,
called the thermal relaxation time, can be recorded
to differentiate between water and oil. (nuclearmagnetism or nuclear magnetic resonance log)

fracture identification log a four-pad dipmeter that

records four microresistivity curves. Fractures are
identified by different responses on adjacent pads.
FIV
fracture log a wireline well log of the sonic type
that locates fractures in the rocks adjacent to the
wellbore by the attenuation of acoustic energy across
the fractures. The fracture log records the cumulative
amplitude of acoustic waves from a sonic logging tool
during a specific time range. FRAC L
fracture number the number of fractures per 100
ft
fracture pore a pore space caused by a break due
to mechanical stress in a rock. Fracture pores usually
add little porosity to a rock but greatly enhance the
rock's permeability.
fracture porosity porosity of voids in the rock
produced by natural fractures. Fracture porosity tends
to be small, usually 296-5%.
fracture pressure see fracturing pressure
fracture spacing the average distance between
parallel fractures
fracture strength the minimum differential stress
necessary to fracture a substance
fracturing seefracjob. Fractg
fractionating the division of crude oil into products
by heating and boiling off different components at
different temperatures
fracturing pressure the pressure necessary to
initiate fractures in a formation, (fracture pressure)

free gas 1) the natural gas that occupies the free

gas cap of a reservoir 2) the natural gas that evolves
from crude oil as the pressure is decreased

FRAG, Frag, or frag fragment

fragile gel a gel with a gel strength that is relatively
constant with time. A fragile gel is in contrast to a
progressive gel.
framestone a limestone formed by a rigid
framework of massive fossils such as stromatoporoids,
rudists, or corals in their growth position
Franconian a North American epoch of geological
time that occurred about 510 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Cambrian period.
Frasnian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 385-380 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Upper Devonian epoch.
fraudulent drainage drainage of oil and/or gas from
one lease to another by a well(s). Both leases have
the same lessee.
FRC flow recorder control
free-air anomaly a variation in the gravity data for
reasons other than the free-air correction
free-air correction a correction made on gravity
measurements for the elevation of the point of gravity
measurement above the datum, which is usually sea
level
freeboard the vertical distance between the
waterline and the deck of a ship
free fell the drop distance of the tools during cabletool drilling
free fluid index the percent of volume that is
occupied by fluids free to flow in a formation as
recorded on a nuclear magnetism log. FFI

^^S^^iffrr//, FREE. GAS

<Mf\-'./, .'T^S

free-gas cap the gas reservoir with gas in the gas

phase occupying the pores of the reservoir rock above
the oil in a saturated-pool oil field. The gas/oil contact
separates the free gas cap from the oil reservoir. The
gas in the free gas cap is associated gas and is always
wet gas. (gas cap)

% ULTIMATE PRODUCTION
(PRIMARY

100

RECOVERY)

free gas cap drive

free-gas cap drive an oil field reservoir drive

mechanism in which the pressure of the gas in the
gas cap above the oil forces the oil into the wells.
Free-gas cap drive is relatively efficient, producing
an average of 35% of the oil in place, (gas-cap drive)
free-gas clause an oil and gas lease provision in
some leases that allows the lessor or the surface-rights
owner free use of the gas produced from that property
free hole a clean borehole
free interstitial water pore water that is free to
flow in contrast to bound water
free pipe loose casing in a well that can vibrate

free piston lift

free piston lift an artificial lift method for oil wells.
Free piston lift uses a free moving piston that travels
up and down the production tubing to lift the oil.
The energy comes from gas in the casing-tubing
annulus. The most common gas used is production
gas. A valve on the bottom of the plunger closes when
it hits a bumper on the bottom of the well. Rising
bottomhole pressure activates a flowline controller
at the surface, and the plunger rises to lift the oil. At
the top of the well, the plunger strikes a bumper
that opens a valve to release the gas below it into
the flowline, and the plunger falls. Free-piston lift is
used in weak flowing wells, wells with a^iigh gas/oil
ratio, and wells with excessive gas. (plunger lift)
free point 1) the depth just above the top of where
pipe is stuck in a well. The free point is just above
the stuck or freeze point. 2) the location where the
drilling assembly is free of vertical stress. The string
is in compression below the free point and tension
above.
free-point detector or indicator a tool that is used
to locate the free-point on stuck pipe in a well. One
type consists of two electromagnets on a telescopic
joint. When upward pull and rotary torque are applied
to the pipe from the surface, the tension is not
transmitted to the stuck portion of the pipe. The free
section is identified by the tension and torque. Another
type senses torque and movement. The tool is slowly
raised on a wireline in the drillstring as the drillstring
is being rotated from the surface. The point where
torque first appears is just above the stuck pipe and
is the free point, (stuck point indicator tool)
free pump a pump that can be circulated in and
out of a well
free radical an unpaired electron in a molecule
free ride an interest in production that is free of
production expenses
free-running plunger lift an artificial lift method
used for gas wells that produces some liquids. The
plunger travels up and down the tubing freely without
an intermitter. The free-running plunger lift is
composed of a) a lubricator to receive the piston on
the surface, b) a free running brush-type piston, c) a
valve shifting prong in the lubricator, d) a 2-in. string
of tubing, e) a bumper spring on the bottom of the
tubing^ and 0 a 2-in. tubing stop.
freestone rider or freestone clause an oil and
gas lease provision that separates pooled portions of
the lease from unpooled portions. This prevents
drilling and production on the pooled portion from
maintaining any leases on the unpooled portion. (Pugh
clause)

IT

. WATER*.

free water knockout

free water 1) water produced with oil that

immediately settles out from the oil upon production.

frequency

205

Free water is in contrast to an emulsion. 2) water

displaced by oil or gas
free-water content a measurement of the excess
water content in a cement slurry. A 250 ml sample
of the slurry from a consistometer is poured into a
glass cylinder. The amount of water is measured after
two hours.

free water knockouts

free-water or freewater knockout a vertical or

horizontal metal separator that uses gravity to separate
water, gas, and oil. The freewater knockout has an
inlet and deflector baffle near the top on one side
and a gas outlet on the top. An oil outlet is located
near the middle, and a water outlet is located on
the bottom of the knockout. Freewater knockouts are
often used before heating an emulsion to remove
the free water and to prevent unnecessarily heating
too much water in the heater treater. FWKO
free-water or freewater knockout sector the
portion of a vertical treater which is fed produced
fluids by a downcomer to gravity-separate fluids before
the firetube heats the emulsion to separate the oil
from the water, (water bath)
free-water level the level in a reservoir where the
oil phase is equal to the water phase. FWL
free well the well drilled by an assignee under a
farmout agreement, (obligation well)
free-well arrangement the transfer of a fraction of
the working interest in a well to another party in
exchange for drilling and possibly equipping a well.
A free-well arrangement can involve several wells and
it usually results in a joint working interest.
free-well farmout an agreement between two
parties in which one party, the farmee, agrees to pay
a disproportionately larger share of the cost of a well
or wells than the working interest that the farmee
acquires. The farmee shares the production with the
other party, the farmor, in proportion to their working
interests.
freeze point the depth in a well located at the top
of a section of stuck tubular such as drillpipe where
it adheres to the side of the well. The free point is
located just above the freeze point, (stuck point)
Frenchie a Schlumberger employee, (frog)
freq 1) frequent 2) frequency
frequency the number of repetitions of an event
such as a waveform per second or hertz. Frequency
is the inverse of period, freq orf

206 frequency analysis FSP

frequency analysis see Fourier analysis
frequency domain data expressed in frequency.
Seismic record traces can be processed by Fourier
transform into frequency domain. Frequency domain
is in contrast to time domain.
fresh bit a drilling bit that has been dressed
fresh mud a water-base drilling mud in which the
water is fresher than the formation water. F-MUD
fresh oil crude oil for which storage has been paid
up to the time of transmission. Fresh oil is in contrast
to old oil.
fresh water water that is very low in dissolved salt
content. Fresh water is sometimes quantified as
containing less than 2 or 1 parts per thousand dissolved
salts. Fresh water at 4 C has a density of 62.3 lbm/
ft3or 1,000 kg/m3. Fresh water results in a pressure
gradient of 0.433 psi/ft or 0.0481 bar/m. FWTR or FW
freshwater mud drilling mud made with fresh water
as the liquid FWTRM
Fresnel zone the portion of a reflecting surface from
which the seismic energy can be reflected and read
by the detector within a half-cycle, resulting in
constructive interference. The diameter of the zone
depends on the depth of the reflector and the velocity
and frequency of the seismic signal. A higher frequency
seismic signal will have a narrower Fresnel zone than
a low-frequency seismic signal. The Fresnel zone is
surrounded by a second Fresnel zone from which
the reflections destructively interfere.
Frg or frg 1) fringe 2) fringing
FRIA or fri friable
friable a rock that is easily broken up. FRIA or fri
friction the resistance to movement
friction bearings a type of ball bearings in a rollercone bit that has no rollers. The roller-cone bearings
have a friction-ball-friction or solid journal-bearing
arrangement.
friction factor 1) the forces that resist motion
divided by the contact force perpendicular to the
motion direction 2) the force on a conduit wall caused
by fluid movement in the conduit./
friction horsepower the indicated horsepower
minus the brake horsepower
friction loss the pressure differential of fluid flowing
through a pipe. Friction loss depends on the type of
flow, fluid viscosity, surface roughness, and pipe
diameter.
friction reducer or friction-reducing agent an
additive used in a fluid to improve its flow. Friction
reducers are often made of polymer or resin material
that forms a slick surface on solids. Friction reducers,
commonly oil and graphite, are used in drilling muds
to decrease the friction on the downhole assembly.
FRA
friction wrench a tool that is designed to grip pipe.
When the wrench is put around a pipe or coupling
and pressure is applied to the handle, the jaws with
teeth on the wrench become tighter on the pipe or
coupling.
fringing reef a reef that grows parallel to the
shoreline and is either attached to the shoreline or
is separated from the shoreline by a narrow, shallow

lagoon. A barrier reef, in contrast, is separated from

the shoreline by a wider and deeper lagoon, (shore
reef)
frmwk framework
frog a Schlumberger employee. (Frencbie)
frog eyes 1) bubbles of natural gas floating on the
drilling mud in the mud tanks 2) water droplets on
crude oil coating a swab line
front the V-door side of a drilling rig. The driller's
side is on the left, and the mud-pit side is on the
right when facing the front of the rig. The opposite
side is the back.
front-end costs the percentage of the monies paid
by limited partners that goes into offering and
organization costs
front-loaded wavelet energy that occurs over a
relatively long time with the maximum amount of
energy at the beginning of the wave. Many seismic
sources, such as dynamite and air gun, produce frontloaded wavelets.
fros frosted
frosted a finely pitted surface caused by impacts.
Quartz sand grains in subaerial sand dunes are often
opaque due to frosting caused by collisions with other
sand grains during wind transport, fros or fr
frost up the icing of pipes and equipment on a highpressure gas well. The rapid expansion of the gas
when it reaches the surface causes cooling that results
in freezing of any moisture.
froth flow a type of produced fluid flow in a well
in which the gas flows "primarily up the center, and
the oil and water flows up the walls of the pipe
frozen an old term for stuck pipe in a well
frozen up mechanical equipment that does not work
because the parts cannot move
FRPT first report
FRR final report for rig
FR-R friction reducers
frs fresh
FRt formation factor deduced from true resistivity
FRW final report for well
Fs feldspar
Fs formation factor deduced from sonic log
FS&WL from south and west line
FSC fail-safe close valve
FSD field size distribution
FSEL from southeast line
fsg or fsg. fishing
FSH fishin
fsh fraction of intergranular space occupied by shales
tfaA fraction of intergranular space occupied by
nonstructural dispersed shale
FSIP final shut-in pressure
FSIT final shut-in time
FSL from the south line
FSP 1) flowing surface pressure 2) final surface
pressure 3) final squeeze pressure

Fspr or fspr fully integrated

Fspr or fcpr Feldspar
FST forged steel
few feet of sea water
FSWL from southwest line
FT 1) formation tester 2) formation temperature 3)
feet 4) field tape
Ft or ft 1) feet 2) foot
Ft filtrate recovered in t minutes
F/T flowline temperature
F^ temperature base factor
Ftf flowing temperature factor
ftg 1) footage 2) filling
FJQ filtrate recovered in 30 minutes.
FTL fluid travel lo
ft-lb foot-pound
ft-lb/hr foot-pounds per hour
ft/min feet per minute
FTP 1) final tubing pressure 2) flowing tubing
pressure 3) field terminal platform
FTPF final tubing pressure flowing
FTPSI final tubing pressure shut in
F trap fault trap
FTrL fluid travel log
FTS fluid to surface
Fe flowing-temperature factor
ft/s or ft/sec feet per second
ft3 cubic feet
ft'/bbl cubic feet per barrel
ft'/d cubic feet per day
ft'/lb cubic feet per pound
ftVmin cubic feet per minute
9?ls cubic feet per second
FTT formation tester tool
ft2 square feet
FU fill up
Fuc or fuc fucoid
fuel gas natural gas that has been pressured and is
used to fuel an engine such as a gas turbine on an
offshore platform
fiiel injector a mechanical device that is used to
spray fuel into the cylinder of an engine
fugacity a thermodynamic function that is related
to chemical potential. When the fugacity of a nonideal
gas is substituted for the pressure of an ideal gas in
a thermodynamic ideal-gas equation, the equation
applies to the nonideal gas. Fugacity is usually
expressed in pressure units./
fugacity coefficient fugacity divided by pressure or
partial pressure. The fugacity coefficient is a measure
of the deviation of a real gas from an ideal gas.
fulcrum the support upon which a lever pivots
fulcrum assembly a bottomhole assembly that is
used to build angle in a deviated hole. A single
stabilizer is run above the bit to achieve a fulcrum
effect. Additional stabilizers can be used to modify

207

the build rate. A fulcrum assembly is in contrast to a

packed hole or pendulum assembly.
full bore a valve or other fitting that has an orifice
with the same cross-sectional area as the pipe on which
it is fitted (full port)
full bore-spinner flowmeter a flowmeter with
retractable blades. The blades are retracted when it
is run into tubing but expanded to fit the casing
diameter when in position.
full-cost accounting or full costing an accounting
method in which both successful and unsuccessful
costs are capitalized. Capitalized costs include all
activities and equipment associated with property
acquisition, exploration, and development along with
the purchase of reserves and the sales and transfer
of property from joint ventures and similar
arrangements. Full-cost accounting is in contrast to
successful-efforts accounting. FC accounting
full-diameter core a cylinder of rock with a
diameter of l3/4 to 5V4 in. in diameter and lengths of
20-90 ft that was drilled by a rotary coring bit from
the bottom of a well. A full-diameter core is in contrast
to a smaller diameter wireline or sidewall core, (fullhole or whole core)
fuller's earth a very fine-grained, naturally occurring
material that has a very high adsorptive capacity.
Fuller's earth is composed primarily of clay minerals
and is used for oil filters.
full-gauge or full-gage bit a drilling bit with the
original diameter. With wear, the bit will become out
of gauge.
full-gauge or full-gage hole a well in which the
diameter of the well is the same as the diameter of
the bit along the entire length of the wall. A full-gauge
hole is in contrast to an undergauge or overgauge
hole, (true-to-gauge hole)
full-hole core see full-diameter core
full-opening safety valve a valve that is installed
in the drillpipe after a kick has occurred. A wrench
is kept on the drill floor to close the valve.
full port see full bore
full-stream gas natural gas that contains liquid
hydrocarbons
full-stream test a test that determines the liquid
hydrocarbon content of natural gas
full-term working interest an operating interest
in a lease which lasts as long as gas and/or oil is
produced
full view mast a drilling rig mast that has an
A-frame structure with the two sides open for
unlimited visibility. A series of box panels are pinned
together to make the leg sections. The raising legs
and slings are stored in the leg sections, and a boom
truck is used to assemble the mast. The mast is raised
by the traveling block and can be skidded as one
piece or disassembled into two, three, or four sections
for transport.
full wave form an acoustic waveform recorded in
an amplitude-time mode
fully integrated an oil company that is engaged in
all aspects of the petroleum business. This includes
exploration, drilling, production, transportation,

208

fully penetrating fracture Fx,

refining, and marketing. Fully integrated is in contrast

to independent.
fully penetrating fracture a fracture that crosses
the entire reservoir height
functional allocation sharing arrangement a
technique used in farmouts, drilling ventures, and
limited partnerships to maximize investor tax savings.
The investors are charged with all currently deductible
items so that the intangible drilling and development
costs (IDCs) are credited to the investors. The drilling
fund sponsor takes the nondeductible item
expenditures.
fundamental strength the hypothetical maximum
stress on a substance that will not cause inelastic
deformation, no matter how long the stress is applied
funicular the interconnected nonwetting fluid such
as oil filling the center of pores
funicular saturation the occurrence of the
nonwetting phase as a continuous web in the pores
of the reservoir. The nonwetting phase can flow, and
the wetting phase may or may not be at irreducible
saturation. Funicular saturation is in contrast to insular
saturation.
funicular zone the zone in a petroleum reservoir
in which large saturation changes occur in a short
vertical distance. The water saturation in a reservoir
ranges from 100% water to irreducible water
saturation for an oil/water contact and from 100%
liquid to irreducible water saturation for a gas/oil
contact. The funicular zone is located between the
saturation and pendular zone, (transition zone)
funnel down a guidance funnel on a subsea
completion with the wide end down
funnel up a guidance funnel on a subsea completion
with the wide end of the funnel up
funnel viscosity the number of seconds that it takes
1 qt or 1,000 cc of drilling mud to drain through a
standard Marsh funnel. The longer the time, the greater
the viscosity of the fluid. (Marsh funnel viscosity) FV
furfural a tracer that is used in produced crude oil
for identification. Furfural is made of corn cobs and
sugar cane waste (bagasse) and is soluble in both
oil and water. Furfural decays with air and high
temperatures.

further exploration covenant an implied principle

of an oil and gas lease that after production has been
established on a lease, the lessee will continue to
explore other areas of the lease and deeper formations
Fus fusuline
Fusul fusulinid
fusuline or fusulinid a football-shaped
foraminifera belonging to the suborder Fusulinina.
Fusulinids were wheat germ-sized with microgranular,
calcareous tests or shells. Fusulinids are important
guide fossils for the Pennsylvanian and Permian
peroids. Fus or fusul
future-interest lease an oil and gas lease on acreage
that currently has a valid lease called the bottom lease.
When the bottom lease expires, the future interest
lease becomes effective, (top lease)
FV 1) funnel viscosity 2) future value
fv fraction of bulk volume
FVF formation volume factor
FVOL flush volume
Fvst favosites
FW fresh water
f^ 1) water cut of formation fluid 2) fraction of
intergranular space occupied by water
FWC field wildcat
fwd forward
FWKO free-water knockout
FWL 1) from the west line 2) free water level
Fw! local gravitational correction for water column
calibration standard
F wop cumulative oil/water ratio
F^ water density correction for water column
calibration standard
FWTR fresh water
FWTRM freshwater mud
fxd fixed
ffadn finely crystalline
F xo formation factor deduced from flushed-zone
resistivity

G galv

G 1) gas, 2) gravitational field strength, 3) total gas

in place, 4) geometrical fraction, 5) shear modulus,
6) geometrical multiplier, 7) geometrical, 8)
geothermal, 9) giga,- 10) gallon, 11) gain, 12)
geothermal gradient, 13) pore geothermal factor, 14)
grainstone, 15) fluid gradient, 16) Gibbs molar free
energy or chemical potential
g 1) gram, 2) gas, 3) acceleration of gravity, 4)
gradient, 5) gallon
GA 1) gallons of acid, 2) Canadian Gas Association,
3) gelling agents
Ga billion years before present
ga gauge
GAAP generally accepted accounting principles
Gab gabbro
gabbro an intrusive igneous rock with granular-sized
crystals of plagioclase and pyroxene mineral grains.
Gabbro is dark in color and is found in both small
dikes and sills and in large intrusions. Gab
GACD gallons of acid
GAD glycol absorption dehydration
GAF gross acre feet
gaffer a roustabout
gage 1) the diameter of a bit, wellbore, or tubular.
(gauge) 2) a measuring instrument 3) to measure
some property. The volume of oil in a stock tank is
gaged by a gager using a gage line, (gauge) ga
gage bob see gauging bob
gage cutters see gauge cutters
gage hatch or hole see gauge hatch or hole
gage height see gauge height
gage line see gauge line
gage line paste see gauge line paste
gage location factor see gauge location factor
gage platform see gauge platform
gage point see gauge point
gage pressure see gauge pressure
gager see ganger
gage reamers see gauge reamers
gage ring see gauge ring
gage rod see gauge rod
gage section see gauge section
gage surface see gauge surface
gage table see gauge table

209

gage tank see gauge tank

gage tape see gauge tape
gage ticket see gauge ticket
gage wear see gauge wear
gage weight see gauge weight
gaging the use of tape or measuring line to measure
the level of a fluid in a tank (gauging)
gaging a tank see gauging a tank
gaging a well see gauging a well
gaging nipple see gauging nipple
gaging point see gauging point
gaging reference point see gauging reference point
gaging tank see gauging tank
gain a change in the signal power or amplitude
gain control amplifier the electronic equipment
used in seismic exploration to keep the data that is
transmitted to the analog-to-digital converter at an
appropriate amplitude level
GAL or gal gallon
gal a unit of acceleration of gravity in the cgs system.
A gal is equal to an acceleration of 1 cm/sec/sec or
10~2 m/sec2 The earth's nominal gravity is 978.03 gals
which is often rounded to 980 gals. Gravity is often
measured in units of milligals, which is equal to 0.001
gal. Gal was named after G. Galileo (1564-1642).
galena a silvery-gray mineral composed of PbS with
a specific gravity of 7.3-7.6. Galena has cubic crystals
and cubic cleavage. Galena can be part of the inert
fraction of drilling mud used to greatly increase the
density of the drilling mud. Mud weights of up to
35 ppg can be obtained using galena.
Galician system a cable-tool drilling method that
used solid rods instead of rope to raise and lower
the bit. The Galician system was used in Russia during
the late nineteenth and early twentith century.
Galileo an acceleration of 0.001 cm/s2, 0.001 dyne/g
or 10~3 gal. A gravity unit is equal to 0.1 Galileo.
mgal or milligal
gall steel surface damage caused by friction
gallon a unit of measurement for liquid volume. The
United States gallon is the volume occupied by 8.34
lbs of distilled water, whereas the Imperial gallon
used in the United Kingdom and Canada is the volume
occupied by 10 lbs of distilled water. A barrel holds
42 United States gallons. The United States gallon is
the equivalent of 0.833 Imperial gallons. GAL, gal,
org
gal/Mcf gallons per thousand cubic feet
gal/min gallons per minute
gal/sk gallons per sack
gal sol gallons of solution
galv galvanized

210

galvanic anode gamma spectrometry log

galvanic anode a sacrificial anode used in cathodic

protection that produces a current flow
galvanic cell an electrolytic cell caused by the
electrical potential difference between two metals
galvanic corrosion corrosion caused by electric
current flowing between two dissimilar metals
immersed in a solution such as salt water that can
conduct electricity
galvanize to coat a metal with zinc
galvanometer an instrument used to measure small
electrical currents. A galvanometer uses a coil
suspended in a constant magnetic field produced by
a permanent magnet. The coil rotates to an angle
proportional to the electrical current flowing through
it. galvo
galvanometer drift the change in mechanical zero
on a galvanometer with time
galvo galvanometer
gambler's ruin a principle of statistics that is applied
to the risk of drilling a well. A dry hole or a producer
are the two possible outcomes of drilling a well. If
several wells are drilled, there is a small, but real
chance that all the wells will be dry holes. This chance
is called gambler's ruin. The larger the number of
wells drilled, the less the chance for gambler's ruin
of all dry holes.
7 1) specific gravity, 2) skewness, 3) gyromagnetic
ratio, 4) gamma ray, 5) shear rate, 6) interfacial tension,
7) kinematic viscosity
gamma a unit of magnetic field strength that is equal
to 10~5 gauss
7 g specific gravity of gas
Gamma-Gamma Density log a density or gammagamma log
gamma-gamma log a radioactive type of wireline
well log that measures the density of subsurface
formations. A radioactive source is used to bombard
the rocks surrounding the wellbore with gamma rays.
By counting the backscattered gamma rays, the density
of the subsurface rock is computed. From the density
of the rock, the porosity of the rock can be calculated.
The compensated density log has a secondary detector
on the sonde that responds more to the mud cake
and borehole irregularities. It is used to correct or
compensate the main detector for these undesirable
effects. Besides porosity, the log is also used with
other logs as an aid to identifying the composition
of the subsurface rocks, {density, formation density
log or nuclear interface log) GG
Ygas gas holdup
Ygg reservoir gas specific gravity
Ygsp separator gas specific gravity
7 gST stock tank gas specific gravity
7, specific gravity of a liquid
7O 1) specific gravity of oil 2) specific gravity of liquid
7 o U oil holdup

gamma radiation or ray high energy,

electromagnetic radiation with a very short wavelength
(0.005 to 1 A) that is shorter than X-rays. Gamma
radiation occurs during all atomic nuclear reactions
such as radioactive decay of potassium, uranium,

thorium, or radium in sedimentary rocks. Gamma ray

can be measured by a Geiger-Mueller counter or a
scintillation counter. Gamma ray radiation of
formations is recorded on a natural gamma ray log.
A gamma-gamma or formation density log uses
gamma rays from a gamma ray source such as cesium
137 to determine the density of rocks. GR or y
gamma ray index a number that indicates the
shaliness of a rock. The gamma ray index is computed
by dividing (the natural formation radioactivity of the
rock of interest minus the natural formation
radioactivity of a clean rock without shale) by (the
natural formation radioactivity of a shale minus the
natural formation radioactivity of a clean rock without
shale). The gamma ray index is usually computed
from a well log such as a gamma ray log. GRI

gamma ray log

gamma ray log a wireline well log that records the

natural radioactivity (gamma ray emissions) of rocks
in the well by a scintillation crystal in the sonde. Of
the most common sedimentary rocks, only shales have
significant natural radiation. Volcanic ash, granite wash,
and some salt deposits also are naturally radioactive.
Three elements (potassium, thorium, and uranium)
account for most of the gamma rays emitted from
the sedimentary rocks. The amount and energy level
is different for each isotope. The energy is measured
in million electron volts (mev) and recorded in
standard API gamma ray units. The gamma ray log is
recorded in Track 1 and is usually run with porosity
and/or resistivity logs. The gamma ray log can be run
in either an openhole or cased well and can be run
in both salt and nonconductive muds. The log is used
for a) shale location, b) lithology identification, c)
correlation, and d) bit selection, (correlation and
natural gamma ray log) GR or GRL
gamma ray prospecting a method of prospecting
for subsurface petroleum deposits by measuring the
gamma ray intensity of the surface. Areas of low
gamma-ray intensity indicate subsurface petroleum.
The low anomalies could be due to the geochemical
action of petroleum microseeps that changed the
chemistry of the soil above petroleum deposits.
gamma ray surveying a method of prospecting for
radioactive deposits by measuring natural gamma ray
radiation on the surface using a gamma ray
spectrometer
gamma spectrometry log a well log that uses a
pulsed-neutron sonde and a computer logging unit

gamma spectroscopy tool gas-cap drive reservoir

to determine the carbon, oxygen, silicon, calcium,
iron, sulfur, chlorine, and hydrogen content of
formations from the gamma rays emitted. The tool
bombards the formations with neutrons and measures
both the inelastic and capture gamma ray spectra that
results. The gamma-spectrometry log can be used to
determine the hydrocarbon saturation, lithology,
porosity, shaliness, and fluid salinity of the formation.
The gamma-spectrometry tool can be run in both an
open and cased wells.
gamma spectroscopy tool the sonde used to make
a gamma spectrometry log. GST"
YSTO specific gravity of stock tank oil
yw specific gravity of water
Ywater water holdup
G&C gas and condensate
G and G costs or expenses the costs of
topographical, geographical, geological, geochemical,
and geophysical studies during the exploration of a
specific area. G and G costs also includes the costs
of rights of access to properties to conduct studies
and the salaries and expenses of the geologists,
geophysicists, crew, and others conducting the
exploratory study, (geological and geophysical costs)
G&O gas and oil
G&OCM gas- and oil-cut mud
G&W gas and water
gang pusher a person in charge of supervising and
training a crew of roustabouts. The gang pusher works
under the production foreman, (head roustabout or
leadman)
Gar garnet
garbet, garbot, or garbutt rod a short rod located
on the lower end of the traveling valve on a downhole
pump. The garbet rod is attached to the standing valve
and is used to unseat the valve for repairs.
gas 1) a mixture of light hydrocarbons ranging from
Cj to C4 that occur as a gas under standard conditions
of 1 atm pressure and 60F. Gas is primarily methane
gas (CH4) with no or lesser amounts of ethane (C2H6),
propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10) gases. The
average Mid-Continent natural gas has a composition
of 88% methane, 5% ethane, 2% propane, and 1%
butane. Lean natural gas has less than 2.5 gal of
recoverable ethane and higher hydrocarbons per MCF
at 60F. Moderately rich natural gas has between 2.5
and 5 GPM and very rich natural gas has greater than
5 GPM. Nonhydrocarbon gases called inerts, dilutents,
or contaminents such as water vapor, CO2, N, and
He can occur mixed with the hydrocarbon gases. If
the gas contains detectable amounts of H2S, it is called
sour gas. If not, it is sweet gas. If the gas contains
significant amounts of liquids (retrograde gas or
condensate) under surface conditions, it is called wet
gas. Gas without liquids is called dry gas. Methane
gas that is generated at shallow depths is called
biogenic, swamp, or marsh gas. Gas that is generated
at deep depths under high temperatures is called
thermogenic gas. Gas occurs as a free-gas phase or
in solution in crude oil in the reservoir. Gas can be
classified as a) associated, b) nonassociated, and c)
dissolved. An average gas density used for well log
computations is 0.7 gm/cc. Gas volume is measured

211

in thousands of cubic feet (Mcf) and its heat content

in British Thermal units (Btus). An average natural
gas chemical analysis by % weight is C 65.0 - 85
H 1.0 - 25.0 S trace - 0.2 O 1.0 - 15-0 (natural gas)
2) a fluid that can expand infinitely. Gas is in contrast
to a liquid or solid.
GAS-A gas analysis
gas anchor a short section of tubing that extends
down from an insert pump and is used to separate
gas from oil before it enters the pump to prevent
gas locking. Several types of gas anchors are used.
One type has an inner and outer tube with the
produced fluid flowing through perforations in the
nipple on the outer tube. The gas separates from the
oil as it slowly flows down the annulus between the
inner and outer tube. The gas flows up the annulus
and out the upper perforations in the nipple. The
oil flows down and into the bottom of the gas anchor
where it flows up into the insert pump.
gas balancing agreement an agreement under
which working-interest owners in a well agree that
takes of gas by each owner can be disproportionate
to the actual ownership of the gas, with the
underproducing party given the right to make up its
underage. The underage make can be either by a)
subsequent taking in kind (volumetric or in-kind
balancing) or by b) subsequent cash settlement (cash
balancing) from the overproducing party. GBA
gas behind the pipe natural gas in a potentially
productive zone that has been cased in a well
gas blanket gas located above the surface of a liquid
in storage
gas blowby the release of gas from a fluid outlet
gas box the mud-gas separators on a drilling rig
gas breakout the formation of gas bubbles from gas
in solution due to a reduction in pressure and/or
increase in temperature of the liquid
gas broker a company or person that arranges for
the sale of natural gas as an agent for the purchaser
or seller
gas bubble a surplus of natural gas supplies
compared to natural gas demand
gas buster see mud-gas separator
gas cap a gas reservoir with hydrocarbons in the
gas phase occupying the pores of the reservoir rock
above the oil in a saturated-pool oil field. A saturated
pool always has a gas cap. The gas/oil contact separates
the gas cap from the oil reservoir, (free gas cap)
gas-cap allowable an allowable or amount of oil
permitted to be produced by a government regulatory
agency that is granted to an operator for not producing
gas from the free gas cap of an oil reservoir. The
gas-cap allowable is transferred to another well in
the same field that is not producing from the free
gas cap.
gas-cap drive an oil field reservoir drive mechanism
in which the pressure of the gas in the gas cap above
the oil forces the oil into the wells. Gas-cap drive is
relatively efficient, producing an average of 35% of
the oil in place, (free-gas cap drive)
gas-cap drive reservoir an oil field with a free gas
cap that supplies the energy to sweep the oil through
the reservoir rock into the wells. Larger gas caps and

212

gas-cap gas gas dehydrator

deeper reservoirs with higher pressures are more

efficient.
gas-cap gas natural gas in or from the free gas cap
of a saturated oil reservoir
gas-chimney effects the effects of gas leakage from
a reservoir to the surface on a seismic record. Gaschimney effects can include bright spots, time sag,
and a wipeout of deeper reflections.
gas chromatogram the analog output of a gas
chromatograph. Retention time is plotted against
abundance of hydrocarbon components.
gas chromatograph an analytical instrument that
separates gases from each other. The gases are carried
by a carrier, an inert gas that is usually nitrogen or
helium, through a column filled with either a solid
or liquid that is called the stationary phase or packing.
This separates the gases into individual components
depending on their affinity for the stationary phase.
The more volatile, lighter, less polar compounds pass
through the column fastest. A gas chromatograph is
composed of a a) sample preparation unit, b) sample
valve, c) column, d) detector, and e) signal recorder.
The sample is introduced into the gas chromatograph
with a syringe where it is immediately vaporized by
heat. The separated compounds are identified by flame
ionization or by a thermal conductivity detector and
are recorded on a gas chromatogram. Packed columns
contain a solid, porous material that is coated with
organic polymers, whereas the more common
capillary columns have no solid support and the
polymer coats the column walls.
gas chromatography the separation of compounds
of gas by partition between a mobile gas phase and
a stationary liquid phase in a column. In gas-solid
chromatography, die stationary phase in the column
is a solid, whereas in the gas-liquid chromatography
it is a liquid. Capillary-column chromatography is used
to separate crude oil and extract components, whereas
packed-column chromatography is used in mud
logging. GC or gc
gas chromatography-mass spectrometry an
analytical system that combines a gasjhrpmatograph
and mass spectrometer to separate and identify
compounds. The gas chromatograph separates the
compounds, and the mass spectrometer identifies the
compounds. GC-MS or gc-ms
gas cleaning the removal of a) pipeline trash and
gross solids and liquids or b) minute solids and
aerosols from natural gas. Gas cleaning is done to
maximize pipeline operating efficiency and prevent
contamination and dilution of treating chemicals. Gas
cleaning equipemnt includes a) impingement
separators with wire-mesh pads or vanes, b) filters,
c) scrubbers, and d) electric precipitators.
gas collection cells containers in which frozen
cores are thawed, and a water and gas sample is
collected
gas column the vertical height of a reservoir rock
having gas-filled pores
gas compressibility see coefficient of isothermal
compressibility
gas condensate liquid hydrocarbons of very light
crude oil composition that occur as a gas under
subsurface reservoir conditions (high temperature and

pressure) and condense into a liquid upon production

and surface conditions. Gas condensate typically
grades from colorless to light-colored liquids with
tints of red, green, or blue. Condensates have very
high "API that ranges between 45 and 60 and are
very valuable commercially. Natural gas that contains
gas condensate is called wet gas. If condensate is
recovered on the lease with standard field-separator
equipment, it is often combined and recorded with
the crude oil. The Natural Gas Processors Association
has denned gas condensate as having a vapor pressure
between 10-34 psi, a percentage evaporated at 104F
of 24%-85%, a percentage evaporated at 275F of not
less than 90%, and an end point in distillation of not
higher than 375F. Retrograde gas is the preferred
term for gas condensate, (casinghead, drip, natural,
raw or wild gasoline, drips, condensate, retrograde
gas, distillate, gas distillate, or white oil) GCOND
gas-condensate reservoir a reservoir that contains
fluids only as a gas phase under initial reservoir
temperatures and pressure. As the initial reservoir
pressure is decreased by production and the reservoir
temperature stays relatively constant, liquid
hydrocarbons (retrograde gas or condensate) separate
from the gas in a process called retrograde
condensation. If the condensate separates from the
natural gas in the subsurface reservoir, it wets the
reservoir rock and cannot be produced. To prevent
this, the wet gas that is produced is often stripped
of retrograde gas and reinjected into the reservoir
(cycling) to maintain reservoir pressure. The
formation gas/oil ratio of a gas condensate reservoir
is between 5,000 and 100,000 SCF/bbl. (condensate
gas reservoir)
gas conditioning the processes that make natural
gas marketable. Gas conditioning is done in the field
before the gas enters the pipeline. Gas conditioning
includes the removal of acid gases, water, and excess
hydrocarbon liquids. Also involved is adjusting the
pressure to pipeline pressure with a regulator or
compressor. Gas conditioning equipment includes
separators, heaters, contactors, absorbers,
dehydrators, compressors, acid-gas removal
equipment, adsorption towers, and gas plants, (gas
processing)
gas cone a gas/oil or gas/water contact that is pulled
down in the shape of a cone centered on a well.
The gas cone is caused by excessive liquid production.
gas constant see universal gas constant
gas contract an agreement by a gas producer to sell
natural gas to a pipeline or user
gas cut a fluid containing dissolved gas. GC
gas-cut mud drilling mud containing dissolved
natural gas from the subsurface. The gas-cut mud will
slightly reduce the bottom hole pressure and must
be removed to accurately determine the mud density.
Gas-cut mud decreases the mud pump efficiency. The
gas is removed by a mud-gas separator.
gas cutting the mixture of gas in a liquid
gas dehydration the removal of water from natural
gas by a gas dehydrator. The water is removed from
gas primarily to prevent the formation of hydrates.
gas dehydrator a field installation used to remove
water from natural gas. The three methods use either

gas detector gasket

a) a liquid-desiccant, b) a solid-desiccant, or c)
expansion-refrigeration. The liquid-desiccant method
uses glycol, most often triethylene glycol (TEG), to
remove the water as the gas is bubbled through the
glycol. Two types of contact towers or absorbers are
the vertical tower which uses bubble trays and the
horizontal tower which uses vertical trays. The soliddesiccant method uses the batch process, is more
expensive, and is used when the dew point of the
gas must be greatly depressed. The contact tower or
adsorber uses two vessels, one vessel is used for
adsorption and another vessel is used for regeneration
of the adsorption material. The desiccant bed through
which the gas is passed is composed of either a)
alumina, b) silica gel, c) silica-alumina gel, or 4)
molecular sieves. The expansion-refrigeration method
uses a pressure drop to reduce the temperature and
condense the water out of the gas. (dehydrator)
gas detector an electrochemical sensor located on
the wash pipe or return flowline that detects gas in
the returning drilling mud. The gas detector is
connected to a single-pen recorder and is used in
mud logging.
gas distillate see condensate or retrograde gas
gas drilling drilling using methane gas as the
circulating fluid. Gas drilling is very similar to air
drilling. A conventional roller-cone bit is used. The
gas goes from the compresser through piping, a
standpipe, rotary hose, and the kelly. The gas exhaust
pipe flares the gas 300 ft downwind of the rig. Gas
drilling is faster than drilling with mud because of
the decreased hydrostatic pressure and alleviates the
problems of formation damage and lost circulation.
A higher weight on bit and lower rpms are used
compared to mud drilling. A very high gas velocity
must be used to remove the dust-sized well cuttings.
gas drive 1) a reservoir drive in a fire flood or insitu combustion. The pressure is from the combustion
gases generated from the burning front. Some heat
is transferred from the combustion gases to the oil,
and some of the gas dissolves in the oil. 2) the injection
of gas into a depleted reservoir to improve oil
recovery. Inert gas injection is a type of gas drive.
gas drive reservoir an oil field in which oil in the
subsurface is produced by either expanding natural
gas bubbles in the oil reservoir (solution-gas drive)
or by expanding gas in the free gas cap (gas-cap drive)
above the oil reservoir, (gas expansion reservoir)
30

POROSITY %
20
10
1

FORMATION DENSITY LOG

0
I

NEUTRON POROSITY LOG

gas effect

gas effect different porosity reading on the neutron

porosity log and the density log for the same formation
due to gas in the pore space. The neutron porosity

213

log reads low, whereas the density log reads high

and relatively accurately.
gas expansion factor the volume of gas at reference
conditions divided by the volume of gas at operating
conditions. The gas expansion factor is the reciprocal
of the gas formation factor. E
gas expansion reservoir see gas drive reservoir
gaseous petroleum methane, ethane, propane, and
butane
gas exploder or gun a marine seismic source that
uses an underwater explosion of propane or butane
mixed with air or oxygen
gas flotation A method used to separate oil from
produced water on an offshore platform by budding
natural gas through the water.
gas formation volume factor the volume of gas
in the subsurface reservoir that equals 1 ft3 of gas at
surface conditions. The gas formation volume factor
is measured in reservoir cf/scf or reservoir m3/std m3
and depends on formation temperature and pressure.
B
s
gas holdup the volume fraction of free gas in a well
an any instant of time, -y^
gas hydrate ice with gas molecules trapped in the
cage-like ice crystal structure. A gas hydrate is a solid
crystalline compound similar to snow. Natural gas
hydrates usually contain ethane or isobutane or, less
often, methane or nitrogen. They are common in
permafrost areas and in seabed sediments. Gas
hydrates also form in and block gas wells and lines
and foul heat exchangers when the gas is cooled.
They are composed of about 90% water and 10% of
one more of the gases methane, ethane, propane,
isobutane, n-butane, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide. Methane snow is a hydrate formed by water
and methane. Gas hydrates have a specific gravity of
between 0.96 and 0.98. Potassium salts can be used
as a drilling fluid additive to inhibit gas hydrate
formation. Gas dehydration is used to depress the
dew point of produced natural gas and to prevent
gas hydrate formation. Gas hydrates are melted from
pipes by heaters, steam, or hot water or by adding
methanol or ethylene glycol. (clatbrate or hydrate)
gas injection the injection of CO2, N, or natural gas
into a subsurface oil reservoir to maintain or restore
reservoir pressure. In a saturated pool with a free
gas cap, the gas is injected into the free gas cap. In
an unsaturated pool, casinghead gas is injected direaly
into the oil. GI or G.I.
gas injection or input well a well that is used to
inject gas into the subsurface reservoir for either
pressure maintenance or enhanced oil recovery. GIW
gas interference the effect of gas in the barrel of
a downhole sucker-rod pump. The gas is compressed
during the downstroke, but the traveling valve opens
before the liquid level is reached. Gas interference
results in poor pump efficiency, but its effect on the
sucker rods is not as severe as fluid pound.
gas inventory holding charge the compensation
to a seller of natural gas for the volumes of natural
gas held available for purchase but not yet taken
gasket a shaped ring of paper, rubber, composition,
or metal that is used around a piston or in a connection
to make it leakproof. gskt

214

gas leg gas meter

gas leg the part of the reservoir that produces natural

gas, for example, the free-gas cap
outlet

gas
controller

gas lift
valve

gas lift

gas lift a type of artificial lift used in oil wells,

Compressed produced gas or air that is called lift
gas is injected back into the well to form bubbles in
the tubing and lift produced liquid to the surface.
The gas is injected through a gas-lift valve either into
the annulus between the casing and production tubing
or into the production tubing. The gas aerates the
fluid in the tubing, reducing its weight, and the aerated
fluid flows up the tubing to the surface. The gas
injection can be either continuous or intermittent.
Continuous gas lift is usually limited to a maximum
depth of 5,000 ft. The opening and closing pressures
on the gas lift valve can be adjusted at the surface
with a spring or gas-charged, dome loading element.
If intermittent flow is used, an intermitter is used to
control the gas flow. Intermittent flow can be either
single-point injection or multipoint injection. Three
types of gas lift are open, semiclosed, and closed.
Gas lift has the advantages of few moving parts and
minimum surface equipment, large capacity, and will
work on crooked or deviated wells. The disadvantages
are the large amount of initial capital outlay, the
possible formation of emulsions, and corrosion of
equipment. Gas lift is a common type of offshore
completion because most of the equipment is located
downhole. Plunger lift is a special type of gas lift. GL
or G-LIF

gas-lift gas the natural gas used in a gas-lift well to

produce oil. Gas-lift gas can be first stripped of any
valuable liquids, (lift gas)
gas-lift mandrel a container in the tubing string that
holds a gas-lift valve. One type is the side-door mandrel
that is installed as the tubing is run into the well.
The tubing must be pulled to replace the gas-lift valve.
In contrast, the side-pocket mandrel is installed and
replaced by wireline.

gas-lift valve a pressure regulator device installed

on or in the tubing of a gas-lift well. The gas lift
valve is responsive to either casing (Pc) or tubing
(Tc) pressure. Four types of gas lift valves are a) a
casing pressure operated or pressure valve, b) a
throttling pressure, proportional or continuous flow
valve, c) a fluid operated valve, and d) a combination
or fluid open-pressure closed valve. The casing
pressure operated valve opens and closes in response
to casing pressure. The throttling pressure valve opens
in response to casing pressure and closes in response
to tubing pressure. The fluid operated valve opens
and closes in response to tubing pressure. The
combination valve opens in response to a buildup
of fluid pressure and closes in response to casing or
tubing pressure. A gas-lift valve contains a bellows,
the responsive element, that is connected to a dome
and the loading element.
gas/liquid column a type of gas chromatography
used to separate hydrocarbon gases in mud logging.
The column is a metal or glass tube filled with certain
sized inert particles coated with a liquid. The gas to
be analyzed is injected into the column and goes into
solution in the liquid where the gases separate. A
gas/liquid column is in contrast to a gas/solid column.
(partition column)
gas/liquid ratio the standard cubic feet of gas per
stock tank barrel of water or oil produced. GLR
gas liquids propane gas (less commonly butane gas
or propane-butane mixture) that has been compressed
into a liquid. Gas liquids are used in rural areas for
home heating and cooking and have industrial,
agricultural, and commercial applications, (bottled or
liquified petroleum gas)
gas-liquids extraction plant a field installation that
is designed to remove valuable liquids from wet
natural gas before the gas is put into a pipeline or
used for pressure maintenance. These liquids can
include natural gasoline, butane, propane, and
sometimes ethane which are removed from natural
gas by absorption or compression and cooling. An
absorption tower removes the liquids by scrubbing
the wet gas with an absorber such as lean oil. A
distillation unit removes the liquids from the rich
oil by heat and steam. The compression and cooling
method is the simplest. A cryogenic plant uses a
turboexpander to super cool the gases for the most
efficient separation. The gas-liquids extraction plant
often has fractionators or stabilizers to separate the
liquid hydrocarbons into pure fractions or mixtures.
The equipment can include a depropanizer and a
debutanizer. A combination refrigeration and
absorption unit can increase the liquid recovery, (gasprocessing, gas, or gasoline plant)
gas lock or locking the effect of gas in the barrel
of a downhole sucker-rod pump. Free gas, either from
the formation or bubbling out of oil on the bottom
of the well, enters the standing valve and into the
pump. During the downstroke, the gas is compressed
but does not unseat the traveling valve. During the
upstroke, the standing valve will not open. Because
of gas lock, no fluid is pumped. Gas interference and
fluid pound are problems related to gas lock, see fluid
pound and gas interference
gas meter a device used to measure the velocity of
a gas flow. Some types of gas meters include a) head

gaso gas scrubber

types (orifice, Venturi, jet nozzle, pitot tube-annubar,
and elbow meter), b) positive displacement or PD
(diaphragm and rotary), c) turbine, d) vortex shedding,
e) magnetic, and f) ultrasonic. The ink colors for the
chart on a gas meter are standard. Red is for differential
pressure, blue for static pressure, and green for
temperature.
gaso gasoline

gas-oil contact

gas/oil contact the boundary between the oil and

free gas cap in a subsurface, saturated oil reservoir.
The gas/oil contact is a transition zone that goes from
high oil saturation to high gas saturation with a
thickness of up to several feet. The contact is generally
horizontal, (gas/oil horizon or interface) GOC
gas/oil horizon see gas/oil contact
gas/oil interlace see gas/oil contact
gas/oil ratio the amount of natural gas divided by
the amount of crude oil usually reported in standard
cubic feet per stock tank barrel. Specific types of gas/
oil ratios include a) formation, b) solution, c)
producing, d) separator, e) stock tank f) initial
solution, and initial producing. GOR
gas/oil ratio test a test that measures the amount
of gas and oil produced from a well. The gas/oil ratio
test is periodically required by government regulatory
agencies. The test is used to determine that the well
is not producing gas in excess of the limit and to
evaluate the well and reservoir performance.
gas/oil separating plant an offshore platform
designed principally for the treatment and separation
of produced fluids from an offshore field. GOSP
gasoline a volatile and inflammable product of crude
oil refining. Gasoline is a liquid hydrocarbon ranging
from C6 to Ci0. gaso
gasoline plant see gas plant. GP
gasoline range hydrocarbons alkanes and
aromatic hydrocarbon molecules as large as C7 in
crude oil and retrograde gas
gas plant a field installation that is designed to
remove valuable liquids from wet natural gas before
the gas is put into a pipeline or used for pressure
maintenance. These liquids can include natural
gasoline, butane, propane, and sometimes ethane
which are removed from natural gas by absorption
or compression and cooling. An absorption tower
removes the liquids by scrubbing the wet gas with
an absorber such as lean oil. A distillation unit removes
the liquids from the rich oil by heat and steam. The
compression and cooling method is the simplest. A

215

cryogenic plant uses a turboexpander to super cool

the gases for the most efficient separation. The gas
plant often has fractionators or stabilizers to separate
the liquid hydrocarbons into pure fractions or
mixtures. The equipment can include a depropanizer
and a debutanizer. A combination refrigeration and
absorption unit can increase the liquid recovery, (gasliquids extraction plant) GP
gas plant products natural gas liquids (NGL) that
are separated from wet gas in a gas plant. Gas plant
products includes condensate, butane, propane, and
sometimes ethane
gas processing see gas conditioning
gas-processing plant see gas plant
gas processing rights a provision in a farmout in
which a party reserves the right to remove the liquids
from any wet gas that is produced
gas production unit an enclosed field installation
that is a combination heater and separator for highpressure gas and condensate wells. A gas production
unit is skid mounted and consists of an indirect line
heater and a high-pressure oil-water-gas separator with
interconnecting piping and gas inlet, gas outlet, and
oil outlet.
gas prone a sedimentary rock with terrestrial
kerogen (Type III) that generates predominately
hydrocarbons gases with little or no liquids
gas pulser a marine seismic source that uses a
mixture of oxygen and propane
gas pump a method of artificial lift that uses a positive
displacement pump that is activated by a gas supply.
The pump is wireline or tubing retrievable and
displaces a barrel of oil with an equal volume of gas
at lift depth pressure. The well fluid enters the pump
barrel through a lower check valve. The plunger rises
and falls in the working barrel to force the well fluids
up through the standing valve assembly above it.
gas regulator an automatic pressure-sensitive valve
gas reinjection injection of gas into a subsurface
reservoir during production to maintain reservoir
pressure in order to increase the ultimate oil recovery.
The gas is usually produced gas that has been stripped
of its liquids and is dry gas. (reinjection or pressure
maintenance)
gas reservoir a subsurface zone that contains
hydrocarbons only in the gas phase
gas royalty the royalty or payment made for natural
gas that is produced from a well and sold. Gas royalty
does not include gas that is used for leasehold
operations or is reinjected into the reservoir for
pressure maintenance.
gas sales line a line that carries treated natural gas
from a lease or offshore platform to a pipeline
gas sand a driller's term for sandstone containing
gas. G-SD
gas saturation the percent volume of the reservoir
rock pore space that is occupied by gas
gas scrubber a vessel that is similar to an oil and
gas separator but is designed for gas with relatively
little liquid content. A gas scrubber is often used in
gas gathering. The dry type of gas scrubber uses a
mist extractor or other device. The wet type uses a

216

gas separation gas unit

bath of oil or another liquid to remove dust before

the gas is passes through the mist extractor.
gas separation the separation of dissolved gas from
crude oil in a separator. Separation is done either
by stage or flash separation.
gas separator a bolt-on section located between the
protector and the pump on an electric submersible
pump. The gas separator liberates free gas from the
fluid and directs the gas away from the pump intake
to prevent gas locking and to provide more efficient
pumping of gassy wells. Gas separators reverse the
fluid direction or centrifuge the fluid to remove the
gas.
gasser a well that produces gas
gas settlement statement a form that records the
amount of gas that was transferred from wells to a
pipeline. The form varies with purchasers and
generally includes a) purchaser identification, b) lease
identification, c) producer identification, d) quantity
6f gas delivered, e) month of production, f) Btu content
of the gas, g) gross or net value due to the lease, h)
lease production taxes, i) value due to the producer,
and j) pressure base. The statement is similar to a
run ticket used for crude oil. (settlement statement)
gas show the appearance of natural gas in the
returning drilling fluid. Gas show is a term used in
mud logging to show the amount and composition
of natural gas above background gas levels. GS
gas shrinkage the gas lost or absorbed during the
removal of liquids from natural gas
gas sniffer 1) a device that is towed in the water
behind a boat to detect the presence of hydrocarbons
from seepages in the ocean 2) a device that is used
to detect the presence of hydrocarbons in drilling
mud
gas/solid column a glass column in a gas
chromatograph that is packed with charcoal, silica gel,
zeolites, or polymers that adsorb gas. The gas/solid
column is used to separate oxygen, nitrogen, methane,
and other gases and is in contrast to a partition or
gas/liquid column, (adsorption column)
gas solubility see dissolved gas/oil ratio
gassy well pump a downhole pump that is used
to pump very gassy fluids without gas locking. A gassy
well pump is an insert-type of pump with three
chambers and a modified valve and plunger. Some
prevent gases from entering the pump, whereas other
pumps use high compression to keep the gas in
solution.
Gast or gast gastropod
gas-to-oil ratio see formation gas/oil ratio. GOR
gas tracer a gaseous radioactive isotope that is
injected into a well to determine the flow velocity
profile
gas trap 1) a rectangular steel box that is located
on the end of the mud return line on the possum
belly or ditch of a shale shaker. The gas trap is used
to sample gas dissolved in the returning drilling mud
for mud logging. The drilling mud passes through
slots in the base of the trap. An agitator motor on
top of the trap turns a shaft and propeller in the gas
trap to agitate the drilling mud and separate the gas.
A continuous flow of air enters the top of the trap

and mixes with the gas. The gas-air mixture then flows
to the gas detector. The drilling mud flows onto the
shale shakers. 2) a gas separation plant 3) an early
term for a gas/oil separator
gas-trap efficiency the percentage of gas in mud
that is removed from the mud and transmitted to
the gas detector during mud logging. Efficiencies of
50%-85% are common.

gastropods

gastropod an invertebrate of the class Gastropoda

in the phylum Molluska. Most gastropods live in the
ocean and have a coiled shell of calcium carbonate.
Gastropods have existed from the Cambrian period
to the present and are guide fossils, (snail) Gast or
gast
gas turbine a type of engine that uses a centrifugal
compressor to force air into a combustion chamber
where it is sprayed with fuel. The mixture is burned
at a constant pressure as the power gas that is produced
expands through a series of curved vanes or blades
on a wheel or axis, called a turbine. The gas turbine
type of prime mover is common on offshore platforms.
Gas turbines that are run on natural gas or liquid
hydrocarbons are used to drive the electrical
transmission system systems on some drilling rigs.
Gas turbines are also used for gas transmission and
injection.
gas turbine meter a type of gauge used to measure
the velocity of flowing gas. The gas flows through
curved vanes or rotors on an axis, causing the axis
to turn. The rate which the axis turns is calibrated
to the velocity of the flowing gas.
gas unit the units of background gas used on the
meter or recorder scale during mud logging. The
gas unit can be calibrated by the "hot wire" in a gasair mixture. One percent methane in air is equivalent
to 50 gas units. Gas units, however, are often defined
differently in various gas-detector manuals. GU

gas-water contact or horizon gauge hole

gas-water contact or horizon the boundary in the
subsurface reservoir between the gas reservoir and
the underlying reservoir having water-filled pores. The
boundary is usually level but can be gradational over
several feet. GWC
gas well a well that is capable of producing natural
gas. The gas/oil ratio of a gas well is usually greater
than 150,000:1. The GOR definition of a gas well will
vary slightly by statute. GW
gas well gas natural gas that is not in contact with
oil in a reservoir. Gas well gas is usually dry gas and
is in contrast to associated or dissolved gas.
(unassociated or nonassociated gas) GWG
gas wetness the percent by volume of a gas sample
that is hydrocarbon gases other than methane. A wet
gas has more than 5% wetness. Biogenic gas has
extremely low wetness.
gate 1) a pipeline valve 2) an interval of time during
which a a measurement is made or a function such
as autocorrelation occurs, (window) 3) a computer
circuit with several inputs and one output 4) a
shuttering device that shields a scintillometer used
to record gamma rays on a sonde. The gate opens
and exposes the scintillometer to radiation for an
exposure time in microseconds 5) The middle section
of a transistor, see pipe ram

gate valve

gate valve a type of valve that uses a sliding gate to

open and close the passage
gather a visual display of seismic data used in the
stacking process in which all the seismic traces thought
to be the same are displayed side by side. Normal
moveout is usually removed. Gather is used to check
the correlation of the traces and evaluate the different
traces on the stack. A single-trace gather is a type of
100% section using one trace from each shot point
to examine the data. A near-trace gather uses the trace
from the group nearest the shot point. A far-trace
gather uses the trace from the group furthest from
the shot point. A CDP gather combines all the traces
with a common depth point into a single trace.
gathering center or centre a meeting area for
subsea flowlines that leads into a central manifold
for processing. A production platform can be a
gathering center.
gathering line 1) an oil pipeline that leads from
the lease tanks to a central accumulation point 2)
the oil flowline from a well to a central lease or field
facility 3) the flowline that connects a subsea well to
the manifold center. GL

217

gathering station 1) a field installation with a

compressor that is used to increase the pressure of
gas from wells. A gathering system is used when the
gas is produced at a pressure lower than the pressure
required for the pipeline system 2) the separation,
treatment, and measurement equipment for gas and
oil

radial

1
axial
gathering system (gas)

gathering system pipe lines that bring gas from

the leases to the main pipeline. Four types of gathering
systems are a) a single trunk with laterals, b) a multiple
trunk system extend out from a central point, c) a
loop system, and d) a combination system. Gathering
systems can also be described as radial or axial.
gauge 1) the diameter of a bit, wellbore, or tubular.
(gage) 2) a measuring instrument (gage) 3) to measure
some property. The volume of oil in a stock tank is
gauged by a gauger using a gauge line, (gage) gge
orga
gauge bob the weight used on the end of a gauge
tape that is lowered through a dip hatch on a crude
oil storage tank for gauging. The gauge bob touches
the strike plate at the bottom of the tank which
correlates to zero on the tank gauging table. Bobs
are usually make of brass to avoid sparks and can
be serrated along an edge for chalk or indicator paste
and can have a spring snap at the end for attachments.
(dip or gaging bob, weight or gauge weight)
gauge cutters the outermost row of inserts on the
cones of a roller-cone bit. Gauge cutters do not mesh
and have the largest volume of rock to remove. Gauge
cutter patterns include regular, T, U, web and tungsten
carbide inserts, (gage cutters or heel teeth)
gauge hatch a hinged opening on the top of an
oil stock tank or storage tank that is used to gauge
or measure the level of oil and to take an oil sample.
The gauge hatch is fitted with a lid. (gage hatch or
hole or thief, main or dip hatch or gauge hole)
gauge height the vertical distance from the
reference point on the tank hatch or gauging platform
of a stock or storage tank and the gauge point on
the bottom of the tank. The gauge height is posted
near the reference point and is used in gauging the
tank to determine the height and volume of oil in
the tank, (gage height)
gauge hole 1) a well with a borehole that is the
same diameter as the bit that drilled the well 2) see
gauge hatch

218

gauge line GCC

gauge line 1) see gaugetape, 2) the piping and valves

that connect an orifice meter to a meter run or tube.
(gage line or meter manifold)
gauge line paste a material that changes color on
contact with water and is used to determine the water
or basic sediment and water level in a tank, (gage
line paste)
gauge location factor a correction used in gas
meters to correct the manometer factor (Fm) for
elevation and latitude other than sea level and
45. Fe
gauge platform the steel platform along the top of
a stock or storage tank that the gauger stands on to
lower the gauge line into the tank through the gauge
hatch to gauge or measure the height and volume
of oil in the tank, (gage platform)
gauge point 1) the point usually located on the rim
of the thief hatch where the gauge tape is lowered
into a tank 2) the point on the bottom of the thief
tank where the gauge weight or bob touches the strike
plate. It is zero on the tank gauging table, (dip or
gage point)
gauge pressure the pressure above atmospheric
pressure in a container. Gauge pressure plus
atmospheric pressure equals absolute pressure. It is
measured in pounds per square inch gauge (psig).
Gauge pressure is in contrast to absolute pressure.
(gage pressure)
gauger a person whose job is to measure the quantity
and quality of oil and gas produced on leaseholds.
(gager)
gauge reamers a sub that is used in a bottomhole
assembly to smooth the walls of a wellbore with rollers
or cutting edges, (gage reamers)
gauge ring a device that is run in a cased hole to
confirm the minimum diameter of the casing in the
well (gage ring)
gauge rod a wood or steel rod with markings to
measure the height of oil. The gauge rod is lowered
through the gauge hatch into a crude oil storage tank
for gauging (dip or gage rod)
gauge section the outermost portion of the cones
on a roller-cone bit (gage section)
gauge surface the outer surface of the gauge cutters.
It determines the size of the wellbore. (gage surface)
gauge table a chart that is used to determine the
amount of oil that is filling a specific tank. A gauge
table is made by a tank strapper by strapping
(measuring) the volume and height of the tank. The
table is usually calibrated in Vt or Va in. in height.
(gage table or tank table)
gauge tank a tank that is used to measure oil
production, (gage, gaging, or gauging tank)
gauge tape a reel of measuring tape with a gauge
weight on one end. The tape is lowered through the
gauge hatch to measure the level of a liquid in a
tank, (gage tape, gauge line, gage line, or dip tape)
gauge ticket a record of the amount of oil transferred
to a pipeline or tank truck from a stock tank. The
gauge ticket includes the gravity, temperature, bottom
sediment, and water content of the oil along with
the time of delivery. The gauge ticket is made in
triplicate by the gauger and witnessed by the pumper,

with a copy going to the purchaser, (gage ticket or

run ticket)
gauge wear the abrasive wearing of a drill bit. Gauge
wear is reported in V32 in. increments, (gage wear).
gauge weight see gauge bob
gauging the use of tape or measuring line to measure
they level of a fluid (gaging)
gauging a tank the method used for determining
how much oil is in a stock or storage tank. A tank
table that relates the height of oil in the tank to the
volume of the oil has been prepared by a process
called strapping. The height of the oil in the tank is
measured by either the inage or outage method. The
more common inage method is made by lowering a
tank gauge, a measured tape with a gauge bob on
the end, into the tank at the reference point on the
tank hatch or on the gauging platform. The gauge
bob is lowered through the oil to the strike plate
on the bottom of the tank. The level of oil called
the cut line is then read off the gauge line. The outage
method is used when there is a buildup of sediment
on the bottom of the tank. A tank gauge is lowered
into the tank from the reference point to measure
the vertical distance down to the surface of the oil.
This is then subtracted from the total vertical height
of the tank (gauge height) measured from the
reference point to the gauge point on the bottom.
(gaging a tank)
gauging a well the required measurements made
on a well in order to determine its potential for
prorationing regulations by a government regulatory
commission, (gaging a well)
gauging hatch see gauge hatch
gauging nipple a small opening with a cover on
the top of a stock tank that is used to gain access to
the tank for gauging the amount of oil in the tank
and for taking samples. The gauging nipple is similar
to a gauge hatch, (gaging nipple)
gauging point a point on the bottom of a stock
tank directly below the reference point. A tank gauge
is lowered into the well at this spot to measure the
height of oil in the tank, (gaging point or point zero)
gauging reference point A mark on a thief hatch
of a crude oil storage tank from which the gauge
tape is lowered during gauging, (gaging or dipping
reference point)
gauging tank a tank used to measure the amount
of crude oil produced (gage, gaging, or gauge tank)
gauss 1) the cgs-emu unit of magnetic induction or
flux density. A gauss is equal to 105gammas and 1CT4
tesla. 2) the cgs unit of magnetization
GB gun barrel
GBA gas balancing agreement
GBDA gallons of breakdown acid
Gbo. gumbo
GC gas-cut.
GC or gc gas chromatography
ge pressure gradient of cement slurry
g-cal grams-calorie
GCAW gas-cut acid water
GCC gas-cut cushion

"GC-MS or gc-ms
GC-MS or gc-ms gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry
GCD gas-cut distillate
GCLO gas-cut load oil
GCLW gas-cut load water
GCM gas-cut mud
GCO gas-cut oil
GCOND gas condensate
GCP ground-control point
GCPD gallons of condensate per day
GCPH gallons of condensate per hour
GCR gas-condensate ratio
GCSW gas-cut salt water
GCT countinous guidance tool
GCW gas-cut water
GD gauge depth
gd good
GDC survey a combination gamma ray log, Densilog,
and caliper log
gd o&t good odor and taste
GDR gas/distillate ratio
geanticline a very broad and long uplift
gear a wheel toothed that are meshes and transfers
motion to another gear. The most common gears used
in the oil field are a) helical, b) herringbone or double
helical, c) bevel, d) spiral, e) spur, f) worm, and g)
rack and pinion. The most common gears used are
helical, herringbone, bevel, and spiral. Gears are used
in power transmission and speed reduction on a
drilling rig and pumper.
gearbox the container for a gear train or reduction
gears
gear jammer an oilfield truck driver, (gravel hog
or junk hustler)
Gedinnian a global age of geological time that
existed 405-400 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Devonian epoch.
Geiger-Mueller counter an instrument used to
detect gamma rays. The instrument has a metal cylinder
filled with low-pressure gas and a central rod electrode
that is charged positive relative to the cylinder. Gamma
rays striking the cylinder wall cause electrons to be
ejected and drawn to the center electrode where they
are recorded.
gel 1) a colloidal suspension in which shearing
stresses below the gel strength will not permanently
deform the gel. The minimum shearing stress that
results in permanent deformation is the shear or gel
strength. Drilling mud is a gel. A gelling agent mixed
with water and oil forms a gel for frac jobs. 2) bentonite
and attapulgite clays which are highly colloidal, highyielding, viscosity-building commercial clays 3) see
drilling mud
GELAC gelled acid
gelatin an explosive
gelatinized starch an organic colloid composed of
starch that has been gelatinized with caustic.
Gelatinized starch is used for low filtration loss in
salt-water and lime-treated drilling muds.

general partner

219

gelation the accretion of fine particles in suspension

to form a gel
gel cement cement or cement slurry to which
bentonite has been added for filler and/or to reduce
the slurry weight
gel-chemical mud a water-base drilling mud made
of bentonite, drilled solids, and a dispersing agent
such as quebracho, lignites, or lignosulfonates. Gelchemical muds have a high pH due to the caustic
soda that is used to activate the dispersing agent. The
mud is used when the drilling fluid is contaminated
with drilled solids or cement and there is a relatively
high bottomhole pressure.
GELK gel kerosene
gelled up 1) the flocculation of drilling mud due
to contaminants. The flocculated mud will have a high
gel strength and be very viscous, (clabbered) 2) a
substance that has formed a gel
gelled oil frac a hydraulic frac that uses a gelled
oil. The gelled oil has a lower viscosity than crosslinked gelled waters and is used in water-sensitive
formations. The gelled oil is made of refined distillate
or lease crude.
gelled waterfrac a hydraulic frac that is similar to
a water frac but uses a carefully controlled system
of gelling agents such as guar gum, hydroxyl propyl
guar, and hydroxyl ethyl guar along with chemical
catalysts to make a very viscous gel. The gel pumps
like water but has excellent proppant carrying
properties.
gelling agent an additive that thickens a liquid. Guar
gum, gum karya blends, and synthetic polymers are
used as acid gelling agents. GA
GELM gel mud
gelometer an instrument that is used to measure
gel strength. The gelometer consists of a cup with a
plunger and a readout.
gel strength a measure of the electrical attraction
forces in a gel. Gel strength is the minimum shearing
stress that will permanently deform a gel such as
drilling mud. Gel strength is usually reported in lb/
100 sq ft. Common gel strength measurements are
initial (after setting for 10 seconds) and 10-minutes
(after setting for 10 minutes). Gel strength defines
the ability of the drilling mud to hold solids in
suspension and gives an indication of the thixotropic
properties of the mud. Gel strength is measured on
a viscometer or gelometer. (shear strength)
gen 1) generator 2) generally
general gas law see ideal gas law
General Land Office survey the land subdivision
survey for the United States. It involves all lands except
those that were included in grants made by foreign
governments before the land became territory of the
United States. The survey includes Alabama, Florida,
Mississippi, all states north of the Ohio River, and
all states west of the Mississippi River except Texas.
Surveying was done from north-south lines called
meridians and east-west lines called base lines. The
land subdivision units are townships of 36 sq mi that
are divided into sections of 1 sq mi.
general partner the person or company in a drilling
or production agreement that is responsible for

220

general shut-down order geologic column

initiating and supervising the drilling or production.

In a limited partnership, the general partner not only
runs the management but is also fully responsible
for the debts of the partnership. A general partner is
in contrast to a limited partner, (operator)
general shut-down order a regulatory commission
ruling on the number of days a month that an oil
well(s) can produce
general warrant a covenant of title in a lease, deed,
or assignment that guarantees the title against all
defects
generator a machine that converts mechanical into
electrical energy. Electric generators work on the
principle of electric induction. The electric current
is caused by a variation of magnetic lines passing
through a loop. One type of generator has armature
windings on a rotor revolving between the fixed
magnetic poles of the stator. In another type, the
armature is stationary and the magnetic poles on a
magnet wheel rotate. The stator is an iron ring with
induction coils on the inside. A three-phase generator
has three coils at 120 apart and generates three voltage
waves with a phase difference of 120. The three-phase
generator is known as a three-phase alternator, gen
genetic increment of strata a vertical sequence
of sedimentary rock strata that was deposited during
a single depositional cycle. A genetic increment of
strata is bounded on the bottom by an unconformity,
facies change, or the base of a transgressive sand,
and on the top by a time marker. Genetic increments
of strata are used in time-rock stratigraphic mapping.
GIS
gentleman's agreement an oral understanding
between^ two parties that is not written on paper and
is not legally enforceable, (handshake agreement)
GEO geophone
Geo geographies
geochemical logging tool a downhole tool that
uses borehole nuclear spectrometry to measure the
abundance of elements in formations. GLT
geochemical prospecting the analysis of surface
samples of soil and water for traces of hydrocarbons
and indications of microseep
geochemist a person trained in chemical methods
used in the investigation of geological problems and
exploration
geochemistry the application of chemical methods
to geological problems such as the search for
hydrocarbons. Geochemistry involves the search for
microseeps, the identification of source rocks, the
timing of hydrocarbon generation, and the correlation
between crude oils and source rocks.
geodesy the science of measuring the shape of the
earth
geodynamic pressure pressure or stress on
subsurface rocks and their fluids due to deformational
processes such as a rising salt dome or compressive
folding
Geoflex a seismic source used on land that uses
an explosive cord buried with a plowlike device
geofluid any fluid such as water, gas, or oil that was
or is located in the pores of rocks

Geograph a thumper or weight-drop type of

seismic source used on land
geohistory diagram an age-versus-depth (below sea
level) plot of a sedimentary rock from the time of
its burial to the present
GEOL geologist
Geol or geol 1) geology 2) geologist
geologist a petroleum geologist
geological and geophysical costs the costs of
topographical, geographical, geological, geochemical,
and geophysical studies during the exploration of a
specific area. Geological and geophysical costs also
includes the costs of rights of access to the properties
to conduct the studies and the salaries and expenses
of the geologists, geophysicists, crew, and others
conducting the exploratory study. (G and G costs)
geological base map a map that shows well
locations

geological map

geological map a map showing the rocks, usually

in units called formations, that crop out on the surface
of the earth in a specific area. The geological map
also shows structural features such as strike and dip,
fold, joints, and faults. A geological map will also have
geographical and cultural features such as rivers, roads,
and cities along with longitudes and latitudes and
scale for location.
geological unit A drilling and spacing unit
established by the Louisiana Conservation Commission
based on geological boundaries such as a fault or
oil/water contact rather than land subdivisions.
geologic column a rock column showing all
different rock units such as formations that occur in
a locality or region. The rock units are vertically
ordered from the oldest at the bottom to the youngest
at the top. The rocks are drawn horizontally and rock
ages and scale are often given. The individual rock
layers are often drawn as they would weather in a
cliff of rocks. Resistant rocks such as sandstones
protrude out, whereas weaker rocks such as shales
are weathered back, (columnar section or
stratigraphic column)

geologic high geothermal gradient

geologic high a relatively younger formation in age.
Geologic high has nothing to do with elevation.
geologic life the time from the formation of a rock
or a structure in the rock such as a fold to the present.
geologic low A relatively older formation in age.
Geologic low has nothing to do with elevation.
geologic section see geologic column
geologist a person trained in the study of the earth.
A geologist can be employed in the search for
petroleum, ground water, coal, ores, or other valuable
rocks or in environmental studies. Types of petroleum
geologists include a) exploration, b) development or
production, c) wellsite, and d) reservoir. GEOL, Geol,
or geol
Geolograph a patented chart recorder that is capable
of recording up to ten drilling parameters on a drilling
rig. The Geolograph normally records rotary speed,
rotary torque, pump speed, pump pressure, hook load,
and weight on bit along with time to drill each foot.
A six-pen single recorder records a) hook load, b)
penetration, c) rotary rpm, d) rotary torque, e) pump
SPM, and 0 pump pressure. Total depth reads to the
nearest Vv> ft. The Geolograph chart rotates on a drum
each 24 hr. The chart is marked in time and drilling
increments which are recorded as tick marks. The
Geolograph was first used in 1937 in the Oklahoma
City field, (drilling recorder)
geology the study of the earth. Geology is primarily
concerned with the composition of the rocks that make
up the earth, the earth's history,-and the processes
that have shaped the earth. Geol or geol
geomagnetic scale a record of normal and reverse
earth magnetic polarity going back in geological time
geomorphic trap a near-surface petroleum trap
formed by very recent erosion of dipping reservoir
rock. A geomorphic trap is a recent unconformity
and often can be identified by oil and gas seepages.
geomorphology the study of landforms
GEOP geopressure
Geop or geop 1) geophysics 2) geophysicist
geopetal a structure in a sedimentary rock that
indicates the orientation of the top and bottom of
the rock when it was deposited, gept
geophone a microphone used on land to detect
seismic energy from the subsurface during seismic
exploration. Geophones transform seismic energy into
an electric voltage. The geophone usually consists of
a moving coil suspended by springs in a magnetic
field. Seismic energy causes the geophone case and
magnet to move, but not the coil. This causes a voltage
to occur across the coil. Exploration geophones are
sensitive to the 5 to 200 Hz range. Geophones usually
only record vertical motion. The geophone must have
about 0.7 critical dampening. Some geophones have
spikes on then to plant in the ground, whereas other
jugs are designed for use on ice. Geophones are
connected to each other and to tape recording
equipment by electronic cable, optical fiber cable,
or radio. Geophones are deployed in arrays, (jug,
seismometer, pickup, sets, or phone) GEO
geophone interval 1) the distance between
geophones in a group 2) the distance between the
centers of geophone groups

221

geophysical library an establishment that

distributes maps of available seismic data, buys seismic
data and arranges for the sale or trade of seismic
data. A company originally had to contribute seismic
data to the library to take data on loan, (data brokerage
or exchange or trade service)
geophysicist a person trained in the methods of
physics to investigate geological problems and explore
the solid earth. Geophysicists are often employed in
the search for petroleum or ore deposits. Geop or
geop
geophysics the application of physics and its
methods to geological problems such as the search
for petroleum. Geophysical methods include seismic
(reflection and refraction), gravity, magnetics,
electrical, geothermal, remote sensing, and wireline
well logging. Geop or geop
geopolymers see keragen
geopressure abnormal high formation pressure.
Geopressure is pressure in a reservoir that is higher
than normal pore pressure or hydrostatic pressure
that increases at a rate of about 0.465 psi/ft depth,
depending on formation water salinity. Geopressure
occurs in isolated reservoirs that do not communicate
with other reservoirs, (overpressure) GEOP
geopressure aquifer a water-bearing reservoir that
has a higher fluid pressure than normal hydrostatic
pressure for that depth. The geopressure aquifer
sometimes contains large amounts of dissolved
methane.
geopressured a reservoir with fluid pressure that
exceeds that of normal hydrostatic pressure.
(overpressured)
geopressured brine formation waters under
abnormal high pressures in a subsurface formation.
The brines are usually hot and sometimes contain
methane.
geopressured shale a shale formation with
abnormal high pressure that causes the shale to spall
off into a wellbore. (popping shale)
geostatic related to the overlying rocks
geostatic pressure the subsurface pressure exerted
by the weight of the overlying rocks. Geostatic pressure
increases about 100 psi/100 ft of depth. This is in
contrast to pressure on fluid in pores of the rock
which is called reservoir, fluid, or formation pressure.
(earth, lithostatic, overburden, or rock pressure)
geostationary a satellite velocity that is the same
as the earth's rotational velocity which allows the
satellite to maintain a constant position above a certain
point on the earth
geosyncline a large and elongated area of the earth's
crust which is downwarping and receiving thousands
of feet of sediments. The geosyncline is divided into
a miogeosyncline located nearest to the craton which
has no volcanics and the eugeosyncline which has
both volcanic and clastic sediments. The geosyncline
can be deformed into a mountain range by
compressional forces.
geothermal energy the use of steam generated
from subsurface heat
geothermal gradient the increase in temperature
with depth in the earth. Geothermal gradient is

222

geothermal heat flow girt

measured in C/km or F/100 ft. The geothermal

gradient varies between 0.3-4.9F/100 ft of depth and
is generally between 1.3-2.2 "F/100 ft. It averages
1.4M.6 F/100 ft in sedimentary basins. The
geothermal gradient can be measured in a well by
using a temperature bomb, logging data, or the
bottom- hole flowing temperature of oil. GG or gG
geothermal heat flow the amount of heat leaving
the earth's surface. The mean geothermal heat flow
is 1.5 m-cal/cm2/sec or 1.5 heat flow units.
geothermometry the study of the earth's heat
gept geopetal
Geronimo a device that is used by a crew member
to escape from the monkey or tubing board near
the top of the derrick on a workover drilling rig.
The Geronimo consists of a wheel that is used to
slide down a cable called the Geronimo line attached
to the rod basket or tubing board on the derrick
and to a stake or some other secure~fastening on
the ground away from the rig. It is equipped with a
brake and brake handle, (derrick climber or safety
slide)
Geronimo line the wireline that connects the
monkey or tubing board with the ground and is used
with a Geronimo to get the derrick man off the derrick
during an emergency
get a bone to encounter hard rock during drilling
get granite to encounter hard rock during drilling
get his sack full to have a worker get tired of the
job
get it kellied to finish a job
get on the line 1) to start oil flowing in a pipeline
2) to get busy
get the rag out to hurry up
Gf 1) formation gradient, 2) formation fluid gradient
GFLU good fluorescence
GFP formation pressure gradient
GFRAf fracturing gradient
GG 1) gamma-gamma ray log, 2) geothermal gradient
gg geothermal gradient
ggd gauged
gge gauge
G-Grd gamma ray, guard log
GGW gallons of gelled water
GH hydrostatic gradient
GHO gallons of heavy oil
ghost seismic energy which has traveled upward
from the shot and then is reflected downward from
the surface of the ground. The energy can join the
original downward-traveling seismic energy causing
a change in waveform by adding a tail or extension
to the seismic signal. Sometimes it is sufficiently
separated from the original downward-traveling
seismic energy to form a separate wave with separate
reflections called secondary reflections off subsurface
reflectors. A process called uphole stacking corrects
for ghosting.
ghost well a simulated well used as a boundary in
reservoir remodeling, (image well)

ghost

GHP gas heating power

GHV gross heating valve
GI or G.I. gas injection
Gi group interval
G| 1) total gas injection 2) ideal gas relative density
of gas flowing 3) geometric factor of invaded zone
giant field 1) a field that has more than 500 MMB
of recoverable oil or 3 Tcf of natural gas in the Middle
East, North Africa, and Asiatic Russia. 2) see giant oil
field and giant gas field
giant gas field a gas field that has more than a)
600 Bcf or b) 1 Tcf of recoverable gas
giant oil field an oil field that has more than 100
MMB of recoverable oil
GIC gas inventory charge
giga- the metric prefix for 109. G
GIH going in hole
Gil or gil gilsonite
gilsonite a naturally occurring, black, shiny asphaltite
or hydrocarbon. Gilsonite softens when heated and
dissolves in carbon disulfide. Gilsonite is 90%-99%
bitumen and occurs in veins and fractures along curved
surfaces. Gilsonite is a regional name (Uinta basin);
similar asphaltines occur throughout the world under
different names. Gilsonite in granular form is used
as a cement additive. It is named after S.H. Gilson.
Gil or gil
gimbals a device that is used to keep an instrument
horizontal as the supports are tilted
gin hole the highest pan of the derrick of a drilling
rig. The gin hole is designed to suspend the crown
block.
gin pole 1) a pole used with hoisting equipment.
The catline boom on a drilling rig is a gin pole. 2)
an A-frame used for hoisting
gin-pole truck a truck with an A-frame rear boom
that is used to lift equipment
GIP gas in place
girt a horizontal steel brace that connects and
supports the derrick legs of a drilling rig. Girts are
reinforced by braces. Spaces between girts are called
panels or bays. The vertical distance between girts
on a drilling rig derrick is 7 ft. The first girt up from
the drill floor is 10 ft above the floor except on very
large rigs where it is about 14 ft above the floor.

girth seam

leg

brace

girt (off rotary drilling rig chart)

girth seam a butt-welded seam on a pipe oriented

at right angles to the long axis of the pipe. A girth
seam is used to join segments of pipe.
GIS genetic increment of strata
GIT grease injection type
give more screw to let out the temper screw on a
cable-tool rig
Givetian a global age of geological time that ended
about 385 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle Devonian
epoch.
GIW 1) gas-injection well 2) going in with
G-KIK gas kick
GL 1) ground level 2) gas lift 3) guideline
G.L. ground level
gl glassy
GL initial condensate liquids in reservoir
G/L gathering line
glance pitch an asphaltite or solid hydrocarbon from
the Caribbean or South America. Glance pitch is a
regional name, as similar asphaltines occur throughout
the world under different names.
gland the rubber seals that hold the packing that
forms a seal around a moving rod. A gland is used
to hold the packing around the polished rod in a
stuffing box on a pumping unit.
Glas or glas 1) glass 2) glassy
glau 1) glauconite 2) glauconitic
GIAUC, Glauc, or glauc glauconite
glauconite a dull green mineral of the mica group
that is found in sedimentary rocks. Glauconite has a
chemical formula of
Ko.7(FeO7Ali 3)(Si3 3Al07)O10(OH)2,
a density of 2.85 gms/cm3and a cell dimension of 10.16
A. Glauconite is diagnostic of slow sedimentation in
a marine environment. GLAUC, Glauc, glauc, or glau.
GLC gas-liquid chromatography
G-LIF gas lift
GLLS guidelineless
Glob or glob globigemia
global positioning system a two-dimensional
marine navigational system that uses eighteen satellites

Gn

223

orbiting at 22,000 km. At least three of the satellites

are always observable. The global positioning system
uses the travel time for a signal emitted from the
satellite to reach the ship's receiver to fix the ship's
position. Four satellite passes are necessary for a fix
which is accurate to + or 10 m. GPS.
globe valve a valve that opens with a quarter turn
by rotating a ball having a hole in it located in a
spherical container. Globe valves are used to regulate
and shut on and off the flow of fluid in pipes, (ball
valve).
globular saturation a type of saturation in which
the nonwetting phase occurs as isolated globules in
the continuous wetting phase. Globular saturation is
in contrast to funicular saturation, (insular saturation).
Glos or glos 1) gloss 2) glossy
GLp cumulative condensate liquid produced
GLR gas/liquid ratio
GLS guidelineless landing structure
GLSS glass beads
GLSY glassy
GLT geochemical logging tool
glyc glycol
glycocalyx the tangled felt-like mat of anionic
polysaccharide fibers that grow around bacterial cells
and colonies and anchor them to oil field equipment.
Glycocalyx is the anchor for bacterial slime on
equipment.
glycol an organic chemical that belongs to the
aliphatic group of hydrocarbons. Triethylene glycol
(TEG) and diethylene glycol (DEG) are used as a
liquid dessicant to control the dew point of natural
gas. glyc
glycol absorber tower or dehydrator field
equipment that is used to remove water (mist) from
natural gas by using triethylene glycol (TEG) or
diethylene glycol (DEG). The dehydrator is a tower
in which gas is injected near the bottom and bubbles
up through lean glycol that is descending down the
absorber through bubble trays. At the top of the
absorber, the gas passes through a mist extractor and
glycol cooling coils. A reboiler is used to heat the
wet glycol and drive off the water to recycle the glycol.
A glycol dehydrator that uses triethylene glycol is called
a TEG unit.
glycol/amine process a combination sweetener/
dehydration process used in sour-gas sweetening. The
gas bubbles through a 10%-30% by weight
monoethanolamine, 45%-85% glycol and 5%-25%
water solution. The process removes water vapor, H2S,
and CO2
glycol injection system a method used to remove
water vapor from natural gas. After the gas has passed
through a free-water knockout, glycol is sprayed in
small droplets into the gas to absorb the water. The
glycol is then separated from the gas stream,
reconcentrated, and reused.
GM 1) ground measurement 2) gradiometer
GM or gm gram
G.M. or GM gravity meter
Gm 1) geometric factor of mud 2) mud gradient

224

gm grab

g,,, pressure gradient of mud in annulus

GMA gallons of mud acid
gm-cal grams-calorie
GMCF gallons per thousand cubic feet
GMPL grams per liter
GMT Greenwich mean time
g,^ pressure gradient of mud in annulus outside
casing
gn green
gn standard acceleration due to gravity
gnd grained
Gns or gns gneiss
gnsh greenish
gneiss a coarse-grained metamorphic rock with
alternating light and dark colored mineral bands. The
minerals include feldspar, quartz, amphibole, garnet,
and mica. Gneiss is the result of high-grade
metamorphism. GNIS, Gns, or gns
GNIS gneiss
GNT gamma-ray neutron tool
GO 1) gallons of oil 2) gas odor
GOB geostatic pressure gradient
go back in the well to lower equipment such as
the drillstring into a well
GOC gas/oil contract
GOCM gas and oil cut mud
go-devil 1) a ball or missile that is dropped down
a well to detonate an explosive or activate a downhole
tool. The go-devil opens a valve in a hydraulic circuit
to activate the tool, (setting ball or plug) 2) a tool or
instrument that is pumped or dropped down a drill
string or tubing into position in a well 3) a device,
usually made of hard rubber, that is sent through a
pipeline to clean, test, or separate batches of fluids.
(Pig)
go down the creek with oil to fire a worker
GODR gas odor
GODT gas odor, distillate taste
goethite an iron hydroxide (FeOOH) that is a
common form of rust and also occurs as a mineral
golden block an offshore concession that had a
very large bid offered for it
goniometer an instrument used to measure angles
good oilfield practice a practice that is generally
accepted to be good, safe, and efficient in carrying
out oilfield operations
go or going in the hole to lower tubulars or a
tool in the well. GIH
gooseneck 1) a U-shaped nipple on the swivel of a
drilling rig that is used to attach the mud or rotary
hose. Goosenecks have connections of 2Vi, 3, or 4
in. diameter for the hose and have a bore of 2V4-3
in. to match the bore of the wash pipe in the swivel.
2) a curved device that is designed to fit over a fishing
neck to raise a heavy downhole tool from a horizontal
to vertical position.
GOPD gallons of oil per day
GOPH gallons of oil per hour

gone to gas an oil well that is now producing only

gas. A well that has gone to gas is probably a result
of the expansion of the free gas cap.
gone to water an oil and/or gas well that has begun
producing large amounts of water, making oil and/
or gas production unprofitable. Gone to water often
occurs in a water-drive reservoir with an advance of
the oil/water contact. It can also be caused by coning.
(watered out)
GOR gas/oil or gas-to-oil ratio
GOR-P gas/oil ratio producing
GOR-S gas/oil ratio solution
GOSP gas/oil separation plant
gouge soft, unconsolidated, very fine-grained rock
fragments found along a fault surface. Gouge is formed
by the grinding action of the fault movements on
rocks together with later mineral decomposition. The
gouge can act as a permeability barrier, making the
fault a sealing fault, (fault gouge, clay gouge, or
selvage)
gouge zone the intensely fractured mass of rock
along a fault plane
governor a device that limits the speed of a machine.
Governors can be a) load-limiting, b) variable-speed,
c) limiting-speed, or d) constant-speed.
government take the taxes and royalties from oil
and gas production that goes to the government
GOVT government
GP 1) gasoline plant 2) gas pay
Gp cumulative gas produced
G/P gun perforate
GPA Gas Producers Association
GPC gas purchase contract
GPD gallons per day
GPG grains per gallon
GPH gallons per hour
GPL grains per liter
GPM, G.P.M., or gpm gallons per minute
GPM or gpm gallons of liquefiable natural gas liquids
per 1,000 SCF of gas
g.p.m. test a test to determine the gal/Mcf of
condensate in natural gas
G-POR good porosity
GPS 1) gallons per second 2) global positioning
system
GPSA Gas Processors Suppliers Association
GPTH gallons per thousand
GPW gross product with
GR 1) gamma ray log 2) ground 3) gamma ray
Gr or gr 1) grain 2) grains 3) grained
Gr real gas relative density of gas flowing
gr 1) gray 2) grade 3) grain 4) grain (avoirdupois
weight) 5) ground
Gr. gravity
GRA 1) gallons of regular acid 2) guidelineless
reentry structure
grab a wireline fishing tool with two or three metal

raben
prongs extending downward with metal barbs
protruding inward on the inside of each prong. A
grab is used to recover a wireline, (wireline grab)

g raben

graben the elongated, down-dropped block between

two normal faults
Grable pump an oil well pump that uses a reversing
drum located in a wellhead cellar to wind and unwind
a cable attached to the sucker-rod string
grabs an old term for fishing tools. Some types of
grabs were baler, mandrill socket, pin socket, rope
grab, rope worm, rope spear, slip socket, rasp, spud,
and sucker-rod spear
grad 1) gradually 2) grading
grade 1) to change without a distinctive boundary
from one rock type to another. A limestone could
grade laterally into a shale. 2) the slope of a surface
3) the mechanical and metallurgical properties of
tubular goods such as casing or tubing. Grade is a
classification of pipe based on API specifications.
Examples of pipe grades are 5L and 5AC. The number
is based on the metal specifications and the letter
shows the yield strength. GRD

grain supported

225

gradiomanometer a production logging tool that

measures a continuous profile of a pressure gradient.
The gradiomanometer uses upper and lower pressure
sensitive bellows that are 2 ft apart to resolve
differences down to 0.01 gm/cc and records specific
gravity as a function of depth. The tool can be run
in tubing.
gradiometer arrangement the positioning of two
very sensitive magnetometers on each other to record
temporal effects in the magnetic field
Grahamite a type of asphaltite or solid hydrocarbon
with a conchoidal fracture and a jet-black luster that
occurs in eastern and central United States, Cuba, and
Mexico. Grahamite is a regional name; similar
asphaltites occur throughout the world under different
names. It has a specific gravity of 1.145.
grain the smallest unit of weight in the avoirdupois
system. A grain is equal to 2.286 times 10~3 oz or
0.0648 g. Seven thousand grains equals 1 lb
avoirdupois and 5,760 grains equals 1 lb troy, gr
grain density the density of a unit volume of mineral
with zero porosity. Grain density is usually expressed
as g/m3. (matrix density)

grainstone

grainstone a type of limestone in which the large

sand-sized grains are in contact (grain supported) and
fine-grained material (micrite) is absent. A grainstone
is deposited in a high-energy environment and is
originally a good reservoir rock. Grst or G
OOUTE
SHOAIS

graded bed

graded bed a clastic sedimentary rock layer that is

coarse-grained on the bottom and grades upward into
fine-grained at the top. A graded bed can be deposited
by a current of water decreasing in velocity. Graded
beds can be formed at the base of some turbidites.
graded profile the characteristic longitudinal profile
of a graded stream with a gradient at each point along
the stream that is just sufficient to transport the stream
load without erosion or deposition. The profile is a
smooth, parabolic curve that is concave upward and
is steeper at the source and flatter at the mouth.
(equilibrium profile)
graded string a casing string composed of several
different grades of casing, (mixed string)
gradient the rate of increase or decrease of some
value such as temperature or pressure
grading the leveling of land using earth-moving
equipment. The drillsite is graded with the hole
location highest and a slope of 1 ft/100 ft leading
away from the well for drainage.

grainstone shoal

grainstone shoal a ridge of loose sand-sized grains

of calcium carbonate (oolites, skeletal grains, or
pellets) that was shaped by currents such as tidal
currents in shallow waters. Grainstone shoals are
oriented parallel to the current direction. The shoal
is named after the type of sand-sized particle such
as an oolite shoal. Grainstone shoals in ancient
sedimentary rocks can be good petroleum reservoirs.
grain supported a sedimentary rock in which the
larger particles are touching and supporting each
other. In a mud-supported rock, the large particles
are "floating" in finer-grained particles.

226

grain volume porosity gravel

grain volume porosity rock porosity calculated by

subtracting the volume of the ground-up, solid part
of a sample from the total sample volume.
grainy a sedimentary rock texture that is
characterized by definite grains that are not distinct
visibly. The texture can be chalky in part.
gram the cgs unit of weight. A gram is equal to the
weight of 1 cc of distilled water at 4C. There are
37324 g in a pound troy and 453.59 g in a pound
avoirdupois. GM, gm, or g
gram atomic weight the mass in grams equal to
the molecular weight of a substance
gram equivalent weight the amount of substance
that will react with one mole of H+ or OH~ ions.
(equivalent)
GRAN or gran granular
Gran or gran 1) granite 2) granule
grand slam 1) a combination of a dual induction
laterolog and proximity log or microlaterolog 2) the
procedure used to compute depth of invasion around
a wellbore and the resistivities of both the
contaminated and uncontaminated zones
granite a very common intrusive igneous rock.
Granite is coarse grained and speckled in color,
varying from white to pink with black flakes. It is
composed of quartz, feldspar (primarily orthoclase),
and iron-magnesium minerals and is a very common
basement rock. GRNTT, Grt, Gran, gran, or grt
granite wash a coarse-grained, immature sandstone
formed by weathered granite bedrock. Granite wash
can be a good reservoir rock. Gran W, GW, or G.W.

limestone and is formed on a subaerial surface of

carbonate sediments, (pisolite) grapst
graphic log a strip log
graphic scale a bar scale used on a map that is
subdivided into lengths
graphite a crystalline form of carbon that is soft,
black, and shiny
graphitic bitumen a bitumen that is relatively
insoluable in organic solvents and represents a stage
in the dehydrogenation of liquid hydrocarbons in a
reservoir. Graphitic bitumen is the result of thermal
cracking or deasphalting and is higher in aromatics
than native bitumens.
graphitization the formation of graphite. Kerogen
and crude oil form graphite during metagenesis.
Grapholog the basic reporting form for a mud log.
It has a graphic and tubular format with lagged depth
plotted vertically. The Grapholog records rate of
penetration, lithology, fluorescence, gas readings, mud
properties, cored and tested intervals, test results, core
descriptions, circulating out samples, insertion of new
bit, and bit type.
gr API degrees API (gravity)
grapple the overshot, spear, or part of the fishing
tool that engages the fish
grapst grapestone

graptolite

granoblastic texture

granoblastic a metamorphic rock texture with

equidimensional crystals having well sutured
boundaries.
granodiorite a light, speckled, intrusive igneous
rock similar to granite except that plagioclase feldspar
is more common in granodiorite whereas orthoclase
is more common in granite.
granting clause the provision in an oil and gas lease
that defines the rights given by the lessor to the lessee
grantor index a chronological and alphabetical
index of oil and gas lease grantors located in the
county or parish court house. An indirect index is
an alphabetical list of grantees, (direct index)
granule a sediment particle between sand and
pebble in size. A granule has a diameter between
2-4 mm. GRNUL, Gran, or gran.
Gran W granite wash
Grap or grap graptolite
grapestone a rock that is made of pea-sized particles
such as peloids or oolites. A grapestone is usually a

graptolite an extinct colonial marine invertebrate

that left fossils in sedimentary rocks similar in
appearance to pencil marks. The fossils are flattened
films of carbon. Graptolites existed from the Cambrian
to the Mississippian period. Grap or grap
grass gooser a weed hoe
grasshopper 1) a pipe system that controls the flow
of water and the oil/water interface level in a treater.
A vertical loop of piping is adjusted in height to
accomplish this, (water leg or siphon) 2) a pumper
or pump jack
grasshopper blender a pipe used in a gun barrel
tank to regulate the water level
grass roots to granite a term that is used to
described the vertical extent of mineral rights under
a tract of land. The surface rights extends from surface
down to 6 in. or about the level of the grass roots.
Granite is basement rock and is usually the limit of
exploratory drilling.
GRATE gas rate
grav 1) gravity 2) gravel
gravel unconsolidated, rounded rock fragments with
most particles larger than sand-sized or 2 mm. GRAVL,
Grv, grav, or gvl

gravel hog
gravel hog an oilfield truck driver (gear jammer
or junk hustler)
gravel island an artificial island formed by filling
in shallow water with gravel or other large rocks to
form a drilling platform

Screen or
Slotted
Liner

'

Underreomed
Hole
gravel pack completion
gravel pack or packing a type of completion
technique in which loose, well-sorted gravel particles
with high permeability are placed at the bottom of
either a reamed open hole around a slotted or
screened liner or inside the bottom of casing for sand
control to prevent the well from becoming clogged
with debris. The gravel frequently is sieved and graded
sand that is packed in bags. The fine gravel or sand
is then pumped down the tubing with a carrier fluid.
The first gravel pack was done by James Dallard in
1878 in a water well.
gravel-packing fluid a clean, water-base fluid that
is compatable with the formation and is used to carry
gravel into a gravel pack well.The carrier fluid can
be a) low viscosity, b) high viscosity, c) medium
viscosity, or d) foam or low density, (gravel-packing
fluid)
gravel pack log a neutron-type log that is used to
determine the porosity and evaluate the condition
of the gravel pack in a well
gravel pot two pressure vessels that are used to mix
gravel with the carrier fluid and inject the mixture
for gravel packing a well. The gravel is introduced
into the pot through a hopper on a sealable top port.
Gravity drains the gravel into the carrier fluid through
a bottom valve.
graveyard tour the crew shift on a drilling rig that
starts at midnight and goes through the night. On

gravity-base platform or structure

227

an 8-hour tour, it would be from midnight to 8 A.M.

(hoot owl or morning tour)
gravimeter see gravity meter. G.M., GM or gtvt
gravimetry the measurement of the earth's
gravitational field
graving dock a dry dock that is used for the
construction of steel-jacket offshore platforms. A
flotation jacket is built around the offshore platform
under construction. When the platform is ready, the
graving dock is sunk and the gates are opened,
allowing the platform to float out.
gravitometer an instrument used to measure the
specific gravity of a solid, liquid, or gas
gravity 1) the density of oil expressed in "API. Gravity
generally ranges from 5 (heavy oil) to 60 (retrograde
gas) and is computed by dividing the specific gravity
of the oil at 60F into 141.5 and subtracting 131.5.
Light oils have "API gravity between 35-45, average
oils between 25-35, and heavy oils below 25. (degrees
API gravity) gr API 2) The attraction caused by the
mass of the earth. Gravity is measured in units of
acceleration called gals and 1/1,000 of a gal called
milligals. The earth has a nominal gravity of 978.03
gals. GTY, GR, gty, grav, or gty
gravity adjustment a deduction in the posted price
of a barrel of oil based on the "API of the oil. The
gravity adjustment reflects the refiner's additional cost
to refine oil that is above or below a certain range.
(gravity deduction)
gravity anomaly an area of unusually high or low
gravity values. The gravity anomaly could be a a)
Bouger anomaly, b) the difference between observed
gravity and the model, c) residual gravity. In petroleum
exploration using a gravimeter, a gravity anomaly
could be caused by a subsurface salt dome, limestone
reef, anticline or dome, buried bedrock hill, dip-slip
fault, or other structure.

gravity base platform

gravity-base platform or structure a type of

offshore drilling and production platform that uses
its own mass of reinforced concrete and/or steel on
the seafloor for stability. The massive base often has
cells that can be used for flotation as the platform is
assembled and floated out to the offshore site in an
upright position. On location, the cells can be used
for storage of crude and diesel oil and for ballast

228

gravity deduction greaser

water. The cells are surrounded by a protective skin

on the seafloor to inhibit scouring by currents. Four
columns often connect the massive base with the
platform located above sea level. One of these columns
can contain pumps and piping to the cells below.
The other columns can conduct the wells with the
production risers going down the inside of the
columns. A gravity-base structure is in contrast to the
other common type of fixed-production platform
called a steel-jacket platform that uses piles driven
into the seafloor for stability. The gravity-base structure
is primarily used where there is a need for offshore
storage such as where there is a hard bottom and
pipelines are not practical, (gravity platform, gravity
structure, or pileless platform)
gravity deduction see gravity adjustment
gravity drainage the flow of crude oil that is
mobilized by gravity drive through a reservoir toward
a well (segregation drive)
gravity-drainage pool an oil field in which the
production is primarily by gravity drive, the result
of gravity drainage from high to low levels. Gravity
drainage occurs at the end of production on a gasdrive oil reservoir.
gravity drive a type of reservoir energy that produces
crude oil in some reservoirs. Gravity drive is effective
in the early stages of reservoir development only when
there is high relief in the reservoir rock and oil column.
Low oil viscosities and high reservoir rock
permeabilities promote gravity drainage. Gravity drive
becomes effective in the late stages of production on
some gas-drive oil reservoirs. The recovery factor is
quite variable and ranges from 20% to 80%, with best
recoveries in steeply dipping or vertical reservoirs.
Gravity drive is characterized by a rapid production
decline followed by steady production.
gravity fault a normal fault such as a growth fault
gravity gathering system oil flowlines from wells
that use gravity to move the fluid
gravity line a pipeline that carries oil without the
use of a pump or other mechanical device. A gravity
line goes from a higher elevation to a lower elevation.
gravity meter an instrument that is used to measure
differences in the acceleration of gravity at different
locations. Gravity is measured in units of acceleration
called gals or '/I.OOO gal called milligal and abbreviated
mgal. A gravity unit is equal to 0.1 mgal. Gravity was
originally measured by using the period of a
pendulum. Modern gravity meters are the unstable
or astatic type that use a mass balanced against gravity
by a spring. The stretch of the string is proportional
to the acceleration of gravity. The spring tension is
adjusted to a null position to measure gravity
acceleration. Two common types are the La CosteRomberg gravimeter which uses a zero-length spring
that is inclined at an angle to balance the gravitational
pull on the mass, and the Worden gravimeter which
uses a horizontal torsion fiber or hinge. Gravity meters
are sensitive to the density of subsurface rocks and
are used in geophysical exploration for petroleum
to detect salt domes, anticlines and domes, reefs, and
dip-slip faults. Gravity meters do not work well on
ships or airplanes due to vibrations, (gravimeter) GM.,
GM, or grvt

gravity overrun the horizontal flow of a less dense

fluid over a more dense fluid in a reservoir
gravity platform see gravity-base platform or
structure
gravity reduction the application of corrections
such as Bouger elevation, free-air, isostatic, latitude,
and terrain to gravity data
gravity segregation the partial or complete
separation of fluids in a subsurface reservoir due to
differences in density. The gas will rise and the oil
will sink.
gravity-stable displacement the displacement of
oil from a subsurface reservoir by injection of different
density fluids during an enhanced oil-recovery
process. The density difference prevents gravity
segregation of the injected fluid.
gravity structure see gravity-base platform or
structure
gravity survey an exploration method that uses a
gravity meter to measure the strength of the earth's
gravity on the surface at different locations to detect
variations in the densities of subsurface rocks. The
data is reported in gals or milligals and is usually
corrected and displayed as either Bouger or free-air
anomaly maps. Gravity anomalies of unusually highor low-gravity values indicate variations in subsurface
rock structures. Salt domes, anticlines and domes,
reefs, and dip-slip faults can be located using this
method.
gravity unit a unit of gravitational acceleration that
is equal to 10~6 m/s2or 0.1 mgal. (G unit)
GRAVL gravel
gray a derived unit in Systems International (SI) for
absorbed dose of ionizing radiation. It is calculated
by Joules divided by kilograms (J/kg). Gy
grayhound a make-up stand of drillpipe that is
shorter in length than the other stands being used.
A grayhound has tool joints at each end and can consist
of one, two or more joints.
gray level see grey level
graywacke a poorly sorted, dark-colored sandstone
composed of quartz and feldspar mineral grains along
with rock fragments and clay. The sediments were
rapidly eroded and deposited. Graywackes are
immature and generally are not good reservoir rocks.
Gwke
GR CH gamma ray log, cased hole
GRD grade
Grd guard log
grd ground
GRDC gamma ray, depth control log
GR/D CALIPER gamma ray, dual caliper log
grdg grading
GRDL guard log
grdg loc grading location
grease a lubricant made with lubricating oil and a
thickener
grease hole a new oil well
greaser an oil well

greasing out gross reservoir interval

greasing out the separation of a water-insoluble
greasy substance from drilling mud. The substance
due to the reaction of the organic additives such as
emulsifiers and lubricants that are usually fatty-acid
derivatives with calcium or magnesium ions in the
drilling mud
GREC gas recovery
green 1) equipment that is working and serviceable.
grn 2) cement that has not completely hardened
green bit a bit that was not completely worn out
when pulled from a well
green hand the British term for a boll weevil, an
inexperienced rig worker
green labor or labour untrained employees
green oil a paraffin-base crude oil with a greenish
color or sheen. Asphalt-base crude oils tend to be
black in color.
green pattern a dipmeter interpretation
characterized by a constant direction and magnitude
of formation dip with increasing depth in the well.
There is also a blue and red pattern.
greensand sand containing the mineral glauconite,
an iron-rich illite mineral that is indicative of marine
deposition of the sediments
grey level the intensity of gray or overall grayness
of a seismic section recorded in variable-area and
variable-density, (gray level)
GRI gamma ray index
NORTH -

'BAST

wesr'

- SOUTH-

grid pattern

grid the steel assembly of plates, rods, and/or screens

in an electrostatic treater that distributes the electric
field necessary to coalesce water droplets in an
emulsion
griefstem or grief stem a four- or six-sided steel
pipe that is 41 ft long with a 38-ft working space
(flat) or 54 ft long with a 51-ft working space. The
square griefstem has an outside diameter of 2V2 or 6
in., and the hexagonal kelly has an outside diameter
of 3 or 6 in. The griefstem is located at the top of
the drillstring between the swivel and drillpipe and
fits into the bushings on the rotary table to make
the connection between the rotary table and the
drillstring. The griefstem is the most heavily loaded
part of the the drillstring and is manufactured from
bars of high-grade chrome molybdenum steel that

229

has been heat treated. Kelly-saver subs protect threads

on the lower end of the griefstem. Located on either
end are kelly cocks that shut off the well if fluids
flow up the string. The lower kelly cock is closed to
prevent loss of drilling mud when making a
connection, (kelly, kelly bar, or kelly joint)
grind out to centrifuge a liquid. Grind out is used
to determine the basic sediment and water (BS&W)
content of oil. A sample of the oil from an oil thief
is mixed with 50% solvent, heated to 120F and
centrifuged for three minutes to leave the BS&W at
the bottom of the tube, (shake out)
grip ring a steel ring that was attached to the rotary
table and used to grip the drillstring to turn it on a
rotary rig before kellys and kelly bushings were
introduced. The grip ring was originally used to grip
a joint of extra strong or double extra strong pipe
that was later replaced with a fluted kelly.
grit coarse-grained, angular sandstone
gritty a roughness to the touch that is imparted by
angular sand particles. Gt, gt, or grty
GRL gamma ray log
GRN or GR-N gamma ray, neutron log
Grn or grn green
I
GRN CH gamma ray, neutron, cased hole log
GRNIT 1) granite 2) granitic
GRNL gamma ray-neutron log
GR/N OH gamma ray, neutron, openhole log
GRNUL granule
GR OH or G/R OH gamma ray, openhole log
grooving the indentations that are cut into a
drawworks drum to guide the first wrap of cable.
The older grooving pattern was helical modern
grooving patterns include a) one-step, b) two-step,
and c) soft crossover.
gross heating value the net heat generated by
combustion of hydrocarbons and water vapor (steam)
plus the heat from condensing the water vapor back
into a liquid. Gross heating value is measured in Btu/
cf for gas and Btu/gal for liquids. Net heating value
is measured without condensing the water vapor.
(higher heating value) GUV
gross interval the measured thickness of the
reservoir between two characteristic markers on a
well log. The gross interval can include some
unproductive thickness.
gross observed volume the total volume of all
measured petroleum liquids including the basic
sediment and water content. Gross observed volume
is in contrast to net observed volume.
gross production tax state tax on the producer
based on the amount of gas and/or oil produced.
Each state has its own laws and administrative
procedures concerning gross production taxes.
(production or severance tax)
gross reservoir interval the measured thickness of
the reservoir or producing zone from the top to the
bottom of the reservoir as distinguished on a
spontaneous potential (SP) or gamma ray (GR) well
log. Gross reservoir interval can include some

230

gross royalty growth fault

unproductive zones in contrast to net reservoir

interval.
gross royalty the share or payment of gas and/or
oil production that is free of the costs of production
and is paid to the lessor. Gross royalty was originally
one-eighth but now ranges from one-eighth to onefourth, (landowner's, leasebole, or fee royalty) gr ray
gross sand the total measured thickness of the
reservoir as identified on a spontaneous potential (SP)
or gamma ray (GR) log. Gross sand can include some
tight sands that are not reservoir quality in contrast
to net sand.
gross standard volume the gross volume of oil
adjusted for a standard temperature and pressure. Net
standard volume is calculated by subtracting the
sediment and water volume from the gross standard
volume.
gross volume the volume of oil that is calculated
by multiplying the indicated volume that has passed
through a meter times the meter factor. Gross volume
can be reduced to gross standard volume at a standard
temperature and pressure.
ground anchor a buried device that is used to attach
guylines for stabilizing masts and derricks
ground bed an interconnected series of impressedcurrent anodes that are used in cathodic protection
to absorb the electric current damage
ground block an assembly with a sheave or pulley
that is attached to a ground anchor to change the
direction of a wireline from horizontal to near vertical
ground data geological, geophysical, or geological
information collected on the surface of the earth
ground electrode see ground stake
ground loops the circular currents that are
concentric with the axis of an induction tool
ground mix a pattern of shots or geophones used
in seismic exploration over a large area. Ground mix
causes the vertical reflection energy to add up inphase and the horizontal reflection energy to partially
cancel.
ground pits see earthen pits
ground receiving station a facility on the earth
that receives data transmitted from satellites such as
Landsat
ground roll the surface wave energy of low velocity,
low frequency, and high amplitude that occurs during
seismic exploration. Ground roll masks the desired
seismic signals and is usually filtered or removed by
stacking. The main source of ground roll is Rayleigh
waves.
ground-seat union a pipe coupling that uses a
threaded ring to hold a convex pipe end into a concave
pipe end
ground stake a metal stake that is connected to a
ground line and used as a portable surface electrode
in spontaneous potential and resistivity logging. The
ground stake is driven into the ground, (ground
electrode)
ground swath the width of the surface of the earth
that is scanned by a remote sensing system
ground temperature the temperature of the
ground at a depth at which gas lines are buried in

that area. The ground temperature has an effect on

the cooling and formation of hydrates in natural gas
flowing through the gas lines. The minimum ground
temperature at a depth of 18 in. in the HugotonPanhandle gas field of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas
is 25-30F.
ground truth surface data used to interpret remote
sensing images of the earth's surface
groundwater subsurface water that occupies the
pore space of rocks. Groundwater can be described
by salt content as fresh (0-1 ppt), brackish (1-35 ppt),
and brine (35-300 ppt). The water table is the
subsurface level below which the pores of the rock
are saturated with water. The zone of saturation is
located below the water table, and the zone of aeration
is located above it. Phreatic water occupies the zone
of saturation. Meteoric water is from the atmosphere,
has recently entered the subsurface, and is usually
fresh water. Connate water is subsurface water that
has been out of contact with the atmosphere for a
significant time and tends to be very saline. Interstitial
or formation water occupies the pores of a rock.
group 1) a major rock-stratigraphic unit that consists
of two or more adjacent formations that are similar
in rock types. A group is given a geographical name
followed by the word group. 2) the geophones,
numbering from one to several hundred, that feed
into a single channel during seismic exploration. Large
groups are sometimes called patches, (array)
group shoot a seismic survey in which the costs
and results are share by several companies
group velocity the velocity of the energy in a wave
train
grout cement and sand or gravel that is mixed with
water to form a slurry. Grout is directed by a grout
pipe to the piles that pin a steel-jacket platform to
the seafloor.
grouting to fill holes with a cement and sand or
gravel slurry
grout pipe a hose that carries grout down the legs
of a steel-jacket platform to the piles

ROU-dVER
ANTICLINE

growth fault

growth feiult a large fault similar to a slump in loose

sediments that moves at the same time that the
sediments are being deposited. A growth fault is
oriented roughly parallel to the shoreline of a basin
and is caused by die weight of sediments deposited
along the shoreline. It is a dip-slip fault with the
downside always facing the shoreline (down-to-thebasin fault). Unique characteristics include a curved
or listric fault plane (steep near the surface and

growth-framework pore
becoming gentle at depth in a direction toward the
basin or ocean), thicker sediment layers on the basin
side, more displacement of beds with depth, and the
formation of rollover anticlines on the basin side of
the fault. The rollover anticlines form a petroleum
trap, (rollover fault)
growth-framework pore a pore in a limestone rock
formed between framework-building organisms such
as corals
growth rate of return the investment rate required
so that the compound value of all money obligations
that have been discounted back to time zero at the
reinvestment rate used for a positive cash flow equals
the ultimate value of the compounded returns. GRR
grp glass-reinforced plastic
GRR growth rate of return
gr roy gross royalty
grs gross
gr. sd. gray sand
GRSL gamma ray-sonic log
Grst grainstone
GRT generalization of randon transform
Grt or grt 1) granite 2) grant
grty gritty
grudging post a large timber through which the
shaft of a bull wheel runs on a cable-tool rig
Grv gravel
grvt gravity meter
gr wt gross weight
gry gray
grysh grayish
GS gas show
Gs grain size
GSA Geological Society of Americ
GSC 1) gas sales contract 2) gas-solid chromatography
G-SD gas sand
GSG good show of gas
GSI gas well shut in
gskt gasket
GSO good show of oil
GST gamma spectrometry tool
GSW gallon of salt water
gsy greasy
Gt or gt 1) grit 2) gritty
GT total gas
gT temperature gradient
GTS gas to surface
GTSTM gas too small to measure
GTY or gty gravity
GU gas unit
gu a gravity unit (0.1 mgal)
Guadalupian a North American epoch of geological
time that occurred about 270-255 m. y. ago. It is part
of the Permian period.
guaranteed royalty a royalty in which the mineral

guide post

231

interest will receive a specific minimum royalty

payment regardless of production from the lease
guard a metal shield around or on a moving part
guarded electrode the center electrode of a guard
tool that makes most of the measurements. The
guarded electrode is surrounded by much longer
guard electrodes on a guard log. (shielded electrode)
guard electrodes the electrodes in a wireline welllog sonde that focuses the current from the measuring
electrodes into a horizontal sheet that extends out
into the formations surrounding the wellbore. The
guard electrodes are often 5-6 ft long compared to
the central or guarded electrode that is 3-6 in.
(bucking electrodes)
guard or guard-electrode log a focused electric
log that uses three insulated electrodes that are
mounted on a sonde or guard tool. The upper and
lower electrodes are guard electrodes, and the center
electrode is the guarded electrode. A constant current
is applied to the center electrode and an auxiliary
current of the same polarity that is automatically
adjusted to maintain zero potential is applied to the
guard electrodes^ The guard electrodes focus the
electric current back into the rock, and the guarded
electrode makes the measurements for determining
true resistivities. The guard log is used when the
drilling mud is conductive (salt water-base) or there
are thin beds and high-resistivity formations. Grd or
GRDL

guar gum a polysaccharide that is derived from guar

plant seed and is hydrophilic
guessing department engineering department
guide two vertical, parallel beams that are used to
stabilize the traveling block on drillships and some
semisubmersibles when they roll
guide base the steel structure on top of a subsea
well that anchors the guidelines coming down from
the drilling platform. A temporary guide base is held
in place by a dagger skit and serves as a template
for drilling the outer conductor hole. The outer
conductor with a permanent base is then lowered
on the guidelines onto the temporary guide base and
fixed. At least four vertical guide posts are located at
the corners of the guide base. A guideline connects
each guide post to the surface.
guide fossil a specific fossil that is distinctive and
has a relatively short geological range. A guide fossil
is used to determine the age of the sedimentary rocks.
guideline or guide line a wire that extends from
a drilling platform down to a guide post on a guide
base of a subsea well. The guidelines are used to
lower equipment down onto the wellhead. Guidelines
are kept in tension by guideline tensioners located
below the rotary table. Two guidelines are used for
positioning the marine riser and two others for the
hydraulic cables to the blowout preventer. Smaljer
guidelines are used for the TV and other locating
equipment.
guideline tensioner a hydropneumatic system that
is located below the rotary table on a drilling platform
and is used to keep the guidelines to the guide base
on the seafloor in tension
guide post a vertical tube that is used to connect
and protect the guideline on a guide base on a subsea

232

guide ring gusher sand

well. There are at least four guide posts on each guide

base. A guide post allows the guideline to be attached
and released from the rig floor.
guide ring an annular ring that is fitted to the
extension coupling between a core barrel and the
drillstring to reduce vibrations, (ferrule)

guide shoe

guide shoe a type of casing shoe that does not have

a valve on the orifice in contrast to a float shoe. The
plain guide shoe has a bottom or side discharge. A
guide shoe is used on the bottom of a casing string
to guide the casing string into a well. A combination
guide shoe and float has a backpressure valve that is
drillable and a side discharge.
guide structure the structural members located
around a subsea wellhead that are used to guide and
land equipment
guide vane a fixed or adjustable protrusion in the
flow of gas flow that directs the gas in a direction
Gulf Coast clause a provision in some drilling
contracts that compensates for the encounter of very
difficult or hazardous subsurface conditions. In a
footage-rate contract, it allows the operator to change
to a day,work rate. In a turnkey contract, it allows
the operator to terminate drilling.
Gulf gravimeter or gravity meter a gravimeter that
uses a coiled flat spring with a weight attached to it
to measure gravity. The spring elongates and contracts
with variations in gravity and the rotation of the spring
is measured with an optical system. The Gulf
gravimeter is sensitive to 0.025 mgals.
gum plant polysaccharides or their derivatives that
are hydrophilic. Gums, when dispersed in water, swell
to form a viscous dispersion or solution. Gums are
insoluble in alcohol.
gumbo 1) a general term for a shale that has large
amounts of reactive clays with high water
concentrations. Gumbos are frequent in the Gulf Coast
and the North Sea. Gumbo is a common term for
any loose, sticky sediments. On the surface, it is a
fine-grained clay soil that becomes sticky when wet.
Gbo. 2) A sticky situation.
gummy a relatively soft formation that produces
cuttings that stick to the drill bit
gun 1) a downhole device used for obtaining sidewall
cores 2) a marine seismic source which can be either
a gas gun that explodes a gas mixture or an air gun
that uses high pressure air 3) see jet perforating
gun 4) see mud gun
gun barrel 1) a wash tank that is used to separate
an unstable oil-in-water emulsion by gravity. The water
is taken out the water leg on the bottom, and the
clean oil moves by gravity flow to the stock tanks.
GB 2) see settling tank

gun-barrel separator a vertical metal separator

gun-barrel tank a tall tank that is warmed by the
sun and has a long retention time. A gun-barrel tank
is used to separate emulsions before treatment.
G unit see gravity unit
Gunite a Portland cement-sand mixture that is used
to coat and protect pipes and water-proof tanks
gunk 1) debris such as sediment, paraffin, scale, and/
or rust that is cleaned out of a well, pipeline, or other
equipment 2) thread lubricant, (rod dope or thread
compound)
gunk plug a slurry of bentonite, attapulgite, guar
gum, and/or cement in crude or diesel oil. A gunk
plug is used to control lost circulation and water zones.
The oil is a carrier for the bentonite until the bentonite
contacts water.
gunk squeeze a gunk plug that is pumped into a
lost circulation zone and swells to plug the formation
gunning the pits agitation of drilling mud with a
mud gun or other apparatus in the mud pits
gun perforating a method to put holes in the casing
or liner of a well to allow oil and/or gas to flow
into the well. Explosive charges are used to shoot
bullets of steel through the casing or liner at regular
intervals at the level of the producing zone in the
well. Gun perforating was developed in the early 1930s
and is in contrast to using shaped explosive charges
to perforate which is more commonly used today.
Gunz a European stage of geological time that
occurred in the Pleistocene epoch. It is the first stage
of glaciation and is equivalent to the Nebraskan in
the United States.
gurgling intermittent flow on a well

gusher (PennWell)

gusher an oil well that comes in with the oil flowing

out of the well and into the air under its own pressure.
Gushers were more common during the use of cabletool rigs for drilling. The circulating drilling mud and
blowout preventers on a modern rotary rig prevent
gushers. Gushers were usually caused by a gas drive
in the oil reservoir.
gusher letter a letter sent to drilling program
participants to inform them of the discovery of oil
or gas
gusher sand a producing sandstone with enough
pressure to cause the oil to flow to the surface

guyed tower gypsum cement

233

guy lines

guyed platform

guyed tower a type of offshore drilling and

production platform used in very deep water. The
long steel tower extends from the platform located
above sea level to the sea bottom. The guyed tower
is buoyant and floats, which means that less steel is
needed in its construction because it does not have
to support its own weight. It is pinned to the seafloor
by a spoke-like arrangement of 16-24 cables or
guylines that radiate out from the tower just below
sea level to anchors on the sea bottom. The guylines
attach at the deck and run down the structure unit
about 50 ft below the water line. From there, the
guylines extend outward at an angle of about 30 to
clump weights on the ocean bottom and out to anchor
piles. The cables damp the wave action on the tower.
A guyed tower is designed to tilt slightly under extreme
sea conditions. Drilling is done through a seafloor
drilling template.
guying pattern a manufacturer's recommended
plan for using guylines and anchors to stabilize well
equipment
guying system the guylines and anchors that are
used to stabilize a mast or derrick
guy line anchor a buried weight that is used to attach
a guyline for securing a mast or derrick
guylines or guy lines wire cables or ropes that
are used to stabilize a mast or derrick on a drilling
rig or well servicing unit. Load guylines are secured
to guyline anchors or deadmen on the ground. Internal
guylines are attached to the base. The guy wires used
on a derrick are usually less than Vi in. in diameter.
A well servicing unit has four wind guys that go in

four different directions from the mast. Guylines can

also be used on poles, (guy wire)
guy ring a ring located on the crown block of the
derrick to which the guyline is attached
guy wire see guyline
GV 1) gas volume 2) grain volume
gvl gravel
GVLPK gravel packed liner
GVNM gas volume not measured
GW 1) gas well 2) gallons of water
GW or G.W. granite wash
g^, pressure gradient of water
GWC gas/water contact
GWG gas well gas
G wgp cumulation wet gas produced
Gwke graywacke
GWPH gallons of water per hour
gjjo gas in flushed zone
Gy gray
Gy radiometric concentration
gymnosperm pollen a dust-sized particle that is
given off for reproduction by such plants as pines,
firs, spruces, cycads, and ginkgos. Gymnosperm pollen
has existed from the Pennsylvanian period to the
present and are used as microfossils to determine
the age and the environment in which sedimentary
rocks were deposited.
GYMUD gyp mud
Gyp or gyp gypsum
gyp mud a calcium-base drilling mud used to drill
thick anhydrite and gypsum sections. The sodium-base
clays such as commercial bentonite have been
converted to calcium-base by gypsum, (gypsum mud)
GYMUD

gypsum an evaporite salt mineral and rock that is

composed of CaSO^. Gypsum is a colorless-to-white
mineral with one cleavage, a specific gravity of 2.22.4, and is very soft. Gypsum is used as an additive
to control alkalinity in drilling muds, (rock gypsum)
Gyp or gyp
gypsum cement a type of cement that rapidly sets,
has an early strength and positive expansion, and is

234

gypsum mud Gzhelian

used in remedial cementing. The gypsum is either

a) a hemihydrate form or b) gypsum with powdered
resin additive. The gypsum is soluble and can be used
for temporary plugging if there is no flowing water.
Gypsum cement can be mixed with Portland cements.
gypsum mud see gyp mud. GYMUD
gyro gyroscope
gyrocompass a gyroscope mounted on gimbals that
points to a direction on a circular compass card. The
gyrocompass is set pointing to north and maintains
its orientation in space as it is turned.
gyroscope a spinning heavy disk or wheel that is
mounted on an axis that is free to rotate. A gryroscope
is used to determine the orientation (inclination and
azimuth) of a well in which magnetic drill collars or
casing are in the well and a magnetic compass cannot
be used, gyro
gyroscope survey a wireline survey that determines
the inclination and azimuth of the wellbore at specific
depths. The survey can be either single or multishot.

A gyroscopic survey is used in holes where a magnetic

survey will not work, (gyro survey)
gyroscopic surveying instrument a wireline tool
that is about 2 in. wide and contains a gyroscope, a
small compass card, battery pack, camera, and film
to measure the azimuth and inclination of a well.
The spinning weight of the gyroscope is on a horizontal
axis mounted inside two perpendicular gimbals. The
inner gimbal has a spin motor and housing. The outer
gimbal has a compass card set to north. A pendulum
assembly and timer are located above the compass
card. The gyro single shot is run on a wireline, and
a picture is taken with a single-shot camera. The gyro
multishot is also run on a wireline and stopped at
specific depths for the timer to activate a modified
movie camera. The gyroscopic surveying instrument
is used instead of a magnetic survey in a magnetic
environment.
gyro survey see gyroscope survey
Gzhelian a global stage of geological time that ended
about 290 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Carboniferous.

H hammer wrench

H 1) enthalpy 2) magnetic field strength 3) hydrogen

index 4) hydraulic 5) hydrogen 6) gross pay thickness
7) hour 8) henry
h i ) thickness 2) hydrocarbons 3) hole 4) thermal
heat 5) depth of reflector 6) hour 7) hectoha or ha. hectare
habendum clause a provision in an oil and gas
lease that defines the length (term) of the lease. The
primary term is the number of years that the lease
is in effect as the lessee explores the lease. If
commercial petroleum production is established in
paying quantities on the acreage, the secondary term
becomes effective. The secondary term is the indefinite
time that the lease is in effect as the oil and/or gas
is being produced, (term clause)
HAc acetic acid
hachure a short mark that comes out at a right angle
from either a) a contour to point in the direction of
the smallest value or b) a fault trace to show the
downdip direction
hade the complement of dip. Dip is the angle that
a plane makes from horizontal and is measured at
right angles to the strike or horizontal direction of
the plane.
Hal or hal halite
half cell one half of a voltaic or electrolysis cell. A
half cell will be either the anode, where oxidation
occurs, or the cathode, where reduction occurs.
half graben the formation of a basin by the rotation
of a surface down along one normal fault on one
side of the half graben. The half graben will be
relatively long, similar to a graben, but will have an
asymmetrical cross section.
RATIO OF

OC
100k -

1:1

1:3

AMOUNTS

SOX -

0%
,0

half life

PARENT
DAUGHTER
1:7

1:15

235

half-life the time that it takes one-half of the

radioactive atoms of an isotope to decay. Some natural
radioactive isotopes commonly found in rock and their
half-lives in years are uranium (U238, 4.5 x 109),
uranium (U235, 0.7 x 109), rubidium (Rb87, 4.7 x 1010),
potassium (K40,1.3 x 109) and carbon (C14,5710years).
These isotopes can be used for absolute age dating
the rocks. Some radioactive isotopes used as sources
in well logging, and their half-lives are californium
(Cf252, 2.6 years), cesium (Cs137, 30.1 years), cobalt
(Co60, 5.27 years), iridium (Ir92, 74.3 days), americum
(Am241,433 years), polonium (Po210,138 days), radium
(Ra226,1,600 years), and plutonium (Pu239, 24,400
years).
half or half-value thickness the thickness of a
substance that will absorb one-half of the incident
rays of a certain energy level. HVT
halite a common evaporite salt mineral with the
chemical composition NaCl. Halite is colorless to
white, forms cubic crystals, has excellent cubic
cleavage, a specific gravity of 2.1, and tastes salty, (rock
salt) Hal or hal
Halliburton line a steel measuring line that is used
with a calibrated instrument to measure the depth
of a well. A Halliburton line has relatively little
stretch, (piano string or wire)
Halliburton valve a type of high-pressure valve that
is used on a high-pressure manifold or pipe to easily
open or close the line. A Halliburton valve is used
on frac and acid jobs, (high-pressure valve)
hall-row wedge a concave metal plug or wedge that
is used to deflect a hole
halo an anomalously high surface concentration of
hydrocarbons, carbonates derived from chemical
reactions with hydrocarbons, and/or trace metals in
the shape of an ellipse or circle above a subsurface
petroleum reservoir. The hydrocarbons have seeped
from the subsurface reservoir bringing the trace metals
with them to the surface. This occurrence is often
used in geochemical prospecting for petroleum.
halokinesis salt tectonics or movement
hammer a seismic source that uses a hammer to
strike a steel plate to produce shallow-reflection
seismic energy.
hammer drill a drilling tool used in the drillstring
just above the roller-cone bit that imparts highfrequency impacts to the bit
hammer union a pipe connection that is designed
to be loosened or tightened by hammer blows on
protrusions called hammer wings. A hammer union
is primarily used on high-pressure lines where fast
disconnections are needed.
hammer wing the protrusion on a hammer union
that is designed to be struck by a hammer to loosen
or tighten the connection
hammer wrench a type of wrench that is designed

236

hand hardness scale

to be struck by a hammer to loosen or tighten a

connection
hand a field worker
hand dugs an old term for a hand-dug well in search
of petroleum, (oil pits)
handling-tight coupling a casing coupling that is
screwed onto the casing tight enough to require a
wrench to loosen it
hand money the money that is exchanged to show
an obligation or interest by a party before a binding
agreement is signed, (earnest money)
hands around to West Texas more weight on the
weight indicator of a drilling rig than the derrick is
rated to withstand. (Long Beached)
handshake agreement an oral understanding
between two parties that is not written on paper and
is not legally enforceable, (gentleman's agreement)
hand tight a threaded pipe joint that has been
madeup or screwed into another joint by hand without
the use of tongs to tighten it. Hand tight is in contrast
to power tight, (handy)
hand tong a small chain wrench used to screw and
unscrew small equipment
handy see hand tight
hang a well off to disconnect the pull-rod leading
from a central power unit to a pumping unit in order
to stop that well from pumping for a short time
hangdown the weight of a drillstring suspended
below a dogleg in a well
hanger a device that is used to suspend a string of
tubular goods such as casing or tubing in another
string of a larger diameter. Hangers are classified as
either mechanical or hydraulic depending on how
they wedge the slips against the tubular wall. A casing
hanger is located in a casinghead, and the tubing
hanger is located in the tubinghead. Both are part
of the wellhead.
hanger cable a cable that connects the horsehead
on a pumping unit to the carrier bar with connects
to the polished rod
hanger mandrell the threaded connection part of
a casing or tubing hanger into which the casing or
tubing is screwed
hanger-packer mechanism equipment that is used
to seal the annulus on a wellhead and to suspend a
casing or tubing string in the well with slips or threads
hanger plug a bridge used in the casing below the
blowout preventers on a well to pressure test the
preventers
hang her on the beam 1) to finish a job. 2) to
put a well on pump
hanging in the slips a string of drillpipe that is
suspended by slips in the rotary table of a drilling
rig
hanging iron to assemble and install the blowoutpreventers or a production tree on a wellhead
hanging off to use a special tool to land the drillstring
in a subsea wellhead and unlatch the lower marine
riser from the blowout preventer stack in order to
rapidly move a semisubmersible or drillship off station

hanging wall

hanging wall the side of the fault that overhangs

the opposite wall. The opposite wall is called the foot
wall.
hang it off the bump post to shut in a jack well
hangline or hang-offline a single strand of drilling
line that attaches the traveling block to the crown
block on a drilling rig when it is not in use
hang rods to pull the sucker rods out of the well
and hang them in the rod hanger of a mast or derrick
hard banding see hardfacing
hard coal anthracite
hard coating see hard faced
hard copy a printed copy of data
hard disk an internal storage medium in a computer.
A hard disk consists of an aluminum disk coated with
iron oxide. A read-write head travels across the disk
on a cushion of air. The capacity of a hard disk is
measured in megabytes. A hard disk is in contrast to
floppy disks. (Winchester disk)
hard faced an abrasive- and corrosion-resistant
coating of tungsten carbide or nickel carbide that is
used on steel. Hard coating is used on areas of wear
such as pipe joints and teeth on roller-cone bits, (hard
coating or trim)
hardfacing a method for making the cutting surfaces
on drill bits and other tools extremely hard to extend
their useful life. A band of abrasive-resistant material
such as sintered tungsten carbide particles in a welded
metal matrix is applied to a surface, (hard banding)
hard hat a safety helmet made of hard, nonmetallic
material such as plastic with a visor that fits on a
head. It is designed to protect the head from falling
objects. Hard hats are required to be worn on drilling
rigs by safety regulations.
hardly able well a well that barely produces enough
gas or oil to pay the production expenses and make
a profit
hardness 1) the resistance of a mineral to scratching.
Hardness is quantified by Mohs' Hardness Scale which
ranges from one to ten. 2) the concentration of calcium
and magnesium (along with ions of other alkali metals
and metals) in water. Hardness is -usually expressed
in ppm of CaCO3. 3) the resistance of a metal to a
hard steel ball or diamond penetrator pressed into
it under standard conditions, hdns
hardness scale a relative scale of mineral hardness
that uses ten minerals that are given numbers between

hard-rock geology header

one and ten as references. They are talc, (1) gypsum,
(2) calcite, (3) fluorite, (4) apatite, (5) orthoclase, (6)
quartz, (7) topaz, (8) corundum, (9) and diamond
(10). Talc is the softest and diamond the hardest. (Mobs'
Hardness Scale)
hard-rock geology the study of igneous and
metamorphic rocks and the exploration for ore
minerals
hard scale a salt composed of sulfates of barium,
strontium, and/or calcium. It can precipitate out of
water and build up in equipment such as tubular
goods. Hard scale can be caused by mixing unlike
brines. Hard scale is in contrast to soft scale.
hardship gas natural gas that must be sold, if at all
possible, at substandard prices. If the hardship gas
is not sold, all parties in the well would suffer financial
loss due to loss of lease, reservoir drainage or reservoir
damage.
hard trim see hard faced
hardware computer equipment that is relatively
solid matter, such as the frame, integrated circuits,
wires, and terminals. Hardware is in contrast to
software which is the computer programs.
hard water water containing Ca or Mg ions
harmonic a frequency that is a unit multiple, such
as second or third, of a fundamental frequency
harmonic analysis see Fourier analysis
harmonic decline an oil well production decline
that is proportional to the producing rate. When the
production rate is plotted on a log scale versus the
cumulative production on a regular scale, it is a straight
line. The equation is Q, = Q,; (1 + Zty)~\ where Q,
= production rate at a certain time, Qt = initial
production rate, >, = initial decline, and f = time.
Harmonic decline has a very steep initial decline and
best approximates a dissolved gas-drive oilfield
decline.
harmonic folding folding sedimentary rocks in
which the number and position of folds in sucessive
surfaces broadly match in contrast to disharmonic
folding
HAS drive heated annulus steam drive
Hassler chamber or holder a core holder used
with a permeamer.er to measure the permeability of
a core. The core is placed in a metal screen and then
a rubber jacket. The core and jacket are then placed
in the Hassler chamber where dry air is passed through
the core. The permeability of the core is calculated
from Darcy's law. A Fancher holder serves the same
purpose.
hat the enlarged upper section of a salt stock or plug
that was formed by the sideways swelling of salt. The
part of the hat that protrudes beyond the stem is
called the overhang, (bulb, cap, or head)
hatch an opening on a tank or vessel that can be
open and closed
hatchettite a variety of ozokerite found in Belgium
and Germany
Hauterivian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 130-125 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Cretaceous epoch.
have a hole in the wall to claim more footage than
is actually drilled

237

hay rack or hayrack a rack with finger-like

projections located near the top of a mast or derrick.
The hay rake is used to separate and hold the upper
ends of tubing strings when they are pulled from
the well, (finger board)
hay section the part of a heater or heater-treater
filled with fibrous material used to filter emulsions
hay tank a vessel filled with hay used to filter oil
out of water
haz hazardous
hazard a dangerous condition
hazard survey see wellsite survey
hazard zone an area of high fire or explosion risk
Hb hornblende
HBP held by production
HC hydrocarbon
h,. height of cement column
H/C hydrogen to carbon ratio
HC1 hydrochloric acid
HCO heavy cycle oil
H/C ratio the atomic ratio of hydrogen to carbon.
The H/C ratio is usually made of kerogen and plotted
on a Van Krevelen diagram with O/C ratios to show
kerogen type and maturity. H/C
HCV hand controlled valve
HD 1) hydril 2) hard 3) hole diameter
hd hard
hdl handle
hdns hardness
Hd.sd. hard sand
hdr header
HDT high-resolution dipmeter tool
HDT-D dipmeter-digital log
HE hydrogen embrittlement
He 1) helium 2) hematite
head 1) the pressure differential in a fluid that causes
flow 2) a device that utilizes magnetic tape to write
on or read from a storage medium such as a magnetic
head 3) the volume of reservoir fluids produced as
a result of a short period of gas injection into a well
4) the enlarged upper portion of a salt stock or plug
that was formed by the sideways swelling of salt. The
part of the head that protrudes beyond the stem is
called the overhang, (bulb, cat, or hat) 5) the bottom
end of a survey cable that contains the threaded and
electrical connectors
headache! a shouted warning when something has
been dropped or falls from overhead
headache post a post under the walking beam on
one side of the drill floor of a cable-tool rig. The
headache post prevents the walking beam from falling
when the pitman is disconnected from the crank.
head end the outlet end of a reciprocating
compressor. Head end is in contrast to the crank end.
header 1) a pipe or tube with one inlet and several
outlets, or several inlets and one outlet (manifold)
hdr 2) a large-diameter pipe having several smaller
pipes extending from it at right angles 3) the

238

headgate heat exchanger

information that includes seismic profile, shot, and

trace numbers on a magnetic tape 4) the information
section on a seismic profile. The header can include
such information as the names of the contractor and
client, shooting date, multiplicity, geophone types,
spread layout, cable lengths, data processing company,
processing date, deconvolution, and migration. 5) the
information located at the top of a well log. The header
includes the company name, type of log, date, operator,
well name, field, county and state, temperature, and
type of fluid in the well.
headgate the gate valve located nearest to a pump
or compressor on a flow line
heading or heading flow a type of fluid flow with
long intervals of alternating liquid and gas slugs. Fluid
flow with short intervals of alternating liquid and gas
slugs is slugging flow.
head pressure the pressure exerted by the weight
of a column of fluid. Head pressure is usually measured
in inches of mercury or water.
head right an undivided interest in mineral rights.
For some Indian lands, it is the pooled mineral interest
in the reservation that is or was shared by each member
of that tribe and can be passed on by inheritance.
head roustabout a person in charge of supervising
and training a crew of roustabouts. The head
roustabout works under the production foreman.
(gang pusher or leadman)
headspace gas gas that collects in the sealed
container above the cuttings, drilling mud, and fluid
sample taken during mud logging. A sample is taken
by a syringe inserted into the can wall. The headspace
gas is then analyzed by a gas chromatograph.
heads up drilling a well or developing some acreage
without any financial help
head-type meter a device that is used to measure
the velocity of a fluid. A head-type meter measures
the differential pressure between two points in the
flow. The flow rate will be proportional to the square
root of the pressure differential. Common types of
head-type meters include a) orifice, b) Venturi, c)
flow, d) pitot tube-annubar, and e) elbow meter.
head up to tighten a hatch cover on a tank
head wave a wave in refraction seismic that enters
and leaves a high-velocity medium at the critical angle
and gives the refraction first break, the first recorded
arrival of the seismic signal. The head wave travels
along the interface of two sedimentary rock layers.
head well a well that produces most efficiently by
intermittent pumping or flowage. A head well usually
lacks enough gas to cause the oil to flow to the surface.
head well puller the workover employee who is
in charge of a pulling unit and crew that pulls sucker
rods and tubing from a well, (pulling-unit operator
or crew chief)
heal to close a rock fracture by precipitation of
minerals in the fracture
healed fracture a previously open fracture such as
a joint or fault in a rock along which fluid was able
to flow. Subsequently, the fracture has filled with
mineral grains such as calcite or quartz that have grown
along the fracture and now prevent fluid flow, (sealed
fracture)

heart-break rock a sedimentary rock with porosity

but lacking permeability
heat a connection to strike a collar or threaded
connection with a hammer to loosen it. (warm or
whip a connection)
heat capacity 1) the amount of heat necessary to
raise the temperature of a sample 1C 2) the ratio of
heat absorbed or radiated on a surface to the rise
and fall of temperature. Heat capacity is expressed
in calories per gram per C (cal/gm/C). (thermal
capacity) c
heat checking the excessive heating caused by
friction of tool joints rotating against the wellbore
wall heat conductivity the amount of heat in calories
transmitted per second through a plate-shaped
substance that is 1 cm thick with an area of 1 cm2
and a temperature difference of 1C from top to
bottom. The heat conductivity of rocks ranges from
about 3-15 millicalories/cm/sec/C. Heat conductivities
in sedimentary rocks are greatest in evaporites and
lowest in shales, (thermal conductivity)
heated annulus steam drive a heavy oil recovery
method in which heat is applied to a horizontal drain
well in the reservoir. Vertical steam injection wells
are used to sweep the oil to the horizontal well. HAS
drive
heater heating equipment that is used with natural
gas to prevent hydrates (ice with gas molecules trapped
in the ice lattice) from forming when the gas is
produced. The heater burns with natural gas and is
either a direct flowline or indirect heater. The indirect
heater is the most common and consists of a shell
that usually contains fresh water, a fire tub, burner,
and a coil through which the gas flows through the
heated water. Heating is used when dehydration of
the gas is not economical, htr
INltTOtCtWATER.GAS

heater treater

heater-treater a type of vertical or horizontal field

separator that uses heat to break an emulsion such
as oil-in-water or water-in-oil. A temperature of 80
to 180 F is necessary to separate emulsions. The steel
tank contains a U-shaped pipe called a fire tube. In
the direct-fired fire-tube furnace, a flame is directed
down the center line of the pipe to heat and break
the emulsion. In the indirect-fired type, the flame is
used to heat water that is in contact with the emulsion.
The exhaust gases exit the stack which extends 1015 ft above the separator. The burner uses either
natural gas or heavy oil. (fire-tube heater or emulsion
treater) ht
heat exchanger an arrangement of pipes that
provides for the transfer of heat from one fluid to
another. The heat exchangers used in gas-processing

heartflow heel row

plants are usually the shell and tube water- or aircooled type. Air-cooled units can also use temperaturecontrolled louvers, variable speed fan motors and
drives, and variable pitch fans to control the outlet
stream temperature, (exchanger) HEX or Hx
heatflow the amount of heat per unit area and time
leaving the surface of the earth. Heatflow averages
about 1.5 x 10~6cal cm"2s~1 and is measured in heat
flow units. Q
heatflow unit a unit used to measure the heat flow
from the earth. A heatflow unit is equal to 10~2 cal/
m2/sec or 10~6 cal/cm2/sec in cgs units and 0.42 times
10~5 W/m2 in mks units. HFU
heating value the amount of heat formed when a
fuel is completely burned under standard conditions
that are usually 60 F and 1 atm. Higher or gross heating
value (GHV) is measured when all the water produced
by combustion is coriyerted back to liquid. Lower or
net heating value (NHV) is measured when all the
water remains as steam. Heating value can also be
dry or wet. AV
heat of hydration the heat formed by the setting
of cement
heat treating or treatment the alteration of the
properties of a substance by alternately heating and
cooling
heave 1) the vertical motion of an entire ship on
the ocean 2) the slow movement of an anhydrite, a
sodium or potassium salt layer or shale, into a wellbore
by pressure or chemical reaction, (swell or squeeze)
heave compensator a type of shock absorber on
a drillship that uses counterweights or hydraulics to
maintain a constant weight on the drillstring as the
drillship rises and falls with the waves. The heave
compensator is located between the traveling block
and the hook or power swivel. The stroke on the
heave compensator is about 18 ft. (surface-motion
compensator)
heavies solids with a high specific gravity, usually
greater than 30
heaving sand driller's term for sand forced into the
bottom of the well by production
heaving shale soft clay and shale with a pore
pressure higher than the hydrostatic head in the well
at that level. The clay and shale squeezes into the
well, falling to the bottom of the well in large balls
that are not easily removed by the circulating drilling
mud. The severity of the heaving shale is related to
the percentage of montmorillonite and the age of
the shale, (sloughing shale) HVSH
heavy bottoms the residue left after crude oil is
refined. Heavy bottoms can be used for fuel.
heavy oil high-density oil with "API of less than 25.
Heavy oils have high viscosities up to 10,000 cp. Heavy
oils tend to be black in color and contain relatively
high amounts of asphaltics and sulfur. Heavy oils are
from immature source rocks or crude oils that have
been biodegraded or water washed. Usually, thermal
recovery methods such as steam flood or injection
are needed to produce heavy oil from a reservoir.
Extra-heavy oil has a "API of less than 10. Heavy oil
was defined under the windfall-profits tax provisions
as having a weighted average of less than 16 API.
HO or hvy oil

239

heaving shale

heavy oil process a method of thermal enhancedoil recovery used in shallow heavy oil sands. Steam
is sent through horizontal pipes in the heavy oil sands
to heat the oil. The heated fluid oil then flows into
a central cavity.
heavy spar see barite
heavy up on the mud to increase the drilling mud
density
heavy-wall, heavy-weight, or heavyweight
drillpipe drillpipe with the same external
dimensions but thicker walls than normal drillpipe.
Heavy-wall drillpipe joints have the same outer
diameter but a reduced inner diameter and have an
extra long tool joint. Heavy-wall drillpipe weighs about
twice normal drillpipe and has one-third to one-half
the weight of drill collars. Four common sizes range
3'/2-5 in. in outer diameter and are 30.5 ft long. Ten
to 20 joints of heavy-wall drillpipe are often used
between drill collars and drillpipe to prevent drillstring failure. HWDP
heavyweight material an additive that is used to
increase the density of a fluid. Heavy-weight material
consists of small particles of inert and nonabrasive
particles of high specific gravity, such as barite, that
are added to the drilling mud to increase its weight.
Galena is used to make very heavy drilling mud
Hematite is often used in cement slurries. Calcium
carbonate is added to completion fluids to increase
density, (weighting or weight material)
HEC hydroxyethyl cellulose
hectare a non-System International (SI) unit that is
allowable in SI for land area. One hectare is equal
to 10,000 m2 and is equivalent to 2.471 ac. ha or ha.
hecto- the metric prefix for 102. h
heel 1) the tilt of a ship to one side 2) the oil
remaining in a storage tank after draining the tank
heel row the outer row of teeth on a cone on a
roller-cone bit. The nose or toe row is the inner row
of teeth. The middle row is located between the heel
and nose row.

240

heel teeth hetr

heel teeth the teeth located on the outermost row

on the cones of a roller-cone bit. Heel teeth do not
mesh and have the largest volume of rock to remove
when drilling. Heel teeth patterns include regular,
T, U, web, and tungsten carbide inserts, (gage or gauge
cutters)
height-of-build curve the vertical distance in a
deviated hole between the kickoff point and the end
of curve
height of thread the vertical distance between crest
and root on a thread
HEL hostile-environment logging
held by production a leasehold that is kept valid
by production in paying quantities from well(s) on
the lease and royalty payments to the mineral rights
owner(s). HBP
Helderbergian A North American age of geological
time that occurred about 405-400 m. y. ago. It is pan
of the Devonian period.
helical spiral shaped
helical buckling deformation of a tubular in the
shape of a spiral
helical-lobe compressor a type of compressor that
uses two spiral- or helical-shaped rotor blades that
rotate parallel to each other in a housing. The rounded
end of one blade fits into the rounded groove of
the other. When the inlet port is open, the discharged
port is closed, and gas enters and is trapped in the
groove. As the gas passes along the compressor, it is
compressed until it is discharged from the outlet port.
Helical-lobe compressors can be either oil-flooded
or dry. Helical-lobe compressors are used for air
compression, vapor recovery units, and refrigeration
units, (rotary screw or spiral-lobe compressor)
helicopter rig a land-drilling rig. that can be
disassembled into components and lifted by helicopter
to a remote drillsite. The rig has been redesigned
and modified to a minimum size with more but smaller
pumps and up to eight mud tanks. The largest
helicopter rig can be rated to 15,000 ft and is lifted
in with up to 300 loads of 2 T each.
helideck or helipad a flat landing area for a
helicopter on an offshore rig or platform
heliox a mixture of helium and oxygen that is used
by divers below 40 m to avoid nitrogen narcosis.
helium a colorless, odorless, inflammable gas.
Helium is a very light-weight gas and is valuable in
electronic manufacturing. It is found mixed (V2%-2%)
with natural gas in the giant Hugoton-Panhandle gas
field of western Texas. Helium can form as a product
of radioactive decay of K40 into Ar40. He
hellraiser or hell raiser a fishing tool that uses a
magnet
hell's broth nitroglycerin
Hem or hem hematite
hematite an iron mineral with the chemical
composition Fe2O3. Hematite occurs as steel gray-toiron black crystals and red-to-reddish brown earthy
masses. It is an important iron ore. Hem, hem, or
He
hemipelagic deep sea sediments containing some
clay eroded from continents along with pelagic
organisms

hen fruit an egg or dynamite charge

henry a derived unit in Systems International (SI)
for inductance. Henry is calculated by Webers divided
by amperes (Wb/A). One henry is the inductance
needed for an electromotive force of one volt to be
generated by a current varying at the rate of one
ampere per second.
Henry's law the solubility of gas in a liquid is
proportional to the gas pressure above the liquid
heptane a common hydrocarbon of the paraffin
series with the chemical formula C7Hi6. Heptane
occurs as a liquid under surface conditions and is
commonly found in crude oil. Heptane has a specific
gravity of 0.69 at 60F, a boiling point of 209F at
14.7 psia, a vapor pressure of 1.6 psia at 100F, a
critical temperature of 513F, and a critical pressure
of 397 psia. C7
heptane valve a parameter that is calculated by 100
22
x TJT22 + 24^ 'n w h' c h 22 is n-heptane, 15 is
cyclohexane, 16 is 2-methylhexane, 17 is 1,1dimethylcyclopentane, 18 is 3-methylhexane, 19 is cis-7,3-dimethylcyclopentane, 20 is trans-1,3dimethylcyclopentane, 21 is trans-1,2dimethylcyclopentane, and 24 is methylcyclohexane.
Heptane value is used to determine maturity of source
rocks, crude oils, and condensates. A heptane value
of 0-18 indicates biodegradation, 18-22, a low mature
oil; 22-30, a mature oil; and 30-60, a super-mature
oil.
herbaceous land-plant organic matter that is rich
in lipids
hermetically sealed the protection of a component
from hazardous or corrosive gases
hertz a derived unit in System International (SI) for
frequency. Hertz is calculated by 1/s or cycles per
second. Hertz is named for Heinrich Hertz (18571894), a German physicist, hz or Hz
hesitate to stop the pumps for a period of time
hesitation method or squeeze a type of cement
squeeze job in a well in which the pumps are started
and stopped several times to promote cement filtercake development. During the periods when the
pumps are stopped, the water filters out of the slurry
into the formation. The hesitation method is used to
squeeze off a low permeability zone. When the
pumping resumes, the perforation that have received
cement will be harder to pump, and the slurry will
be directed to other perforations.
heteroatoms any atoms other than carbon and
hydrogen in petroleum, bitumen, and kerogen. The
most common hetroatoms are sulfur, oxygen, and
nitrogen.
heterocompounds or hetero compounds organic
compounds that contain sulphur, oxygen, and
nitrogen. Heterocompounds occur in organic matter
and crude oils. Porphyrins derived from chlorophyll
are heterocompounds in organic matter. Asphaltenes
are also heterocompounds. Heterocompounds are
separated from crude oil by polar solvents such as
methanol. (NSO or polar compounds)
heterogeneous a substance that is not uniform.
Heterogeneous is in contrast to homogeneous, hetr
hetr heterogeneous

Hettangian high-pressure gas drive

Hettangian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 200-195 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Jurassic epoch.
Heviwate drillpipe drillpipe that is heavier and
has thicker walls than normal drillpipe. The drillpipe
uses a wear-and- support pad in the middle of die
joint that is slightly smaller than the tool joint. Heviwate
drillpipe is used in deviated and horizontal wells.
HEX heat exchanger
hex 1) hexane 2) hexagonal
hexacoral a type of coral that belongs to the order
Scleractinia and has a hexagonal symmetry of septa
or radial walls. Hexacorals are both solitary and
colonial, have existed from the Triassic period to the
present, and include the modern corals.
(scleractinian)
hexagonal pattern a type of waterflood pattern in
which a producing well is surrounded by six waterinjecting wells in a hexagonal pattern, (seven spot
pattern)
hexane a common hydrocarbon of the paraffin series
composed of CSH14. Hexane occurs as a liquid under
surface conditions and is commonly found in crude
oil. Small amounts of hexane can also be found in
some natural gases. Hexane has a specific gravity of
0.6, a boiling point of 156F at 14.7 psja, a vapor
pressure of 5.0 psia at 100F, a critical temperature
of 454F, and a critical pressure of 437 psia. C6 or
hex
HF high frequency
HF acid a solution of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric
acids that is used for an acid job on formation damaged
sandstone reservoirs. The HF acid dissolves clay
minerals and silica.
HFO 1) hole full of oil 2) heavy fuel oil.
H.F.O. hole full of oil.
HFSW hole full of salt water
HFU heatflow unit
HFW or H.F.W. hole full of water
Hg mercury
hg net thickness of gas zone
hg gross thickness
HGCM heavily gas-cut mud
HGCW heavily gas-cut water
HGOR high gas/oil ratio
hgt height
HH hydrostatic head
HHCG heavy hydrocarbon gases
HHP hydraulic horsepower
HHV higher heating value
HI 1) hydrocarbon ndex 2) hydrogen index
hi 1) high 2) highly
H.I. Height of instrument
hiatus A time gap in the rock record
HIDA Hydrocarbon-induced diagenetic aureole
hidden layer 1) a rock layer that doesn't give a
primary reflection on a seismic record, (blind layer)
2) a rock layer that cannot be detected by seismic
refraction methods because it is either a) a low-velocity

241

layer located below a high-velocity layer, or b) too

thin to give a distinct arrival signal, (blind layer)
hide the threads to tighten a joint
high the area on a structure or rock layer that is
highest in elevation
high-alkalinity drilling mud see bigb-pH drilling
mud
high-alumina cement a refractory cement that is
made of bauxite and limestone that is heated in a
reverberatory, open-hearth furnace until it is liquid.
High-alumina cement is used in in-situ combustion
wells.
high-angle fault a fault with a fault plane dip of
greater than 45 in contrast to a low-angle fault
high-angle hole a well with a deviation greater than
50
high bottom a thick accumulation of basic sediment
and water on the bottom of a tank. High bottom causes
some of the basic sediment and water to flow out of
the tank and into a pipeline when oil is drawn off.
high-BTU gas methane that is made from synthesis
gas (CO-H2). (substitute natural gas)
high-cut filter a filter that is designed to transmit
frequencies below a cutoff frequency. A high-cut filter
is in contrast to a high-pass filter, (low-pass filter)
high dip a slope having a dip angle of greater than
5%
high-drum drive a light hoisting-load drawworks
drive. High-drum drive is in contrast to low-drum
drive.
high explosive an explosive that is chemically
unstable and sensitive to shock or temperature
changes. High explosives are used for shaped
explosive charges in perforating and Primacord used
in fishing. A high explosive is in contrast to a low
explosive.
higher heating value the net heat generated by
combustion of hydrocarbons plus water vapor plus
the heat from condensing the water vapor back into
a liquid. Higher heating value is measured in Btu/cf
for gas and Btu/gal for liquids. Lower heating value
is measured without condensing the water vapor.
(gross heating value) HHV
high-gravity oil crude oil that is light in weight and
has a "API greater than 40-45
high kick a large angle in a well
high-pass filter a filter that is designed to transmit
frequencies above a cutoff frequency. A high-pass filter
is in contrast to a high-cut filter, (low-cutfilter)
high-performance liquid chromatography
column chromatography under high pressure that is
designed for more efficient separations. HPLC
high-pH drilling mud a drilling mud that is very
alkaline (greater than 10.5 pH) with a high
concentration of carbonates and sulfates. Sodium
hydroxide is used as an additive to make high pH
drilling mud. (high-alkalinity drilling mud)
high-pressure gas drive a type of miscible drive
that uses an injected gas with a percentage of
hydrocarbons intermediates that are lower than that
of a critical gas mixture. A mass exchange of
hydrocarbon gas components occurs between the

242

high-pressure lean gas process hm

formation oil and the injected gas with the gas gaining
intermediate fractions. If the process continues to
miscibility, it is called a critical vaporizing-oil gas drive.
high-pressure lean gas process a miscible
hydrocarbon displacement process in which lean gas
at a high pressure is injected into a depleted oil
reservoir to cause retrograde evaporation of the oil
and form a miscible phase between the driving gas
and the oil
high-pressure squeeze cementing a squeeze
cement job in a well in which the final pressure is
greater than the formation fracture pressure
high-pressure valve a type of valve used on highpressure lines to easily open and close the line. A
high-pressure valve is used in fracing and acidizing
a well. (Halliburton valve)
high-resolution dipmeter log a log that records
four high-resolution microresistivity curves. The highresolution dipmeter (HRD) yields relatively accurate
resistivity and dip measurements. The log also records
a curve used to correct for variations in sonde speed.
high-resolution thermometer a thermometer
with a resolution of 0.5F that is used in temperature
logging wells. HRT
high-shrinkage crude oil 1) crude oil that has a
greater shrinkage with pressure reduction than normal
crude oil. There is no exact definition of highshrinkage crude oil but it is generally described as
having 500-800 scf/bsto of dissolved gas, a "API of
30- 50, and a dark color. High-shrinkage oil is usually
caused by a greater concentration of intermediate
hydrocarbons and lesser amount of heavier
hydrocarbons than normal. High-shrinkage crude oil
is in contrast to low-shrinkage crude oil. 2) see volatile
oil
high side the upper side of a deviated well. High
side is in contrast to the low side
high-speed layer a subsurface rock layer that has
a seismic wave-progagation velocity greater than the
velocity of the overlying rock. The high-speed layer
will transmit refraction energy.
high-speed positive-displacement motor a
positive-displacement motor that has a 1:2 ratio
between the number of lobes on the rotor and the
number of cavities in the stater. The rpm ranges from
200 on a 9-in. motor to 1,500 on a 27/s in.-outside
diameter motor.
highstand a relatively high sea level in reference
to land. A highstand is in contrast to a lowstand.
high-sulfur crude a crude oil that contains more
than 1.7% sulfur by weight. High-sulfur crude has
detectable amounts of sulfur in forms other than
hydrogen sulfide, such as mercaptans, disulfides, and/
or cyclic aromatic sulfides."'
high-torque, low-speed positive-displacement
motor a positive-displacement motor that has a ratio
between the number of lobes on the rotor versus
the number of cavities in the stater between 3:4 and
5:6. The motor will have an rmp of 180 for a 6V2- in.
outside diameter motor.
high-yield clay a commercial clay containing
sodium montmorillonite that yields 30-50 bbl/ton.
High-yield clay weighs about 9 lbs/gal. High-yield clay

is in contrast to a low-yield clay such as calcium

monmorillonite that yields less than 30 bbl/ton.
hillside sand a sandstone that wears the drill bit
on only one side
hinge the point of maximum bending or curvature
in a fold of sedimentary rocks
hinge hose a hose used to connect the mud pump
discharge with the bottom of a standpipe on a drilling
rig
HINGE IINE

hinge line

hinge line 1) the line connecting the points (hinges)

of maximum bending or curvature of sedimentary
rocks in a fold 2) the line in a sedimentary basin
separating the relatively thin sediments of the shelf
that were deposited in a shallow, stable environment
and the thick sediments of the deep basin that were
deposited in a rapidly subsiding basin. 3) the line
along a fault surface at which the direction of
displacement on a scissor fault changes
hinge zone the surface region of a fold around the
fold hinge line
Hingle crossplot a crossplot of porosity from a
porosity log (porosity, density, or interval transit time)
on the x axis versus deep resistivity {RILd or RuJ) or
conductivity. The Hingle crossplot is used to determine
water saturation (Sw).
Hinshaw pipeline a pipeline that is subjected to
state rather than federal jurisdiction. The pipeline ships
interstate gas with its facilities being entirely in the
consuming state. Hinshaw pipeline is named after the
Hinshaw amendment to the Natural Gas Act.
history of a well a written report on the drilling,
completion, and production data of a well that is
required by some states
hit to strike oil
hitch over to run out the temper screw on a cabletool rig to change the clamp grip on the drilling line
hitch up to make a rig ready for drilling
hit the suitcase sand to have a worker quit
hkl hackly
HKLD hook load
hkw highest known water
HL hook load
HLB hydrophilic-lipophilic balance
hn, height of mud column

*!,,. hole sweep

thickness of mudcake
H-member a horizontal nipple or connection
between two tubing strings in a well
h,, net thickness
HO heavy oil
h,, net thickness of oil zone
HO&GCM heavy oil- and gas-cut mud
hobble see hose hobble
HOCM heavily oil-cut mud
HOCW heavily oil-cut water
hogger 1) a driller who reports more footage than
he actually drilled 2) a rotary driller
hoist 1) to lift an object 2) a system of blocks, pulleys,
wire ropes, drums, winches and/or drawworks used
to lift an object
hoist and hold to start to trip out of a well by raising
the drillstring and holding it in the slips
hoisting cable or line heavy-duty wire rope on a
rotary drilling rig that is used to raise and lower
equipment in a well. Hoisting cable is usually braided
steel wire that ranges in diameter of 1-1 % in. Hoisting
line is identified by the number of strands and the
number of wires in each strand. Hoisting cable is
usually wound in a right regular lay. (drilling, rotary,
or block line)
hoisting drum a reel or flanged spool around which
the cable, wire rope, or wire is wound in a system
used to raise and lower equipment. A hoisting drum
is used in the drawworks of a drilling rig.
hoisting plug a device that is used to attach the
elevators to slim-hole drillpipe and drill collars when
tripping or making a connection. The hoisting plug
is a short pipe with threads on one end to match
the pin end of the pipe or collars, and a latch head
or lifting bail on the other end. (lifting nipple or sub)
hoisting system the apparatus on a drilling rig that
is used to raise and lower equipment in a well. The
hoisting system consists of the drawworks, the crown
and traveling blocks, hooks and elevators, deadline
anchor, drilling line, and derrick or mast.
hoist plug a short section of pipe that is threaded
on one end and has a swivel bail on the other end.
The hoist plug is used to raise and lower drillpipe.
hold angle the inclination and azimuth of a wellbore
that is held constant
hole 1) a borehole made by a drilling bit 2) the
rathole or mousehole on the drill floor
hole blow 1) the ejection of water and mud from
a seismic exploration shot hole that occurs during
detonation of a shot 2) the noise of the ejection
recorded on a seismic record
hole cover plate a heavy, steel plate that is XA in.
thick and has handles. The hole cover plate fits onto
the rotary table to prevent tools from being dropped
down the well.
hole curvature the change in inclination and
azimuth of a wellbore
hole deviation the angle between a crooked or
deviated hole and vertical, (angle of deviation,
deflection, drift, drift angle, or inclination)

243

holddown an anchoring device

hole enlarger a sub that is used near the bottom
of a drillstring and rotated to enlarge the diameter
of the wellbore. The hole enlarger has rotary cones
with teeth or inserts located on the outside of a core
that fits into the original, smaller diameter wellbore.
hole fatigue the effect in seismic exploration caused
by the delay in time between the detonation of a
shot and the initiation of the seismic impulse. Hole
fatigue is often caused by a cavity in the shothole
left by a previous shot, (shothole fatigue)
hole gauge 1) a caliper log 2) the diameter of the
wellbore
hole logging see hole probe
hole noise noise from a seismic explosion caused
either by hole blow or gases resulting from the
explosion. Hole noise can last for seconds but is
attenuated rapidly with distance from the shot hole.

hole opener

hole opener a sub with hydraulically activated,

expandable cutting arms that are used to enlarge the
wellbore at a specific interval in the well. A singlestage hole opener has cutter arms to enlarge the hole
but cannot drill the hole. The hole opener might have
a spade point to force through debris. The doublestage hole opener has a tricone bit on the lower section
and can drill the hole while enlarging it with the
cutter arms. The cutter arms are interchangeable. A
hole opener is rotated on a drillstring to underream
or enlarge the wellbore for an open-hole or gravelpack completion. The cutting arms fold back into the
tool when it is brought back up the well.
(underreamer)
hole-opener treatment a technique used to clean
a well from debris by first flushing the well with acid
and then with a clean out acid that is composed of
surfactants and hydrochloric acid
hole plug a device that is used to close a seismic
exploration shot hole, (bridge plug)
hole probe a drill hole IP or resistivity survey in a
well which uses closely spaced electrodes to
investigate the electrical properties of the rocks
adjacent to the wellbore. (electric, hole, IP, or resistivity
logging)
hole pump see mud pump
hole sweep the circulation of a very viscous fluid
through a well to clean it out

244

hole walk horizontal drainhole or hole

hole walk the azimuth direction of a crooked well.

(walk of the hole)
holiday 1) an area between the casing and rock walls
of the well where there is no cement or bonding 2)
an area that was missed and has no coating on a
pipe or paint on its surface 3) a welding crack or
flaw
hollow-carrier gun a retrievable-type of perforating
gun which retains the explosion debris
hollow-pin impact reversing sub a short section
of pipe that is run in the drillstring during a drillstem test and is used to recover the fluid sample.
The sample is recovered by reverse circulation or is
held in the drillstring. (reverse circulating sub)
Holocene an epoch of time from about 10,000 years
ago until the present. It is part of the Tertiary period.
(Recent)
hom homogeneous

hook horsepower the horsepower necessary to pull

a drillstring from the well
hook load the weight suspended in the derrick by
the hoisting system of a drilling rig. The hook load,
when drilling, is equal to the weight of the drillstring
in mud plus the weight of the swivel, hook, traveling
block, and drilling line that suspends it from the crown
block. The hook load is measured on the weight
indicator by a load cell or pressure transformer and
can weigh hundreds of tons. HL or HKLD
hook-load capacity the maximum weight that the
hoisting system of a drilling rig is designed to handle
hook power the traveling block load times the
velocity of the traveling block, (output power)
hook up to connect a pipeline to a tank or well
hook-wall packer a type of packer used in a cased
hole with friction blocks or drag springs and slips
with teeth pointing downward. The hook-wall packer
is lowered into a well on a drillstring or tubing string.
The string is manipulated to release a J-slot and seat
the packer when weight is applied. A hook-wall packer
can be disengaged by reversing the direction of
rotation. No anchor pipe is used, (wall-hook packer)
HWPKZ

homocline inclined sedimentary rocks of constant

dip. A homocline can be one limb of a fold.
homogeneous a substance that is uniform. All parts
of a homogeneous substance are the same in
properties and composition. Homogeneous is in
contrast to heterogeneous.
homogranular a substance such as a rock that is
composed of crystals or grains that are about the same
size
hook drilling equipment in the shape of a hook that
is located below the traveling block and is attached
to the traveling block with large shackles. The hook
connects the traveling block with the swivel or any
other equipment that needs to be suspended from
the traveling block. Hooks can carry loads of 100650 tons. Small-capacity hooks are used for tubing
and sucker rods. Large-capacity hooks used for pipes
are attached to a strong interior spring assembly or
a hydraulic snubber assembly to lessen damage when
making up or breaking out pipe. Modern triplex hooks
that are hook-traveling block combinations have one
large safety hook for the swivel bail and two smaller
hooks or ears on the sides for the elevator bails.
Hook-Block a combined traveling block and hook
in one unit
hook block see traveling block
Hooke's law strain is linearily proportional to
applied stress within the limit of elasticity. Hooke's
law is named after Robert Hooke (1635-1703), an
English scientist.

hook-wall packer test a production test in a cased

hole using hook-wall packers. The test can also be
used to test for water shut-off after cementing.
hoot owl tour the crew shift on a drilling rig that
goes through the night. On an 8-hour tour, the shift
would be from midnight to 8 A.M. (graveyard or
morning tour)
HOP heavy oil process
hopper a large funnel that is used in pouring material
hor or horiz horizontal
horizon 1) a layer in the rocks that is assumed to
have been originally deposited horizontally 2) a rock
layer characterized by a particular assemblage of fossils
3) a porous and permeable zone in the reservoir
rock of a petroleum reservoir 4) a line of several
lines used to show the horizontal direction for
surveying, horz
horizon map a map based on a seismic reflection
event that covers a large area
horizontal assignment a transfer of mineral
interests that are either above, below, or between
certain depths or in a certain rock layer or horizon
horizontal control the exact horizontal location,
such as latitude and longitude, of a point that is used
for surveying
horizontal displacement the horizontal distance
between the surface location of the well and the target
on the bottom of the well
horizontal drainhole or hole 1) a well that is
drilled by deviation drilling and tracks the dip of a
subsurface reservoir. The horizontal drainhole can
have an inclination up to 90. Types of horizontal
drainholes include very short radius (1-2 ft), short
radius (35-45 ft), medium radius (300-500 ft) and
conventional (1,800 ft and longer). Horizontal
drainholes are also described as long radius with a
radius greater than 600 ft and a length of less than
4,000 ft, medium radius with a radius of 300-500 ft

horizontal fold horse-cock a bit

horizontal drain well

and a length less than 1,500 ft, short radius with a

radius of 20-40 ft and a length less than 600 ft and
ultra short with a radius of 1-20 ft and a length of
less than 200 ft. Drilling techniques for horizontal
drainholes include a high-pressure focused-water jet,
a curved drilling guide with flexible, articulated
drillpipe and steerable mud motor. The original
horizontal well was drilled for coning control.
(horizontal well) 2) a well than has an inclination
greater than 70 unless the pay zone is steeply dipping
and the well tracks the dip of the pay zone (horizontal
well)
horizontal fold a fold in sedimentary rocks which
has a fold axis plunging between 0 and 10. A
horizontal fold is in contrast to a plunging or vertical
fold.
horizontal integration the involvement of an
energy company in several different energy sources
such as crude oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium
horizontal length the length of the section of a
horizontal well that transverses the pay zone
horizontal permeability permeability measured in
the horizontal plane of the reservoir. kh
horizontal release a Pugh clause or Freestone rider
in a lease that releases nonproducing acreage at the
end of the lease primary term or at a specific time
horizontal section see time slice
horizontal separation the horizontal component
of strike slip on a fault. Horizontal separation is in
contrast to vertical separation, (horizontal sip)
horizontal separator a separator that has a
horizontal, metal shell with a large, long, baffled gasseparation section. A horizontal separator is used for
produced fluids with high gas/oil ratios, foaming wells,
and to separate liquid from liquid. The gas and liquid
flows horizontally across closely spaced horizontal
baffle plates that are located along the length of the
vessel. A double-tube horizontal separator has a higher
liquid capacity. A horizontal separator can be either
a two phase, three phase or heater-treater and is in
contrast to a vertical or spherical separator.
horizontal severance the partitioning of undivided
interests into separate subsurface formations
horizontal slice the seismic record at a specific
elevation across a three-dimensional seismic survey
horizontal slip see horizontal separation
horizontal stack see common-depth-point stack
horizontal well see horizontal drainhole

245

horn a high-resistivity anomaly on an induction log

curve. Horns are located near the top and bottom of
a resistive bed that is overlain and underlain by
conductive beds.
hornbd hornblende
hornblende a mineral of the amphibole group that
has the chemical formula
Ca2Na(Mg,Fe+2)4(Al,Fe+3,Ti)(Al,SiO8O22(O,OH)2.
Hornblende is a common black, dark green, or brown
mineral that occurs in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
hornbd or Hb
Horner analysis a method using a suite of
temperatures at a given depth measure on successive
logging runs to estimate the formation temperature.
The difference between true and apparent bottomhole
temperature is plotted against elaspsed time since
circulation stopped divided by (drilling time plus time
since circulation stopped) on a log scale.

>

\
\
\
\

Homer plot

Horner plot a plot of pressure buildup data that is

used to interpret a drillstem test and determine the
permeability of the reservoir and the extent of any
formation damage. Shut-in well pressure (Pw) in psig
is plotted on the vertical axis and [(tp + Af)/Af] on
the horizontal axis where tp is production time and
Af is shut-in time. The slope of the line will be equal
to 0.1625 q\Ukh in which q is production, \x. is fluid
viscosity, k is permeability and h is net pay thickness.
Horner time a dimensionless variable that is the
sum of production and shut-in times divided by the
shut-in time for a buildup analysis. Horner time can
also be calculated by cumulative production in stock
tank barrels divided by the last constant or established
production rate in stock tank barrels per day. Horner
time is used in analysis of pressure transient data.
horn socket a fishing tool used for cable-tool
drilling. A horn socket is a tapered steel tube cut
along its length. The horn socket is driven by jars
onto a fish in the well.
horse cock see gooseneck
horse-cock a bit to dress a bit

246

horse feed hot spot

horse feed padding on an expense account

horsehead

horsehead

horsehead the steel plate that is attached to the end

of the walking beam on a beam pumping unit. The
horsehead is used to insure that the pull on the suckerrod string is vertical. The polished rod is attached to
the horsehead by the bridle. The horsehead is shaped
so that the curvature of the outer side of the horsehead
is centered on the center bearing of the walking beam.
(horse's head)
horsepower a unit of power or rate of doing work
that is equal to 33,000 ft-lb/min or 550 ft-lb/sec. One
horsepower is the equivalent of 745.7 watts of
electricity. Indicated horsepower is the theoretical
power developed in the cylinders of an engine. Brake
horsepower is the actual power of an engine measured
by a friction brake or adsorption dynamometer applied
to the drive shaft or flywheel. Brake horsepower is
less than indicated horsepower because of friction
loss. Hydraulic horsepower is the power of a fluid
under pressure. Engine horsepower is the calculated,
theoretical characteristics of the engine. H.P., HP, or
hp
horse's head see horsehead

horst

horst the ridge formed by the upthrown sides of

two parallel, normal faults
horz 1) horizon 2) horizontal
hose a relatively flexible, rubber, canvas, or similar
composition tube that conveys fluids

hose hobble a safety clamp that is attached to a

hose and is secured on the drilling rig. The hose
hobble is used to prevent the hose from causing an
injury if it comes off the pipe fitting.
hot an electrical circuit that is on. Hot is in contrast
to cold.
HOTAC hot acid
hot ass a lazy bench on a drilling rig
hot box an overheated journal box
hot carbonate process a chemical process used to
remove acid gases such as CO2 and H2S from natural
gas by flowing the gas through a very hot solution
of potassium carbonate and water. The reaction
products are KHCO3 and KHS. The reactants can be
regenerated.
hot dip a method of coating cores with a strippable,
plastic coating for shipping and storage. Core Gel is
the trade name of the coating material that is used.
hot fluid injection a thermal method of enhanced
oil recovery that is used primarily for heavy oil. Hot
water, steam, or gas is injected into the producing
formation to lower the viscosity of the oil and force
it through the reservoir toward producing wells.
hot footing the installation of a heater on the bottom
of a heavy-oil well to decrease the viscosity of the
oil and increase production.
hot lease a lease for land whose title is in dispute
hot oil oil or gas that is illegally produced in excess
of that allowed by a government regulatory agency.
Hot oil production is in violation of federal law. (illegal
oil or gas)
hot oiling see hot oil treatment
hot oil line a heated pipeline that is designed for
heavy crude oils which are very viscous. The heating
can be done by electricity, and the pipeline must be
insulated. Reheating stations for the oil may be
necessary.
hot oil operator an operator that produces more
oil than the allowable
hot-oil treatment pumping of hot-stock tank oil by
a service company down a well that has a buildup
of waxes that have solidified from oil in the tubing
and are restricting production. The hot oil is heated
in a hot-oil truck and melts the wax in the well. A
hot-oil treatment can also be used to remove
asphaltines and is also used in flowlines and other
production equipment, (hot oiling)
hot-oil truck a service company truck with a tank
that holds about 20 bbl of oil and has a heating unit.
The truck heats up oil from a gathering tank to 180F
and pumps it into a gathering line or well to melt
the wax that has solidified from the oil and is restricting
production.
hot shale a shale with relatively high amounts of
gamma ray emissions. Hot shates are usually black
and rich in organic matter.
hot shot 1) a light truck that is used to make rapid
deliveries of oilfield equipment 2) a rush seismic
exploration program 3) express
hot spot 1) a very hot temperature area on a casing
coupling caused by worn threads. 2) An area of
permanent magnetism on a nonmagnetic drill collar.

hot tapping
hot tapping 1) to repair a piece of equipment
without shutting down operations 2) drilling a hole
through the wall of a pipe filled with a fluid under
pressure. A saddle is used to attach a valve to the
pipe, (pipe tapping)
hot water drive a version of waterflood that uses
hot water. Hot water injection into the depleted
reservoir decreases the viscosity of the remaining oil
and increases its volume.
hot water test a method used to analyze for crude
oil in well cuttings. The well cuttings are submerged
in 75C or hotter water and the oil floats to the surface
of the water. The oil is illuminated by a fluorescent
light.
hot well a well with a downhole temperature
exceeding 350F
hot-wire analyzer or detector a common method
to detect gas-cut mud during mud logging. The mud
is continuously sampled from a collector or trap on
the mud return line. An agitator in the mud trap or
steam causes the gas to separate from the mud and
collect in a vacuum system. The gas passes over a
hot wire called the detector filament that is part of a
Wheatstone bridge used to measure resistivity. The
resistance of the detector filament varies with the
temperature of the filament that is affected by catalytic
oxidation or burning of any flammable gases, (thermal
catalytic combustion) HWD
hot wire survey a survey of a well using a resistance
wire that is sensitive to temperature and is used to
locate lost circulation zones in a well. The tool is
lowered in the well and fresh mud is pumped down
the well. If the temperature changes with the addition
of the fresh mud, the lost circulation zone must be
located lower in the well.
housing cap the steel retaining cover on a swivel.
(bonnet)
HP 1) horsepower 2) high pressure 3) hydraulic
pump 4) hydrostatic pressure 5) heavy pressure
hp horsepower
H.P. 1) horsepower 2) high pressure
HPf factional (subsurface) horsepower
hpf holes per foot
HPG high-pressure gas
HPh hydraulic horsepower

huff'n'puff

247

hp-h or hp-hr horsepower-hour

HPKO high-pressure knockout
HPLC high-performance or high-pressure liquid
chromatography
HP np nameplate horsepower
HPR rotary horsepower
HPT hydrocarbon pore thickness
HPU hydraulic power unit
HPV hydrocarbon pore volume
HR high resolution
HR or hr hour
hr residual hydrocarbon
HRD high resolution dipmeter
HRFR hydrafrac
HRS hot-rolled steel
hrs heirs
HRT 1) high resolution thermometer 2) hydrostatic
reference tool
HRU hydrocarbon recovery unit
HSF high-sensitivity flowmeter
HSI hydraulic horsepower per square inch
ht 1) high temperature 2) heater-treater 3) heat used
h, total thickness of pay
HTEq high temperature equipment
HTHP high temperature, high pressure
htr heater
H2S hydrogen sulfide
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
huff 'n' puff a well stimulation method used on heavy
oil reservoirs during primary production. The well
is repeatedly put through three phases. During the
huff (injection) phase, steam is injected into the heavyoil reservoir for a period of days to weeks. In the
following soak (shut-in) phase, the well is shut in
for days to allow the heat to dissipate in the reservoir
and the heavy oil to heat up and become less viscous.
During the puff (production) phase, the heated heavy
oil is pumped up the well. Huff 'n' puff is continued
until it becomes uneconomical, (cyclic steam
stimulation or steam injection)

huff and puff

248

hull hydraulic coupler or coupling

hull the flotation body of a vessel. On a

semisubmersible, the hull is the pontoons.
Humble formula a form of Archie's formula which
is used in well-log analysis. The Humble formula is
empirical and used with granular or sucrosic rocks.
The formula states F = 0.62<|>~215, in which F = the
formation factor and <)> = the porosity.
Humble gauge a mechanical, self-contained
bottomhole-pressure gauge. The gauge uses a piston
that moves in a stuffing box against a helical spring
held in tension to measure the pressure. The pressure
is recorded by a stylus on a cylindrical chart rotated
by a clock.
Humble gravimeter or gravity meter an unstable
type of gravimeter that uses a mass on a beam.
Variations in gravity deflect the beam which is balanced
by an auxiliary spring. The Humble gravimeter is
sensitive to 0.2 milligals.
humic woody organic matter composed of
decomposed plant remains. Source rocks with this
type of organic matter (Type III kerogen) are gas
prone. Humic organic matter includes vitrinite, humin,
huminite, humic acids, and fulvic acids.
humic acids high molecular-weight organic acids
that are formed by the breakdown of plant and
bacterial material under aerobic conditions. Humic
acids are extracted from soils and sediments by sodium
hydroxide and sodium pyrophosphate.
humin humic organic matter with a high molecular
weight and is insoluble in acids and bases
hummocky a low-relief, uneven, rounded
topography
hundred-percent section a seismic record that
does not use common-depth-point stacking
hundred-year storm a storm of intensity that occurs
on an average of only once each 100 years in that
area. The hundred year storm has a specific maximum
wave and wind condition that will statistically occur
an average of once each 100 years at a specific location
on the ocean. Offshore rigs are designed to resist
the wind and waves of a hundred-year storm. Waves
over 100 ft high and wind speed over 120 knots can
occur during some hundred-year storms.
hurry-up hole the mouse hole on the drill floor
of a rig
hurry-up sand a sandstone that causes excessive
bit wear
hurry-up stick the rod that is turned by the driller
on a cable-tool rig to lower the drilling line and bit
in the well as it is drilled. The hurry-up stick is attached
to the temper screw on the walking beam.
HV 1) high viscosity 2) heating value
HVL highly volatile liquid
hvly heavily
HVSH heaving shale
HVT half-value thickness
hvy heavy
hvy oil heavy oil
HW hook wall
1^1) differential pressure 2) height of water column

HWCM heavily water-cut mud

HWD 1) hot-wire detection 2) hot-wire detector
HWDP heavy-wall drillpipe
HWPKR hook wall packer
HX heat exchanger
hybrid platform an offshore gravity platform that
is made of both steel and concrete. The tower, base,
and modules can be built separately.
hybrid scale a laterolog scale that is linear for
resistivities at low resistivities and linear for
conductivities at high resistivities
HYD 1) hydraulic 2) hydraulic fracturing
Hyde hydrocarbons
Hydrafrac the original fracturing process that uses
thickened or gelled oil under high pressure with sand
as a proppant to fracture sandstone. HRFR
hydra'hook a spring-loaded hydraulic hook that is
used to suddenly release tension to jerk a struck
drillstring out of a well
hydrate 1) a mineral with bonded water in the crystal.
An example is gypsum [CaSO4 2H2O]. 2) ice with
gas molecules trapped in the cage-like ice crystal
structure. A hydrate is a solid crystalline compound
similar to snow. Natural hydrates usually contain
ethane or isobutane or, less often, methane or
nitrogen. They are common in permafrost areas and
in seabed sediments. Hydrates also form in and block
gas wells and lines and foul heat exchangers when
the gas is cooled. They are composed of about 90%
water and 10% or more of the gases methane, ethane,
propane, isobutane, n-butane, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen sulfide. Methane snow is a hydrate formed
by water and methane. Hydrates have a specific gravity
of between 0.96 and 0.98. Potassium salts can be used
as a drilling-fluid additive to inhibit hydrates formation.
Gas dehydration is used to depress the dew point of
produced natural gas and prevent hydrate formation.
Hydrates are melted from pipes by heaters, steam,
or hot water or by adding methanol or ethylene glycol.
(gas hydrate or clathrate) 3) To combine with water.
hydrated lime Ca(OH)2
hydrate inhibitor a chemical that is used in gas
lines to prevent the formation of a hydrate. The
inhibitor is usually ammonium brines, glycol, or
methanol.
hydration the chemical combination of a substance
with water
hydraulic operated by the force and movement of
a liquid under pressure. Hydraulic is in contrast to
pneumatic. HYD or H
hydraulic cement a cement that hardens by
hydration rather than drying out. A hydraulic cement
can harden underwater. Portland cement is an
example.
hydraulic conductivity the rate of water flow in
gallons per day through a cross section of 1 ft2 of
rock face under a unit hydraulic gradient at either
the prevailing temperature or 60F. (permeability
coefficient)
hydraulic coupler or coupling a fluid connection
between a prime mover and a driven machine. The
fluid flow from the prime mover rotates turbine blades

hydraulic fluid hydraulic-powered sucker-rod pumping unit

in the driven machine. A runner could also be used
to absorb the power and transmit it to the driven
machine. The hydraulic coupler is used for low-speed
operations such as a drawworks, rotary table, and
pumps or low-torque operations such as hoisting and
fishing. The output speed is controlled by volume
of fluids pumped.
hydraulic fluid a low-viscosity fluid that is used to
transmit force in a hydraulic system

hydraulic fracturing

hydraulic fracturing a well-stimulation process in

which a frac fluids are pumped down casing or a
temporary workstring under high pressure up to
20,000 psi to artificially fracture a reservoir rock in
order to increase permeability and production.
Fracturing can be done in stages during which different
fluids are injected into the well. First a pad, which is
frac fluid without proppants, is pumped down the
well until formation breakdown. Then the frac fluid
with proppants is pumped. At the end of hydraulic
fracturing, a clear fluid flush is pumped down the
well to clean the well of proppants. The flush can
also be an underflush or overflush depending on the
amount of flushing fluids pumped. Fracturing
equipment includes pumping units, blenders, bulk
handling equipment such as sand transports and frac
fluid transports, a trailer-mounted manifold, and frac
bus. The frac fluid flows out of perforations in the
casing or, if the well is not cased, packers are used
to isolate the formation. The frac fluid is usually water
(possibly mixed with acid) or diesel oil. Thickening
agents can be used to increase frac-fluid viscosity.
Propping agents (small spheres) such as well-sorted
sand or aluminum-oxide pellets, are suspended in
the fluid and are used to hold the fractures open
after the pumping stops. The proppant or sand
concentration is usually V2-4 lbs/gal and is mixed with
the frac fluid in the blender. The frac job is measured
by the pounds of sand used which usually varies from
20,000 to 1,000,000 lbs in a massive hydraulic frac.
Higher injection rates form longer fractures. Some
types of hydraulic fracturing include a) Hydrafrac, b)
sandfrac, c) waterfrac, d) acidfrac, e) superfrac, f)
gelled waterfrac, g) gelled oilfrac, h) emulsion frac,
and i) vapor frac. Hydraulic fracturing was developed
in 1948 and was originally done through a tubing
string to below a packer, (fracturing, formation
fracturing, or frac job) HYD
hydraulic gradient the change in pressure head
per unit distance of fluid flow (hydraulic potential
or pressure potential)

249

hydraulic head 1) the height of the surface of a

liquid above a specific point in that liquid 2) the
pressure caused by the weight of a column of liquid
hydraulic horsepower the power of a fluid under
pressure
hydraulic jar a fishing-tool accessory that is designed
to give a sharp upward shock to the fishing tool in
order to loosen a fish in a well. The hydraulic jar
has an oil-filled body and uses a tripping device in
the jar. The force of the shock is controlled by the
torque applied against the tripping mechanism.
(mechanical jar)
hydraulic jet pumping an artificial lift method used
on oil wells. A surface pump supplies high-pressure
power fluid down a tubing string through a nozzle
into a production inlet chamber. The low-pressure
jet from the nozzle entrails production fluids from
the suction inlet, and the mixed fluids flow through
a throat into an expanding diffuser. There the velocity
head is converted to static head to move the mixture
up the production tubing. Because there are few
moving parts, hydraulic-jet pumping is used in
corrosive and hostile environments and in gassy wells
with poor quality crude oil.
hydraulic orienting sub a short pipe that is used
to determine the low side of deviated wells. A ball
falling to the low side blocks an orifice to increase
circulating pressure and indicate the low side.
hydraulic pad a pad used on a well-logging tool
that is filled with water for better electrode contact
with the borehole wall. Hydraulic pads are used on
microresistivity sondes.
hydraulic piston pump a closely coupled
reciprocating engine and pump that is used for
hydraulic pumping. The unit is located below the fluid
level in the well and is driven by a high-pressure
power fluid that is pumped down the well to the
engine through one conduit, and the spent power
fluid and produced fluids come up another conduit.
Most hydraulic piston pumps are free pumps that are
circulated in and out of the well.
hydraulic potential see hydraulic gradient
hydraulic-powered sucker-rod pumping
unit artificial lift equipment that uses a sucker-rod
string and sucker-rod pump. The pump is driven by

cylinder

prime
mover

polished
rod

hydraulic-powered sucker-rod pumping unit

250

hydraulic pulling tool hydrocarbon

a prime mover and takes air from an air balance tank

and injects the air under a piston in a vertical cylinder
for the upstroke. The pump takes air from below
the piston during the downstroke and injects it back
into the air balance tank. The polished rod is attached
to the piston in the cylinder. The hydraulic-powered
sucker-rod pumping unit is suited -for long-stroke
pumping, (hydraulic unit)
hydraulic pulling tool a fishing tool that is used
in cased holes to exert a very high tensile force on
a fish. The hydraulic pulling tool is a hydraulic jack
used on the fishing string just above the fishing tool
and fastens to the casing with pulling-tool anchors.
The tensile force is applied either mechanically by
rotating the fishing string or hydraulically by the
drilling mud. (pulling tool)

hydraulic pump

hydraulic pump a pump that is used to move

liquids. A hydraulic pump can be either single- or
double-acting. The single-acting pump moves the
liquid only during one stroke in the cycle. A doubleacting pump uses check valves to move the liquid
on both strokes during a cycle. Some types of hydraulic
pumps include a) conventional, both insert and casing;
b) parallel; c) casing free pump both standing or slim
line and gas vent string; and d) concentric.
hydraulic pumping a type of artificial lift in oil
wells using a downhole hydraulic piston pump without
sucker rods. Hydraulic pumping consists of an enginedriven pump on the surface and a production pump
in the well. The downhole pump is driven by a power
fluid, either water or pressurized, clean crude oil.
Either one or two strings of tubing can be used. In
the casing free-pump method with one tubing string,
power oil is pumped down the tubing string to the
downhole pump which is seated in the string. A
mixture of power oil and produced fluid then flows
up the tubing-casing annulus. If two tubings strings

are used, the power fluid goes down the larger

diameter string and the mixture comes up the smaller
diameter string located in the larger string. The
hydraulic engine and direct-coupled positivedisplacement pump were originally called a
production unit; both are now called the pump. The
engine is the hydraulic engine on the end of the pump,
whereas the pump is a direct-coupled positivedisplacement pump on the end of the pump. Most
are installed as free pumps that can be circulated in
and out of the well. The power-fluid system can be
either a) a closed power-fluid system in which the
power fluid stays in a closed circuit, or b) an open
power-fluid system in which the power fluid mixes
with the produced fluid.
hydraulic ram a cylinder and piston device that is
driven by hydraulic pressure
hydraulics the science and engineering of liquid
flow
hydraulic surface pump a surface pump that
provides power to activate downhole sucker-rod .
pumps. A hydraulic surface pump can be used instead
of a surface beam pumping unit and can drive several
wells from a central source at the same time.
hydraulic-torque wrench or tongs equipment
that replaces the manual tongs and does much of
the manual labor in handling pipe on the floor of a
drilling rig. The wrench is hydraulically powered and
can accurately apply torque for making up or breaking
out joints. The wrench has a gauge for torque and
provides its own backup. The hydraulic-torque wrench
also can count automatically the number of joints going
downhole. (powertongs or iron roughneck)
hydraulic unit see hydraulic-powered sucker-rod
pumping unit
Hydril an oilfield manufacturer that is often
associated with annular preventers and exclusively
manufactured from 1937-1970. HD
HYDRO hydrostatic pressure
hydro a prefix meaning association with water or
hydrogen
hydrocarbon a molecule formed entirely of carbon
and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons can be solid such
as asphalt, liquid such as crude oil, or gas such as
natural gas. The term is used for both crude oil and
natural gas and can include hetrocompounds with
sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen. The simplest
hydrocarbon is methane (CH4). Hydrocarbons can be
classified by molecular arrangement with such terms
as acyclic, alicyclic, polycyclic, alkanes, alkenes,
alkynes, cycloalkanes, and aromatics. Light
hydrocarbons include methane and ethane.
Intermediate hydrocarbons are propane through
hexane. Heavy hydrocarbons are heptane and larger
molecules. Hydrocarbons can also be classified as a)
black oil, b) volatile oil, c) retrograde gas d) wet

hydrocarbon

hydrocarbon deadline hydrogen blistering

251

gas, and c) dry gas. The hydrocarbon content in crude

oils averages 7096. HC or Hyde
hydrocarbon deadline the maximum depth for
commercial deposits of crude oil or gas in an area
hydrocarbon dew-point the temperature at which
liquid hydrocarbons start to condense from a gas as
the gas is cooled
hydrocarbon log a record of the amount of gas
and crude oil in drilling mud and cuttings on a mud
log. The units are often arbitrary.
hydrocarbon pore thickness the porosity times
the net thickness of the reservoir times the
hydrocarbon saturation HPT
hydrocarbon pore volume the volume of rock
occupied by hydrocarbons such as oil and gas.
Hydrocarbon pore volume is usually calculated from
the formula HPV = <$> (1-5U,)., in which <f> is porosity
of the rock and Sw is water saturation. HPV

hydrocarbon pore-volume map a map that uses

contours to show the value of net pore volume
multiplied by mean hydrocarbon saturation for a
reservoir
hydrocarbon porosity feet the product of
hydrocarbon saturation, porosity, and pay thickness
hydrocarbon recovery unit a field installation that
removes liquified petroleum products from natural
gas. The hydrocarbon recovery unit is primarily a drydessicant absorption unit. As wet gas is passes through
the absorption unit, water is adsorbed on the top of
the dessicant bed and hydrocarbons in order from
heavier to lighter are absorbed in the lower part of
the bed. As more gas is passed through the unit, the
water eventually replaces the hydrocarbons. In a quickcycle system, the absorption cycle is short (15-20
minutes), and the absorbed hydrocarbons are
condensed and recovered in a cooler. The term
hydrocarbon recovery unit is also used to include
any gas plant. HRV
hydrocarbon resaturation a method used to
determine the porosity of a sample such as a core
by a) weighing the sample dry, b) weighing the sample
saturated with a liquid of known density, and c)
weighing the saturated sample submerged in a liquid
of known density
hydrocarbon saturation the percentage of the pore
space that is occupied with crude oil and/or natural
gas. Hydrocarbon plus water saturation will add up
to 100% in a reservoir.
hydrocarbon solvent slug injection an enhanced
oil-recovery method in which a volume or slug of
hydrocarbons (usually propane and/or butane) is
injected into an oil reservoir. The hydrocarbon slug
is miscible (mixes) with the oil in the reservoir and
reduces the oil's viscosity. The hydrocarbon slug is
followed by injecting a slug of gas into the reservoir
to move the oil.
hydrochloric acid an acid (HC1) that is commonly
used in acid jobs, (muratic acid)
hydroclastic clay minerals that disperse into
irregular fragments during a distilled water wettability
test. Hydroclastic is in contrast to hydroturgid,
hydrofissile, nonswelling, and cryptofissile.

hydrocyclones

hydrocyclone a type of liquid-solids centrifugal

device on a drilling rig that is used to remove the
finer well cuttings from the drilling mud after the
shale shaker has remover the larger cuttings.
Hydrocyclones are located on skid-mounted units on
the mud tanks. Because the capacity of the
hydrocyclone is not as great as the shale shaker, several
are used. Two types of hydrocyclones are the desander
and the desilter which are designed to separate
different-sized particles. They are cone-shaped, with
a small hole at the bottom for the underflow discharge
and a large hole at the top for the liquid discharge.
Hydrocyclones commonly vary from 2-12 in. in
nominal size which is the inner diameter of the cone
at the location where the fluid enters. The
hydrocyclone is lined with rubber or plastic, (cone
or separator cone)
hydrodynamic brake a type of brake that uses an
impeller in water to slow or stop rotation. A
hydrodynamic brake is used as an auxiliary brake on
the drawworks of a drilling rig. (hydraulic brake)
hydrodynamic pressure the pressure on flowing
hydrodynamics the motion and action of water
hydrodynamic trap a type of petroleum trap in
which the frictional force of water flowing downdip
balances the buoyancy force of petroleum flowing
updip to stop and trap the petroleum
hydrofissile clay minerals that separate into tabular
flakes during a distilled water wettability test.
Hydrofissile is in contrast to hygroturgid, hydroclastic,
nonswelling, and cryptofissile.
Hydrofrac a method of hydraulically fracturing
reservoir rock in a well to stimulate production.
hydrofracing hydraulic fracturing
hydrogas-lift system an artificial lift system that uses
both hydraulics and gas lift to produce heavy oil from
deep wells. The hydraulics evacuates the heavy oil
from the chamber between two packers and into the
production tubing. Gas lift evacuates power oil from
a power oil string to reduce the bottomhole pressure.
hydrogen the lightest of elements. Hydrogen is a
gas that is sometimes found in natural gases. The ratio
of the isotopes common hydrogen (JH) to deuterium
(2H) is used to determine the maturity and source
of methane. H
hydrogen blistering a type of corrosion that occurs
on low-strength steels. A bump forms where hydrogen
atoms attach to a metal defect.

252

hydrogen embrittlement hydrostatic level

hydrogen embrittlement a form of corrosion on

steel in which free hydrogen ions form on a wet metal
surface as the result of corrosion. Some of the
hydrogen ions enter the steel and reduce the steel's
ductility and cause brittle fractures, (acid brittleness
or hydrogen stress cracking) HE
hydrogen index 1) the number of hydrogen atoms
per unit volume as compared to those in fresh water
at 75 F. The hydrogen index is used for neutron
log response in well logging. 2) the milligrams of
hydrocarbon per gram of total organic carbon in
kerogen (mg HC/g TOC). The hydrogen index is
determined by pyrolysis or Rock-Eval (S2). The
hydrogen index can be used to determine the type
of immature kerogen, and if the type of kerogen is
known, it can determine the maturity of the kerogen.
IH

hydrogen richness the hydrogen content of a

formation
hydrogen stress cracking see hydrogen
embrittlement
hydrogen sulfide a poisonous, corrosive gas with
the chemical formula H2S. Hydrogen sulfide can occur
by itself in crude oil, formation waters, or in natural
gas (sour gas) and has a pungent, rotten-egg smell.
Hydrogen sulfide has a molecular weight of 34.076,
a boiling point of 76.6F, a critical temperature of
212.2F, a specific gravity at 60F of 0.79, and a gross
heat content of 637 Btu/ft3 Most pipelines limit the
hydrogen-sulfide content of natural gas to a maximum
of 0.25 gr/100 ft3 (4 ppm). After the hydrogen sulfide
is removed from sour gas by the alkanolamine process
or iron-sponge sweetening, it is either burned or
reduced to elemental sulfur for sale. Hydrogen sulfide
is an acid gas that, when dissolved in water, can cause
metal corrosion.
hydrology the science of water in the subsurface,
on the surface, and in the atmosphere. An older
definition limits the science to subsurface waters.
hydrolysis the chemical reaction of water with a
salt to form a weak acid and base. The water is split
into H+ and OH"
hydromatic brake or retarder an auxiliary brake
used on the drawworks of a drilling rig. A hydraulic
brake consists of an impeller rotating in a water-filled
housing. The mechanical energy of braking is
transferred to the cooling water.
hydrometer a tube-shaped instrument that is made
of glass with a weighted lower end and a scale printed
on its upper end. A hydrometer is designed to float
upright in a liquid. The height to which the hydrometer
floats depends on the density of the liquid which is
read off the scale. One API oil-gravity hydrometer is
used to measure crude oils from 10-45 API and
another for crude oils from 45-90. A mudwater
hydrometer is used to determine drilling-mud density.
(areometer)
hydrophile a substance that attracts water in contrast
to hydrophobe
hydrophilic the property of a substance that attracts
or is wetted by water in contrast to hydrophobic
hydrophilic-lipophilic balance the relative
attraction of an emulsifier for either water
(hydrophilic) or oil (lipophilic). The hydrophilic-

lipophilic balance determines the type of emulsion

formed and is controlled by the chemical composition
of the emulsifier. HLB
hydrophobe a substance that repulses water in
contrast to hydrophile
hydrophobic the property of a substance that
repulses water or is not wetted by water in contrast
to hydrophile
hydrophone microphone used at sea in seismic
exploration. Hydrophones are towed in an oil-filled
streamer behind a boat and detect pressure differences
in the water caused by subsurface reflections. Most
hydrophones are the piezoelectric type.
hydrophone streamer a plastic tube commonly
containing 96 or up to 240 evenly spaced hydrophone
groups of 20-50 hydrophones in each group for a
marine seismic survey. The hydrophone streamer is
towed behind a boat at a depth of about 20-50 ft
which is controlled by vains. Pressure-sensitive
hydrofoils or birds are evenly spaced along the
streamer to control depth. A water-break detector is
located at the end of the hydrophone streamer nearest
the boat and is used to measure the offset distance
between the hydrophone array and the source array.
The hydrophone streamer contains a depth indicator
and magnetic compass. A hydrophone streamer is
commonly 1.5-3 mi long, 2-3 in. in diameter and is
filled with oil. (streamer)
hydropressure normal hydrostatic pressure in a
reservoir. The normal hydropressure increase
depends on the density of the ground water. The
pressure increase is 45 psi/100 ft for water with a
salinity of 55.4 ppt and 46.5 psi/100 ft for water salinity
of 100 ppt. Hydropressure is in contrast to geopressure
or abnormal high or low pressure, (normal pore
pressure)
hydroscopic the ability to take and retain moisture
hydrosol a colloidal solution made of water
hydrostatic bailer a wireline bailer that is used to
remove sand and debris from the bottom of a well.
The bailer is a 5-ft cylinder that is lowered into the
well under atmospheric pressure. On the bottom of
the well, a shear disk on the bottom of the cylinder
is broken by jarring, and fluids and debris flow into
the bailer. The debris is prevented from flowing back
out the bailer by a check.
hydrostatic equilibrium water with a horizontal
potentiometric surface and no motion. The forces on
the water are balanced.
hydrostatic head the height of a column of water.
The term is often applied to other liquids. The
hydrostatic head of an oil well is the measured height
to which the oil rises in the well under its own
pressure. The hydrostatic head in a well being drilled
is the weight of the column of drilling mud in the
well. Hydrostatic head is commonly reported in
pounds per square inch (lb/in.2) or grams per square
centimeter (g/cm2). The hydrostatic head can be
computed by the formula p = 0.052 dh in which p
is in pounds per square inch, d is in pounds per
U.S. gallon and h is in feet. HH
hydrostatic leyeT the height in a reservoir that a
column of formation water can be supported by the

hydrostatic pressure Hzorhz

hydrostatic pressure of the water at that point in the
aquifer
hydrostatic pressure the pressure exerted by water
at rest at a specific depth in the water. Hydrostatic
pressure is normal fluid pressure encountered in
subsurface rocks due to the weight of overlying waters.
The normal hydrostatic pressure increase depends
on the density of the ground water. The pressure
increase is 45 psi/100 ft for water with a salinity of
554 ppt and 46.5 psi/100 ft for water salinity of 100
ppt. The average increase for the Gulf Coast is 46.5
psi/100 ft. Brines can have up to 52 psi/100 ft pressure
increase. Hydrostatic pressure can be calculated by
multiplying the density of the water in lb/gal times
0.052 times the vertical height of the water column
in feet. HYDRO, HP, PH or ph

hydrostatics the study of fluids at rest and their

forces
hydrostatic shell test a test used to determine the
integrity of a valve. The half-open valve is subjected
to hydrostatic pressure 1V2-2 times the working
pressure of the valve.
hydrostatic test or hydro-test a method used to
find leaks or to determine the tensile strength of a
tubular or vessel. The tubular or vessel is filled with
high-pressure water to test for leaks or breakage at
high pressures. Tubing used in a well is tested with
a hydrostatic test.
hydrostatic test pressure the pressure that a
manufacture uses during a static body test on a body
or shell. The hydrostatic test pressure is a safety margin
above the rated working pressure.
hygroscopic the property of a substance that absorbs
water from a gas

253

hygroturgid a clay mineral that swells in a random

manner during a wettability test with distilled water.
Hydroturgid is in contrast to hydroclastic, hydrofissile,
nonswelling, and cryptofissile.
hyp hypersthene
hyperbolic decline an oil well production decline
that is proportional to a fractional power of the
production rate. When average producing rate is
plotted on a log scale versus cumulative production
on a log scale, it approaches a straight line. The
equation for the decline is Q = Q,, (1 + M)/)~V" in
which Q = production rate, Q, = initial production
rate, N = an empirical number that varies between
0.4 and 0.5, D, = initial decline, and t = time. The
hyperbolic decline curve gives a good fit for a well's
decline curve, but the factor N has to be determined
from a computer analysis of production data from
similar wells.
hypersaline water with a salinity greater than sea
water
hypersthene a grayish, greenish, black, or dark
brown mineral of the pyroxene group that is
composed of (Mg,Fe)SiO3. Hypersthene is common
in igneous rocks and occurs in some sedimentary
rocks. Hyp
hypothetical reserves undiscovered petroleum
deposits that are reasonably expected to exist in a
certain area under the known geological conditions
hysteresis the failure of a material to completely
return to its original state or shape after a force has
been removed. If magnetization is the force, when
the magnetization is removed, the material exhibits
remanent magnetization.
Hz or hz hertz

254

DEL-G

I 1) current 2) invasion 3) injectivity index 4)

resistivity index 5) intensity of magnetization 6)
induction log 7) index 8) inch 9) productivity index
10) investment 11) porosity index
i 1) initial 2) injected 3) invaded zone 4) injection
rate 5) irreducible 6) inner 7) interval 8) slant
IADC International Association of Drilling
Contractors
IADC report a daily record of the drilling operations
that is recorded on International Association of Drilling
Contractors standards by a drilling contractor. The
report includes hourly records of drilling operations,
mud properties, drillstring data, and time on each
operation.
IAGC International Association of Geophysical
Contractors
IAPD International Association of Professional Divers
IBP or i.b.p. initial boiling point
Ibexian a North American epoch of geological time
that occurred about 500-485 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Ordovician period.
IBHP initial bottomhole pressure
IBHPF initial bottomhole pressure flowing
IBHPSI initial bottomhole pressure shut in
Ic 1) compressional-wave index 2) cavitation index

iC 4 I-butane or isobutane
ichnofossil the track, burrow, boring, or trail of an
ancient animal in a sedimentary rock, (trace fossil)
I d clay index
ICP initial casing pressure
ICPF initial casing pressure flowing
ICPSI' initial casing pressure shut-in
ICS customer instrument service
ICT inflatable combination tool
ID 1) inside or inner diameter 2) deep induction
log
i.d. inside diameter
I . D A Industrial Diamond Association of America
IDC intangible drilling and development costs
IDCs expenses that cannot be recovered after drilling
and equipping a well for production. These are costs
in drilling and completing a well which cannot be
salvaged but are necessary and incident to the drilling
and completing of the well for production and are
not leasehold costs. IDCs include labor, fuel, hauling,
rentals, and supplies. These costs receive a very
favorable tax consideration in that they can be
deducted in the year that they occur rather than be
capitalized and depreciated. IDCs are about 70% of
the total cost of an exploratory well and 60% of a
developmental well. A distinction is made in the
federal tax laws between domestic and international
oil companies and integrated and independent
companies, (intangibles, intangible drilling costs, or
intangible drilling and development costs)

ICC or I.C.C. Interstate Commerce Commission

ideal gas a gas that obeys the ideal gas law in contrast
to a real gas. At very low pressure, a real gas is similar
to an ideal gas.

Ice Ages an epoch of time from about 2 m. y. to

10,000 years ago when the world climate was colder
than today and more precipitation in the form of snow
fell. Glaciers of ice covered up to one-third of the
land area of the world, and sea level fell about 300
ft below present level. There were four major cycles
of glaciation separated by warmer periods called
interglacials when sea level was higher than present.
The Ice Ages are part of the Tertiary period.
(Pleistocene)

ideal gas law a formula that relates the temperature,

pressure, volume, and amount of ideal gas. PV = nRT
in which P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number
of moles of gas, R is the gas constant and T is the
temperature in K. The ideal gas law can be used
for low gas pressure, but has to be modified with
the compressibility factor (Z) to compensate for
molecular volume and electrostatic attraction under
high pressures in a real gas. The modified equation
is PV = ZnRT. (general or perfect gas law)

ice bridge a plug formed by ice on top of a shothole

in a cold climate. An ice bridge can prevent gases
from escaping and cause secondary shocks during
the seismic exploration shot.

idiot stick a hand-held auger that is used to make

shot holes for seismic exploration

ice platform an artificial foundation for offshore

drilling in Arctic regions. Water is pumped on ocean
ice and allowed to freeze. The thickness of the ice
is built up until it is strong enough to support the
weight of a drilling rig.
ICF incremental cost per foot
iC, I-pentane or isopentane

idler a pulley or sprocket that is used on belt- or

chain-driven machines to maintain tension
IDNT identity
EEC International Electrochemical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
i eff effective injection rate
IEL 1) induction electrical log 2) induction electrolog
EEL-G induction electric, gamma ray log

IEL-GR
IEL-GR induction electrolog, gamma ray log
IEL-GRN induction electrolog, gamma ray, neutron
log
IERS Institute for Energy Resources Studies
EES induction electrical survey
I-ES induction-electric logging
IEU internal-external upset
IF 1) internal flush 2) impact force
If fracture index
I Ff free fluid index
IFP initial flowing pressure
IFPCW International Federation of Petroleum and
Chemical Workers
EFT interfacial tension
ig intergranular
IGN, Ig, ig, or Ign igneous rock
igneous rock rock formed by cooling a hot, molten
liquid. Two types of igneous rocks are a) extrusive,
which cooled and solidified on the surface of the
earth such as basalt, and b) intrusive, which cooled
and solidified in the subsurface as an intrusion such
as granite. Igneous rocks are common basement rocks
and are generally unproductive for petroleum. IGN,
Ig, ig, or Ign
ignimbrite a volcanic rock formed by ash flows and
nuees ardentes
igniter an electrical device used to fire low
explosives used in sidewall coring and gun perforating
ignition magneto a generator that uses rotating
armatures in a magnetic field formed by permanent
magnets to produce an electric current to an engine's
ignition system, (magneto)
IGLR injection gas/liquid ratio
ignition temperature the minimum temperature
necessary to cause a mixture to burn
ignorant end the heavy end of a tool such as a
wrench
IGOR injection gas/oil ratio
I-GR induction, gamma ray log
IGRF International Geomagnetic Reference Field
IGS Institute of Geological Sciences
IGSN71 a worldwide system of absolute bases
IGT induced gamma ray tool
IH initial hydrostatic
IH hydrogen index
IHP 1) initial hydrostatic pressure 2) indicated
horsepower
I.H.P. indicated horsepower
IHR improved hydrocarbon recovery
IIR iron indicator ratio
If integral joint
IL induction log
II ilmenite
ELD induction log deep (investigation)
ELd deep induction curve
IL-GR induction log, gamma ray log

immature

255

illegal oil or gas oil or gas that was produced in

excess of that allowed a government regulatory agency.
(hot oil)
IUinoisan or Illinoian an epoch of geological time
that is part of the Pleistocene period. It is the third
glacial stage and is the equivalent to the Riss in Europe.
illite a type of clay mineral that is similar to micas
and is formed by layered silicates of aluminum, iron,
and magnesium with potassium in the interlayer sites
[K0.8(Al1.6Fe0.2Mg0.2)(Si3.4Al0.6X),o(OH)2]. Illite has a
density of 2.78 gm/cm s and a cell dimension of 10.10
A. Illite forms from the alteration of micas, feldspars,
and other clay minerals and is common in marine
sediments. Illite will swell in fresh water causing it
to break off from mineral grains and clog pore throats.
Swelling can be prevented by injecting salt water into
the formation. Under a scanning electron microscope,
illites form a honeycomb or fibrous structure that
protrudes into pores and decreases effective porosity.
Illite is often found associated with smectite. Problems
with illite are a) high microporosity and b) some
plates break off and migrate easily. Illite can be
removed with HC1/HF acid. The illite clay-mineral
family is composed entirely of the illite species.
ILM induction log medium (investigation)
ILn, medium induction curve
ilmenite an opaque, iron-black mineral composed
of FeTiO3. Ilmenite has a specific gravity of 4.67 and
is used as weighting material to increase the density
of cement slurry and drilling mud. //
DL-N induction log, neutron log
IM medium induction log
im intermatrix
image a pictorial representation of the data acquired
by a remote sensing system
image well a simulated well used as a boundary in
reservoir modeling, (ghost well)
imaging see migration
IMBD or imbd imbedded
imbibe to absorb
imbibition 1) the absorption of a fluid into a porous
rock by capillary attraction. Imbibition is the
displacement of a nonwetting fluid with a wetting
fluid in a rock. 2) the flow of a fluid such as water
around a relatively impermeable portion of the
reservoir rock leaving oil behind, (bypassing)

imbibition relative permeability the

displacement of crude oil in a reservoir by increasing
the wetting-phase saturation. Imbibition relative
permeability is in contrast to drainage relative
permeability that increases the nonwetting phase
saturation.
I.M.M. Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
immature 1) a sedimentary rock that was rapidly
eroded and deposited. Immature sedimentary rocks
are poorly sorted, possibly including rock fragments;
contain mineral grains that do not survive
transportation over long distances, such as feldspars
and the ferromagnesium minerals; and have angular
grains. Graywacke and arkose sandstones are
immature. 2) a stage in the maturation of a source
rock in which the kerogen has not generated

256

immature oil

improved-recovery technique

significant amounts of petroleum. An immature oil

source rock has a vitrinite reflectance below 0.5%, a
thermal alteration index below 2.2, and a spore-color
index of less than 3-5. An immature gas-prone source
rock has a vitrinite reflectance value of less than 0.7%
and a thermal alteration index of less than 2.5.
immature oil crude oil which has been generated
at relatively low temperatures in the oil window.
Immature oil is characterized by high molecular
weights, high asphaltic content, low "API and a high
sulfur content. Immature oil is in contrast to mature
oil.
IMMED or immed immediately
immiscible fluids that are not soluble in one
another. Immiscible fluids coexist as separate phases.
immiscible displacement the displacement of oil
in a reservoir by gas or water with an interface
occurring between the driving fluid and the oil. There
is no mixing of the fluids.
immoble water saturation the minimum water
saturation (,) in a reservoir at which the water will
flow. Immoble water saturation is about 30%.
IMP or imp impression
Imp 1) imperial 2) impression
impact wrench a pneumatic wrench
impedance the resistance of a material to the flow
of an alternating electrical current. Impedance is a)
the ratio of voltage to current in an electric circuit
and b) the ratio of electric field intensity to magnetic
field intensity in an electromagnetic field. Electrical
impedance is measured in ohms. Acoustic impedance
is sound velocity times density.
impeller a rotating wheel or blade mounted on a
shaft. Impellers are used to either agitate or mix a
fluid, to turn the shaft as a fluid flows past them, or
to drive a fluid in a pump.
impenetrable substance 1) a subsurface rock layer
that cannot be drilled with available equipment and/
or reasonable costs 2) basement rock. The encounter
of an impenetrable substance by a driller could mean
that the driller can abandon the well and, depending
on the drilling contract, drill a substitute well. In a
farmout agreement, a substitute well might satisfy the
requirements of the earning well that encountered
an impenetrable substance.
Imperial gallon a unit of liquid volume in England
and Canada. An Imperial gallon is the space occupied
by 10 lbs of distilled water. An Imperial gallon is
equal to about 1.201 gal in the United States. Imp
gal
Imperial System of units a system of measurements
used in the United States, United Kingdom, and the
Middle East. The Imperial System unit for mass is
pounds, for length is feet, and for time is seconds.
impermeable rock that does not allow fluids to
readily flow through it. (aquitard)
imperv impervious
impervious a substance that cannot be penetrated.
imperv
impervious sheathed cable an insulated conductor
or cable that has a metallic or nonmetallic covering
to protect the cable from moisture and gases

IMPES implicit pressure, explicit saturation

Imp gal Imperial gallon
implied covenants obligations of the lessee that the
courts have implied from the lease. Implied covenants
include: a) to reasonably develop the lease, b) to
conduct drilling and production operations with due
care, c) to produce and market the petroleum, and
d) to protect the lease from drainage by surrounding
leaseholds. Implied covenants are in contrast to
expressed covenants.
implied easements the undeclared right of the
lessee to make geophysical tests on the lease such
as seismic and to enter and leave the lease during
the course of drilling and production operations
implosion collapse into a low-pressure area.
Implosion is the opposite to explosion.
IMPO implosive treatment
impressed-current anode the steel, titanium, or
magnetite anode to which positive electricity is applied
in the impressed-current method of cathodic
protection
impressed-current protection a method that
retards electrochemical corrosion on large, marine,
and buried structures such as offshore platforms and
pipelines. A low-voltage direct current of 25-60 v and
several hundred amperes is generated between the
structure and anodes that are usually permanent
fittings. Impressed-current protection is similar in
principle to cathodic protection but does not rely
on sacrificial anodes, (anodic protection)

impression blocks

impression block, box, or tool a fishing tool that

is run on a wireline or pipe. The impression block
is landed on top of the fish with a sharp, light force.
The bottom part of the impression block is filled with
several inches of lead. Some have a small port through
the lead for circulating, whereas others have ports
above the lead for circulating. The negative impression
of the fish on the impression block can be changed
to a positive impression using modeling clay. The
impression is used to choose the right fishing tool
to remove the fish.
impression packer a downhole device that is used
to make a surface impression of the rocks on the
borehole wall. The impression packer is used to
identify and study fractures in reservoir rock along
the wellbore.
improved-recovery technique engineering
methods that are used to supplement the natural
reservoir drive of an oil reservoir and increase its

impsonite
ultimate production. Improved recovery techniques
range from pressure maintenance to enhanced oil
recovery.
impsonite a solidified bitumen. Impsonite is a
regional term for an asphalt found in Oklahoma.
impulse blaster a device used to activate an
electrical blasting cap when it detects a shock wave.
An impulse blaster is used in seismic exploration to
give a directional charge.
impulse factor a number that is used in polished
rod load calculations. The impulse factor is equal to
57V2
1 + a in which a is equal to -. g n n . 5" is equal to
the polished rod stroke length and N is equal to the
pumping speed.
imput safety valve a safety shut-in valve that is used
in an injection well. The imput safety valve has a check
valve that allows only downward fluid flow. ISV
IMW initial mud weight
IN, In, or in. inch
in a bind to be in trouble
inarticulate brachiopod a marine invertebrate with
two shells (bivalve) that are not the same in size or
shape. This distinguishes the brachiopods from the
clams or pelecypods that have two similar shells. The
inarticulate brachiopods are more primitive and have
their shells held together with hingement rather than
the teeth and sockets found on the articulate
brachiopods. Inarticulate brachiopods have existed
from the Lower Cambrian epoch to the present.
inbalance a situation in which the cumulative gas
take from a well is not equal to the amount entitled
to each party by their percentage of ownership. There
is an overage and underage inbalance.
inbd interbedded
incd incandescent
incident angle the angle which something such as
seismic energy is to perpendicular on a reflecting
surface such as a subsurface rock layer
incident energy the electromagnetic radiation that
impinges on a surface
incin incinerator
incineration the controlled burning of solid, liquid
or gas wastes
incinerator a device designed and manufactured to
burn wastes under controlled conditions, incin
incised a river channel that has been rejuvenated
and has eroded deeper
INCL 1) include 2) included 3) inclusions
Incl or incl inclusion
incl include
inclination 1) the angle between a crooked or
deviated hole and vertical that is measured during a
deviation survey (angle of deviation, deflection, drift,
drift angle, hole deviation, or inclination or deviation
angle) 2) the dip of a plane in rocks such as a bedding
surface or fault plane. The inclination is measured
from horizontal.
inclination drilling directional drilling

in default

257

inclination survey a record of how much a well

deviates from vertical at various depths in the well.
The survey is made with a drift indicator and does
not measure azimuth, (drift log or survey)
inclined fold a fold in sedimentary rocks in which
the axial plane dips between 10 and 80. An inclined
fold is in contrast to a upright or recumbent fold.
inclinometer 1) an instrument that is used to
determine how much a wellbore deviates from vertical
at various depths in the well. One type, an acid-bottle
inclinometer, uses hydroflouric acid to etch the
deviation of the well on a glass bottle. Another type
uses a plumb bob or mechanical pendulum in a barrel
and punches a hole with a stylus into a paper disk
that is graduated with 1 circles. The inclinometer is
activated by a timing device and can make two punches.
The time is set and the instrument is dropped from
the surface onto a baffle plate located on top of the
drill bit. The disc moves up to the pendulum stylus.
An inclination survey is usually made every 500 ft or
just before a bit change. Inclinometer is a trade name.
(drift indicator) 2) a pendulum or gyroscopic device
used on a ship to measure the pitch and roll of the
ship
incls inclusions
inclusion a foreign particle (gas, liquid, or solid)
trapped in a mineral grain or other substance such
as metal. INCL, Incl or incl
inclusive clause cover-all clause
incompetent a type of folding in rocks in which
the layers flow in response to the folding and become
thick and thin
incompetent formation a rock layer that will thick
or thin under stress such as compressive folding.
Shales are often incompetent.
incomplete fusion or penetration a weld that
does not cover the entire weld joint or joint thickness
incompressibility modulus see bulk modulus
INCR or incr 1) increase 2) increasing 3) increased
increased density a drilling and spacing unit on
which the number of wells allowed by a government
regulatory agency has been increased. Extra wells do
not have to be drilled to hold the lease. Increased
density is in contrast to decreased spacing that
decreases the size of the drilling and spacing unit
and requires more wells to be drilled to hold the
lease.
incremental tertiary oil crude oil that could not
have been produced without a tertiary recovery project
incremental ultimate recovery the difference
between the amount of oil that can be recovered by
economically practical, enhanced oil-recovery
methods and the amount that can be recovered by
conventional recovery processes
incrustations deposits such as wax or scale
collecting on the inside surfaces of tanks, meters, and
tubulars
Ind or ind induction
ind indurated
in default the condition of breach of provision or
condition in a contract

258

indenometer inductance

indenometer a record disk that was used along with

a Halliburton line to determine the deviation of a
well
indentation the effect of a diamond using a Knoop
indenter and the Natural Bureau of Standards test
indented drill collar a drill collar with indentations
on one side to make an eccentrically-weighed drill
collar, (woodpecker drill collar)
independent or independent producer a
company in the petroleum business that is not one
of the major companies. There are more detailed
qualifications for legal and tax considerations. These
include a) a domestic company that is not dependent
on foreign oil, b) a company that explores, drills,
and/or produces petroleum but does not engage in
transportation, refining, or marketing of the petroleum
either directly or through an affiliate (unintegrated
company), or c) a company that has essentially the
same management and financial sources. An
independent producer is in contrast to an integrated
producer. The original definition was any oil company
outside the Standard Oil group.
independent marketer a company or person
engaged in the purchase of natural gas as a trader
for resale to other purchasers, (natural gas trader)
independent wire-rope center a core strand of
wire with a spiral winding opposite the winding on
the outer strands. I.W.R.C.
index of refraction the ratio of the sine of the angle
of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
measured normal to the surface of a substance. The
index of refraction of crude oil is measured on an
Abbe refractometer and ranges from 1.39 to 1.49. The
index of refraction of the oil is dependent on the
density of the oil with heavier oils having the higher
indices. The index of refraction of small oil samples
from cutting or cores is used to determine the
character of the oil. (refractive index) n
index of tortional effectiveness the average net
torque divided by the peak net torque. The index of
tortional effectiveness is expressed as a percentage
and used as a measure of the ability of a beam pumping
unit to smooth out the crankcase torque load. ITE
Ind-G induction, gamma ray log
indicated additional reserves future oil and gas
production in a known reservoir that can be produced
by future improved-recovery techniques. The
indicated additional reserves are reserves beyond what
the reservoir is expected to produce under present
facilities, (potential reserves)
indicated horsepower the theoretical power
developed in the cylinders of an engine. Indicated
horsepower is more than the brake horsepower that
does not include loss of power due to friction. I.H.P.
orlHP
indicated volume the volume of a fluid measured
through a specific meter. Indicated volume must be
multiplied by the meter factor to obtain an accurate
measure.
indicator a substance that changes color at a specific
chemical point such as at a certain pH level or in
contact with water. Indicators are commonly used in
acid-base titrations to determine the end point.

indicator paste a substance that is put on a gauge

line or pole to indicate the level of a fluid in a tank.
The paste can either a) change color on contact with
gasoline or b) change color on contact with water.
Kolor Kut is a commercial product that is an indicator
paste.
indigenous microorganisms the microorganisms
such as bacteria that are naturally present in a
petroleum reservoir
indirect-fired or heated vessel a tank that uses
the heat of a water bath warmed by a flame in a fire
tube to transfer heat to another fluid. The heat source
is external and is usually produced natural gas. The
heater can be used to heat and break an emulsion.
An indirect-fired vessel is in contrast to a direct-fired
or heated vessel.
indirect index an alphabetical list of grantees of
oil and gas leases. It is located in the county or parish
courthouse and is used in a lease check. An indirect
index is in contrast to a direct or grantor index.
individual loss a provision in a joint operating
agreement in which the party that contributed the
land bears the entire loss of any problem with the
title of that land. There will be a revised acreage
adjustment to the joint operating agreement. An
individual loss is in contrast to a joint loss.
indst indistinct
induced flow oil flow in a well that was initiated1
by engineering methods such as swabbing the well
or gas injection
induced polarization an exploration method that
uses either current pulse (time-domain) or lowfrequency variations of earth impedance (frequencydomain) to cause a voltage in the earth's surface. An
electric conductor such as a metallic ore body that
is immersed in an ionic conductor such as saltwater
will build up electronic charges at the contact and
act as a capacitor. The decay of voltage is recorded
after the termination of the forces which is a measure
of the metallic mineral concentration. Induced
polarization has been used most successfully in
locating metallic sulfide deposits such as lead-zinc
in carbonate rocks. IP or overvoltage
induced porosity voids (pores) in the rock formed
after the rock was deposited and buried in the
subsurface. Solution and fracture pores are examples
of induced porosity. Induced porosity is in contrast
to primary porosity, (intermediate or secondary
porosity)
induced spectral gamma ray log an activation-type
of log that bombards the formations in the well with
neutrons and records the energy levels of the induced
gamma rays to identify the mineral content of the
matrix. A quantitative estimate of the mineral content
can also be made. The neutron source is either a
radioactive source such as americium, californium,
plutonium, or radium or a neutron generator. An
induced spectral gamma ray log is in contrast to a
spectral or natural gamma ray log.
inductance the property of an electric circuit in
which a varying electrical current produces a varying
magnetic field that induces voltages. Inductance is
measured in henrys. L

induction in fill, infill, or infilling well

induction 1) electromagnetic induction is the
generation of an electric current in a conductor
exposed to a changing magnetic field or a conductor
moving through a magnetic field 2) magnetic induction
is the magnetic flux density or magnetic field and is
also the process of magnetizing a substance by
applying a magnetic field. Ind or ind
Induction-Electrolog a combination induction
and short normal or laterolog

induction log

induction log or induction-electric log a type

of electric log that was developed in the mid-1970s
for wells drilled with nonconductive fluids such as
oil-base mud. The induction tool forms electrical
currents called ground loops in the formations
adjacent to the wellbore. The log is recorded as either
conductivity and/or its inverse, resistivity. The
induction electric log has a depth of investigation of
5-20 ft and a resolution of 3-5 ft. The induction log
is used today in wells drilled with fresh water-base
and oil-base muds and air to determine Rt and R,
along with spontaneous potential (SP). A dual
induction laterolog has a deep investigation (ILd) and
a medium induction curve (ILm) curve. IEL, IL or I
induction tool or sonde a well-logging tool that
creates circular electrical currents that are vertically
concentric and extend out into the formation adjacent
to the wellbore. The induction tool uses a conductor
coil to create a high-frequency magnetic field when
a 20-kHz electric current is passed through it. The
magnetic field causes electric currents called ground
loops to form in the surrounding formation. The
strength of the ground loops are proportional to the
conductivity of the formation. The ground loops set
up a secondary magnetic field that is measured on a
receiver coil in the tool. Induction tools can be focused
to minimize borehole and invaded zone effects. The
number of transmitter and receiver coils and their
spacing determines the depth of investigation,
borehole response, and bed resolution.
inductor a coil of wire, usually wrapped around an
iron core, that can store energy in the form of a
magnetic field. When an electric current is passed
through the wire, a magnetic field forms. When the

259

electric current is stopped, the magnetic field

collapses, causing a brief electric current to flow in
the opposite direction of the original current.
Inductance is the strength of the magnetic field
generated by a current flowing through the wire and
is measured in henrys.
indur indurated
indurated a rock made hard by heat, pressure, and
natural cementation, indur or ind
inelastic collision a collision in which the kinetic
energy of the colliding particles is not the same before
as after the collision, in contrast to an elastic collision
inelastic scattering a type of scattering in which a
neutron strikes the nucleus of an atom and imparts
more kinetic energy to the nucleus that would be
expected in a simple elastic collision. The nucleus is
transformed into an excited state and returns to ground
state by emitting one or more gamma rays. The
scattered neutron bounces off the nucleus with
significantly less energy. Inelastic scattering is in
contrast to elastic scattering.
inert fraction the part of the drilling mud, such as
well cuttings and weighing materials, that does not
add to the mud gel strength. The inert fraction is in
contrast to the colloidal fraction.
inert gas a gas that will not chemically react with
other substances. Helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon, and radon are inert gases.
inert gas injection an enhanced oil-recovery
technique in which an inert gas such as carbon dioxide
or nitrogen is injected into a depleted oil well. Lighter
hydrocarbons from the oil migrate to the carbon
dioxide to form a miscible front which is soluble
with the oil. This reduces the capillary pressure of
the oil that holds the oil in the pores and makes it
more fluid. Nitrogen is not miscible with oil. The
inert gas pushes the oil toward producing wells.
inertia brake a device that slows rotation by using
a heavy, rotating mass
inertial navigation navigation that uses an inertial
platform with two pendulums at right angles. The
platform is held level by three fast-opening gyroscopes
at right angles.
inertinite a kerogen maceral that is composed of
reworked organic matter. Inertinite is highly oxidized,
inert, and has very little potential to generate
petroleum.
inert solids particles in drilling mud that are
chemically inactive. The inerts include well cuttings,
weighting, and lost circulation materials. Inert solids
are in contrast to the reactive fraction that includes
the clay minerals, such as bentonite and attapulgite.
infauna animals living in the sediments
inferential meter a meter that infers gas volume
by measuring differential pressure and flow rate.
Orifice, turbine, and mass flowmeters are inferential
meters in contrast to positive displacement meters.
INF-G inflammable gas
in fill, infill, or infilling well a well drilled
between producing wells to increase production and
possibly ultimate recovery from the reservoir. An in
fill well is not necessary to hold the lease. IW

260

to fill or infill drilling initial gel strength

in fill or infill drilling increased-density drilling

between producing wells in a field in order to increase
production from a field
infiltrating water water that flows into an oil
reservoir formation as oil and/or gas production
reduces pressure in the reservoir
infiltration the flow of a fluid through a porous and
permeable substance. The term is commonly applied
to water flowing down through soil.
infinite-acting decline the natural production
decline due to the expansion of gas, oil, and water
in a well's drainage region that has a continuously
expanding radius. Infinite-acting decline is in contrast
to depletion decline, (transient decline)
infinite-acting regime a stage in a producing well
that occurs just after the well is put on production,
and the well has sensed no physical or artificial
boundaries in the reservoir.
infinite-conductivity fracture a reservoir fracture
in which the pressure drop is zero during production
Inf. L inflammable liquid
inflammable material that cannot burn
inflatable combination tool a downhole tool used
in a low-flow rate well that includes a a) inflatable
packer flowmeter, b) vibrating densimeter, and c)
capacitive water cut-meter. ICT
inflatable packer flowmeter a packer and spinnertype velocimeter that is used to record the fluid velocity
profile of producing and injector wells. The packer
is inflated at various points in the well to cause the
fluids to flow through the metering section.
inflexion line a line joining all points of zero
curvature on a fold in sedimentary rocks
inflow performance relationship the relationship
in a well between flowing bottomhole pressure and
gross liquid-production rate. IPR
inflow performance test a record of a well's
flowing bottomhole pressure at a stabilized production
rate. Inflow performance is an empirical relationship
that changes with the life of a well. The inflowperformance test uses the same data as a productivity
index test but is a better description of the well's
inflow capability.
inflow test a method used to test the seal after
cementing a liner in a well. A bit and casing scrapers
are used to clean the cement out of the liner after
the cement job. A tool similar to a hook-wall drillstem
test tool uses slips and hydraulic hold-downs to engage
the casing wall and lock the tool when pressure is
applied. The tool is run on a drillstring to just above
the top of the liner and seated. A circulating valve
and the top of the drillstem is opened to see if the
well will flow, indicating leaks.
INFO or info information
information console a mounted display of drilling
gauges, indicators, and counters on the drilling floor.
The information console shows the driller, hook
weight, weight on the drill bit, rotations per minute
of the drillstring, mud pump speed and pressure,
engine speed, and other important parameters.
information test a one-point test on a gas well that
slowly reaches stabilization. The well is allowed to

go from shut-in to flow against a constant pressure,

such as that provided by a pipeline. Producing
pressures, temperatures, and flow rates are measured
at specific times.
infrared the magnetic spectrum that has wavelengths
greater than those of visible light red (7000 A) and
less than micro and radio waves (10~3 m). Reflected
infrared radiation light in wavelengths of 0.7 to 1.1 m
is recorded by Landsat for remote sensing. Thermal
mapping to determine temperatures uses longer
infrared wavelengths. IR
Inf. S inflammable solid
INGAA Independent Natural Gas Association of
America
ingr intergranular
in Hg inches of mercury
INHIB or inhib inhibitor
inhibit to stop
inhibited acid acid that contains a chemical additive
that is designed to either retard the action of the
acid on steel for 10-12 hours or are surfactants that
coat and protect the equipment during an acid job
inhibited drilling fluid a drilling mud with a large
amount of dissolved salts and low filtration
characteristics that is used to minimize formation clay
hydration and hole sloughing. The four types of
inhibited mud are lime, gyp, seawater, and saturated
seawater muds. Lime mud is the most common and
uses calcium hydroxide to reduce the amount of water
attached to the formation clay. Some inhibitors added
to the drilling fluid include chrome lignite, chrome
lignosulfonates, sodium chloride, sodium silicate, and
calcium sulfate. Inhibited mud makes electric logging
difficult, and low mud weights are hard to obtain.
inhibitor a chemical added to retard or prevent a
chemical action such as corrosion. Inhibitors are
commonly used to prevent strong acids from
corroding equipment in a well when they are first
pumped down the well during an acid job. Inhibitors
can also be used to slow the setting time for cement.
Filming amines, chromates, and lime are used in
drilling mud as inhibitors to prevent corrosion by
acid gases, oxygen, and salt. Salt or calcium sulfate
is added to drilling mud so that the filtrate will prevent
hydration of formation clays. Methanol is used as a
hydrate inhibitor. INHIB or inhib
INIT or init initial
initial development period the stage in the history
of a field that occurs after the discovery well is drilled
and before the flush production period. The initial
development period includes the time in which the
step-out wells are drilled to define the limits of the
field and the development wells are drilled to produce
the petroleum.
initial exploration-well covenant an implied
obligation in a lease that requires the lessee to drill
an initial exploratory well on the lease within a
reasonable time and to continue drilling until the
well is evaluated
initial gel strength the shear stress that is required
to permanently deform a colloidal suspension such
as a drilling mud after it has been at rest for 10 seconds.
Initial gel strength is measured with a direct-reading

Initial potential in-kind balancing

261

'SEPARATOR

injection wells

viscometer and is reported in lbf/100 sq ft. A 10-minute

gel strength is also usually measured.
initial potential the amount that a well is capable
of producing during the first 24 hours of production.
(initial production) IP
initial producing gas/oil ratio the original
producing gas/oil ratio when the well was first brought
on stream
initial production 1) the first 24 hours of
production from a well 2) the amount that a well is
capable of producing during the first 24 hours of
production, (initialpotential) IP
initial reservoir pressure the original or virgin
reservoir pressure before production, discovery

enhanced oil recovery. Some patterns are regular four

spot, skewed four spot, five spot, seven spot, inverted
seven spot, direct line drive, staggered line drive, and
peripheral.
injection profile the vertical distribution of flow
from a wellbore into a reservoir.
injection well a well used to pump fluid into the
subsurface in order to either a) dispose of the fluid
such as in a saltwater injection well, b) maintain
subsurface reservoir pressure (pressure maintenance
or cycling), or c) increase subsurface reservoir
pressure (waterflood or enhanced oil recovery), (input
well) INJ or IW

pressure

initial set the time at which a cement slurry sets

up and is no longer pumpable
initial solution gas/oil ratio the sum of incremental
gas volumes that are separated from produced crude
oil by flashing processes during treating per unit
volume of oil when the well was first brought onstream. The initial solution gas/oil ratio is the total
gas originally in solution in the reservoir per unit
volume of oil. The ratio is usually expressed in SCF/
bbl of residual oil at 60 F. (total gas/oil ratio)
initial well the well that is required to be drilled
under an operating agreement
initiator a chemical used to start a chemical reaction.
In contrast to a catalyst, the initiator is consumed and
changed by the reaction.
inner tube adapter an adapter used to change EXT
and AXT core barrels to EXK and AXK core barrels
inner tube shoe the replaceable fitting that attaches
to the lower end of the inner core barrel
1 ^ 1 ) injection well 2) inject 3) injected 4) injecting
5) injection
in) 1) injection 2) injector
DtJ-A air injection well
injected gas gas such as dry produced gas that has
been injected into an injection well for pressure
maintenance, or carbon dioxide or nitrogen injected
for enhanced oil recovery
injection log a downhole survey to determine the
amount of fluid that can be injected at various depths
to make an injection profile. An injection log is used
to evaluate an injection well and to locate leaks and
holidays.
injection pattern the plan or aerial view of injection
and producing wells used in waterflooding and

injection well

injectivity the relative ease in which a fluid is injected

into a permeable rock
TN$-G gas injection well
injector the apparatus used to push coiled tubing
through the stripper and into a well. The injector
consists of two endless chains with small gripper
blocks that are held against the coiled tubing with
three hydraulic skate rams. The chain is driven by a
hydraulic motor with a typical speed of 60-100 ft/
min. The stripper consists of two half-cylinders of
urethane.
Inj Pr injection pressure
injection
j t o n rate
ate
EtySW saltwater injection well
D>{f-W water injection well
in-kind balancing a method in which an
underproduced party in a gas well can be compensated
for underage in a gas balancing agreement by taking
more than that party's share of gas at a future date.
Another method is cash balancing, (volumetric
balancing)

262

inland barge inside blowout preventer

inland barge a barge used in shallow sheltered

water, marshes, and swamps as a platform for a drilling
rig. An inland barge must be towed to the drillsite.
in-lb inch-pounds
inlet compressor the compressor that starts gas
flowing in a pipeline. An inlet compressor is in contrast
to the intermediate compressor stations on the
pipeline.
inlet diverter a device used to break the momentum
of fluids flowing into a separator to initiate the
separation of liquid and gas. Two types of inlet
diverters are a) deflector baffle that can be a spherical
disk, flat plate, cone, or other object, and b) cyclone
inlet that uses centrifugal force.
inlet guide vanes the first row of stationary blades
on an axial-flow compressor
inlet manifold the pipe system that goes from the
air filter to the cylinders of an engine
inlet pump station the pumping facility that starts
the oil flowing through an oil pipeline
inlier an area of older rocks surrounded by rocks
of younger age. An inlier is in contrast to an outlier.
in-line along a survey line. An in-line geophone array
has the geophones arranged on the seismic line.
in-line offset an arrangement in seismic exploration
in which the shotpoint is in line with the spread or
line of geophones, but is separated from the end of
the line by an appreciable distance
innage the height of a liquid, such as crude oil, in
a storage tank measured from the strike plate on the
bottom of the tank to the liquid surface. Innage is in
contrast to outage.
innage bob a weight used on the end of a dip or
gauge tape
innage gauge a method used to determine the
amount of oil in a tank by the height of oil in the
tank. The height of the oil filling the tank is measured
from the bottom of the tank (strike plate) to the surface
of the oil. Innage gauge is the most common method
used to measure oil and is in contrast to outage gauge.
inner conductor the deepest and last length (string)
of casing that is run down to or through the producing
zone. The casing adjacent to the producing zone can
be perforated or shot with holes to complete the well.
Inner conductor has the smallest diameter, ranging
from 23/8 to 95/a in. and typically is 5V2 or 7*/s in., and
is the longest string of casing in the well. Inner
conductor protects the hole, isolates formation fluids,
prevents fluid migration, and protects the downhole
equipment, (capital, flow, long, oil, pay or production
string, or production casing)
innovator's royalty an overriding royalty payment
on production made by a company to a person for
helping to obtain a concession for that company from
a foreign country. Innovator's royalty is called a fixer's
royalty in the United Kingdom.
Inoc inoceramus
inorganic a chemical compound that is neither plant
nor animal in origin. Except for carbonates, cyanides,
and cyanates, inorganics do not have carbon as a
principle component.

INPE 1) installing pumping equipment 2) installed

pumping equipment
input the data (either numbers or character strings)
that are put by a keyboard or disk drive into a computer
for processing. Input is in contrast to output.
input gas gas that is compressed and injected into
a well for pressure maintenance or gas lift
input shaft the shaft on a drawworks that is driven
by a compounding transmission or an electric motor
on a drilling rig
input well see injection well
ins insolation
in/s or in/sec inches per second
insert the conical, spherical, or chisel-shaped pellet
of tungsten carbide that is cold-pressed into a hole
drilled in the face of a steel cone on an insert or
button roller-cone bit. The insert does the crushing
and chipping of the rock on the bottom of the well.
Chisel-shaped inserts are used in softer rocks, whereas
the spherical inserts are used in harder rocks, (button)

insert bit

insert bit a type of roller-cone bit with tungsten

carbide buttons or inserts on the cone faces. The insert
type of bit is commonly used in drilling hard rocks
and in coring. The insert bit crushes the rock by
compression and produces relatively fine cuttings
compared to those produced by a steel tooth or milledteeth roller-cone bit. (button bit)
insert pump or insert sucker-rod pump a type
of sucker-rod pump that is run and pulled on a rod
string. It is relatively small with the barrel on the
insert pump consists of a barrel, plunger, traveling
valve, and standing valve that is run in the well as a
complete unit, as compared to the tubing pump. The
pump is held in place by seating cups, a seating housing
or hold-down anchors. The insert pump is the most
common type used and is relatively easy to service.
It does not have the volume capacity of tubing and
casing sucker-rod pumps. Types of insert pumps
include a) a stationary insert pump with a stationary
barrel and moving plunger with a top anchor or a
bottom anchor and b) an inverted or traveling pump
with a traveling barrel and a stationary plunger
assembly with a bottom anchor. An insert pump is
in contrast to a tubing or casing pump, (rod or rod
insert pump)
inside blowout preventer a valve that is installed
on the bottom of the kelly. The inside blowout

inside BOP drill integrated circuit

preventer is similar to and is used as a backup to
the safety shutoff valve that is located above the kelly.
The inside blowout preventer, however, has an outer
diameter that is the same or nearly the same size as
the tool joint, (internal blowout preventer)
inside BOP drill a test supervised by the tool pusher
on a drilling rig that simulates a blowout to train
the driller and crew and to test the equipment. The
float is raised in the mud tanks without notifying the
driller. The time that the driller takes to notice this,
close that blowout-preventer stack, and install the
inside preventer is recorded. An acceptable time is
less than IV2 minutes. The test is usually run during
a trip when the bit is in the casing.
inside cutter a fishing tool with mechanical knives
that is lowered on a fishing string into a pipe in a
well and rotated to cut the pipe from the inside. An
inside cutter is in contrast to an external cutter.
(internal cutter)
in situ in place where it was originally formed. Insitu sediments are sediments that are deposited where
they were formed such as reef rock. In situ is often
italicized, (autochthonous)
in-situ combustion a method of enhanced oil
recovery in which the subsurface oil in the reservoir
is burned. The burning subsurface oil breaks down
into coke and lighter oil. As the coke burns in a burning
front, the heat reduces the viscosity of the oil ahead
of it, and the heated gases formed by the combustion
drive the oil ahead of it toward producing wells. Some
of the combustion gases dissolve in the oil further
reducing the viscosity of the oil. Large volumes of
air must be injected into the reservoir in order to
maintain the subsurface combustion. Air injection is
a major expense of in-situ combustion. The air is
heated by an electric heater or gas burner at the sand
face and injected at 400-l,200 F to initiate the fire.
The zones of in-situ combustion include a) burned
region, b) burned front, c) coke, d) cracked
hydrocarbons, e) hot water, f) light hydrocarbons,
and g) oil bank. The burning front moves about 0.251 ft/day. Forward combustion occurs when the burning
front moves from the injection well towards the
producing well. Reverse combustion occurs when the
burning front moves from the producing well toward
the injection well. Water can be injected along with
air. The water is flashed to steam and reduces the
volume of air needed to be injected, (fire flood)
insl insoluble
insp inspected
inspissation the near-surface drying up of crude oil
tost install
instantaneous or instantaneous total gas/oil
ratio the number of standard cubic feet of natural
gas produced at the surface of a well per stock tank
barrel of oil at a specific time. The gas includes both
free gas and solution gas. The instant aneous total
gas/oil ratio is usually reported in SCF/St 13 or SCM/
STCM. (producing gas/oil ratio)
INSTR or instr instrument
instrument 1) a legal document such as a contract
or deed 2) a tool or implement. INSTR or instr
instrument air dried, cleaned, and compressed air
that is used to operate pneumatic equipment

263

instrument man the person who operates and

makes surveying measurements on a plane table and
alidade
insul insulate
insular an isolated globule of a nonwetting fluid such
as oil in a pore
insular saturation a type of saturation in which the
nonwetting phase occurs as isolated globules in the
continuous wetting phase. Insular saturation is in
contrast to funicular saturation, (globular saturation)
insulating flange a plastic flange that will not pass
an electric current. Insulating flanges are used in
cathodic-protection systems.
insulator a material such as crude oil through which
an electrical current cannot flow. An insulator is in
contrast to a conductor.
insurance cheater a safety belt worn by the
derrickman on a drilling rig
INT or int 1) interest 2) interval
int intrinsic
INTAC intensified acid
intake flame arrestor a device consisting of
corrugated aluminum cells. The intake flame arrestor
is used on the air intake of a firetube to prevent the
fire from reaching the outside.
intangible assets the money value of assets that
cannot be evaluated by physical inspection. These
assets cannot be replaced, will lose value when
produced, and are arbitrary. Intangible assets include
all minerals such as oil and gas and are in contrast
to tangible assets.
intangibles, intangible drilling costs, or
intangible drilling and development
costs expenses that cannot be recovered after drilling
and equipping a well for production. These are costs
in drilling and completing a well which cannot be
salvaged but are necessary and incident to the drilling
and completing the well for production and are not
leasehold costs. Intangible drilling and development
costs include labor, fuel, hauling, rentals, and supplies.
These costs receive very favorable tax considerations
in that they can be deducted in the year in which
they occurred rather than be capitalized and
depreciated. Intangible drilling and development costs
are about 7096 of the total cost of an exploratory well
and 6096 of a developmental well. A distinction is
made in the federal tax laws between domestic and
international companies and integrated and
independent companies. (IDC's) IDC
INTBD or intbd interbedded
Intclas or intclas intraclast
integral blade stabilizer a stabilizer that is
machined from a single block of a solid high-strength
steel alloy. The blade faces are sintered with tungstencarbide inserts, and the blades can be either straight
or spiral-shaped.
integral joint a box connection that is machined
from thicker pipe wall on the end of a pipe. I]
integrated circuit an electronic connection
consisting of numerous, miniature transistors and
other circuit elements on a single, small (less than
4 in2) silicon chip. The component design on the

264

integrated oil company or producer

circuit is made by computer. The electrical

connections between the elements are made by an
evaporated metal that is engraved on the circuit by
a photographic process. A microprocessor is a single
integrated circuit that contains all the arithmetic and
logic units of a computer, (chip)
integrated oil company or producer a company
that is involved in all aspects (exploration, production,
transportation, refining and marketing) of the oil
industry. An integrated producer is in contrast to an
independent producer.
integrating orifice meter a type of flowmeter that
continuously records and totals the square root of
the differential and the square root of the static
pressure. This is multiplied by the orifice flow constant
to determine the flow rate.
integrator machine a device that converts pressure
data from a gas meter chart to a number that is
multiplied by the integrator machine number to
calculate pressure extension. The pressure extension
is used to compute the gas volume.
intensity the flow rate of seismic energy through a
unit area that is oriented perpendicular to the seismic
wave direction
intensity modulated-time a type of acoustic wave
train display in which the photographic density is
proportional to the amplitude of the wave with positive
being dark and all negatives white. The acoustic wave
can also be displayed in an amplitude-time mode.
interactive computer processing that allows
decisions to be made during processing
interactive interpretation the display of 3-D
seismic data that is manipulated by an operator or
interpreter from an interactive station (computer with
display). The display can consist of rotation, time slices,
or an accordian or chain display.
interactive station a terminal or stand alone with
two or three color CRTs with keyboard that is used
to manipulate 3-D seismic data
interbd or interbdd interbedded
interbedded sedimentary rock beds that are
between or alternating with beds of different
lithologies or character. INTBD, interbd, interbdd,
intbd, or inbd
interbed multiples a seismic reflection in which
the seismic energy is reflected back and forth between
the top and bottom of a subsurface rock layer several
times
intercal intercalated
intercalated thin beds of sedimentary rock such as
sandstone in thicker layers of another sedimentary
rock such as shale, intercal
intercrys intercrystalline
intercrystalline pore a void (pore) in a rock located
between mineral crystals, such as dolomite
inter distributary bay the area between distributary
channels on a delta that is occupied by shallow water.
The interdistributary bay can be filled with organicrich, fine-grained, bay, marsh, and coarse-grained
crevasse-splay sediments.
interdune area the area between eolian sand dunes.
The interdune area can be either dry or wet.

interference test

INTERDUNE
DUNE

EXTRADUNE

interdune area

Impermeable sediments such as salt or clay layers

are often deposited in the interdune areas and form
impermeable barriers in eolian sandstone deposits.
interest a share of production revenue from a well
interface 1) a seismic discontinuity 2) the connection
between two pieces of equipment 3) the boundary
between two phases such as gas and liquid 4) the
boundary between two immiscible fluids such as oil
and water
interface mass transfer the net transfer of
chemicals between two or more phases
interfacial film the thin layer of material at the
boundary between two fluids. The interfacial film
differs in composition from the bulk composition of
either of the two fluids.
interfacial tension the force acting at the boundary
of two immiscible fluids. Interfacial tension acts to
keep the interfacial area at a minimum. Interfacial
tension is commonly measured in dynes or millidynes
per centimeter. The term surface tension is usually
applied to an air-liquid interface, and interfacial
tension to other interfaces such as liquid-liquid or
liquid-solid. IFT or -y
interfacial viscosity the viscosity of the interfacial
film that separates two immiscible fluids
interference the drilling of a wellbore too close
to an existing well
interference test a type of pressure transient test
in which pressure is measured over time in a shutin well (oberservation well) while surrounding wells
(active wells) are producing. Pressure communication
and flow between wells can be detected by the test.
An interference test is used to determine the effect
one well has on another for enhanced oil recovery.
(multitvell or multipoint test)

interfinger

interfinger or interfingering
interfinger or interfingering a boundary that
forms distinctive wedges, fingers, or tongues between
two different rock types, (intertongue)
interfit the depth that a tooth on a roller cone extends
into the cutter groove of the adjacent roller cone on
a roller-cone bit. (intermesh)
inter-gran intergranular
intergranular corrosion corrosion that occurs at
grain boundaries
intergranular pore a space in a rock located
between clastic grains such as sand. Intergranular
porosity is an important and common type of original
porosity.
intergranular-moldic pore a pore formed by the
solution of a soluble clastic mineral grain
intergranular volume the volume of the pore space
plus intergranular cement in a sedimentary rock
interlam interlaminated
interlayered clay mineral see mixed layer clay
mineral
interlayer multiple a seismic energy multiple
produced by reflections from the bottom of a reflector.

interlayer multiple
interlimb angle the angle on a fold in sedimentary
rocks between tangents to the fold surface drawn
through the inflection lines. The interlimb angle is
gentle between 180 and 120, open from 120 to
70, close between 70 to 30, tight from 30 to 0,
and elastic when negative.
intermediary water subsurface waters from
formations between producing formations
intermediate-base oil a crude oil that contains
significant amounts of both paraffin and asphalt. It
has a high aromatic concentration. Intermediate-base
crude oil is a refiner's term and is in contrast to
paraffin- and asphalt-base crude oil. (mixed-base crude
oil)
intermediate casing spool a short metal pipe with
a flange that is used on a wellhead to a) pack off the
top of intermediate casing, b) suspend the next casing
string, and c) carry the next blowout-preventer stack.
The intermediate casing spool sits on a seal on top
of the casinghead housing.
intermediate casing string a length (string) of
casing that is set in a well between the surface and
production casing strings. The intermediate casing
string ranges in diameter from 5-1V/* in. and is
typically 9% in. It a) isolates potentially troublesome
formations in the well such as abnormal high- or low-

internal-combustion engine

265

pressure zones or salt layers, b) protects normalpressure zones when drilling deeper using heavy mud
weights, and c) protects production casing from
corrosion, (intermediate, protective or salt string, or
protection casing string)
intermediate column a smaller diameter, tubular
column located between larger stabilizing columns
on a semisubmersible. The intermediate column is
used for support and storage.
intermediate compressor station a compressor
installation on a gas pipeline that is designed to boost
the gas pressure and keep the gas flowing. The size
and number of compressors at each station will vary
widely. The compressor station can also contain
separators, storage, scraper traps, and control
equipment. Intermediate compressor stations are
located at various intervals along the pipeline
depending on the length and volume of the pipeline.
Pump stations are used on an oil pipeline.
intermediate porosity see induced porosity
intermediate pump station a pumping installation
on an oil pipeline that is designed to keep the oil
flowing. Intermediate pump stations are often located
80-150 mi apart on the pipeline. The pumping station
can also include separators, storage, scraper traps,
and control equipment. On a gas pipeline, compressor
stations are used, (booster station)
intermediate string see intermediate casing string
intermediate-sulfur crude a crude oil that contains
between 0.6% and 1.7% sulfur by weight
intermesh the depth that a tooth on a roller cone
extends into the cutter groove of the adjacent roller
cone on a roller-cone bit. (interfit)
intermittent flow alternating periods of oil and/or
gas production with periods of nonproduction in a
well. Intermittent flow is caused by low reservoir
pressure.
intermittent gas lift gas lift that is not continuous
and uses an intermitter. Two types of intermittent
gas lift installation are a) semienclosed with a packer
with no standing valve and b) closed with a packer
and standing valve. The semienclosed installation
produces the fluids from the formation throughout
the cycle, whereas the closed installation shuts off
the formation during gas injection and is used when
there is a problem of loosing the injection gas to
the formation.
intermitter a device that regulates the production
from a gas-lift well with intermittent flow. An
intermitter is a motor valve operated by a timing device
that selectively cycles gas injection into the tubing
casing annulus. An intermitter can be used to unload
the liquid from a gas well by starting and stopping
the gas flow. ITMR
internal blowout preventer see inside blowout
preventer
internal-combustion engine an engine that uses
the burning of an air-fuel mixture in cylinder to move
a piston and drive the engine. The spark-ignition type
uses a spark plug to ignite the fuel and can be either
two or four stroke. The compression-ignition or diesel
type uses compression to ignite the fuel.

266

internal cutter interval

internal cutter a fishing tool that is lowered on a

fishing string into a pipe in a well and is rotated to
use mechanical knives to cut the pipe from the inside.
An internal cutter is in contrast to an external cutter.
internal-gas drive a type of reservoir drive
mechanism in which the expanding gas bubbles
forming from gas dissolved in the subsurface oil drives
the subsurface oil into the well. Internal-gas drive is
caused by production decreasing reservoir pressure
below the bubblepoint. Internal-gas drive tends to
be relatively inefficient and produces only 20%-30%
of the oil in place, (depletion-gas, dissolved-gas,
volumetric, solution-gas, or solution-gas expansion
drive)
internal-gas drive pool an oilfield with an internalgas drive supplying the energy to cause the oil to
flow from the reservoir rock into the well. The
reservoir has a rapid decline in pressure and a rapidly
increasing gas/oil ratio with little water production.
(depletion-gas, dissolved-gas, solution-gas, or solutiongas expansion pool)
internal guylines or guy lines wire ropes that run
from the top of a mast or derrick to the base and
are used for stabilization
internal phase the scattered solid, liquid, or gas
in a dispersion that is surrounded by the continuous
phase. In a water-in-oil emulsion, water is the
dispersed phase. Oil is the dispersed phase in an
oil-in-water emulsion. Internal phase is in contrast
to the continuous phase, (dispersed phase)
internal rate of return a method of economically
evaluating an investment such as drilling a well.
Internal rate of return is the return rate on the
investment that is discounted for time, (discounted
cash-flow rate of return, investor's rate of return,
scientific rate of return, or profitability index) IRR
orir
internal thread a thread located on the inside
surface of a coupling such as the box end of a tubular.
The internal thread mates with a male thread, (female
connection or thread)
internal upset a section of thicker wall that
protrudes inward along the threaded end of a tubular
such as drillpipe. Internal upset is in contrast to an
external upset. IU
internal velocity the inverse of interval travel time.
internal yield strength the maximum pressure that
the inside of a vessel or tubulars such as drillpipe
can bear before failure, (burst pressure rating or
strength)
International Geomagnetic Reference Field an
empirically-derived correction that is applied to
measurements of the earth's magnetic field made at
different times that corrects for the change in the
magnitude and direction of the field with time. IGRF
International Practical Temperature Scale a
temperature scale that is based on 11 reference
temperatures. Some of them are the triple points of
hydrogen and oxygen, the boiling point of water, and
the freezing point of zinc, gold, and silver. IPTS

interparticle pore a space (pore) in a rock located

between particles in a rock. An interparticle pore is
similar to intergranular pore, but the term does not
infer any particle grain size.
interpretation the methods used in seismic
exploration to determine and characterize the
geophysical layers in the earth
interpreter a person who makes, geological
interpretations of geophysical data such as seismic
interreef the area located between small reefs such
as patch or table reefs. Fine-grained limestones
(micrite) along with some coarse debris eroded off
the reefs are deposited in this environment.
interruptible gas natural gas bought on the spot
market, (self-help, direct purchase, best efforts, and spot
gas)
interruptible sales natural gas that is sold without
a delivery guarantee. Interruptible sales is usually less
expensive than firm sales.
interruptions indentations on the heel teeth of a
roller-cone bit. Interruptions are used to make a
pattern on the bottom of the well that is one-half
the spacing on the cutter teeth so that the cuttings
will be smaller than the space between the teeth and
will not wedge between the teeth. Both inner and
gauge end interruptions are used.
intersection a well drilled into another well.
(drilling collision)
interstate between states. Interstate gas is produced
in one state and transported across state lines to be
used in another state. Interstate is in contrast to
intrastate.
interstate oil compact an agreement between oil
producing states that was approved by the United States
Congress in 1935 for the conservation of oil and gas
interstice an opening or space in a rock that is not
occupied by solid matter, (pore)
interstitial something that fills the pores of a rock.
INTST, Inst, inst, intl, or insti
interstitial acidizing a well-stimulation technique
using acid, commonly hydrochloric, hydrochloric/
hydrofluoric, hydrofluoric, acetic, or formic acid, to
dissolve low-permeable carbonate reservoir rock and
increase production. The acid is injected with pressure
less than formation fracture pressure. Clay stabilizers
and emulsion breakers are often added to the acid.
Interstitial acidizing is also used to relieve formation
damage, (matrix acidizing)
interstitial water water in the pores of the rock.
Interstitial water is typically 10%-40% of the pore
space in an oil or gas reservoir and is 100% in a
water reservoir. Interstitial water can be fresh to brine
in salinity and can be divided into a) pore water, b)
bound water, and c) irreducible water.
intertidal the area between high and low tide along
a shoreline, (littoral)
intertongue the boundary that forms distinctive
wedges, fingers, or tongues between two different
rock types, (interfinger)

International System of Units Systeme

International d'Unites

interval a portion of a zone or reservoir in a well.

Intv, Intvl, or into

interval time
interval time the difference in time between two
reflection events on a seismic record
interval transit-time the velocity of a sonic wave,
usually compressional, through a subsurface rock layer
usually measured in \i sec/ft. Interval transit-time is
measured on a sonic log, a continuous-velocity log,
a borehole-compensated sonic log, or Acoustilog.
Some common interval-transit times are:
Substance
At (|x sec/ft)
sandstones
55.5-510
limestones
47.6-43.5
dolomites
43.5
anhydrite
50.0
salt
66J
iron casing
57.0
t, At, orDT
interval velocity the seismic wave velocity, usually
compressional, through a certain depth mterval^uch
as between two reflectors. The depth interval can be
as small as 1-3 ft on a sonic log and as large as'Vnore
than 1,000 ft in well shooting.
intestate without leaving a will
intfrag interfragmental
intgn intergrown
INTGR intergranular
intgran intergranular
in. 3 cubic inch
intl interstitial
intlam interlaminated
intpar interparticle
intpt interpretation
Inst, inst, or insti interstitial
Intr or intr 1) intrusive 2) intrusive rock
intra-arc basin a basin formed by tension in an
island arc. An intra-arc basin is in contrast to a forearc, trench, back-arc, or retro-arc basin.
intraclasts thin fragments of ripped-up carbonates
such as mud-crack flakes. Intclas or intclas
intradelta a delta plain
intramicrite a limestone that contains at least 25%
allochems (large, transported particles) that are
predominantly intraclasts (ripped-up clasts) with a
matrix of micrite or limestone mud
intrapar intraparticle
intrasparite a limestone that contains at least 25%
allochems (large transported particles) that are
predominantly intraclasts (ripped-up clasts) with
sparry calcite cement
intraparticle pore a space (pore) located within a
particle in a rock
intrastate within the state. Intrastate gas is produced,
sold, transported, and used in the same state. Intrastate
is in contrast to interstate.
intrlam interlaminated
intrusion 1) a body of igneous rock that was injected
as a molten liquid into other solid, subsurface rocks.
Batholiths, sills, and dikes are types of intrusions, intr
2) an injection of sediments such as chalk, clay, or
salt as viscous liquid into other rocks. The liquified

inverse modeling

267

intrusions

sediments are injected from an overpressured layer

up into an open fracture in the overlying layer to
form a clastic dike.
intrusive or intrusive rock an igneous rock that
cooled and solidified while in the subsurface, forming
a rock mass called an intrusion. Intrusive rocks are
easily identified because the mineral crystals are large
enough to be seen with the naked eye (granular
texture). Granite and granodiorite are examples of
intrusive rocks. Intrusive rocks are in contrast to
extrusive igneous rocks such as lava or basalt. Intr
or intr
ints intersect
INTST interstitial
Intv, Intvl or intv interval
in. 2 square inch
intxln intercrystalline
invaded zone the subsurface portion of permeable
rocks adjacent to the wellbore that has been flushed
with mud filtrate during and after drilling. A mudcake
is deposited on the wellbore walls and the mud filtrate
is pushed back into the rock, displacing most of the
formation fluids. Depending on the permeability of
the rocks, the invaded zone can extend from 0-100
in. back from the wellbore. The invaded zone includes
the flushed zone and the transition zone. In the flushed
zone, all the formation fluids have been replaced by
filtrate. In the transition zone, the filtrate and formation
fluids are mixed. The invaded zone extends back to
the annulus which is a zone of higher than normal
formation water content caused by the filtrate pushing
the formation water ahead of it back from the wellbore.
The depth of invasion is the equivalent depth in an
idealized formation model to which the filtrate reaches
from the wellbore. i
invasion the penetration of mud filtrate into the
invaded zone adjacent to the wellbore. i
invasion diameter see diameter of invasion
DWEM inverted emulsion
inverse modeling the use of seismic amplitude data
to make seismic logs. A plot of acoustic impedance
(density times velocity) versus traveltime is made for
each seismic trace. Inverse modeling is in contrast
to direct modeling in which the rock characteristics
such as acoustic impedance are known, and the seismic
response is calculated, (inversion)

268

inverse VSP or vertical seismic profiling iron-control agent

inverse VSP or vertical seismic profiling a vertical

seismic profiling technique in which the source rather
than the receiver is in the well. The receiver is on
the surface. The most common borehole energy
source used is the rotating drill bit.
inversion see inverse modeling
Invert or invert invertebrate
invertebrate an animal without a backbone.
Invertebrates are the most abundant and important
type of fossils. They include the corals, clams, sponges,
brachiopods, ammonites, snails, bryozoans, and most
microfossils. Invert, Invtb, or invert
inverted emulsion mud see invert emulsion
drilling mud
invert or inverted emulsion a water-in-oil
emulsion. Water is the dispersed phase (droplets),
and oil is the continuous phase. INVEM
invert, invert emulsion mud, or invert oilemulsion drilling mud an oil-base drilling mud
made with a water-in-oil emulsion. The water (up to
50%) is the dispersed phase and can be either fresh
or saline. Oil is the continuous phase and is usually
diesel or crude oil along with emulsifiers. The oil
reduces viscosity, whereas the water increases
viscosity. An invert mud has the same characteristics
as an oil mud and is used to avoid contaminating
producing formations with water and during coring
and well-completion operations.
inverter an electronic or electromechanical device
that converts direct current into alternating current
investment tax credit a deduction from income that
is based on a percentage of the investment as specified
by tax laws
Investor's interest rate the discount percentage that
reduces the cash-flow stream on an investment such
as drilling and completing a well to zero. The discount
percentage takes into account the time value of money.
At zero cash-flow stream, the discounted monies paid
out equal the discounted monies made, (discounted
cashflow)
investor's rate of return scientific rate of return
Invtb invertebrate
I/O input/output
! 1) discount rate 2) opportunity rate
IOCC Interstate Oil Compact Commission
iodine number a measure of the amount of iodine
absorbed by oils, waxes, and fats. The iodine number
indicates the amount of unsaturates and the corrosion
severity of the substance on rubber.
IOGA Independent Oil and Gas Association of New
York
ion an atom that while in solution has either more
protons than electrons and is positive in electrical
charge (cation) or has more electrons than protons
and is negative in electrical charge (anion). Electrolytes
such as acids, bases, and salts dissolved in water-form
ions.
Ii primary porosity index
ion exchange the property of some minerals such
as clay minerals to absorb certain cations or anions
in exchange for different cations or anions in a

solution. Ion exchange in clay minerals is measured

by the cation exchange capacity and the cations are
called exchangeable cations.
ionic bonding the linkage of atoms by electron
transfer to form an anion and a cation. Some examples
include NaCl and CaO. Ionic bonding is in contrast
to covalent bonding.
ionization the process in which a neutral-charged
atom loses or gains electrons to be positively or
negatively charged
IOSA International Oil Scouts Association
IOT initial open tube
IP 1) initial production 2) initial potential 3) initial
pressure 4) Institute of Petroleum 5) induced
polarization 6) induced-polarization method 7)
isoprenoid
I.P. 1) in part 2) initial production
I.PAJV. Independent Petroleum Association of
America
IPAMS Independent Petroleum Association of
Mountain States
IPE 1) installing pumping equipment 2) International
Petroleum Exposition 3) initial potential estimated
IPF 1) initial production flowed 2) initial potential
flowed
IPG initial production gas lift
IPI 1) initial potential intermitter 2) initial production
intermitter
IPL initial production plunger lift
IP logging a drill hole induced-polarization (IP) or
resistivity survey in a well which uses closely spaced
electrodes to investigate the electrical properties of
the rocks adjacent to the wellbore. (electric, hole and
resistivity, and hole probe)
IPOF initial production open flow
IPP 1) initial production pumping 2) initial potential
pumping
IPR inflow performance relationship
IPS 1) initial production swabbing 2) initial potential
swabbing 3) surface potential index 4) improved steel
plow
ips inches per second
IPSI immediate pressure shut-in
IP susceptibility a measure of induced polarization
IPTS International Practical Temperature Scale
IR 1) injection rate 2) infrared radiation
IR hydrocarbon resistivity index
1,1) injection rate ratio 2) internal rate of return
I-RES Indian reservation
irid iridescent
iridescence the property of a mineral or crude oil
to reflect a rainbow of colors caused by the
interference of light, irid
DRM isothermal remanent magnetism
iron-control agent an acid additive used in
acidizing that is either a) a sequestering agent used
to complex iron ions or b) a reducing agent such as
erythorbic acid used to reduce the oxidized state of
iron

iron monoxide isobath

iron monoxide a black compound (FeO) that can
be made from the oxidation of ferrous sulfide. (ferrous
oxide)
iron oxide method see iron-sponge sweetening
iron-particle inspection a method used to inspect
tool joints. A solution of very fine, fluorescent-dyed
iron particles is applied to the cleaned and dried joint.
The joint is then inspected with a fluorescent or black
light. Iron particles will collect along any crack, (blacklight inspection)
iron pile a drilling rig
iron roughneck equipment that replaces the
tongs and does much of the manual labor in handling
pipe on the floor of a drilling rig. The iron roughneck
is a hydraulically powered wrench and can accurately
apply torque in making up or breaking out joints.
The wrench has a gauge for torque and provides its
own backup. The iron roughneck can also
automatically count the number of joints going
downhole. (hydraulic torque wrench)
iron sponge a chemical used to neutralize hydrogen
sulfide in drilling mud and to sweeten natural gas.
Iron sponge is composed of wood chips and shavings
impregnated with hydrated ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and
sodium carbonate to control the pH. Iron sponge is
used to sweeten natural gas in a batch process by
sending the sour gas through a vertical contact or
adsorber tower.
iron-sponge sweetening a process used to remove
H2S from sour gas. The sour gas is passed through a
contact or adsorber tower containing the iron sponge
on trays. The iron sponge is converted to iron sulfide.
It is a batch process and the iron sponge is regenerated
by the addition of oxygen from air. Iron-sponge
sweetening is commonly used with relatively low gas
volumes and low H2S content, (iron oxide or drybox
method)
iron sulfide a black compound (FeS2) that can be
made from iron and hydrogen sulfide. (ferroussulfide)
iron wrestler a drilling crew member who handles
heavy equipment
IRR internal rate of return
irr or irreg irregular
irr irreducible
irradiation exposure of a substance to radiation
irreducible saturation the minimum fluid
saturation that remains when that fluid is displaced
from a porous substance by another immiscible fluid
1.0
M
RELATIVE
PERMEABILITY

0.6

(Olt) 04
o.a

Oil SATURATION- -100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30

10
20 30 40 50 60 70
WATER SATURATION- - 0

20 10
0
80 90 100

irreducible water

irreducible water the thin layer of water absorbed

to mineral grain surfaces, the discontinuous pendular
water held by capillary pressure at grain contacts and

269

at the ends of larger pores, and the water that occupies

very small pores (5-10 |xm). Irreducible water will
not flow through a permeable rock, (residual water)
irreducible water saturation the fraction or
percent of pore volume occupied by water in a rock
under reservoir conditions having maximum
hydrocarbon saturation. Irreducible water saturation
is the highest water saturation at which no water will
flow through the rock. It differs from residual water
saturation measured from a core because of drilling
mud filtrate and gas expansion.
irrigation gas clause a provision in an oil and gas
lease that allows the lessor to take part or all of his/
her royalty as gas produced on the leasehold for
irrigation pump fuel
irr sec irregular section
IRS Internal Revenue Service
IR survey a remote sensing survey that images the
earth's surface in the infrared-spectrum. An IR survey
is made from an airplane with either infrared radiation
emitted from the plane or natural infrared radiation.
Is island
Is specific injectivity index
is initial injection rate
ISA Instrument Society of America
ISF induction spherically focused log
Ish Shale index
IshGR shaliness gamma-ray index
ISI initial shut-in
ISIT initial shut-in time
ISIP 1) initial shut-in pressure 2) instantaneous shutin pressure
island acreage an area that is surrounded by wells
that prevent it from producing

island arc

island arc a line of volcanic islands adjacent to a

deep ocean trench. Both the volcanoes and trench
are caused by subduction of a sea-floor plate
ISO 1) isotron log 2) International Organization for
Standardization
iso isopachous
iso a prefix that means equal. Iso is used to describe
contour lines on maps
isoanomally a contour line of equal geophysical
anomalies, usually gravity or magnetic, on a map
isobar a contour line of equal pressure
isobaric surface a surface of the equal pressure
values
isobar map a pressure map
isobath 1) a contour line of exact depth of the ocean
floor 2) a contour line of exact depth of rock burial

270

isobutane isograd

isobutane an isomer of butane (C4H10). Isobutane

has a specific gravity of 0.56, a boiling point of 11F
at 14.7 psi, a vapor pressure of 72 psia at 100F, a
critical temperature of 275F, and a critical pressure
of 529 psia. Isobutane occurs in crude oil and natural
gas, except biogenic gas. The ratio of iso- to normal
butane is high in immature sediments and decreases
in mature sediments. The other isomer of butane is
normal butane. iC4
isocapacity map a map of equal values of
permeability times net reservoir thickness. An
isocapacity map is used to indicate well production
capability.
isocarb a line of equal carbon ratios.
isochore 1) a contour line of equal interval or
distance between two stratigraphic units or horizons
on a map 2) a contour line of equal pay thickness
in a reservoir
isochore map a contoured map showing the drilling
thickness of a subsurface rock layer such as a formation
or between two stratigraphic units or horizons. When
the subsurface rock layers are dipping at an angle,
the drilling thickness will be greater than when the
rock layers are level.
isochron a contour line of the same time interval
or reflection time on a seismic record, (isotime)
isochronal or isochrinic see isochronous.

isochron map

isochron map a contoured map showing the

thickness of a subsurface rock layer in units of time
such as microseconds. The data to construct the map
is usually obtained from seismic profiles, and the rock
layer is located between two seismic events or
reflectors. In Europe, an isochron map is any map
contoured in time, whereas in America it is limited
to seismic time.
isochronal test a test used to determine a gas well's
deliverability when the well has a long stabilization
time. The well is opened at a specific flow rate, and
pressure measurements are made at specific time
intervals. The well is then shut in and allowed to
return to pretest conditions. The well is then opened
at a different flow rate, and pressure measurements
are again made at specific time intervals. Four to six
hours are used for each flow and shut-in time. The
well is then stabilized at one flow rate. A line is
drawn parallel to the well's deliverability after partial
stabilization times through the stabilized rate to give
the stabilized deliverability line. The test can also
be used for oil wells. Ap is plotted versus q where
Ap = Ps2-Pu/ and q = the flow rate in MMSCF/d,
Ps = static bottomhole pressure in psia, and Pw/ =
flowing bottomhole pressure in psia.

1000/

100 -I

100

1000

10000

Flow Rate MCFD

at 14.65 psia
isochronal test

isochronous at the same time, being either a) equal

in duration or b) occurring at the same time.
Isochronous rocks were deposited at the same time.
isoclinal fold a fold in sedimentary rocks with
parallel limbs
isocline 1) a strongly deformed fold in rocks with
both limbs (sides) of the fold parallel to each other
2) a contour line of equal magnetic inclination
isoclinic map a map showing magnetic inclination
isocon a contour line on a map of equal geochemical
concentrations, such as salinity or chlorinity
isoconcentration a contour line of equal salinity
of oilfield waters
isocon or isoconcentration map a map showing
the salinity or chlorinity content of formation waters
usually in parts per million (ppm) or parts per
thousand (ppt). (isosalinity map)
isodynamic line a contour line on a map
representing points of equal magnetic intensity.
(isogam)
isofacial line a contour line on a map representing
the facies of equal thickness in a rock layer or
stratigraphic unit
isofacies map a map that shows the lateral
distribution of various facies in a rock layer or
stratigraphic unit
isofracture map a map that shows fracture density
with contours of equal fracture densities. The fracture
density is measured from surface outcrops.
isogal a contour line on a map representing equal
gravity anomalies
isogam a contour line on a map representing points
of equal magnetic intensity, (isodynamic line)
isqgeotherm or isogeothermal contour a line
representing points of equal heat or geothermal
gradient in an area
isogonic chart or map a map showing magnetic
declination in degrees east or west of true north
isogon or isogonic line a contour line on a map
representing points of equal magnetic declination
isograd a contour line on a map representing points
of equal degrees of metamorphism

isogradient contour isopotential map

isogradient contour a line of equal heat gradient
per 100 ft of depth in an area
isohaline a contour line on a map representing
points of equal salinity
isolith 1) a line on a map connecting similar rock
types (lithology) or some other distinguishing
property of the rock, such as color or texture 2) a
line of equal thickness of a particular rock type in a
formation

SAND

200'

271

and different chemical and physical properties. For

example, the specific gravity of normal butane is 0.58,
whereas the the specific gravity of isobutane is 0.56.
isomesic rocks that formed under the same
conditions or environment
isometric map a map with lines that are drawn true
to scale
isomudstone map a map that shows the amount
of mudstone in a rock layer or stratigraphic unit
isopach or isopachous a contour line of equal
thickness of a subsurface rock layer such as a
formation. A reservoir can have both a gross and net
reservoir isopach. iso
isopach or isopachous map a contoured map
showing the thickness of a subsurface rock layer such
as a formation

-300r

isolith map

isolith map a contoured map showing the thickness

of a certain rock type (i.e. sandstone) in a particular
rock layer such as a formation

H H H H
I
I
I
I
H-C C C C H
I I I
H H H H

1
H-C
1
H

1
1
C C
1

1
H-C-H

1
H
isomers (normal butane and iso-butane)

isomers organic chemical compounds that have the

same chemical formulas but different molecular
structures and, therefore, have slightly different
chemical and physical properties. An example is
normal butane and isobutane. Both have the same
formula, C4H10, but have slightly different structures

isopach map

isoparaffin a type of hydrocarbon molecule that is

saturated with single bonds and is formed by a straight
chain similar to a paraffin but with a side chain. An
example is isobutane. Isoparaffin is in contrast to a
normal or n-paraffin that forms a straight chain.
(brancbed-chain paraffin)
isopic sedimentary rocks of the same facies. Isopic
rocks have similar lithologies (rock type) but could
have been deposited in different environments.
isopiestic line a contour line of groundwater
pressure head, (equipotential or isopotential line or
piezometric contour)
isopleth a contour line of the same value on a map
or chart
isoporosity map a map showing the distribution
of thickness-weighted average porosities in a
formation
isopotential line 1) a contour line of groundwater
pressure head, (equipotential or isopotential line or
piezometric contour) 2) a contour line of calculated
daily rate of production from a reservoir
isopotential map a map showing the output
capacities of wells per unit time. Isopotential maps
are used to compare performances of wells.

272

isoprenoid DCLN

isoprenoid a branched hydrocarbon that is formed

by a straight chain of 6-40 carbon atoms with a methyl
(CH3) branch on every fourth carbon. Isoprenoids
are found in petroleum and sedimentary rocks.
Isoprenoids are derived from plants and bacterial and
are considered biological markers. IP
isopyonic a line of equal density
isorad a contour line of equal radioactivity or equal
gamma-ray intensity
isosalinity map a map showing the salinity content
of formation waters usually in parts per million (ppm)
or parts per thousand (ppt). (isocon or
isoconcentration map)
isosaturation map a map of contours showing the
distribution of hydrocarbon saturation values in a
reservoir
isosaturation surface a surface of equal saturation
values in a formation
isosinal map a map showing slope by using contours
of the sines of the slope angles
isostasy a vertical equilibrium of rock density in the
earth's crust. Areas of the earth's crust that are highest
in elevation are balanced by underlying rocks that
are lighter than the surrounding rocks and have lighter
rocks that extend deeper with depth. Lower elevation
areas are underlain by heavier and thinner rocks.
isostratification map a map that shows the number
or thickness of beds in a rock layer or stratigraphic
unit
isotangent map a map showing slope by using
contours of the tangents of the slope angles
isotherm a contour line of equal temperatures on
a map
isothermal a process that occurs at a constant
temperature
isothermal remanent magnetism remanent
magnetism that is caused entirely by the application
of a magnetic field without any temperature change.
IRM
isothermal surface a surface of the same
temperature located in the subsurface
isotime 1) the time interval between two reflectors
on a seismic record. 2) a contour line of equal
reflection time on a seismic record, (isochron)
isotope one of several atoms of the same element
that have the same number of protons but have
different atomic numbers and number of neutrons

in the nucleus. Isotopes have slightly different physical

properties. An example is the isotopes C12, C 3, and
C14 of carbon.
isotope ratio the abundance of a heavy isotope
divided by a light isotope. Delta value is the difference
between the isotope ratios of a sample and a standard
divided by the isotope ratio of the standard and
expressed in parts per thousand (ppt).
isotopic rocks formed in the same environment
isotopic number the number of neutrons minus
the number of protons in the atom of an isotope.
Isotopic number is an indication of radioactivity.
isotropic the same in all directions. An isotropic
substance has no preferred orientation.
isovelocity surface surface with a constant seismic
velocity
isovol a line of equal volume
isovol or isovolume map a map showing the
distribution of porosity-meters or porosity-feet. An
isovolume map is made by multiplying net reservoir
thickness times feet.
ISP initial surface pressure
ISPF initial surface pressure flowing
ISPSI initial surface pressure shut in
ISV imput safety valve
ITC investment tax credit
ITD intention to drill
ITE index of tortional effectiveness
ITMR intermitter
ITP initial tubing pressure
ITPF initial tubing pressure flowing
ITPSI initial tubing pressure shut in
I2 secondary porosity index
IU internal upset
IUGS International Union of Geological Sciences
IVPAC International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry
IVP initial vapor pressure
IW 1) infill well 2) injection well
i^, water injection rate
I.W.R.C. independent wire-rope center or core
IXLN intercrystalline

J jackup or jack-up barge, platform, or rig

J 1) productivity index 2) liquid junction 3) joule

j liquid junction
jac jacket
jack 1) to raise or lift 2) apparatus used to start an
engine
jack and circle a large, semi-circular rack that is
bolted to the floor of a cable-tool rig and is used to
make and break pipe connections. The jack and circle
has one wrench attached to the floor and another
wrench that is jacked along the rack, (circle jack)
jack board a board with a handle and metal straps
that is used to hold the end of a pipe as another
pipe is screwed into it (lazy board or stabbing jack)
jacket 1) a complex of welded steel pipe that is
designed to support the overlying production facilities
on a fixed production platform. The legs house the
conductor pipes for the wells. The jacket is floated
into position on a barge during calm weather and
launched horizontally. Controlled flooding of the
ballast tanks in the legs rotates the jacket to vertical
and lands it on the seafloor. Piles are then secured
by pile drivers to the seabed, and the jacket is bolted
to the piles. Barges are then used to transport and
install modules and deck support equipment on the
jacket. A concrete gravity platform is more expensive
and is used when there is a need for storage facilities.
(platform jacket) jac 2) the protective coating used
to prevent corrosion on a pipeline
jacket cover a shell that forces drilling fluids to flow
around an electric submersible motor to cool the
motor before flowing through the submersible pump
(motor sbroud)
jacketed cable a flexible electrical conductor that
is protected with a nonmetallic coating
jacket water the water that circulates around a vessel
to remove, add, or distribute heat
jackey stick a wood rod that connected the headache
post on a cable-tool rig to the wireline drilling clamps
to prevent the clamps from turning
jack house the frame that contains the rack-andpinion assembly that is attached to a chord on the
leg of a jackup rig. The rack and pinion arrangement
is used to raise and lower the deck of the rig. Upper
and lower guides position the jack house on the chord.
jack knife to fold up
jackknife derrick or mast a steel tower that is used
on a cantilevered or jackknife derrick rig. The rig is
assembled with the mast or derrick in horizontal

273

position. The mast or derrick is then pivoted to a

vertical position using the traveling block and
drawworks on the rig. (cantilever derrick or mast)
jackknife derrick or mast rig a drilling rig in which
the derrick or mast is assembled from the bottom
up horizontally on the ground and then pivoted
vertically into position by using the rig's drawworks.
The drilling structure is made of prefabricated units
that are pinned together with large pins. The engine
and derrick are pinned and then put in place, after
which the derrick is raised. After the mast or derrick
is raised, the traveling block is used to raise the drill
floor into position. The rotary beams are installed
and the catworks and rotary are raised into position
with the traveling block. The catline boom is used
for lighter lifting. The jackknife rig is the most common
type of drilling rig on land, (cantilever derrick or
mast rig)
jack line the cable that connects the eccentric on a
central power unit to the pumping unit. The jack line
is kept 10-15 ft off the ground by rockers.
(transmission line)
jack off the brake to relieve the weight on the bit
jack post box metal tubular rings that secure the
band-wheel shaft on either side of the band wheel
on a small cable-tool rig or pumping unit
jack rabbit a device that is run through casing or
tubing to check the inside diameter (drift mandrel)
jackshaft a countershaft that is driven by the main
shaft
Jackson a North American age of geological time
that occurred about 45-38 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Eocene epoch.
jack-squib a type of torpedo that was used in
explosive fracturing
jackup a jackup rig
jackup or jack-up barge, platform, or rig an
offshore drilling rig that is essentially a barge with
legs. The hull is towed or steamed into position and
then jacked above the ocean surface on tubular or
derrick legs. Jackup rigs have been built with anywhere
from 3-14 legs but commonly have three legs. Each
leg, which is either vertical or tilted slightly outward
for stability, is formed by vertical elements called
chords. Attached to each chord is a jack house that
contains the rack-and-pinion arrangement used to
raise and lower the deck. The legs rest on the bottom
of the ocean during drilling to provide a stable
platform. A jackup rig can be either an independent
leg jackup rig with spud cans on the legs for use
with a firm seabed, or mat supported for softer
seabeds. A jackup rig is very stable, relatively easy to
move, and is used in water depths up to about 300
ft. The deck of the rig is raised 50-60 ft above sea
level. The hull can be rectangular, triangular, shiplike, or irregular. Jackup rigs can be either selfpropelled, propulsion assisted, or nonpropelled. A

274

jackV jerkerpump

Drilling Slot
Mat

jack-up rig

drilling slot can be cut in the deck, or the derrick

can be cantilevered over the side. During towing, the
legs are raised so that just a few feet protrude below
the hull. Gorilla rigs are jackup rigs with legs up to
500 ft high. A jackup barge workover rig is used for
cementing and wireline work on offshore wells, (selfelevating platform or drilling unit)JU
jack V the A-frame upon which the walking beam
of a pumping well pivots
jack well a beam-pumping oil well powered by a
rod, jack, or shackle line connected to a central power
unit
J&A junked and abandoned
Jacob's staff a wooden rod that is used to support
a surveyor's compass
Jam in effect the increase in flow resistance when
one or more interfaces are present in a channel such
as a pore

a
jar

jar 1) a tool that is part of the drillstring on a cabletool rig. A jar is designed to impart a sudden jerk

on the cable-tool bit as the cable is raised and to

free a stuck bit 2) a tool used on a drilling or fishing
string to impart a sharp upward or downward blow
to the tools below it. Two types are hydraulic and
mechanical. When the downhole assembly is raised,
the jar stretches a distance that is called the stroke
length and is arrested while storing the energy. When
the jar is tripped, the assembly above the jar descends
to strike the blow. Jars are used for both drilling and
fishing. The fishing jar delivers a larger maximum
shock than the drilling jar. The fishing jar is placed
in the fishing string between the catch tool and the
drill collars. Types of fishing jars include a) oil jars,
b) mechanical jars, c) hydraulic rotary jars, d) nitrogen
jars, and e) jar or fluid accelerators. Other types of
jars are bumper, booster, surface, and drilling. 3) to
use a jar to give a heavy, controlled blow to a drillstring
or wireline tool
jar accelerator or intensifier % fishing tool
accessory that is used to intensify the effect of a
mechanical or hydraulic jar used to loosen a fish in
a well. The jar accelerator is located in the fishing
string above a jar. A fluid such as nitrogen is
compressed as the fishing string is raised. When the
tripping mechanism in the jar is released, the
expansion of the fluid in the jar accelerator amplifies
the force of the shock, (booster jar)
jar coupling see bumper sub
jarhead a person who works on a cable-tool rig
jar latch a type of cable-tool fishing tool that is used
to retrieve broken jars
jarring string a work string consisting of an
accelerator jar, drill collars, oil jar, bumper jar or
sub, and catching tool or screw-in sub
jar test a small volume test in a container to
determine the effects of adding chemicals, such as
an emulsion breaker to a fluid
jar weights the steel weights that are used to force
drive pipe through soil or into a hole
jasp jasper
jasper a variety of chert with iron oxide that gives
the rock a reddish color, jasp
jaw clutch a type of clutch that is used to connect
a prime mover to a driven machine by using jaws
that clamp together
JB 1) junk basket 2) junction box 3) jet bit
JC 1) job complete 2) junk catcher
jet junction
jellied gasoline a gasoline that has been thickened
with an aluminum-base soap or napalm. Jellied
gasoline was mixed with kerosine, diesel oil, or crude
oil to make the original, hydraulic frac fluid.
jerk chain A short chain that is used as a tong jerk
line on a drilling rig. The jerk chain is wrapped around
the cathead on the drawworks and is used for leverage
on the tongs.
jerker a line on a cable-tool rig that connects the
bandwheel crank to the drilling cable. The jerker gives
a jerking motion to the drilling cable and spudding
tools.
jerker pump a single-barrel downhole pump that
is activated by the back and forth movement of a

jerk line jetting the pits

shackle-rod line and counterweight. Jerker pumps
move small volumes.
jerk line 1) A rope used on a cable-tool rig to operate
the spudding tools. The jerk line is run over the
bandwheel and a pulley on the drilling line, (spudding
line) 2) a line that is used as a tong jerk line on a
rotary drilling rig. The jerk line is wrapped around
the cathead on the drawworks to give leverage during
making up or breaking out pipe and is used for the
final tightening or loosening of the pipe, (tong jerk
line)
jet 1) a high-velocity flow of fluid from a nozzle 2)
a method used to drill a seismic shothole by pumping
water or drilling mud down the drillstring. The
sediments are removed by the jetting action of the
fluid. 3) see jet nozzle
jet bit 1) a drilling bit that has a drilling fluids course
through the body of the bit and out jet nozzles between
the roller cones. An extended-nozzle jet bit has an
extension of several inches on the nozzles to position
the jet exit closer to the formation face. A jet nozzle
creates a higher circulating fluid velocity and pressure
drop than a regular bit with an orifice in the center
of the bit body. (JB) 2) see jet deflection bit
jet charge see shaped charge
jet collar a choke used on the tubing string of a
gas lift well. The jet collar consists of two tight-fitting
concentric tubes with holes in each. The jet collar
can be opened and closed by rotating the tubing from
the surface.
jet compressor a compressor that uses a Venturi
nozzle to increase the pressure of a gas. The gas to
be compressed is injected into the gas that has flown
through the Venturi nozzle.
jet cutoff the use of shaped-explosive charges to cut
stuck pipe in a well
jet cutter a downhole tool that uses a shaped
explosive charge to make a transverse cut on stuck
tubulars in a well. A jet cutter is used on tubing,
drillpipe, and casing.
jet deflection bit a specialized bit used in deviation
drilling that has two smaller jet nozzles and one larger
jet nozzle that is 3/4-7/s in. in diameter. The maximum
circulation rate is used to hydraulically drill a pilot
hole for kickoff. The jet deflection bit is used in
relatively soft rocks, (jet or jetting bit)
jet gun see jet perforating gun
jet lifting the cleaning of a wellbore using liquid
nitrogen pumped through a jet bit
jet mixer a mechanical blender that is used for
cement. The flow of water through a Venturi throat
produces a partial vacuum that draws in the dry cement
and uses turbulence to mix it with water. A jet mixer
is in contrast to a batch mixer.
jet nozzle a tungsten carbide orifice through which
the drilling fluid jets out between two adjacent cones
on the bottom of a roller-cone bit. The jet nozzle is
used to form a constriction in the drilling fluid flow
to produce a high velocity for lubricating and cleaning
roller-cone, milled-teeth and insert bits and to cut
and clean the hole. The orifice sizes on the nozzles
can be changed. There are normally three nozzles
on a tricone bit, each receiving an equal share of

275

the drilling fluid. The jet deflection bit has one nozzle
larger than the others to preferentially erode one side
of the well for kicking off a deviated well, (nozzle)
jet out to use a high-velocity liquid flow to clean
out tanks. Jetting out the pits is used to clean the
mud tanks on a drilling rig.
jet perforating the use of shaped explosive charges
at the level of the producing zone to blow holes in
casing or liner, cement, and formation with highvelocity gases. The velocity of the gases is about 30,000
ft/sec and generates an impact pressure of 4.4 million
psi. The shape of the cone-shaped charges can be
varied to alter the size and depth of penetration of
the gases. Jet perforating was first used in 1947 is in
contrast to gun perforating.
jet perforating gun the housing for the shaped
explosive charges used in jet perforating. Jet
perforating guns are classified as a) retrievable guns
and b) expendable guns. A retrievable gun (retrievable
hollow carrier gun) can be removed along with the
explosive debris from the well and reused. An
expendable gun disintegrates and leaves the debris
in the well. There is also a semiexpendable or
semiretrievable gun. The case that houses the charges
is made of die-cast aluminum, iron, glass, ceramic,
or plastic. A hollow steel carrier with 13/S- -5-in.
diameter can be used to protect the charges from
wellbore fluids. All wireline-conveyed guns use an
electric, detonating-cap ignition system that connects
to the primer cord that runs down the gun and contacts
each jet charge. All perforating guns are shot from
the bottom upwards. The gun can be either centralized
or decentralized and pressed against the casing or
liner. Tubing-conveyed guns are attached below a
tubing string or drillstring and are detonated by
pressure on a drop bar. (shaped-charge perforator)
jet pump a special type of hydraulic pump that has
no moving parts and is driven by a power fluid. The
power fluid is pumped down the tubing string and
through a nozzle to form a velocity head and into
the production inlet chamber where it entrains well
fluid. The power and well fluid enter the throat of
the pump where they mix and flow up the tubingcasing annulus. The jet pump is used in high volume,
gassy, or dirty wells.
jet-pump pellet-impact bit an experimental rock
bit that uses recirculating steel pellets to break and
crush the rock
jet sub a short length of pipe run between the bit
and an underreamer. The jet sub directs drilling fluid
onto the underreamer cones. The jet sub is also used
on the bottom of the drillstring to jet the conductor
pipe into soft formations.
jetting 1) the injection of gas into a subsurface
reservoir for the purpose of pressure maintenance
2) washing the screen on a shale shaker with a highpressure jet of water to separate drilling mud from
well cuttings 3) the periodic use of a jet nozzle to
remove some or all of the water, mud, and solids
from the mud tanks during jetting the pits
jetting bit see jet deflection bit
jetting tiie pits a method used to remove well
cuttings from the bottom of the mud tanks. A suction
hose pumps the well cuttings off the bottom of the

276

jetting runs Joule-Thomson effect

mud tank and discharges them into the reserve pits.

The suction on the hose comes from clean drilling
mud being pumped through a jet nozzle.
jetting runs the drilling, jetting, and trips made with
a jetting bit to deviate a wellbore
jet washing a method used to clean out perforation
tunnels in a well. Acid is pumped down tubing and
out a ported nipple or a washing tool and jetted into
the perforation tunnels to clean them of debris. Jet
washing is followed by a backflow during which the
acid is removed from the well.
jewelry scratchers and centralizers attached to a
string of casing
jib an extension to a boom used for lifting, (tip
extension)
jigging down to use a spring pole to drill a well
jmd jammed
jnk junked
J/O joint operation
JOA joint operating agreement
jobber a middleman who buys and sells or
introduces buyers and sellers
jobber margin the jobber's commission or
difference in buying and selling costs
Johnson bar a type of brake used on a drilling rig
Johnson bar idiot a driller
JOIDES Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep
Earth Sampling

joint

joint 1) a fracture in the rock along which there

has been no movement apparent to the naked eye.
A joint is in contrast to a fault along which there has
been movement. A healed or sealed joint is a fracture
in which crystals have formed to solidify the joint.
2) a length of tubular goods such as a drillpipe or
casing. A drillpipe joint is usually about 30 ft long
but can range 18-45 h.JTorjt
joint connection the pin (male) and box (female)
arrangement that is used to join joints of tubulars
with each other and with tools. All pin connections
are oriented down and box connections up except
for special equipment and bits.
joint consent well a well in which all parties in a
joint operating agreement elect to participate. If there
is a nonconsent party, there will be a production or
acreage penalty.
joint costs the costs of associated gas production
and oil production that are related

joint efficiency the tensile strength of a threaded

connection divided by the tensile strength of the pipe
body
jointer a pipe made of two smaller sections of pipes
joint identifier a gauge used to determine the match
between pin and box connections
joint loss a provision in a joint operating agreement
which stipulates if there is a title problem on some
land included in the agreement, all parties
proportionally share the loss and liability. There is
no adjustment to the individual party who contributed
the land having the title deficit. Joint loss is in contrast
to an individual loss.
joint operations an agreement between parties to
participate in the costs and production of leaseholds
called the contract area defined in a joint operating
agreement. The costs and production are usually
shared in proportion to the acreage contribution made
by each party. It can be done either by a) a drilling
and spacing unit at a time or b) as a working interest
area (called a working interest unit in the Rocky
Mountain region). J/O
joint operating agreement an agreement between
several companies to explore, drill, and develop an
area called the working interest area. The joint
operating agreement defines how the cost and
revenues are to be shared among the parties and
who is to be the operator. The operator must obtain
approval for expenditures through an AFE. The cost
estimate could be only for dry-hole costs but are often
for both dry-hole and producer costs. All intangible
drilling and development costs are shown in detail.
JOA
joint strength the minimum tensional force that
causes a tubular such as casing to fail
joint tenancy two or more owners (concurrent
ownership) of land. It is created by will or grant.
Joint tenancy with the right of survivorship means
that with the death of one owner, the survivor owns
the land./77?O5
joint unit well a well drilled in a unitized area
joint venture a partnership for a common purpose
such as exploring and drilling in an area. One partner
of the joint venture will be the operator. JV
joint working interest a working interest that is
owned by several parties. One party is the designated
operator, whereas the other parties are the
nonoperators. Each working-interest owner accounts
for their portion of the expenses and revenues. Joint
working interest is in contrast to partnership
accounting.
Jones effect the net surface tension decrease and
then increase as the salinity of a salt solution is
increased
JOP joint operating provisions
joule a derived unit in System International (SI) for
energy, work, and quantity of heat. A joule is calculated
by Newtons times meters (N x m). A joule is equal
to 107 ergs, 0.239 calories, and 0.738 ft lb, or
approximately 10~3 Btus. A kilojoule is about equal
to 1 Btu./
Joule-Thomson effect the cooling of a gas when
it is expanded. The Joule-Thomson effect is used to
remove hydrates from natural gas. (throttling effect)

Joule-Thomson expansion coefficient

Joule-Thomson expansion coefficient the
change of temperature with changing pressure at
constant enthalpy or heat content. The coefficient is
different for each gas and is positive for most gases,
which means the gas cools when it expands. Hydrogen
and helium, however, can heat up at certain
temperatures when expanding.
journal the load-bearing surface of a rotating shaft
upon which the bearings turn. On a roller-cone bit,
the journal supports the bearing in the cone and is
located on the pin attached to the leg.
journal angle the angle between a line
perpendicular to the axis of a journal on a cone and
the axis of the roller-cone bit. At a journal angle of
45, the cones are entirely rolling. The lower the
journal angle, the more gouging and scraping of the
rocks. The size of the angle also affects the size of
the cone with increasing journal angles equating with
decreasing cone size. The optimum journal angle for
soft rocks is 33; for hard rocks, 36. (pin angle)
journal bearing bit an advanced type of rollingcutter bit in which the roller bearings have been
eliminated, and the cones rotate in contact with a
journal bearing pin. Silver inlays are often used in
the journal to minimize friction. The larger contact
area on a journal bearing bit allows greater weight
on the bit. The bit must have effective grease seals
and is made with greater tolerances than the less
expensive standard or sealed-bearing bit.
journal box the metal container that supports the
journal
JP jet perforated
JPF or JP/ft jet perforations per foot
Js specific productivity index
JSPF jet shots per foot
Jt or jt 1) joint 2) jointe
J-tool a sleeved receptacle with a protrusion that fits
into a J-shaped slot on the sleeve. The J-tool is used
for running and positioning equipment in a well. The
short side of the J-slot will support the weight of the
protrusion, whereas the long side is open and will
release the protrusion. A drillstring in a well can
engage and disengage a J-tool by rotating in either
direction.
JTROS joint tenancy with right of survivorship
JTS or jts joints

JU jackup (drilling rig)

jug a microphone used on land to detect seismic
energy from the subsurface during seismic
exploration. The jug transforms seismic energy into
electric voltage. The jug usually consists of a moving
coil suspended by Springs in a magnetic field. Seismic
energy causes the case and magnet to move but not
the coil. This causes a voltage to occur across the
coil. Exploration jugs are sensitive to the 5-200 Hz
range. Jugs usually only record vertical motion. The
jug must have about 0.7 critical dampening. Spiked
jugs are designed to plant in the ground, whereas
other jugs are designed for use on ice. Jugs are
connected to each other and to tape recording
equipment by electronic cable, optical fiber cable,
or radio. Jugs are deployed in arrays, (geophone,
seismometer, pickup, seis, or phone)

junk

277

jug heater A small, indirect heater located next to

a gun barrel or a wash tank to provide a hot water
wash.
jug hustler a person who carries and positions the
geophones (jugs) on a seismic survey. A jug hustler
is a member of the cable crew, (juggie)
jug line a cable that connects seismic geophones
(jugs) to the instruments on a seismic survey
jug planter a person who plants the geophones
(jugs) on a seismic survey. A jug planter is a member
of the cable crew.
jumbo burner a torch that is used to burn
casinghead gas produced with oil. A jumbo burner
was often employed when there was no commercial
use for the gas. It is now prevented or restricted by
government regulatory agencies. Jumbo burners are
used on offshore rigs to dispose of oil and gas during
tests and when a well is blown to clean it. Jumbo
burners are located on a long extension or boom
and are surrounded by water and air jets to make
sure the oil and gas are completely burned.
jump to jerk the drillstring out of the well
jump a pin to break the pin end of a tool
jump correlation equating seismic events or
reflectors on seismic lines that are not tied-in
jumper hose the flexible tubing that carries drilling
mud and connects the riser to a manifold on an
offshore platform
jump the saddle the displacement of a walking beam
on a pumping unit from the groove or bearing upon
which it pivots
junction box a vented, waterproof metal box that
is located above ground and connects electrical cables.
A junction box is located between the switchboard
and wellhead on a well with an electric submersible
centrifugal pump. The junction box prevents any gas
coming up the electrical cable from reaching the
switchboard. JB
jungle up to camp out
junior observer a technician that works on a seismic
crew and is responsible for recording the seismic
data on magnetic tape. The junior observer works
under the observer.
junior orifice fitting a type of orifice fitting made
of one chamber. The orifice plate can be removed
by rack and pinion but the fitting must be
depressurized to remove the plate. The junior orifice
fitting is unlike the senior orifice fitting where the
orifice plate can be removed without interrupting the
flow.
junior toolpusher an employee of the drilling
contractor who is an experienced driller and works
under the senior toolpusher on an offshore drilling
rig. The junior toolpusher usually works the 8:00 P.M.
to 8:00 A.M. shift, (nightpusher or tourpusher)
junk 1) a tool, broken or stuck pipe, cable, rod,
packer, or other piece of equipment that has fallen
to the bottom of the well or is stuck in the well.
Lost roller cones followed by failed tool joints are
the most common junk. The junk must be removed
(fished out) of the well before drilling can resume.
A fishing string with fishing tools is used to remove
the junk, (fish) 2) to abandon a project

278

junk basket Jurassic

JUNK
junk

junk basket a fishing tool that looks like an overshot

and is used to retrieve small fish from the bottom
of a well. The junk basket is run on a fishing string
above a bit or milling tool. The junk basket consists
of a shoe, a sub with retainer fingers, a bowl or basket,
and an upper body. The spring-loaded horizontal
retainer fingers are attached to a rotating ring and
catch any junk above them. The small fish particles
are carried up the inside of the basket by reverse
circulation of a fluid and caught in the basket. The
junk basket can retrieve roller cpnes, hand tools, short
pieces of wire line, and other particles of that size.
A poor-boy junk basket was one of the first, rotary
fishing tools. Some modern types of junk baskets
include the core-type, boot basket, circulation junk
basket, finger shoe, junk basket with magnet insert,
and the double catcher. A reverse-circulation junk
basket uses a ball pumped down the fishing string
to cause the drilling mud to jet out the nozzles in
the basket. This causes reverse circulation, and the
junk is sucked into the tool. A junk basket is in contrast
to a boot basket, basket sub, or junk sub that uses
normal circulation and catches the fish on the outside
of the tool. JB
junk bit a hard formation roller-cone bit that is used
to drill steel or other man-made objects in the well.
A junk bit is used to clear out a well after explosive
fracturing.
junk catcher a fishing tool used to catch relatively
large objects suspended in drilling mud, such as
chunks of rubber. The junk catcher is run on a wireline
or tubular, has a slotted or perforated basket that is
open facing down, and has a diameter just smaller
than the casing diameter. The slots or perforations
are designed to catch the debris as the drilling mud
circulates through it. The junk catcher is often used
just below a packer or other close-fitting tool./C
junked well a well that has been abandoned due
to a fish that is unretrievable
junk hustler an oilfield truck driver, (gear jammer
or gravel hog)
junk mill a bit with diamond, tungsten carbide, or
hardened steel cutting edges that are used to grind
up stuck tools, caved-in pipe, or small metal objects
(junk) that fell to the bottom of the well. A junk basket
is used to catch the milled pieces, (mill)
junk pile worn-out equipment
junk retriever a type of fishing tool used to retrieve
small objects. The junk retriever first cuts a core
through the junk down to the bottom of the well

junk mill

and then uses reverse circulation to wash the pieces

into the tool.
junk shot a downhole explosion designed to break
fish or junk into small pieces that can be removed
by a fishing magnet or junk basket. Junk shots are
large, jet-shaped explosive charges run on an electric
wireline or drillstem and are designed to direct the
maximum explosive force downward.

junk slot

junk slot

junk slot

junk slot the flat indentation on the side of a diamond

bit that allows well cuttings and circulating fluid to
flow up past the bit
junk sub a short section of pipe that is located just
above a bit or mill on a drillstring and is designed
to catch large junk fragments in an outer bowl. Eddies
in the circulating drilling mud cause the fragments
to fall into the bowl. A junk sub is always run with
mills and whenever drilling metal or cement. As many
as three junk subs can be run on a string. Junk subs
can have either long or short barrels. A junk sub is
in contrast to a junk basket that uses reverse circulation
and catches the fish on the inside of the tool, (boot
basket or sub, or basket sub)
Jur Jurassic
Jurassic a period of geological time that occurred
200-140 m. y. ago. It is the middle period of the
Mesozoic Era. The Jurassic is subdivided into the Lower

jurat JV

279

Jurassic and Upper Jurassic global and North American

epochs. Jur
jurat a certificate sworn before a notary public
juvenile water water that has been derived from
magma and the eanh's interior and has not been
exposed to the atmosphere
JV joint venture

junk sub

280

ke

K
K 1) Kelvin 2) equilibrium ratio 3) spontaneous
electromotive force 4) electrochemical SP coefficient
5) bulk modulus 6) coefficient 7) kilobyte 8) partition
coefficient 9) weight factor 10) consistency index 11)
keel
k 1) permeability 2) absolute permeability 3)
electrokinetic 4) bulk modulus 5) wave number 6)
magnetic susceptibility 7) knot 8) flow coefficient 9)
salinity constant of fresh water 10) radiometric
constant of logging tool 11) kilo- 12) thermal
conductivity 13) slack-off or pick-up constant
K' 1) fluid consistency index 2) dimensionless
permeability
Ka thousands of years before present
kj, 1) permeability of a rock to air 2) absolute
permeability
Kj,,,, coefficient of anistropy
Kansan an age of geological time that occurred
during the Pleistocene epoch. It is the second glacial
stage of the Pleistocene and is the equivalent of the
Mindel in Europe.
Kao or kao kaoline
kaoline a white, soft earthy clay composed primarily
of the clay mineral kaolinite. The kaoline clay mineral
family includes the species a) kaolinite, b) dickite,
c) nacrite, and d) halloysite. Kao or kao
kaolinite a clay mineral that is formed by two sheets
of aluminum silicates and has the chemical formula
(OHQaA^S^Oio. Kaolinite has a density of 2.62 gms/
cm 3 and a cell dimension of 7.37 A. Kaolinite is the
simplest of all the types of clay minerals and can form
from intense chemical weathering. Kaolinite has a very
low cation exchange capacity and absorbs water only
along the edges of the clay plates. It is chemically
stable and will not react with HC1, but will react with
HC1/HF. Authigenic kaoline is delicately attached to
the mineral grains in the rock; it can be dislodged
by drilling-mud filtrate and can clog pore throats,
thereby causing formation damage. Formation damage
can be controlled by using a clay control agent during
well treatment along with slow injection rates. Under
the scanning electron microscope, kaolinite plates
form booklets.
K/Ar age dating a method of determining the age
of the rock formation using the natural radioactive
decay of IC^to Ar40which has a half-life of 1.8 billion
years. The amount of K^and Ar40is measured in
minerals such as micas to determine the amount of
radioactive decay and, therefore, the age of the
mineral.

karst

karst limestone, dolomite, or gypsum that has been

highly dissolved by water. Karst topography has
sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage.
Kasimovian a global age of geological time that
started about 310 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Permian epoch.
katagenesis see catagenesis
KB or K.B. kelly bushing
KBH kelly bushing height
K,. 1) electrochemical spontaneous potential (SP)
coefficient 2) rock compressibility coefficient
kcal kilocalorie
KDB kelly drive bushing
KDBE kelly drive bushing elevation
K,. 1) electrochemical spontaneous potential (SP)
coefficient 2) dielectric constant
k,. effective permeability

<= Swivel

Kelly

=Keliy
Bushing
Rotary
Table

<=Drill Pipe
kelly

kelly
kelly a four- or six-sided steel pipe that is 41 feet
long with a 38-ft working space (flat) or 54 ft long
with a 51-ft working space. The square kelly has an
outside diameter of 2\h or 6 in., and the hexagonal
kelly has an outside diameter of 3 or 6 in. The kelly
is located at the top of the drillstring between the
swivel and drillpipe and fits into the kelly bushings
on the rotary table to make the connection between
the rotary table and the drillstring. The kelly is the
most heavily loaded part of the the drillstring and is
manufactured from bars of high-grade, heat-treated,
chrome molybdenum steel. The kelly first appeared
about 1915 and was square. Kelly was named after
Michael J. (King) Kelly, a Chicago baseball player
(1880-1887) who was known for his base running
and long slides. A kelly-saver sub is used to protect
threads on the lower end. Located on either end of
the kelly are kelly cocks that close if fluids flow up
the string. The lower kelly cock is closed to prevent
loss of drilling mud when making a connection, (kelly
bar or joint or griefstem)
kelly and pipe straightener a manually operated
hydraulic jack that bends the kelly, drill collars, and
drillpipe straight as they are hanging in the rotary
or laying horizontal
kelly bar see kelly
kelly board a platform in the derrick of a drilling
rig at the height of the kelly

kelly bushing

kelly bushing a device that fits on the master

bushing in the rotating table on the floor of a drilling
rig to couple the master bushing and rotary table
with the kelly on the drillstring. Hard metal liners
in the kelly bushing fit flush against the kelly flats.
The kelly bushing is connected to the master bushing
with either a) four drive pins that fit into four holes
bored into the master bushing, or b) a square fitting
that fits into a square recess in the master bushing.
The kelly bushing contains one to five drive rollers
on each side of the kelly to allow the kelly to slide
down through the bushing as the well is drilled deeper.
(drive or kelly drive bushing) KB or K.B.
kelly bushing rollers wheels or cylinders that are
mounted in the kelly bushing and contact the kelly.
The kelly bushing rollers allow the kelly to move
up and down inside the kelly bushing, (drive rollers)
kelly cock a short sub that can be installed either
above the kelly (upper-kelly cock) or below the kellysaver sub (lower-kelly cock) and is used to prevent
fluids from flowing up the center of the kelly. The

kerogen type

281

lower-kelly cock or drillstem safety valve has a fullbore ball valve that can be turned with a hexagonal
wrench. It is closed when making a connection on
the rig to prevent spillage of drilling mud on the
drill floor. The upper-kelly cock is a backpressure
valve that protects the equipment above the kelly.
(kelly stopcock)
kelly drive bushing see kelly bushing. KDB
kelly driver a kelly bushing
kelly flat the flat surface that runs along the length
of a four- or six-sided kelly (flat)
kelly hole the rathole on the drill floor of a drilling
rig
kelly hose see rotary hose
kelly joint see kelly
kelly-saver sub a small section of pipe that is run
below the kelly on a drillstring to protect the threads
on the bottom of the kelly
kelly scabbard a covering that protects the kelly
during rig moving
kelly spinner a pneumatic or hydraulic motor that
is located on the lower part of the swivel and attaches
to the top of the kelly. The kelly spinner is used for
light-duty rotating and to screw the kelly into a joint
of drillpipe in the mousehole when a connection is
made.
kelly stabber a system used to make a connection
on the drill floor. It has an air hoist with a wireline and hook that is placed around the kelly. The
kelly stabber is activated by air throttle valves at the
driller's station. The kelly stabber is used to move
the kelly onto the next joint of drillpipe in the
mousehole, stab the pipe, and make up the connection.
kelly stopcock see kelly cock
Kelvin the System International (SI) unit for
temperature. K
Kelvin temperature scale the scientific scale that
uses Celsius degrees to indicate temperature above
absolute zero (-273.18C). To convert Celsius to
Kelvin, add 273-18. The temperature scale is named
after Lord W.T. Kelvin, a British mathematician and
physicist (1824-1907).
kerf the annular groove that is cut by a coring bit
KERO kerosene
kerobitumen a native bitumen that is an altered
form of kerogen
kerogen organic matter in sedimentary rocks that
is insoluble in organic and aqueous alkaline solvents.
Kerogen is formed from the breakdown of plant and
animal material. It can be classified visually by
morphology and color into groups called macerals,
and chemically into types by the elemental
composition of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In
shales, kerogen content ranges from 80% to 95% of
the organic matter. The term was originally restricted
to the insoluble organic matter in oil shale. Heat and
time changes kerogen in sedimentary rock into
petroleum in a process called maturation. Kerogen
is in contrast to bitumen that is soluble in organic
solvents, (petrologen)
kerogen type a classification of kerogen based on
its elemental composition of carbon, hydrogen, and

282

kerotenes kickoff or kick off

oxygen. Of the four types of kerogen (I, II, III, and

IV), Types I and II form crude oil when mature and
gas when postmature. Type HI kerogen forms gas
only when mature, whereas Type IV will not produce
any petroleum.
kerotenes the part of bitumen that is insoluble in
carbon disulfide
key 1) a tool that fits the shoulders of sucker rods
and is used to pull or run rods in a pumping oil
well 2) to use a cotter key to secure a nut to a bolt
key bed an easily recognizable and extensive rock
layer. A key bed is used for correlation.
key fraction a standard Hempel distillation cut. Key
fraction boils between 482 and 527F at atmospheric
pressure.
KEY HORIZON

seat during tripping out. Keyseating is a major cause

of mechanical pipe sticking in a well. KEY-S
key-seat barge a drilling or workover barge with a
mast mounted on one side over a conduit that has
been cut into the side
keyseating the situation in which a part of the
drillstring is caught in a smaller diameter groove (key
seat) worn in the side of the well where the well
makes a bend
key seat or keyseat wiper a sub with reamers or
spiral blades that is used on a drillstring to cut and
maintain the wellbore diameter to prevent the drill
collars from becoming stuck in a key seat. Keyseat
wipers are most effective in soft formations.
keystone fault a graben-like structure on the top
of an anticline or uplift
K factor Y/Xt where Yt is the mol fraction of a
component in the vapor phase, and Xt is the mol
fraction of the component in the liquid phase. It is a
function of temperature, pressure, and composition.
(equilibrium constant, partition coefficient, or vaporliquid equilibrium) K
K-feldspar see orthoclase
Kfe potassium feldspar
kg kilogram
kg/cm kilograms per centimeter
kg/k seekrg

key horizon

key horizon the top or bottom surface of an easily

recognizable and extensive bed that is often used for
correlation and contouring subsurface maps
KEY-S key seat

o
z

keyseat

key seat or keyseat a groove cut by the drillstring

in the sides of a deviated or crooked well. A cross
section of the wellbore looks like a key hole. A keyseat
occurs at a bend, a minimum of 2-47l00 ft, in the
well and is most common in soft formations. The
key seat has a smaller diameter than the main borehole,
and the larger diameter components of the drillstring
such as the drill collars cannot pass through the key

kg/m3 kilogram per cubic meter

KGS known geological structure
kj, 1) thermal conductivity 2) horizontal permeability
kHz kilohertz
k, effective permeability at input
kick 1) the unintended flow of formation fluid into
a well being drilled. Kicks can be described by the
type of fluid flowing into the well such as natural
gas, hydrogen sulfide, or saltwater, the amount of fluid
flowing into the well (such as a 30-bbI gas kick) and
the required mudweight increase to control the kick
(such as 0.5 ppg). Kicks are indicated by an increase
in a) mud-tank level, b) an increase in bit penetration
rate, c) a decrease in circulation pressure, d) gas-,
oil-, or water-cut drilling mud, or e) an increase in
chloride content in the drilling mud. 2) a distinctive
deflection on a well log 3) a deflection in a wellbore
kick a well oflf to place a well on gas lift
kicked 1) a well being drilled that has subsurface
fluid flowing into it 2) a well being drilled off at a
planned angle
kick her off to start an engine
kick hole to drill a well
kicking the flowing of formation fluids into a well
kicking down a well an early method of drilling
a well using an ash or hickory pole that was suspended
over the hole. A stirrup was used to kick and pound
the well down with a bit on a rope.
kicking over the bell nipple an overflow of
foaming drilling mud caused by formation gas entering
the well
kickoff or kick off 1) to start the angle build-up
in a deviated hole (kick out) 2) to bring a well into
production

kickoff or kick-off depth or point

kickoff or kick-off depth or point the depth in a
well where the well is initially deviated. It is the initial
angle-building portion of a deviated well. KOP
kickoff or kick-off pressure the pressure,
measured at the surface, that is necessary to start flow
in a gas-lift well
kick on the rope to connect the bull wheel on a
cable-tool rig to pull the tools from the well
kick out to start the angle build-up in a deviated
hole, (kickoff or kick off)
kickout clause a provision in some oil and gas
purchase contracts that allows the purchaser to
renegotiate the contract under certain marketing or
pricing conditions
kick sub a small section of pipe (sub) that is run
just above the bottom of the drillstring to force a
bottom-hole tool to one side in order to initiate
deviation (kick off) in a well
kick the well off to start a pumping well (bounce
off the engine)
kick up to increase an allowable on a well
kill 1) to prevent an impending blowout on a well
being drilled by closing the blowout preventers and
pumping heavier drilling mud down the well. Two
common methods are wait-and-weigh and driller's
method. 2) to stop production (kill a well) on a
producing well 3) to make a trace a record of one
channel on a seismic record equal to zero
kill a well to stop a producing well or to stop
formation fluids flowing into a well being drilled by
circulating heavy fluid (kill fluid) down the well. Kill
a well is in contrast to shutting in the well by closing
the valves at the wellhead.
killer well a well that is drilled to control a wild
well that is blowing out of control. The killer well is
a directional well drilled at a safe distance on the
surface from the wild well. The killer well approaches
the wild well in the subsurface and is used to drain
the pressure out of the abnormal high-pressure
formation causing the blow out. The blowout well is
then cleaned out and a cement plug is set for
abandoning or casing, (relief well)
kill fluid any liquid pumped into a well to stop a
kick. The kill fluid is usually kill mud, but in a
dangerous situation, an emergency kill fluid is used.
Almost any available fluid such as ocean water is used
without regard to consequences, (kill iveight fluid)
kill line a hard rubber hose that connects the
standpipe manifold and drilling spool through a side
outlet (kill valve) below the ram preventer on a
blowout-preventer stack. The kill line is used to pump
heavier drilling mud (kill fluid) directly into the
annulus of a well when the blowout preventers are
closed. The kill line has a large gate valve that is
fail-safe for regulating flow and a nonreturn valve.
kill mud a weighted drilling mud used as kill fluid
and pumped into a well to stop the flow of fluids
into the well. The kill mud will exert a greater pressure
on the formation causing the kick than the formation
pressure. Killing a well is done during drilling when
there is a kick and in preparation for a workover
such as when pulling tubing on a producing well.
The kill mud used during a workover is also called
load mud.

kinetic energy

283

kill-rate pressure the amount of circulating

pressure measured at the drillpipe gauge when the
mud pumps are operating at the kill rate
kill sheet a printed form with steps to kill a well
and spaces to record information as the well is being
killed
kill string 1) a very small diameter string of tubing
run in the production string of a gas well to reduce
flow 2) A tubing string hung from the wellhead that
is used-to circulate heavy mud to kill a well
kill tank see slug tank
kill valve a valve on the drilling spool of a blowoutpreventer stack on a drilling rig that allows heavier
kill mud to be pumped down a shut-in well
kill-weight fluid see kill fluid
kilo a prefix in the metric system for 103
kilo- the metric prefix for 103 k
kilobyte computer memory that can store 210or 1,024
bytes or characters. A character is a symbol such as
A or 2.
kilogram the System International (SI) unit for mass.
A kilogram is equal to 1,000 g. Kilograms can be
converted to pounds by multiplying by 2.205. kg
kilograms per cubic meter the System
International (SI) unit used for mud density. The
conventional unit is ppg (US). The conventional unit
can be converted to the SI unit by multiplying by
119-82. kglm"
kilohertz one hundred cycles per second. KHz
kiloliter one hundred liters. A kiloliter is equal to
220 Imp gal, 264 U.S. gal, or about one metric tonne
of crude oil.
kilometer a metric unit of length. A kilometer is
equal to 1,000 m, 0.53961 naut mi, and 0.62137 statute
mi.
kilopascal the System International (SI) unit for
pressure. The conventional unit is psi. The
conventional unit can be converted to the SI unit by
multiplying by 6.895. kPa
kilopascals per meter the System International (SI)
unit for mud gradient. The conventional unit is psi/
foot, and the conventional unit can be converted to
the SI unit by multiplying by 22.621. kPalm
kilowatt a metric unit of power. A kilowatt is equal
to about 1.34 hp. kW or kw
Kimeridigian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 155-145 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Upper Jurassic epoch.
Kinderhookian a North American epoch of
geological time that started about 365 m. y. ago. It is
part of the Mississippian period.
kinematic viscosity the ratio of the viscosity of a
fluid in units of poises to the density of the fluid.
Kinematic viscosity is reported in units of stokes or
centistokes. It is often measured in time for a volume
of the fluid to flow through a standard capillary tube
or orifice such as a Marsh funnel, (absolute viscosity)
KV
kinetic energy the energy of an object in motion.
Kinetic energy is equal to the work that must be done
by a force on the object in order to take the object

284

kinetics Kozeny's equation

from a state of rest to its present state of motion.

Kinetic energy is equal to one half the mass of the
object times the velocity of the object squared. Kinetic
energy is in contrast to potential energy.
kinetics the study of chemical reaction rates and the
effect of temperature, pressure, time, and
concentrations
kink a twist, bend, or loop in a wire rope that has
been pulled tight
kinkfold a fold in sedimentary rocks with planar
limbs and a sharp angular hinge
KIOGA Kansas Independent Oil and Gas Association
Kirkfieldian a North American age of geological
time that occurred about 457 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Ordovician period.
kj kilojoules
k^ klinkenberg-corrected permeability
kid killed
Klein tongs a long, heavy set of metal tongs that is
used on a cable-tool rig to screw pipe together
Klinkenberg-corrected permeability measured
permeability that has been corrected for gas slippage
during the measurement and is now correct for liquid
flow through the rock. A chart called the Klinkenberg
scale is used to make the correction. The correction
is unnecessary for 1 darcy and higher permeabilities,
but can be as much as 0.6 for a millidarcy of
permeability. kL
Klinkenberg effect the difference between the flow
of a gas and a liquid through a reservoir. Gas has a
higher velocity near the grain surfaces than a liquid
such as water or oil
Klinkenberg permeability factor a compensation
for the use of low-pressure gas rather than a liquid
to measure permeability in a rock. The Klinkenberg
permeability factor is derived from the Klinkenberg
scale and is approximately equal to 0.777 &iiq~0'39
Klinkenberg scale a plot of measured
permeabilities using air at different pressures on a
rock and extrapolating it to infinite pressure which
approximates the permeability of that rock to a liquid.
The Klinkenberg scale is used to compensate for the
use of a gas to make permeability measurements
instead of water or oil.
k|j q permeability of a liquid
Klusterite a hard metal used for cutting
km kilometer
maximum permeability in the horizontal
direction
KMt longest metacentric height above keel
K-Monel a metal that has mechanical properties
similar to steel and a magnetic permeability similar
to air. K-Monel drill collars are made in 18-30-ft
sections and are used for deviation drilling and
magnetic surveys.
km2 square kilometer
kn knot
knife a well to remove wax from a well using a
paraffin knife
k^ 0 permeability measure at 90 to maximum
horizontal permeability

knock the thump noise caused by improper fuel

burning in the cylinder of an engine
knock down oil to separate water from crude oil
knocker a sliding link on a drilling jar
knock-off joint a device used to unclamp and shut
in a jack well
knock-off post the post on a pumping well through
which the rod line moves up and down. When a well
is to be shut down, the knock-off post is used to
disengage the rod-line hook.
knock out to separate oil, gas, and water by gravity.
KO
knockout 1) baffles in a tank that are used to separate
gas from a liquid 2) a separator that is either a freewater knockout or a total-liquid knockout
knockout drops a demulsifier used to separate and
determine the amount of sediment and water in an
emulsion sample (slugging compound)
knock-out drum a small container used to remove
liquids from gas before the gas is run through a
compressor
knockout vessel, drum, or trap see separator
knot 1) a non-System International (SI) unit that is
allowable in SI for marine and aerial velocity and is
one nautical mph. A knot is 1.151 statute mph, 1.852
k/hr, or 0.514 rn/s. k or kn 2) a pipe collar
knothead an inexperienced worker that probably
has no capability of becoming a good worker
knowledge bench the driller's stool
knowledge box the desk or cupboard where the
driller's orders, reports, and records are kept
knowledge stick a measuring stick that is used to
determine the depth of a cable-tool well by measuring
the length of drilling line used, (five-foot stick)
known geological structure a subsurface trap
which has been determined to be productive for
petroleum by drilling. If it occurs on federal land,
the land must be put up for competitive bidding. KGS
knuckle joint a hinged joint with a ball swivel that
holds a tool on a drill or work string and allows the
tool to swivel on a ball and socket with a degree of
freedom. One type is hydraulically activated. Knuckle
joints are used on fishing strings to give an angle to
the tool and to kick off a deviated well.
KO 1) kicked off 2) knock out
k,, effective permeability to oil
Kobe porosimeter an instrument used to measure
porosity in a sample. The Kobe porosimeter consists
of a mercury pump, a core chamber with sight glass,
compressed air or helium gas, valves, and a pressure
gauge.
ko/k relative permeability to oil. (k^
Kolor Kut a paste indicator used for gasoline and
water
Koomey fluid blowout preventer hydraulic fluid
Koomey unit a tradename that is identified with
any make of blowout preventer control unit
KOP kickoff point
Kozeny's equation an equation that relates
permeability to porosity. The equation is k = <$>3/KS2
in which k is the coefficient of permeability, 4> is

 k.y.B.P.
porosity, 5 is the surface area per unit volume of
rock, and K is Kozeny's constant.
kp 1) effective permeability at producer 2) proppant
permeability
kPa kilopascal
kPa/m kilopascals per meter
kph kilometers per hour
kg formation resistivity factor coefficient
k, relative permeability
k,g relative permeability of a rock to gas. (kg/k)
kriging a reservoir description based on random
field theory for interpolation of reservoir parameters
between wells. Kriging is a geostatistical method used
to estimate a value or parameter at an unsampled
location using the spatial relationship of known sample
values. Kriging is named after Danie Krig, a South
African geostatistician.
K^ relative permeability to oil (k^)
k , , relative permeability to water (kw/k)
k, spherical flow permeability

285

k(t) time series of reflection coefficient

Kungurian a global age of geological time that
started about 270 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Permian epoch.
KV kinematic viscosity
kV or kv kilovolt
ky vertical permeability
K.VA. or kva kilovolt-ampere
kvah kilovolt-ampere-hour
K-value see equilibrium ratio
KW killed well
kW or kw kilowatt
1^ effective permeability to water
kwh or kW-h kilowatt-hour
Kwik Seal lost circulation material
kJKseekm,
k.y. thousand years
k.y.B.P. thousand years before present

286

L lamination

L 1) liter 2) length 3) liquid 4) moles of liquid phase

5) inductance 6) line 7) lime 8) lateral log
11) lower 2) laminar 3) laminated 4) lamination 5)
liter
L/ lower
/L line
LA load acid
Lab labor
labor a Spanish land measure of about 177 acres
lac lacustrine
LaCoste-Romberg borehole gravimeter a heated
gravimeter that makes measurements of the earth's
gravity at discrete stations in a borehole. The
gravimeter is clamped to the borehole wall, and several
readings are made over a period of 5-10 minutes.
The gravimeter has a reliability of about 7 gal. The
LaCoste-Romberg borehole gravimeter is used to
determine porosity of the formations surrounding the
wellbore and has a radius of investigation from 10s
of feet to 1,000 ft.
LaCoste-Romberg gravimeter an astatic type of
gravimeter that uses a weight on a beam that is
suspended by a zero-length spring with tension on
it. A change in gravity causes the weight to move.
The main spring is balanced by a screw that restores
a light beam to null.
LACT lease automatic custody transfer
LACT unit a system that automatically gauges,
samples, and transfers crude oil from the stock tanks
on a lease to a pipeline. A LACT unit collects and
records production and accounting data including the
volume, temperature, API, and bottom sediment and
water content of the oil. The equipment includes a)
a charging pump, b) strainer, c) air eliminator, d)
sampler, e) sediment and water monitor, f) wet-oil
diverting valve, g) liquid meter, h) meter proving
connection, and i) backpressure valve. The two types
of systems are the meter type and the volumetric dump
type. The meter type has continuous flow of oil from
the tanks to the pipeline, whereas the volumetricdump type has two tanks that are alternately filled
and dumped into the pipeline. A probe automatically
senses the bottom sediment and water content of the
crude oil. If the oil exceeds the sales contract quality,
a diverter valve is activated and the oil goes back
through the system for more treatment, (leaseautomatic custody transfer unit)
lacustrine a lake environment, lac

ladinian a global age of geological time that

occurred about 240-230 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Middle Triassic epoch.
lag 1) the time difference between two events 2) the
distance that the detector moves during the
radioactivity counting period during nuclear logging
lag deposit a deposit of coarse-grained sediments
left by the erosion or winnowing of fine-grained
sediments by a current of water or air flowing over
the sediments
lagged depth the depth of well cutting samples that
has been compensated for lag time
lagging insulation used to cover vessels and pipes
laggings hoisting-drum spool shells that are
removable and interchangeable. Laggings are used
to change a hoisting-drum diameter for different rope
speeds and line pulls.
lagoon the relatively quiet coastal-waters
environment behind a barrier such as a reef or barrier
island
lag time or lagtime the time that it takes the well
cuttings to be carried by the drilling fluid ^rom the
bottom of the well to the surface (cuttings time lag)
or the drilling mud to circulate from the bottom of
the well to the surface (mud time lag). On an SVi-in.
diameter well, the lag time is about 10 min/1,000 ft.
The lag time can be determined by timing tracers in
the mud such as carbide, corn, lentil or rice. Lagtime
can also be calculated by using the volume of the
well and the capacity of the mud pumps. Lag time is
one-half circulating or cycle time, (uptime)
laid length the length of a tubular not counting the
threads. Laid length is in contrast to over-all length.
LAMD, Lam, or lam laminated
A. 1) mobility 2) wavelength 3) Lame's constant 4)
coefficient of anisotropy 5) decay constant 6)
coefficient of thermal expansion
V, apparent wavelength
Xg gas mobility
Xo oil mobility
X^, water mobility
lamina the thinnest depositional layer that is
recognized in sedimentary rocks. A lamina is less than
1 cm thick.
laminar flow a type of fluid flow in which the
direction of flow remains constant with time at each
point in the flow. Laminar flow is characteristic of
fluid flow through permeable rocks and is in contrast
to turbulent flow, (streamline flow or viscous flow)
laminar shale a shale with thin layers or laminations
laminated a sedimentary rock layer that has very
fine layering (lamina) or can be split into thin layers.
LAMD, Lam, or lam
lamination a very fine layering (lamina) in a
sedimentary rock. (LAMS)

LAMS Latorlat
LAMS laminations
land to lower and set one piece of equipment in
place on another piece of equipment
land base map a map that shows ownership
boundaries and lease information
land department the section in an oil company that
monitors the development of leased properties and
supervises the distribution of royalties and other
payments
landing casing lowering a string of casing into a
well until it rests on a shoulder or place in the well
below which the wellbore diameter is smaller
landing collar a short section of steel pipe that
connects two joints of casing and is used during
cementing. The landing collar is usually located either
one casing joint above the float collar or two or more
joints above the float or casing shoe. The landing
collar is used to provide space for the mudcontaminated cement. It catches and seats the wiper
plug and prevents it from moving uphole if a valve
fails.
landing depth the measured depth in a well to
which a tubular string, such as casing, extends
landing joint a short casing joint that is used when
running casing. The landing joint is the last joint run
on a casing string and is not made up very tight.
After the cement has hardened, the landing joint is
broken out and a bradenhead is made up.
landing nipple 1) a production casing-string
receptacle that allows for seating a plug or valve 2)
a short tubular nipple with tubular threads that is
part of the tubing string and is used for landing the
string in the well at a predetermined depth. The
landing nipple can be either nonselective, a receiver
for a locking device, or selective that is full-opening.
The landing nipple is made of special alloy steel,
stainless steel, or K-Monel.
landman a person responsible for identifying and
locating mineral-rights owners and negotiating leases.
The landman identifies tracts that are available for
leasing. After receiving a lease purchase authority, the
landman can negotiate a lease with the mineral rights
owner. After the lease is acquired and before drilling,
the landman could have to do an extensive
examination of the records and titles. The landman
might also be responsible for maintaining the lease
records. A landman can either work for an oil company
or be an independent broker, (leaseman)
landowner or landowner's royalty the share or
payment of gas and/or oil production that is free from
the costs of production and is paid to the lessor. The
royalty was originally one-eighth but is now anywhere
from one-eighth to one-fourth, (fee, gross, lessor's,
or leasehold royalty)
landowner's royalty pool a business arrangement
in which the royalty and/or mineral interests are
assigned to a corporation or business trust in return
for an interest in the trust or shares in the corporation.
In this manner, the landowner can share in the
production from the large area covered by the trust
or corporation.
Land Registry Office the Canadian agency that
maintains records of land title owners and other
related legal instruments.

287

Landsat an unmanned remote-sensing system

consisting of five satellites launched and originally
operated by the United States government. Landsat
operates on an open-sky policy in which images are
taken everywhere, archived, and made available for
purchase at uniform prices and priorities to everyone.
Landsat 1 was launched in 1972 and Landsat 5 in 1984.
Prior to 1974, it was known as ERTS (Earth Resources
Technology Satellite). Landsats 1, 2, and 3 orbit at a
height of 570 mi in sun-synchronous orbits and cover
the earth in 18 days. Landsats 4 and 5 orbit at 438
mi and cover the earth in 16 days. Landsats 1,2, and
3 have a multispectral scanner (MSS) imaging system;
Landsat 3 also has a return-beam vidicon (RBV),
panchromatic imaging system. Landsats 4 and 5 have
a thematic mapper (TM) along with the multispectral
scanner imaging system. The multispectral scanner
records in four wavelengths or spectral bands that
include green, red, and two infrareds which can be
used to make an infrared composite image. The
thematic mapper records several bands of data in
visible through thermal infrared wavelengths. The
image data is transmitted from the satellite to receiving
stations and recorded on magnetic tape. The Landsat
data is available through the EOSAT Company.
landslide the sudden collapse into a wellbore of
loose debris that has built up along the sides of a
wellbore cavity. A landslide occurs most often when
drilling mud circulation is stopped.
Langhian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 17-15.4 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Middle Miocene epoch.
Lang's lay a wire rope winding pattern in which
both the strands and the wires in the strand are twisted
in the same direction or hand. A Lang's lay can be
either a right lay or left lay depending on whether
the strands are twisted to the right or left as one
looks at the end of the rope. Drilling line is usually
constructed with Lang's lay. The other type of wire
rope winding pattern is ordinary or regular lay.
language computer languages such as Fortran, Algol,
and Cobal
lap the area on the bottom of a casing string that is
overlapped by the top of a liner
lap of wire a layer of wire rope on the drawworks
drum
lap point the point on a drilling line where a new
lap or layer of wire rope begins on the drawworks
drum. The lap point is an area of severe wear.
lap-welded pipe pipe or casing made by bending
sheet steel around a mandrel and welding the
overlapping seam. Lap-welded pipe is in contrast to
seamless pipe.
LARIO the Louisiana Association of Independent
Producers and Royalty Owners
last engaged thread the last crest on the thread of
one coupling to engage the root on the thread of
another coupling when they are screwed together
last reading the last or shallowest accurate
measurement made by a logging tool. LR
LAT logged after trip
LAT or lat latitude
Lat or lat laterite

288

latch laying cable

latch a locking device

latching the tongs engaging and securing the tongs
on a drilling rig around drillpipe or casing
latch on to fasten elevators or tongs onto a joint or
stand of pipe
latch sub a short fitting that is run on the bottom
of a tubing string along with seal subs. The latch sub
is clamped to the permanent packer to retard tubing
string movement in the well.
late mature a stage of kerogen maturity between
peak and post mature when oil and gas generation
is decreasing. In oil source rocks, it corresponds to
a vitrinite reflectance of 1.0%-1.3%, a thermal
alteration index of 2.6-3.5 and a spore color index
of 7-9. In gas prone source rocks, late mature
corresponds to vitrinite reflectance of 2.2%-3.0% and
a thermal alteration index of 3.6-4.0.
latent heat the amount of heat necessary to vaporize
a volume of liquid at the boiling temperature without
raising the temperature
lateral line a smaller diameter pipeline from a lease
or tank battery that feeds into the trunk line
lateral log a type of electrical resistivity well log. A
lateral log is made by passing a constant electric
current from an electrode on a sonde through a
formation in a well and measuring the voltage
difference between two other electrodes that are
spaced closely together on the sonde. The lateral log
is similar to the normal resistivity type, but has a deeper
radius of investigation used to measure Rt. The curves,
however, are difficult to interpret. L
lateral piping the small-diameter gathering pipeline
system for gas wells
laterite a highly weathered soil zone of iron and
aluminum oxides. Laterite is characteristic of tropical
and forested warm and temporate climates, hat or
lot
Laterolog an electric wireline well log that focuses
the current back into the rocks with guard or bucking
electrodes in a narrow zone. The laterolog records
the conductivity-resistivity of the rocks and their fluids
on a smaller diameter center or guarded electrode.
The log is used when the drilling mud is very
conductive or the beds are thin and have high
resistivities. The Laterolog is used to determine the
true resistivity of the rocks (/?,) and to correlate
between wells. LL
latex cement a type of cement used in wells that
is a mixture of cement (API Class A,G, or H) and
liquid or powdered latex. The latex improves the
bonding strength and filtration control of the cement.
latitude the angular north-south distance on the
earth in degrees measured from the equator. LAT or
lot
latitude correction a correction applied to gravity
meter data to compensate for the variation in distance
to the center of the earth with latitude
launching barge a barge with an extensive, clear
deck that is used to float out the jacket for an offshore
platform. Apparatus on the barge tilt and slide the
jacket into the water.
lav lavender

lava molten rock that is flowing on the surface of

the earth or has cooled and solidified on the surface
of the earth
law of additive pressures the total pressure exerted
by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
pressures (partial pressures) exerted by each
component (Dalton's law of partial pressures)
law of reflection the angle of incidence at an
interface equals the angle of reflection
lay 1) the twist direction of wire in a wire rope.
Regular lay, right-lay rope is wound with wire in the
strands laid to the left and the strands laid to the
right as one views the wire rope from the end of
the rope. Regular-lay, left-lay rope has wires in strands
laid to the right with strands laid to the left. Lang'slay rope has both the wires in the strands and the
strands laid in the same direction. 2) the distance
along the wire rope that one wire strand extends in
one revolution
lay an egg 1) to explosively frac a well 2) to acidize
a well
lay barge a barge that is designed to lay offshore
pipelines. Some are built similar to ships and
semisubmersibles.
laydown or lay down to lay pipe in the pipe rack
laydown drilling and spacing unit a rectangularshaped unit with a long axis running east-west. This
is in contrast to a standup drilling-and-spacing unit
in which the long axis runs north-south.
lay-down job 1) to jackknife a derrick or mast before
moving the rig 2) a gin pole that can be moved up
or down
lay down pipe, rods or tubing to pull drillpipe,
rods or tubing from a well and stack them in single
joints horizontally on a lay-down or pipe rack next
to the rig or well
lay-down rack the platform next to a drilling rig
that is used to horizontally store drillpipe, tubing,
and rods
lay-down trough a heavy metal trough with legs
that is set at an angle on the drill floor. One end of
the trough is near the rotary table and the other end
extends over the edge of the rig floor through the
V-door. The laydown trough is used to slide drillpipe
with thread protectors off the drill floor when laying
down pipe.
lay-down wire a steel cable that has one end
clamped to the mast or derrick and the other to the
catwalk of a drilling rig. A pulley with a hook rides
on the laydown wire. The hook is set into the bottom
of a single on the drill floor, and the laydown wire
is used to lower the pipe out the V-door.
layer a tabular body of rock with distinctive top and
bottom surfaces that are parallel or approximately
parallel, (bed or stratum)
layer-cake geology an old and simplistic concept
that the earth's crust is composed of rock layers that
extend for great distances. The rock layers were
believed to be uniform in thickness and unchanging
laterally in composition.
laying cable setting out the cable (jugline) and
geophones in an arrays for seismic exploration

laying down lean gas

laying down to dismantle the drillstem after the well
is completed in order to change pipe size or after
mechanical failure or break down
lazy bench a bench on the drill floor, in the
doghouse, or anywhere where the drilling crew can
rest
lazy board a board with a handle and metal straps
that is used to hold up the end of a pipe while another
pipe is screwed into it. (jack board or stabbing jack)
LB orlb pound
LB lost bearings
lb/cu ft pounds per cubic foot
lbf pounds force
lb/ft pounds per foot
lb/ft3 pounds per cubic foot
lb/gal pounds per gallon
lb-in. pound-inch
lb/in.2 pounds per square inch
lbm or lb m pounds of mass
Ibm/ft pounds of mass per foot
LBOS light brown oil stain
LBS-H2O/MM pounds of water per million standard
cubic feet of natural gas
lb/sq ft pounds per square foot
LC 1) lost circulation 2) lease crude
Lc leucoxene
LCB longitudinal center of buoyancy
LCD liquid crystal display
LCF longitudinal center of flotation
lchd leached
LCIRC lost circulation
LCM lost circulation material
L/Cret lower Cretaceous
LD 1) laid down 2) lay down 3) laying down 4) land
Ld land
Id 1) load 2) land
Lj, dimensionless well length
LDC local distribution company
L.D.D. later drilled deeper
Ldd landed
LDDCs laying down drill collars
LDDP laying down drillpipe
Ids lands
LDT 1) litho-density tool 2) light duty truck
LE lift efficiency
Le electrode length
lead 1) the time by which one event is ahead of
another on a seismic record 2) the time by which
an event is ahead of its normal, expected arrival time
3) an electrical conductor such as a wire that connects
electrical components 4) the anticipation of the
direction and angle that a drill bit will drill 5) the
distance between crests on a thread
lead acetate test a test for hydrogen sulfide by
discoloration of a paper strip with lead acetate solution

289

lead angle the degrees to the left or right of the

intended course that a directional driller aims the
well to compensate for bit walk
lead impression block a tool used for fishing in
a well. The tool has lead on the lower end and is
run into a well to make an impression of the fish so
that the correct fishing tool can be selected.
lead line the flowline that carries oil from a subsea
well head to the manifold and to the offshore platform.
(flowline)
lead man see head roustabout
lead pipeline piping that extends from a pumping
oil well to the stock or storage tanks.
lead tongs the large wrench-like device that is
suspended from the mast or derrick above the drill
floor of a drilling rig. When coming out of the hole,
the lead-tongs man uses the lead tongs which act as
the torque tong and is connected by rope or chain
to the breakout cathead to grip the pin end of a pipe
joint for breaking out the pipe. When going in the
hole, the lead tongs grip the box end of the pipe
and are used as backups for the makeup tongs.
(breakout tongs)
lead-tongs man the drilling crew member who uses
the lead tongs, (pipe racker)
league 1) a Spanish land measure of about 4,428
ac 2) a distance of 3 naut mi
leaker a pipe that cannot hold hydrostatic pressure
leak-off or leakoff pressure the mimimum
pressure that causes fluids to flow out of the wellbore
and into a formation during a leakoff or pressure
test. The leakoff test is made by closing the annulus
of a well and slowly pumping drilling fluid down
the well. The pressure will build up until the leakoff
pressure is reached, and then it will level off as the
fluid flows out into the formation, (rupture pressure)
leak-off or leakoff rate the rate at which frac fluids
enter the formation surrounding the fractures during
a hydraulic frac job on a well
leak-off or leakoff test 1) a test run to determine
the maximum pressure that a formation in a well
can withstand before fracturing. The leakoff test is
run by shutting in the well and slowly pumping more
drilling mud through the drillstring. The mud pressure
will increase until it starts to level off, indicating that
the formation is fracturing, (pressure test) 2) a test
run after casing has been cemented to determine if
the casing, cement and formation below the casing
can withstand the bottomhole pressures necessary to
drill deeper. The blowout preventers are closed and
the mud pumps are run at a constant speed until
the test pressure is reached or the well starts to take
mud. The pumps are stopped and the pressure decline
for the next 10 minutes is recorded.
leak-repair clamp a curved metal plate that is
designed to fit over and attach to a pipe to temporarily
repair a leak in the pipe (saddle clamp)
lean amine a mine solution that has been
regenerated from rich amine by stripping out the acid
gases. Lean amine is ready to be recirculated back
into the contactor tower for acid gas treatment. Lean
amine is in contrast to rich amine.
lean gas natural gas that contains relatively little
condensate or liquid hydrocarbons 1) Lean gas has

290

leanglycol left-lateral strike-slip fault

between 0.1-0.3 gal of natural gas liquids per Mcf 2)

lean gas contains less than 2.5 gal ethane and C2+
per Mcf at 60F
lean glycol glycol that does not contain water. Lean
glycol will absorb water as it passes through a contact
tower and will become rich or wet glycol. Rich glycol
can be reconcentrated back into lean glycol by boiling.
Lean glycol is similar to lean solution.
lean oil the oil that is used in an absorption plant
to absorb liquid hydrocarbons. Natural gas is bubbled
through the lean oil to absorb liquid hydrocarbons.
The fat oil is then distilled to remove the liquid
hydrocarbons and reconcentrate into lean oil.
lean solution a glycol-water solution which is 95%99% glycol by weight. A lean solution is used in liquid
dehydration of natural gas and is in contrast to a rich
solution.
lease 1) a legal printed document establishing an
ownership in mineral rights for the purpose of drilling
and producing petroleum on a specific parcel of land.
The lease has certain time period called the primary
term, which is usually 3, 5, or 10 years. Initiation of
drilling or delay rental payments is necessary during
the primary term to maintain lease validity. Petroleum
production in paying quantities extends the primary
term of the lease into the secondary term to cover
the life of the oil and gas production. Typical lease
clauses include granting, habendum, oil royalty, gas
royalty, delay rental, effect of dry hole on delay rentals
and term, proportional interest, free gas, provision
for assignment in whole or part, lease to remain a
unit, warranty of title, continuing production, release
and partial release, subject to actions of governments,
unitization, and succession in interest, (mineral lease)
2) the act of obtaining a lease document from the
mineral rights owner (lessor) on a tract of land by
the lessee 3) the tract of land covered by a lease
document. Ise or LSE
lease analyst a person who is responsible for lease
maintenance. The lease analyst keeps track of delay
rental and shut-in payments.
lease automatic-custody transfer unit see LACT
unit
lease bonus money paid to the mineral-rights owner
(lessor) by the lessee for signing a lease
lease boss a production foreman
lease broker a self-employed party who purchases
leases either a) as an investment to be sold later on
speculation or b) as an agent under contract for a
company that desires to keep secret their lease
purchases
lease check research on the oil and gas leases that
are currently in effect on acreage of interest, (lease
takeoff)
lease condensate liquid hydrocarbons called
retrograde gas, natural gasoline, or condensate that
are removed from natural gas in the field. Condensate
is usually separated by refrigeration or absorption.
Lease condensate that is removed with standard field
equipment is usually reported with the crude oil.
lease costs monies spent for bonuses and all other
costs related to the acquisition of a lease or property.
These costs can include recording fees, payments to
lease brokers, as well as fees for title examination,

and are included under G&G. Lease costs are

capitalized over the life of production and are in
contrast to equipment cost and IDCs. (acquisition
costs)

lease crude stabilized oil existing under surface

conditions of temperature and pressure (60F and 1
atm). Stabilized oil exists after the oil has been
processed through a separator(s) to remove solution
gas and water, (atmospheric-pressure oil or stock tank
or stocktank oil) LC
leasehold the acreage covered by a lease(s)
leasehold interest 1) money left from oil and gas
production after operating and developing costs and
mineral rights royalties have been paid 2) the exclusive
rights granted in an oil and gas lease to explore for,
develop, and produce oil and gas from land, (operating
or working interest)
leasehold royalty see landowner's royalty
lease hound a landman
lease line 1) a small pipeline that connects an oil
well with the stock or storage tank 2) the boundary
of the lease
leaseman see landman
lease operator see pumper
lease power a motor that is used to drive several
wells on a lease. The lease power turns a bandwheel
and a horizontal revolving eccentric. Jack wells are
connected to the eccentric with shackle or rod lines.
leaser landman
lease rental the annual sum required in a lease to
be paid to the lessor or mineral-rights owner to extend
the lease in lieu of drilling and producing petroleum
in paying quantities. Lease rental is usually a
percentage of the bonus, (delay rental)
lease superintendent see production foreman
lease takeoff research on the oil and gas leases that
are currently in effect on acreage of interest, (lease
check)
lease tank see stock tank
least squares filter see optimum filter
least-squares fit a statistical analysis method in
which a line or curve is fitted to a plot of data. The
line or curve that is selected to represent the scatter
of data is the one that has the least sum of the squares
of the distances from the data points to the line or
curve.
least-time path the route between two points in
the earth along which seismic energy takes the least
time to travel
LED light emitting diode
ledge a protrusion into the wellbore formed by a
relatively hard layer such as a thin limestone underlain
by a softer layer such as shale that has caved into
the well
left-handed thread a thread that tightens
counterclockwise in a receding direction when viewed
axially, in contrast to most threads that are right handed
left-lateral strike-slip fault a fault that moves or
has moved with predominantly horizontal
displacement with the opposite side of the fault moving
toward the left as you face the fault plane

leg LHV
LEG liquefied energy gas

brace

leg (off rotary drilling rig chart)

leg 1) one of the four vertical supports that is located

below the drilling floor on a drilling rig. A leg is
constructed from structural steel in the form of an
angle, channel or I-beam, or, rarely, of tubular steel.
Legs are held in position by sway braces and girts.
2) a cycle of seismic energy from peak to trough 3)
the vertical or near-vertical support columns on a
jackup rig. Two types are tubular steel and reinforced
beams with a lattice shape. 4) the solid part of a rollercone bit that holds the pin and bearing journal for a
rotating cone. Three legs are welded together to form
a unit for a tricone bit. Each of the legs has a channel
for fluid circulation.
legal oil or gas oil or gas that is not in excess of
that allowed by a government regulatory agency when
produced. Legal oil or gas is in contrast to illegal oil
or gas, or hot oil.
legal subdivision a quarter of one quarter section
of land. A legal subdivision is Vi6th of a section and
covers 40 acres. Legal subdivisions in Canada are
numbered starting with 1 in the southeast corner, 4
in the southwest corner, 13 in the northwest corner,
and 16 in the northeast corner.
LEL lower explosive limit
Len lens
len lentil
length a section of tubular, more commonly called
a joint
lens a lens-shaped rock body, thick in the middle
and thinning to zero thickness on either side, with
curved upper (concave down) and lower (concave
up) surfaces. Len or lenient lenticular
lenticular lens-shaped, lent
Leonardian a North American age of geological time
that occurred about 275-270 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Permian period.
lessee the recipient and owner of a lease. The lessee
has the right to explore and drill for petroleum on
the tract of land covered by the lease during the term
of the lease. The lease is bought from the lessor.
lesser interest clause an oil and gas lease provision
that permits the lessee to proportionately reduce
payments to the lessor if the lessor holds less than
100% of the mineral rights, (proportionate reduction
clause)

291

lessor the mineral rights owner who transfers the

mineral rights to a lessee. The lessor receives a bonus
for signing the lease and will receive a royalty if
petroleum is produced. Delay rentals and shut-in
royalties also go to the lessor.
lessor's royalty the share or payment of the gas
and/or oil production that is free from the costs of
production and is paid to the lessor. The royalty was
originally one-eighth but currently ranges from oneeighth to one-fourth, (fee, gross, leasehold, landowner
or landowner's royalty)
LET lowest expected temperature
let her rip to open a well to full production
let-out screw to unscrew the temper screw of a
cable-tool rig to let out the drilling line
letter agreement an informal document that is a
statement of understanding between parties. It is in
the form of a letter from one party to another. The
agreement can be legally enforced if it meets certain
requirements. A letter agreement is in contrast to a
formal contract.
let the tools swing to shut in a well with tools in
the well
LEVEE
CHANNEL

FLOOD PLAIN

levee
levee a natural, long, low ridge of sand and silt that
is located along both banks of a river and is parallel
to the river channel. The levee is deposited by a river
during floods when the river rises out of its banks.
level 1) a surveying instrument that uses a bubble
to determine horizontally 2) a section on digital
magnetic tape that records bits of information. Several
magnetic heads can record several bits of information
at the same time on the same tape. The magnetic
tape used to record seismic data often has 7, 9, or
21 levels and is called 7-track, 9-track and 21-track
tape, (track)
level of maturity a hydrocarbon maturity scale
based on vitrinite reflectance that ranges from 1 to
20. Oil generation starts at 7.8, reaches a peak at 9.5,
and ends at 11.5 on the scale. LOM
leverage the ratio of total undiscounted future
revenues divided by the capital investment
leveraged a deal or arrangement in which part or
all of the money is obtained by borrowing
LF low frequency
LFL lower flammable limit
LFO light fuel oil
lg 1) length 2) long
lg or lge large
LGC liquid gas carrier
Lge league
LHV lower heating valve

292

Lg-wave lignosulfonate mud

Lg-wave long surface wave

li 1) lime 2) limestone
liberated gas natural gas in circulating drilling mud
that originated from a subsurface formation. Liberated
gas comes from the portion of rocks crushed by the
drill bit and is in contrast to contamination gas.
lie license
license 1) permission to do or not do something.
lie 2) a permit granted by a country to explore an
offshore block. The term license varies in definition
between countries. A nonexclusive license is only for
exploration. An exclusive license is for exploration,
drilling, and production.
lien a burden on property or an interest to secure
the payment of money owed the lien holder. The
burdened property or interest can be sold and the
proceeds used to satisfy the debt if it is not timely
paid.
lieu lease a new lease that is given to the assignee
of the lessee by the lessor
LIFE lifetime log
life index the estimated time needed to produce
the remaining gas reserves. A life index is made by
dividing the current annual gas-production rate into
the known gas reserves, (reserves-to-production ratio)
life-of-field contract a type of gas purchase contract
in which the produced gas is sold to the specified
buyer for as long as the field is capable of production
life-of-lease contract a type of gas purchase contract
in which the length of the contract is the same as
the life of the gas seller's lease
LIFO last in, first out
lift gas the natural gas used in a gas-lift well to
produce oil. Lift gas is first stripped of any valuable
liquids, (gas-lift gas)
lifting the process of bringing oil to the surface in
a well
lifting bail a U-shaped piece of steel that is attached
to a tool and used for attaching a lifting device such
as a hook
lifting capacity 1) the maximum weight that a
hoisting system is designed to lift. On a drilling rig,
it is called the hook-load capacity, (load capacity) 2)
the ability of a drilling fluid such as mud, air, or gas
to raise solid well cutting up the well. The lifting
capacity is usually expressed as the diameter of the
largest particle size that can be lifted. Lifting capacity
depends on the fluid density and velocity.
lifting costs the expense of producing oil from a
well. Lifting costs are the operating costs of the wells
including the gathering and separating equipment.
Lifting costs do not include the costs of drilling and
completing the wells or transporting the oil. (well
operating costs)
lifting line a small line such as the catline on a
drilling rig that is run from the drawworks cathead.
The lifting line is used to lift lighter loads than the
pick-up line such as joints of drillpipe, subs, and tongs.
lifting nipple or sub a device that is used to attach
the elevators to slim-hole drillpipe and drill collars
when tripping or making a connection. The lifting
nipple is a short pipe with threads on one end to

match the pin end of the pipe or collars and a latch

head or lifting bail on the other end. (hoisting plug)
lifting or lift sub a short section of pipe with an
elevator recess that is used to raise the drill collars
out of the rotary table
LIG, Lig, or lig 1) lignite 2) lignitic
light-emitting diode an electric device made of two
semiconductors that will emit light when the correct
current is passed through it. Many computer displays
are made from light-emitting diodes. LED
light ends the low molecular-weight components
of petroleum such as propane and butane. Light ends
are very volatile.
lightening hole a hole cut into a leg or beam that
reduces its weight but does not significantly reduce
its strength
light hydrocarbons oil and/or gas with molecular
weight less than heptane (H7). Light hydrocarbons
are gas, or almost gas, at surface temperature and
pressure.
light oil crude oil that is relatively light in density
and has a "API between 35-45. Light oil fluoresces
white under ultraviolet light.
lightweight additive or material an additive such
as bentonite that is used to decrease the density of a
fluid
light well a low-production well
lignin a carbohydrate polymer that is found in woody
organic matter. Lignin becomes vitrinite in
sedimentary rocks and has a low potential for oil
formation but can form gas.
lignite a brownish-black, low-rank coal that is
intermediate between peat and bituminous coal.
Lignite has a reflectance between 0.2-0.4. It has a
relatively low heat content compared to bituminous
or anthracite coal. Lignites by themselves or combined
with sodium or potassium hydroxides and/or
chromates are used as fluid-loss control material,
emulsifiers, and thinners in drilling mud. LIG, Lig,
or lig
lignite-lignosulfonate mud a drilling fluid that
contains lignosulfonate as a thinner to act against high
drilling-solids concentrations and lignite as a fluidloss agent
lignitic a sedimentary rock that contains some lignite
coal, usually interbedded with other sediments. LIG,
Lig or lig
lignosulfonate a byproduct of wood-pulp waste and
sulfite paper manufacturing that is used as an organic
drilling-mud additive for fluid-loss control, as a
thinner, and for shale inhibition. Lignosulfonate is
also used as a cement extender in making certain
cements.
lignosulfonate mud a drilling mud made from
fresh or salt water, bentonite clay, chrome or
ferrochrome lignosulphonate, caustic soda, and
sodium carboxymethylcellulose or stabilized starch.
The mud can also contain lignite, oil, lubricants, and
surfactants. Lignosulfonate mud is used when a) a
high mud density is required, b) the well has a
moderately high temperature, c) there is a high
tolerance for contamination by drilled solids, salt,

LIH limited partnership

anhydrite, gypsum, and cement, and d) there is a low
nitrate loss.
LIH left in hole
LIL log-inject-log
Lim or lim limonite
lim 1) limit 2) limiting value
CREST
AXIS

limb

limb one side of a fold in rocks divided by the axial

surface. A fold has two limbs that can be either
symmetrical or asymmetrical, (flank)
limber hookup a relatively flexible bottomhole
assembly that is in contrast to a stiff hookup
limber-pendulum assembly a downhole assembly
used to drill deviated wells. The limber-pendulum
assembly consists of a flexible drill-collar assembly
with a stabilizer located 30-60 ft above the bit to
give the pendulum effect.
lime 1) a driller's term for limestone. L, IM, li and
Im 2) calcium oxide 3) the active ingredient [Ca(OH)2]
of slaked lime and the main constituent of wet cement
lime-based or lime mud a bentonite drilling fluid
that contains caustic soda, organic thinners, and slaked,
hydrated lime. The sodium-base clays such as
commercial bentonite have been converted to
calcium-base by the addition of lime. Lime mud is
used to resist salt contamination when drilling thick
anhydrite sections. The mud has a high pH but tends
to solidify at high temperatures, (lime-treated mud)
L-MUD

lime mudstone a type of limestone with a small

percentage of large, sand-sized grains and 7596-85%
mud-sized particles called micrite
lime producer a well that produces from a
limestone reservoir rock
limestone a common sedimentary rock composed
of at least 50% CaCO3, primarily the mineral calcite.
The rock can be easily identified because it will bubble
in cold, dilute HCl. Limestone is deposited both
biologically and inorganically and is formed primarily
in tropical climates. The common, large, transported
particles (allochems) found in limestones are fossils,
oolites, pellets, and intraclasts. The fine-grained
limestone is micrite. Chalk is a very fine-grained
limestone composed of microfossils. Sparry calcite
is a common limestone cement. Limestones can be
classified by their texture using such terms as
mudstone, wackestone, packstone, grainstone,
boundstone, intrasparite, intramicrite, oosparite,
oomicrite, biosparite, biomicrite, pelsparite,
pelmicrite, micrite, dismicrite, and biolithite. Two

293

common limestone classifications are Dunham's and

Folk's. Limestone is an important type of reservoir
rock. Primary porosity is often important in relatively
young limestones, whereas secondary porosity is
important in older limestones. Limestone has a matrix
density of 2.710 gm/cc, a matrix velocity of 21,000 to
23,000 ft/sec, and an interval transit time of 47.6 to
43.5 ixsec/ft. IS, Ls, Is or li
limestone log a short, lateral resistivity log with five
electrodes. LSL
limestone platform or shelf an extensive area
covered with shallow seas where both organic and
inorganic limestones are deposited. The Great Bahama
Banks is a modern example. A rimmed platform has
a grainstone shoal on its seaward margin, (carbonate
platform or shelf)
limestone ramp a sloping sea bottom between the
beach and deep water where both organic and
inorganic limestones are deposited. Deposition of
limestone will cause a ramp to evolve into a limestone
platform or shelf, (carbonate ramp)
lime-treated mud see lime mud
limitation clause a provision in an oil or gas lease
that sets a time limit on the interest that is granted.
This could be either a) a clause of general limitations
that defines the maximum duration of the granted
interest or b) a clause of special limitations that
terminates the granted interest at the occurrence of
a specific event.
limitation title the indefeasible ownership of land
that was acquired by continued use and possession
for a period longer than the statute of limitations
limited capacity well a well that cannot produce
the allowable that is assigned to it by a government
regulatory agency
limited carried interest an interest in a well that
free of all the costs of drilling and completion but
still receives a working interest share in the production
until the operator receives a specific amount of the
production revenue. The carried portion of the interest
is then terminated.
limited entry a hydraulic fracturing method in
which only a few perforation in the casing or liner
are used to concentrate the effect of the fracturing
on the formation. The perforations are often a foot
or more apart. A single entry uses only one perforation.
limited overriding royalty a share of the oil
produced from a leasehold that is free of the costs
of production. The royalty is terminated after a certain
sum has been reached, (oil payment)
limited partner a person or company in a drilling
or production agreement who depends on the
operator to initiate and supervise the drilling and/or
production. The limited partner contributes a specific
amount of money in return for an interest in the
wells. The limited partners in a limited partnership
are limited to only the initial monies invested and
are also limited in liability.
limited partnership a common method used to
raise money for drilling wells. The investors (limited
partners) put money in specific amounts into the
partnership to receive a specific share in the profits
of the wells to be drilled. A company (general partner)
contributes leases and/or money and is responsible

294

limited working interest liner

for drilling and completing the wells and producing

the petroleum in return for specific interest in the
wells. Limited partnerships are registered with the
Securities and Exchange Commission.
limited working interest a working interest (a
share of oil and gas production from a well or
leasehold) after operating and developing costs of
the well(s) and mineral right royalty payments have
been subtracted. The interest terminates at a certain
time or with a certain event.
limonite a common iron mineral and ore that is
yellow, brown, or black in color and amorphous.
Limonite is composed of hydrous ferric oxide and is
formed by the weathering of iron-bearing minerals.

surface location of a well with the last, downhole

location in a wellbore survey
line pack gas the gas volume that is kept in a pipeline
to maintain gas pressure
line pipe the pipe used to conduct oil, gas and water.
Line pipe is classified by API standards of dimensions,
strength, performance characteristics and thread
gauging.

Lim or Urn

limy a sedimentary rock that contains some

limestone. LMY or Imy
lin 1) linear 2) liner
line a hose or pipe that carries fluid
lineament linear topography or a linear feature seen
on a remote sensing image
linear absorption coefficient the fraction of X-rays
or gamma rays that are absorbed in a unit thickness
of a substance
linear absorption a method used to quantify the
amount of corrosion on a metal in a conductive
solution by measuring the amount of current necessary
to change the electric potential of the structure
linearity the deviation of a meter calibration curve
from a straight line
linear sweep a Vibroseis frequency that varies
linearly with time during seismic exploration. A linear
sweep can be either a downsweep or upsweep.
lineation a line. Lineations seen on aerial
photographs are often due to fault and fracture
patterns.
line drive or flood a type of waterflood in which
the producing and water injection wells are located
in lines with alternating lines being producing and
injecting wells. Two types of line drives are direct
and staggered. The line drive can have only one line
of injector wells located low on the structure.
line loss the gas that is lost in a distribution or
pipeline system
line mile a measure of seismic, gravity, or
aeromagnetic coverage in geophysical exploration
line of closure a horizontal line connecting the
O

Cement
UNCEMENTED
SLOTTED
LINER

liner (1)

liner (2)

liner 1) a short string of casing that does not extend

up to the surface of the well. Liners are seamless or
electric-welded and are suspended from a casing string
by a liner hanger. A liner can either be the same
type of pipe as casing or specialized pipe. Types of
liner include a) drilling liner, b) production liner,
and c) tie-back stub liner. In a perforated linear
completion, a short string of a smaller diameter than
the pipe casing is hung by a liner hanger inside the
bottom of surface or intermediate casing. The
production liner is then cemented into the producing
zone and perforated. Drilling liners are used to isolate
water, gas, and thief zones in a well so that drilling
can continue. Liners usually overlap the casing by
200-400 ft in what is called the lap. LNR, Lnr, or lin
2) a removable cylinder that fits around the piston

t--OI-O-+-O- + - O ^

o oooo
A

PERFORATED
LINER

6
O
O
direct line drive

l--O--t-O-f-O-l--OI
A

I--O-4-O-J--O-+-O--4
staggered line drive
line drive waterfloods

liner barrel liquid window

in reciprocating pumps such as mud pumps and some
internal combustion engines (sleeve) 3) a conicalshaped metal holder that is used to direct the hot
gases from shaped explosive charges in jet perforating
guns
liner barrel a type of barrel used in tubing pumps
or rod pumps in which the liner that forms the seal
around the plunger is a series of sections placed end
to end
liner completion a type of oil well completion in
which a slotted, screened, or perforated casing string
that does not reach the surface (liner) is used on
the bottom of the well
liner hanger the set of slips that suspend the liner
string from the casing. Liner hangers can be either
hydraulic, which are set with fluid pressure, or
mechanical, which are set with a J-latch.
liner vibrator equipment used to rotate the work
string to pack the gravel in a gravel pack completion
well
line scraper a device that is pulled through flowlines
to remove wax and scale
line spooler a device that is used on the drawworks
to reverse the winding direction of the drilling line
on the drum when an entire layer has been wound
around the drum
line squib a type of torpedo used in explosive
fracturing of a well
line well a well drilled on a lease boundary line
line wiper 1) a device that is anchored to a floor
block or pulley frame and is used to remove oil and
mud from a wireline as it is being pulled from a
well. One type of line wiper is a split-neoprene rubber
plug that fits around the wireline. The plug can be
tightened with a threaded bolt. 2) a stuffing box with
glands
link the two pins and two side bars called link plates
that form a unit on a roller chain
linkage the series of interconnecting parts that
transmits power or control
link ear the projection on the hook below the
traveling block to which the elevator links are attached
links a hanger-like device that is made of an
U-shaped, solid cylindrical steel bar and is suspended
from the ears of a traveling block on a drilling rig.
The elevators hang from the other end of the links.
Links are designed to provide working distance
between the traveling block and the elevators that
are used to grip and lift or lower tubular goods in
the well, (bail)
lipids waxy, fatty, and oily compounds composed
primarily of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Lipids are
derived from organic matter and are a part ofkerogen
that can produce oil.
llpophile a substance that is easily wetted by oil.
Lipophile is in contrast to hydrophile.
lipophilic the property of a substance with an affinity
for oil. Lipophilic is in contrast to hydrophilic.
liptinite a kerogen maceral composed of organic
matter rich in lipids. Liptinite is chemically similar
to Types I and II kerogen.
liq liquid

295

LIQ-A liquid analysis

liqftn liquefaction
liquefaction the sudden decrease in shear resistance
of a solid such as a soil as it becomes a fluid.
Liquefaction is usually triggered by a shock or strain
and is caused by a sudden pulse of increased pore
pressure, liqftn
liquefied energy gas liquefied petroleum gas and
liquefied natural gas. LEG
liquefied petroleum gas propane gas or, less
commonly, butane or a propane-butane mixture that
has been compressed into a liquid. Liquefied
petroleum gas is used in rural areas for home heating
and cooking and has industrial, agricultural, and
commercial applications, (bottled gas or gas liquids)
LPG, LPG-Gas or LP-Gas
liquid chromatography the separation of
components of a liquid based on their solubilities
and retention times in a chromatograph using a liquid
mobile phase. Crude oil can be separated by liquid
chromatography into saturate, aromatic, polar, and
NSO fractions. Three types are high performance (high
pressure), thin-layer, and column chromatography.
liquid constituents or hydrocarbons liquid
hydrocarbons that occur as a gas mixed with natural
gas under subsurface conditions of high temperature
and pressure. At surface conditions, they occur as a
liquid and are the C5 and higher molecules, see
retrograde gas
liquid gold crude oil
liquid knockout 1) see separator 2) see stripper
liquid natural gas see liquified natural gas
liquid packed an operating horizontal treater filled
with liquid, (fluidpacked)
liquid penetrant testing a nondestructive testing
technique for metals. The metal is cleaned with a
solvent, and the dye penetrant and a developer are
applied. Metal flaws appear with bright colors, (dye
penetrant testing)
liquid metering the measurement of a volume of
liquid. Liquid metering can be done by a) static volume
that includes tank gauging, a positive volume meter
or a weight tank, b) piston displacement, c) turbine,
d) vortex that includes vortex velocity or shedding,
and e) hydraulic head that includes orifice, Venturi
meter, nozzle, pitot tube, or annubar.
liquid saturation the percentage volume of the pore
space in a rock that is occupied by oil and water
liquid-solid chromatography a chromatography
technique that uses a packed glass column of activated,
powdered silica or alumina to separate crude oil and
sedimentary rock extracts into their components. The
liquid phase is a solvent such as pentane, hexane,
heptane, toluene, benzene, or methanol. The
components are separated or partitioned by their
mobility down through the column, (column
chromatography)
liquid window the depth range in the earth's crust
where the temperatures are sufficient to naturally
generate oil from organic matter (about 15O-3OOF).
In sedimentary rock basins, it is from about 7,00018,000 feet deep. The temperatures that define the
liquid window are affected by a) the age of the source

296

liquified natural gas

littoral

rocks with older source rocks having lower generation

temperatures and b) the time that the organic matter
is exposed to various temperatures, (oil window)
liquified natural gas natural gas that has been
compressed and supercooled at 269F into a liquid
to reduce its volume to Viasth for storage and
transportation. Liquefied natural gas has a calorific
value of 22,300 Btu/lb. It consists of about 91% methane
and 7% ethane with some propane, butane, and higher
hydrocarbons. One tonne liquified natural gas is equal
to about 53 Mcf of gas. Liquefied natural gas can be
vaporized by ambient air, another fluid, or a directfired vaporizer, (liquid natural gas) LNG
IIR lithology indicator ratio
LIS log information standard
listic a surface, such as a fault, with a dip that flattens
with depth. Listic is derived from the Greek word
listron which means shovel-shaped.
listic fault or fracture a fault or fracture with a
curved surface such as a growth fault. The fault plane
or surface becomes less steep with depth and can
become horizontal, where it is called a bedding-plane
fault. Because of the curved-fault plane, rotation occurs
with slippage on a listic fault.
lit lithic
liter the metric unit of volume equal to 1000 cm3
One liter is equal to 0.0353 ft3, 0.2642 United States
gal, or 0.2200 Imperial gal. {litre) L or I
LITH lithographic
Lith or lith lithology
litharenite 1) a sandstone with less than 75% quartz,
less than 10% feldspar, and more than 25% rock
fragments 2) a sandstone with less than 75% quartz
and more than 25% volcanic, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rock fragments
lithgr lithographic
lithic 1) made of stone 2) a coarse-grained
sedimentary rock composed of weathered rock
fragments, lit
lithic arkose 1) a sandstone that contains between
0%-^5% quartz, 25%-90% feldspar, and 10%-50%
rock fragments 2) a sandstone that contains less than
75% quartz and has a ratio of feldspars and rock
fragments of granite and gneiss to all other fine-grained
rock fragments of between 1:1 and 3:1
lithic feldsarenite a sandstone that contains less
than 75% quartz and has a ratio of feldspar to rock
fragments of between 1:1 and 3:1
lithic sandstone a sandstone that contains more
rock fragments than feldspar
lithification the natural process such as cementation
and compaction that change loose, unconsolidated
sediments into sedimentary rocks, (consolidation)
lithified sediments that have been transformed into
rock
LITHO lithology
Litho-Density log a well log that measures bulk
density (pb) and photoelectric absorption cross section
index (Pe) to determine the lithology and porosity of
formations. The Litho-Density tool (LDT) has a padmounted gamma ray source and two scintillation
detectors.

lithofacies a lateral subdivision of a rock layer or

stratigraphic unit that is distinguished from the rest
of the rock layer by its composition
lithofacies map a contoured subsurface map
showing changes over an area in the lithology or
composition of a particular rock layer such as a
formation
lithographic a limestone texture that is composed
of extremely fine-grained particles that give the rock
a smooth appearance. LITH or lithgr
lithologic log a record of the physical characteristics
of the rocks in a well. The lithologic log is usually
made by a geologist after examining well cuttings
and cores, if available. The well cuttings from a
diamond or turbine drill are too fine to be used for
logging. A lithologic log will include descriptive
information such as rock type, color, luster, fossil
content, amount, and type of porosity, oil and gas
shows, and other rock properties. The lithologic log
can cover the entire well section or only an important
section of the well, (sample log)
lithologic map a map showing the variations in rock
composition in an area
lithologic trap a stratigraphic trap formed by the
deposition or diagenesis of the reservoir rock such
as a limestone reef, river-channel sandstone, an updip
pinchout of a sandstone wedge in a shale layer, or
an oolite shoal (secondary stratigraphic trap)
lithology the composition or type of rock such as
sandstone or limestone. LJTHO, Lith, or lith
lithoporosity crossplot a crossplot of sonic,
neutron, and density-log data that is used to determine
Af/- At

lithology. M = '

9b -Pf

Qf N

xO.Ol andN = l

9b~ 9f

where

btf is the interval transit time of the fluid (189 for

freshwater-base mud and 185 for saltwater-base mud),
A? is interval transit time from the sonic log, p6 is
bulk density of formation, p^ is fluid density (1.0 for
freshwater-base mud and 1.1 for saltwater-base mud),
<&f is neutron porosity of the fluid (1.0), and Q>N is
neutron porosity from the neutron log. Common
minerals such as quartz (sandstone), calcite
(limestone), dolomite, anhydrite, gypsum, and salt will
each have different values of M and N and plot in
different locations on the lithoporosity crossplot. (MN crossplot or lithology plot)
lithosphere the relatively rigid outer part of the
earth. The lithosphere is about 60 mi thick and is
composed of the crust and outer mantle. It is underlain
by the asthenosphere. The lithosphere is divided into
moving plates under the plate tectonic theory.
lithostatic pressure pressure exerted by the weight
of the overlying rocks. Lithostatic pressure increases
about 100 psi per 100 ft of depth. Lithostatic pressure
is in contrast to the pressure on the fluid in the pores
of the rock which is called reservoir, fluid, and
formation pressure, (earth, geostatic, overburden, and
rock pressure)
lid littoral
litmus paper see pH paper
litre see liter
lift littoral
littoral the environment between high and low tide\
(intertidal) litr, litl, or litt

live
live a channel or geophone that will respond to an
impulse of energy. Live is in contrast to dead.
live oil crude oil that either a) contains dissolved
natural gas or b) will flow through the rocks and
can be produced
Ik leak
LKO lowest known oil
IX laterolog
Llandeilian a global age of geological time that
ended about 460 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle
Ordovician epoch.
Llandoverian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 425-420 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Silurian epoch.
Llanvirnlan a global age of geological time that
started about 485 m. y. ago. It is pan of the Middle
Ordovician epoch.
LLC liquid level controller
LLD deep laterolog
LL8 laterolog 8
LLg liquid level gauge
LL-GR laterlog, gamma ray log
LL-GRN laterlog, gamma ray, neutron log
LL-N laterlog, neutron log
LM or lm lime
lm lumen
Impy lumpy
LMSV loading mooring storage vessel
LMTD log mean temperature difference
L-MUD lime-based mud
LMY or lmy limy
Imy sh limy shale
lmy ss limy sandstone
In 1) naperian or natural logarithm 2) lost nozzle
LNG liquid natural gas
LNGC liquid natural gas carrier
LNRorLnr. liner
Inr linear
LO 1) load oil 2) lube oil
load 1) the resistance in an electrical circuit 2) the
weight or pressure on an object. Load causes stress
on a structure. 3) to use water or oil to prime a well
4) see load fluid

load binder

local distribution company

297

load binder a device that is used to tighten a chain.

A load binder has one or two chains with hooks and
a latching device with a handle. The hooks are clamped
to a chain, and the handle is used to close the latching
device to tighten the chain. The load binder can be
used to tighten the guy wires on a derrick and to tie
down a load of pipe, (boomer)
load block a frame, usually of sheaves or pulleys,
that is used in a hoisting system. The upper load block
is suspended from the boom, and the lower load
block is suspended from ropes and has a hook or
shackle. The crown and traveling blocks on a drilling
rig are load blocks.
load capacity the maximum weight that a hoisting
system is designed to raise. On a drilling rig, it is
called the hook-load capacity. Gifting capacity)
load cell a strain gauge that is sensitive to
compression and tension and gives an electrical output
that is proportional to that load
loaded string a length of tubulars such as drillpipe
or tubing that is filled with drilling mud, water, or
crude oil
load fluid any fluid that is pumped down a well
either a) to kill the well (kill fluid) or b) for a well
stimulation or workover
load guy a wire that helps support the mast of a
workover rig or service unit at an angle over a well.
The load guy is attached to the truck, carrier, or trailer.
Load guy is in contrast to wind guy.
load guylines or guy lines wire ropes that run
from the top of a mast or derrick to a base and are
used for stabilization and partial support of the weight
of the structure
loading 1) excessive liquid accumulation in tubing
2) the increase in subsurface pressure due to the
deposition of a sediment cover and the subsequent
increase in lithostatic pressure
loading mooring storage vessel a
semisubmersible that uses two tanks, one tank to store
crude oil and the other tank for ballast water LMSV
loading pole a pole used to place a shot in an
irregular shot hole. The pole has connectors on each
end to increase its length.
load mud a kill fluid used for workovers
load oil oil that has been injected into a well. Load
oil is often used during well stimulation such as a
frac job and is usually diesel oil, but can also be lease
crude. Load oil is in contrast to produced oil. LOIL
orLO
load range the difference in the peak load on the
upstroke and minimum load on the minimum load
on the downstroke of a polished rod
load water water that has been injected into the
subsurface during a frac job LWTR or LW
LOC or loc location
loc 1) local 2) location 3) located
loc abnd location abandoned
local distribution company any entity, other than
an interstate or intrastate pipeline, engaged in the
transportation or local distribution of natural gas and
the sale of natural gas for ultimate consumption. LDC

298

local gravity longitudinal seam

local gravity a Bouger gravity value from which the

regional gravity value has been subtracted, (residual)
local magnetic anomalies relatively small magnetic
anomalies caused by magnetization in near-surface
rocks
location the wellsite. LOC or loc
location damages compensation paid to the surface
owner by the operator for damages to the land surface
and/or crops during drilling and production
location exception a well location that is authorized
by a government regulatory agency to be located not
in conformance to the regular well spacing
locator sub a device used to locate the top of the
permanent packer in a well. The locator sub is larger
than the bore of the permanent packer and is run
on a tubing string along with seal subs to the top of
the permanent packer.
LOCDIP local dip
loc gr location graded
Lockportian a North American age of geological
time that started about 415 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Silurian period.
log 1) a record of rock properties in a well, usually
made by a geologist or a service company. Some types
of logs are sample, mud, drilling time, and wireline.
2) a curve or set of curves or symbols that records
the physical, electrical, radioactive, and/or sonic
properties of rocks and fluids in the rocks in a wellbore
3) the process of making a well log 4) a written record
of events during drilling a well such as a driller's or
drilling time log 5) a record of detected imperfections
in a pipe inspected by electronic equipment
log the common logarithm to the base 10
logarithmic grid a welllog scale with logarithmic
divisions. The logarithmic scale if often used with a
resistivity curve.
logged depth the actual wellbore length from the
kelly bushing (KB), derrick floor (DF), foundation
or ground level (GL), to a point in the well or bottom
of the well. Logged depth is reported on drilling
records and on well logs and is measured by a logging
or survey cable. Logged depth will be longer than

true
vertical
depth

logged
depth

logged depth

true vertical depth due to well deviation, (measured

or total depth)
logging engineer an early term for a mud logging
geologist
logging head a rope socket that is used to attach a
logging tool to a wireline
logging motion arrestor a hydro-pneumatic heave
compensator used on a floating drilling rig during
wireline operations
logging off the accumulation of liquids in a gas well
that prevents the gas from flowing to the surface
logging run one round trip with a logging tool in
a well, (logging trip)
logging shack a portable shelter used to house mudlogging instruments and the mud loggers on a drilling
rig
logging tool a metal instrument package containing
both transmitting and receiving equipment that is
lowered down a well to make a wireline well log.
The logging tool remotely senses the electric, acoustic,
and/or radioactive properties of the rocks and their
fluids. One type of logging tool is brought up the
well with little or no contact on the sides of the well,
and it measures the properties of up to 3 m3 of the
formation. The other type of logging tool has a pad
or pads and slides along the sides of the wellbore
measuring the rock properties in just a few decimeters
of the formation. Several logging tools can be run
in a well simultaneously. The logging tool can transmit
data through a cable, (sonde)
logging trip see logging run
log normal a distribution of data that, when plotted
logarithmically, has the appearance of a normal
Gaussian-distribution
Log-O-Graph an instrument used 6n a drilling rig
to record the rate of bit penetration and depth. The
Log-O-Graph was first used in 1946.
log scale insert a header with a new scale that is
put between scale, tool, or run changes on a well
log
log tail a short form on a well log with information
on the well and the curve scales
log tops all tops other than sample tops
logy a condition in which the casing string has
become difficult to lower or raise
log zero the location on the track or recording trace
of a well log that corresponds to no tool signal
LOIL load oil
LOM 1) level of organic maturation 2) level of organic
metamorphism
LONG or long longitude
Long Beached more weight on the weight indicator
of a drilling rig than the derrick is rated to withstand.
(hand around to West Texas)
longitude angular east-west distance on the earth
in degrees measured from the prime meridian that
passes through Greenwich, England. LONG or long
longitudinal 1) the long axis of an object 2) running
lengthwise as opposed to transverse
longitudinal seam a butt-welded seam on a pipe
oriented parallel to the length of the pipe. A

longitudinal wave lost or loss of circulation

longitudinal seam is used to make pipe from sheet
metal.
longitudinal wave an elastic wave that travels
through the body of the medium while the particles
of the medium move in the same direction as the
wave propagation. The longitudinal wave is commonly
used in seismic exploration. A longitudinal wave is
in contrast to shear and surface waves, (compressional,
P-, primary, or pressure wave)
long-normal resistivity a wireline, electric log
measurement of the resistivity of rocks and their fluids
in a well made by two electrodes (A and M) spaced
64 in. apart on the pad. Long-normal resistivity is a
common measurement on old electric logs and is
used to measure the true resistivity (Rt) of the rocks
behind the invaded zone.
long-nose choke a choke with an extended body.
The long-nose choke can be attached to the outside
of a vessel with the choke orifice projecting into the
inside of the vessel.
long oil payment an oil payment, the share of oil
produced from a leasehold that is free of the costs
of production, with a long pay back period. Long oil
payment is in contrast to a short oil payment.
long-radius horizontal well a horizontal well with
a curvature rate between 2-6 per 100 ft
long reach horizontal well a horizontal well with
a length of greater than 1,000 feet in the pay zone
that can be completed
long section a United States government survey
section of land that has more than the standard 640
ac
longshore bar a long, narrow sand ridge parallel
to the shoreline that is submerged at least during
high tide. A longshore bar is formed by breaking waves
and is separated from the beach by a trough, (offshore
bar)
longshore current a current of water that moves
parallel to the shore line in the surf zone. Longshore
current is caused by the swash and backwash of waves
that break obliquely on the beach.
long string 1) the deepest and last length (string)
of casing that is run down to or through the producing
zone. The casing adjacent to the producing zone can
be perforated or shot with holes to complete the well.
Long string has the smallest diameter, ranging from
23/8-95/8 in. and typically is 5V2 or 7% in., and is the
longest string of casing in the well. Long string protects
the hole, isolates formation fluids, prevents fluid
migration, and protects the downhole equipment.
(capital, flow, oil, pay or production string, production
casing, or inner conductor) 2) the tubing string to
the deepest producing reservoir in a dually completed
well
long-stroke unit a type of pumper that uses a
hydraulic power source, a cylinder, and a piston
attached to the polished rod. The piston is driven
up and down the cylinder by the hydraulic pump.
The counterbalance is accomplished by a hydraulicoil and compressed-air system.
long surface wave a Rayleigh or Love wave that
travels along the earth's surface during seismic
exploration. A long surface wave is in contrast to a

299

body wave such as an S-wave or the P- wave commonly

used in seismic exploration. Lg-wave
long tail a cable-tool drilling engine
long term lease a type of oil and gas lease that
has a long primary term but lacks a thereafter clause.
The thereafter clause extends the term of the lease
if either drilling operations are occurring or there is
production in paying quantities from the leasehold.
long ton a weight equal to 2,240 lbs used in Great
Britain. A short ton of 2,000 lbs is used in the United
States and Canada. The metric ton equals 1,000 kg
or 2,204.62 lbs and is often used as a measure of oil
volume. (English ton) It
look for bottom to lower a tubular string to the
bottom of a well
loop 1) data measurements over an area which start
and end at the same point 2) a portion of a computer
program that can repeat the preceding operations 3)
an electrical circuit that has feedbacka 4) a transmitting
or receiving coil used in electromagnetic surveying
LOOS loose
loose emulsion a emulsion with large, far-apart
droplets of the discontinuous phase and is easy to
break or separate. A loose emulsion is in contrast to
a tight emulsion.
loose-valve tree a Christmas tree on a flowing well
that is made of individual valves instead of
manufactured out of a solid metal block. A loose-valve
tree is in contrast to a block tree.
Lopatin method a method used to calculate the
theoretical maturity of source rocks and the timing
of oil and gas generation and migration using times
that the source rock has been exposed to various
temperature ranges in 10 C increments starting at
30 C. A burial history of temperature and time for
the rocks is made. A time temperature index (TTI)
is summed for the source rock. A time temperature
index of 15 marks the start of oil generation, 75 is
peak oil generation, 160 is the end of oil generation,
and 1,500 is the limit for wet gas.
Loran-C a navigational system that uses broadcasts
from fixed stations on land. The range is about 1,500
mi, but the system is not accurate enough for seismic.
Lorenz coefficient a permeability heterogeneity
factor for reservoirs
1-o-s line of sight
lose a hole to have to abandon a well (lost well)
because of downhole conditions
lose returns to encounter a lost circulation zone
during drilling
loss-of-circulation plug see lost-circulation plug
lost circulation zone a very permeable, highly
fractured or cavernous rock layer that takes excessive
amounts of drilling mud as it is being drilled, (severeloss zone)
lost or loss of circulation a drilling problem in
which excessive amounts of drilling mud flow out
into a very permeable, highly fractured, or cavernous
rock layer in the subsurface without building up a
filter cake along the sides of the wellbore. The lostcirculation zone can be located in a well by a)
temperature survey, b) radioactive tracers, or c) a

300

lost-circulation additive or material control agent low explosive

spinner survey. Lost circulation can be controlled by

a) reducing the mud weight or b) a pill of lostcirculation material down the well, (lost returns) LC
or LCIRC

lost-circulation additive or material control

agent fine-grained material that is fibrous, granular,
or flaky and is added to drilling mud or cement slurry
and pumped down a well that has a lost-circulation
problem. The material clogs up the pores of the
subsurface rock layer causing the problem. Mica chips,
ground pecan hulls, sugar cane hulls, laminated plastic,
ground coal, ground neoprene, shredded redwood
and cedar, leather, asbestos, cottonseed hulls, pig hair,
cellophane and wood shavings are some of the many
things that are used, (sealing agents) LCM
lost-circulation pill a mix of fluid with solid, easily
degradable particles that is pumped down a well and
spotted to build up an impermeable layer on a
formation face that is causing a lost-circulation
problem. The pill consists of a slug of 50-100 bbl of
drilling mud mixed with 40-75 lbs/bbl of lostcirculation material in a variety of lost-circulation
material sizes. Sometimes two or three lost-circulation
pills are used to control a lost-circulation problem.
lost-circulation plug a cement bridge that is set
in a well to shut off a lost-circulation zone that is
thieving drilling fluids. The plug can be drilled out
later, (loss of circulation plug)
lost circulation zone severe loss zone
lost hole a well that was abandoned because of
downhole drilling conditionst
lost pipe tubulars such as drillpipe, casing, or tubing
that has either broken off or fallen into a well. Lost
pipe must be removed by fishing.
lost or losing returns see lost or loss of circulation

lost section

lost section a section of rocks that is missing from

the expected vertical section because the well was
drilled through a normal fault. A lost section is in
contrast to a double section caused by a reverse fault.
lot an irregular shaped and/or irregular acreage
subdivision of a land division section that is often
designated by number
Love wave a type of surface wave that has horizontal
motion oriented perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation and no vertical motion. The velocity
depends on density and rigidity modulus of the
medium. Love wave is named after A.E.H. Love, an
English mathematician.
low lower
s.

low-angle fault a fault with a fault surface that dips

less than 45 in contrast to a high-angle fault
low-angle hole a wellbore that deviates less than
20 from vertical
low-cut filter a filter that transmits frequencies
above a certain frequency and eliminates the lower
frequencies. A low-cut filter is the opposite of a lowpass filter, (high-pass filter)
low dip an angle of less than 5 from horizontal
low-drum drive the drawworks drive used with a
heavy load and low speeds. A low drum drive is in
contrast to a high- drum drive.
lower heating value the amount of heat generated
by combustion of hydrocarbons and water vapor.
Lower heating value is measured in Btu/ft3 for gas
and Btu/gal for liquids. If the heat generated by
condensing water vapor back into a liquid is counted,
it is called higher heat value, (net heating value) LHV

lower kelly valve

lower kelly valve a short sub with a full-bore ball

valve that is activated by drilling mud pressure and
is located in the drillstring just below the kelly saver
sub. When the mud pumps are pumping, the valve
is open. When the pumps are stopped, the valve closes.
This prevents drilling mud from flowing out of the
kelly when it is unscrewed from the drillstring to
make a connection. It also acts as a safety valve in
case of high-pressure mud rising up the drillstring.
The valve can be closed with a hexagonal wrench to
remove the kelly under pressure and can be stripped
in the well during snubbing, (drillstem safety valve)
lower marine riser package the upper part of the
subsea wellhead. The lower marine riser package
includes the flexible riser joint, top annular blowout
preventer, subsea accumulator, and the subsea control
pods.
lower-phase microemulsion a stable, finely
dispersed mixture of oil, water, and chemicals, with
a high concentration of water.
lower-tier crude oil old oil that was sold at a fixed
price under the United States Energy Policy and
Conservation Act of 1975. Lower-tier crude oil is in
contrast to upper-tier crude oil that could be sold at
market price, (first-tier crude oil)
low explosive a rapidly burning explosive that
requires time and high temperatures to ignite and
does not require air or oxygen. Low explosives are
used for sidewall coring and bullet perforating. Low
explosives are in contrast to high explosives.

low-frequency shadow
low-frequency shadow a low-frequency event that
occurs below a hydrocarbon deposit on a seismic
record. The cause of the low-frequency shadow is
not certain.
low-gravity oil crude oil that is heavy in weight and
has a "API below 20
low-pass filter a filter that transmits frequencies
below a certain frequency and eliminates the higher
frequencies. Low-pass filter is the opposite of a lowcut filter, (high-cut filter)
low-shrinkage crude oil see black oil
low side the lower side of a deviated well. Low side
is in contrast to the high side.
low-solids nondispersed mud a drilling mud
made with fresh water, bentonite, and polymers. The
drilling mud has a lower clay content than normal
drilling mud which increases the drill penetration
rate while still retaining well control. The mud can
be weighed up to 18 lb/gal. Low-solids nondispersed
mud can tolerate only minimal salt contamination.
low specific-gravity solids all solids in drilling mud
except weighing materials such as barite. This includes
clays, well cuttings, additives, and salts.
lowstand a sea level that is relatively low to land. A
lowstand is in contrast to a highstand.
lowstand wedge incised-valley fill deposits that are
part of a lowstand system tract. A lowstand wedge is
defined in seismic or sequence stratigraphy.
low-sulfur crude a crude oil that contains less than
0.6% sulfur by weight
low temperature separation the use of expanding
gas flowing through a choke to remove liquids by
cooling. LTS or LTX
low-temperature separation unit a horizontal
vessel that uses expansion refrigeration to remove
liquids from high-pressure natural gas. Using a choke,
the gas is cooled by expansion causing water,
condensate, and possibly hydrates to form. The
hydrates are melted using an indirect heater or
prevented from forming using a hydrate inhibitor.
The vessel then discharges the dry gas, condensate,
and water. (LXT unit) LTS unit
low-velocity correction the time correction that is
used in both refraction and reflection seismic
exploration to compensate for the travel time of the
seismic energy in the near surface, weathered, or lowvelocity zone (weathering correction)
low-velocity layer in seismic exploration the nearsurface layer having velocities of about 2,000 ft/sec.
Subweathering velocities are about 5,000 ft/sec.
(weathering) LVL
low water-loss additive a chemical that is added
to cement slurry to reduce the loss of water from
the slurry as it flows past a permeable formation in
the well
low water-loss cement a type of cement used in
wells that contains a low water-loss additive to reduce
loss of water from the slurry as it flows past permeable
formations in the well. LWL cement
low-yield clay a commercial clay containing calcium
montmorillonite that yields less than 30 bbl/T. Lowyield clays weigh 12 lb/gal. Low-yield clay is in contrast

lubricating and bleeding

301

to a high-yield clay such as sodium montmorillonite

that yields 30-50 bbl/T.
LP 1) low pressure 2) light phase
L.P. 1) line pipe 2) low pressure
IPG, L.P.G. or LP-Gas liquefied petroleum gas
LPG, L.P.G., or LP-GAS Drive a miscible
hydrocarbon process used to increase production by
injecting a slug of enriched gas or liquified petroleum
gas (LPG) into a depleted oil reservoir. The LPG is
miscible with the oil and makes the oil more fluid.
LPKO low-pressure knockout
LP sep low-pressure separator
LR 1) level recorder 2) lost rollers 3) last reading
lrg large
Lg-wave Rayleigh wave
LS, Ls or Is limestone
L.S. location for seal
LSAL long-spaced acoustic log
LSD legal subdivision
LSE or lse lease
LSL limestone log
L-spread a type of seismic array in which the
shotpoint is located at a right angle and a distance
from the end of a geophone group. The spread forms
an L-shape.
LSS long spacing sonic
lss leases
LSTAC low surface tension log
Lstr or lstr luster
LSW load salt water
LT 1) lost or loose compacts or teeth 2) lower tubing
LT or It light
It long ton
LTA lost-time accident
LT&C long thread & coupling
LTD log total depth
ltd limited
lt/d long tons per day
Ltl or ltl little
LTR late-time region
LTS low-temperature separation
LTS unit low-temperature separator unit
LTSD low-temperature shut down
LTX low temperature separation
LTX unit low temperature separation unit
L U lease use
lub or lube lubricant
lube oil lubricating oil
Lubra beads plastic spheres used in drilling mud
to reduce drillstring drag
lubricant material such as oil, grease, or graphite
that is used to reduce friction, lub or lube
lubricating and bleeding a method used to kill a
producing well. A high-density kill fluid is pumped
down the tubing string until the maximum allowable

302

lubricator

Lyr

tubing pressure is reached. The well is then shut in

to allow gravity segregation of fluids in the tubing.
The lighter gas and oil will rise to the top and is
bled off. More kill fluid is pumped into the tubing
to replace the gas and oil until the tubing is filled
with kill fluid.
lubricator several sections or one long section of
pipe and a valve assembly that are temporarily attached
to the top of a casing or tubing head during workover
and testing operations using a wireline. The lubricator
has an inner diameter that is larger than the tools
and is used to pack off the wireline and contain the
pressure in the well while running the wireline into
the well without killing the well. The lubricator
contains a tight-fitting rubber or bag preventers that
prevents fluid loss and is held together with quick
unions. The lubricator is just high enough to handle
the longest string of tools between the wireline valve
and the stuffing box.
Ludlovian a global age of geological time. It is part
of the Silurian period.
Lufkin Mark II a beam pumping unit manufactured
by Lufkin. The Mark II uses a Class II lever system to
decrease upstroke acceleration and decrease peak rod
load. (Mark II)
walking beam

angle
brace
pitman
samson
post
counterweight

3_A_
Mark II pumping unit

lug a casing projection used for attachment

lugging power the torque on the flywheel of a diesel
engine
lumen a derived unit in System International (SI)
for luminous flux. It is calculated by candela times
solid angle (cd x sr). Im
Lumnite a brand of quick setting cement

Lurgi process a German process for coal

gassification
luster the surface reflection of light from a rock or
mineral. Luster is described using such terms as
metallic, greasy, vitreous, dull, sooty, resinous, waxy,
silky, pearly, or earthy. Lstr or Istr
lut lutite
Lutetian a global age of geological time that occurred
about 50-45 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle Eocene
epoch.
lutite a consolidated rock composed of mud. lut
lux a derived unit in Systems International (SI) for
illuminance. It is calculated by lumens divided by
square meters (lm/m 2 ). be
LV liquid volume
Ly latent heat of vaporization
LVI low-viscosity index
LVL low-velocity layer
M level
LVL crew a seismic crew that drills shallow wells
and shoots them to determine the thickness and
characteristics of the low-velocity layer (LVL) or
weathering zone. The data are used to correct surface
seismic sources such as Vibroseis1".
LW load water
LWD logging while drilling
LWL low-water-loss
LWL cement low water-loss cement
LWR or lwr lower
LWTR load water
LWTRL low water-loss mud
Ix lux
LXT unit a horizontal vessel that uses expansion
refrigeration to remove liquids from high-pressure
natural gas. The gas is cooled by expansion using a
choke causing water, condensate, and possibly
hydrates to form. The hydrates are melted using an
indirect heater or preventer from forming using a
hydrate inhibitor. The vessel then discharges the dry
gas, condensate, and water, (low-temperature
separation unit)
lyophilic a colloid that absorbs large amounts of
liquid and expands. If the liquid is water, it is called
hydrophilic. (emulsoid)
lyophobic a substance that has an affinity for the
suspending medium. An example is bentonite in water.
Lyr layer

M magnetic stratigraphy

M l ) molecular weight 2) mobility ratio 3) molal 4)

thousand 5) magnetization 6) slope of interval transit
time versus density 7) mixture 8) minute 9) marginal
allowable 10) mudstone ll)aAf-Wcrossplot parameter
12) metacenter or metacentre 13) mega-14) molarity
m l ) meter or metre 2) medium 3) mud 4) fuel 5)
fuel consumption 6) mass 7) cementation exponent
8) slope 9) milliard 10) mega-11) milliM/ 1) middle 2) mutual inductance 3) chargeability
m* apparent cementation factor
MA mud acid
Ma million years ago
mA milliampere
ma 1) milliampere 2) solid or rock matrix
Maastrichtian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 72-67 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Cretaceous epoch.
macaroni slim-hole (narrow-diameter) well
equipment
macaroni rig a light service unit or workover rig
that is designed to handle t in.-l in. tubing
macaroni string 1) a string of % in.-l in. diameter
tubing or pipe 2) a tubing string inside a tubing string
macaroni tubing a relatively small-diameter tubing
that is run in a tubing string as a work string. The
macaroni tubing string can be fitted with a bit to drill
out sand, plugs, or junk.
maceral a group of components that make up
kerogen. Macerals are divided into liptinite (oil prone),
vitrinite (gas prone), and inertinite (inert). Macerals
are composed of different types of organic matter
that have been degraded.
mach machine
Macro fos or Macrofos macrofossil
macrofossil fossils, remnants of ancient plants and
animals, that are large enough to be seen and identified
by the naked eye. Macrofossils are useful for
determining the age and environment of deposition
of sedimentary rocks on the surface but are destroyed
by the drilling bit in the subsurface, in which case
microfossils are used. Macrofossils include both
vertebrates and invertebrates. Some common
macrofossils are mollusks, gastropods, brachiopods,
cephalopods, and corals. Macrofos or Macrofos
macroporosity the percent volume of pores with
a radius greater than 0.5 p.m in a rock. Macroporosity
is in contrast to microporosity. 4>M

303

m.a.f. mineral ash free

Mag magnetometer
Mag or mag 1) magnetite 2) magnetic
MAGL nuclear magnetism log
Magnaflux the trade name for a method and the
equipment used to locate cracks and other defects
in steel and iron. A paste containing magnetic particles
is applied to the material to be tested in which a
magnetic field has been set up. The magnetic particles
indicate the location of defects.
magnetic basement the subsurface boundary
between igneous and metamorphic rocks of high
magnetic susceptibility below and sedimentary rocks
above
magnetic brake an auxiliary brake used on the
drawworks of a drilling rig. The magnetic brake uses
an electric current and magnets to slow or stop the
drawworks shaft, (electrodynamic brake)
magnetic declination the east or west angular
difference at a location between true north and
magnetic north. The magnetic declination of a location
will change with. time.
magnetic-flux-leakage test a method used to find
flaws in tubulars by detecting perturbations of a
magnetic field caused by the defects
magnetic inclination the magnetic field direction
with respect to horizontal
magnetic multishot directional survey the
measurement of hole inclination and azimuth from
magnetic north at several stations in an uncased hole.
The magnetic surveying instrument is similar to the
tool used in a single-shot survey except that the camera
is a modified movie camera that takes pictures every
15-20 seconds. The tool is run on a wireline or
dropped down the drillstring, and the data can be
stored in digital form in downhole memory. The drill
collars must be made of nonmagnetic material.
magnetic-particle inspection a test used to locate
flaws in tubulars such as drillpipe. Magnetism is
induced in the tubular with several coils of wire
connected to a DC current source. A special oil is
used to coat the tubular and fine iron filing are spread
on the surface. The iron filings will orient themselves
over cracks that can be detected with an ultraviolet
or black light. MPI
magnetic single-shot directional survey The
measurement of hole inclination and azimuth from
magnetic north at a single station in an uncased hole.
The survey is made with a magnetic surveying
instrument, and drill collars must be made of
nonmagnetic material.
magnetic stratigraphy the use of detrital remanent
magnetism in sedimentary rock and the geomagnetic
scale of normal and reverse earth magnetic-field
history to identify stratigraphic units, (paleomagnetic
stratigraphy)

304

magnetic survey make a connection

magnetic survey 1) a wireline survey to determine

the inclination and azimuth of the wellbore at a specific
depth as recorded on a film disk. The magnetic survey
can be either single or multishot and can be run
only in an uncased well and with nonmagnetic drill
collars. 2) measurements of either the total magnetic
field or its components (vertical and horizontal) over
an area. The magnetic field of the earth is measured
in nanoteslas (nT) and varies from about 60,000 nT
at the magnetic poles to 30,000 nT at the equator. A
magnetic survey is used in petroleum prospecting
to locate structures and determine the depth to
basement.
magnetic surveying instrument a tool that is used
to determine and record the azimuth and inclination
of the well. The tool includes an angle indicating unit,
camera, timing device, and battery. The angleindicating unit consists of a magnetic compass card
that pivots on a point and a pendulum assembly that
is a plumb bob or inclinometer with a glass target
between the pendulum and compass. The tool is run
on a wireline or dropped down the drillstring to sit
on a baffle plate on the bit. The timer controls the
camera which takes a picture of the plumb bob and
magnetic compass card. Only one picture is taken
for a single-shot survey, whereas a modified movie
camera is used for a multishot survey.
magnetic susceptibility the ratio of the magnetism
induced in a rock to the strength of the magnetic
field that causes the magnetism. Magnetic susceptibility
is a measure of the degree to which something can
be magnetized.
magnetic tape a strip of plastic, often Vi in. or 1
in. wide, coated with magnetically sensitive material
that is used to store data. Magnetic tape is used to
record and store seismic information. Seismic tape
includes field tape with raw data, intermediate tape
that has some processing, and final tape that has the
final processing.
magnetite a black mineral composed of both ferric
and ferrous oxides [(Fe,Mg)Fe2O3] that occurs as either
grains in sandstones, compact aggregates, or wellformed eight-faced crystals in igneous rocks. Magnetite
is strongly magnetic and is responsible for much of
the magnetic properties of rocks. Mag, mag, or mt
magnetized drilling assembly a drilling assembly
that retains residual magnetism that can affect a
magnetic compass used in a deviation survey of the
well. Areas of residual magnetism are called hot spots.
magneto a generator that uses rotating armatures
in a magnetic field formed by permanent magnets
to produce an electric current to an engine's ignition
system (ignition magneto)
magnetometer device that measures the strength
of the earth's magnetic field and is able to detect
variations in the magnetic susceptibility of rocks in
the earth's crust. Ground magnetometers can measure
a total magnetic field as well as vertical and horizontal
components. Airborne magnetometers of the fluxgate,
proton-resonance, and optically pumped types usually
measure only total-field intensity. A magnetometer is
a tool of geophysics that is used to explore the structure
of the subsurface. The units of magnetism are gammas.
Mag

magnetostriction the change in the body

dimensions of a substance when a magnetic field is
applied to it
magnetostrictive transducer a downhole tool that
is used to induce compressional sound waves in the
formations surrounding the wellbore for an acoustic
log. The transducer consists of a tightly wound scroll
of steel that vibrates when a magnetic field is applied
to it.
magnetotellurics a surface technique that uses
natural electromagnetic currents to explore the
subsurface. The primary electromagnetic source is the
electrical currents in the ionosphere that are generated
by solar wind and atmospheric electric currents
generated by thunderstorms. These generate a wide
frequency of electromagnetic currents that interact
with conductive rocks in the earth's surface. The
response of the earth's crust to these currents is
measured at the surface. The method is used primarily
for large scale or regional studies and defines major
geological structures. Magnetotellurics is also used
where dense, resistive formations (volcanics,
carbonates, or anhydrites) that restrict seismic
methods overly other sedimentary rocks. MT
MAHA maximum acceptable hole angle
mail pouch a cable-tool drilling engine
mail poucher a cable-tool driller
main deck the primary platform on an offshore
drilling rig or ship that extends from the bow to the
stern. (Texas deck)
mainframe computer a large computer that is
designed to support numerous users. The mainframe
computer is kept in an air conditioned room.
main hatch an opening on the top of an oil stock
tank or storage tank that is used to gauge or measure
the level of oil and to take an oil sample. The hatch
is fitted with a lid. (gage or gauge hatch or hole,
gaging or gauging hatch or hole or thief or dp hatch)
main line 1) the large-diameter pipeline that
connects an oil or gas field with a refinery or
transportation terminal (transmission or trunk line)
2) a pipeline that collects fluid from smaller feeder
lines
main oil line the large-diameter subsea pipeline that
brings the oil ashore from a gathering center
main shaft the band-wheel shaft on a cable-tool
drilling rig
maint maintenance
maj major
major major oil company
major oil company 1) an integrated oil company
that engages in exploration, production,
transportation, refining, and marketing. A major oil
company is not an independent oil company. 2) one
of the original "seven sisters" consisting of Exxon,
Chevron, Mobil, Gulf, Texaco, Royal Dutch Shell, and
British Petroleum, (major) maj
major diameter the diameter of a connection
measured from the crest of an external or male thread
or the root of an internal or female thread
make a connection To screw (make up) another
section of drillpipe to the drillstring while drilling a

make a hand manipulator

making a trip

well. The joint of pipe which is stored in the mousehole

is added to the drillstring below the kelly. Making a
connection has to be done about every 30 ft while
drilling a well.
make a hand to become a good worker
make a hole to drill a well
make a hole with a pencil to report more footage
than has actually been drilled
make and break to connect and disconnect a
connection
make a pull to trip out of a well
make a trip to raise (trip out) the drillstring out of
the well to perform a function such as changing the
bit and then return (trip in) the drillstring to the
well
make footage to drill a well
make hole to drill a well
make it up to screw tight a connection using a
wrench
make it up another or one more wrinkle to
tighten a connection one more turn
make location to stake a wellsite
make macaroni to break pipe by applying too much
pressure
make the kelly down to drill through one joint
or about 30 ft. It will then be time to make a connection
on the drilling rig.
make the rounds to make an inspection at various
locations
make through to drill through a formation
make up 1) to screw or tighten a connection of
threaded tubular goods 2) to assemble a system of
equipment 3) to mix a solution or suspension such
as drilling mud 4) to compensate for something
makeup something that is added to a system such
as makeup water to drilling mud
makeup cathead a hub that is attached to the shaft
on the drawworks of a drilling rig and is used as a
winch to assemble (screw or tighten) drillpipe and
tubing. The makeup cathead usually is located on the
driller's side of the drawworks. (spinning cathead)
makeup gas 1) the gas that is used to make up for
the reduction in gas volume in a gas processing plant
due to shrinkage and fuel use 2) gas that is taken in
later years that was paid for in a previous year under

305

a take-or-pay contract 3) gas that is injected into a

reservoir during pressure maintenance
makeup right the right granted in a joint operating
agreement that allows a party to make up for an
underlift (taking less production than allowed in the
agreement) out of the production of an overlift (taking
more production than allowed in the agreement) by
another party
makeup tongs the large wrench-like device that is
used on the floor of a drilling rig to make up and
break out sections of pipe. When running pipe in
the well, the makeup tongs act as the torque tongs
and are connected to the cathead by rope or chain
and grip the pin end of joints. When coming out out
the hole, the makeup tongs grip the box end of joints
and act as the backup tongs.
makeup torque the force necessary to screw tight
a connection
make water to produce water from a well
making hole drilling a well
making up a charge putting together the explosive,
primer, and cap for detonation in seismic exploration
making up the tool to connect the pieces of a
drillstem test tool
male connection a coupling with threads on the
outside. The male connection is located on the pin
end of a tubular and receives the female connection.
male thread a thread located on the outside surface
of a connection. The male thread connects with a
female thread, (external thread)
malodorant a bad smelling odorizer. A malodorant
is often added to methane or sweetened natural gas
to allow the gas to be detected during a leak. It is
composed of two or more sulfur-containing
hydrocarbons, mercaptans, alkysulfides, or cyclic
sulfides.
man manifold
M&F male and female
M&FP maximum and final pressure
mandrel a cylindrical bar, shaft, spindle, or other
type of support that allows other parts to be arranged
around it, attached to it, or fit into it
manhead or manhole the hatch located on the side
or top of a tank that is used for entry for inspection,
cleaning and repair
manifold 1) an area where pipelines enter and exit
a pumping station or tank battery and where the
control valves are located 2) a pipe or tube with one
inlet and several outlets (header) man or MF 3) a
pipe with several inlets and one outlet (header) man
or MF 4) Pipes, valves, and fittings where fluid from
one or more sources is directed to several systems
MF or man
manifold center or centre the location where
flowlines from subsea wells come together and the
oil is sent to the production station
manifold trailer a trailer with a permanently
mounted, high-pressure manifold that is used on
hydraulic frac jobs. The pumping units send the frac
fluid and proppants to the manifold that directs the
fluid to the wellhead or tree saver.
manipulator a hydraulic, mechanical arm

306

raanjak

marine-flooding surface

manifold on hydraulic frac job (Dowell Schlumgerger)

manjak an asphaltite that occurs in mudflow vents

in Barbados
Manning equation an equation for low velocity in
an open channel. The equation is V=
R^S1'2
where V is mean velocity in cfs units, R is hydraulic
radius in feet, 5 is slope of channel or sine of slope
angle, and n is Manning roughness coefficient.
manocalcimeter an instrument used to measure the
pressure increase caused by CO2 generation when a
rock sample is treated with acid
manometer an instrument used to measure
pressure. A manometer consists of a U-shaped tube
partially filled with a liquid that can vary in specific
gravity from 1.0 (water) to 13.57 (mercury). The
pressure on one end of the tube is measured by
balancing the liquid head of the fluid on the other
end that is calibrated. A manometer is simple and
accurate (2%) and is primarily used for pressures
ranging from a low vacuum to 1,000 mm of mercury.
manometer factor a correction that is used for
measurements made with a mercury-type flowmeter.
The factor compensates for the two different heads
of gas above the two legs of the manometer. Fm
man op manually operated
manual rotary tongs a hand-operated device
similar to a wrench that is hung from a wireline from
the drill floor and used on a drilling rig to grip and
hold drillpipe, casing, or tubing during such
operations as making up or breaking out connections
manual shift the mechanical or electrical
displacement of a curve on a well log by a logging
engineer during a wireline survey. A manual shift can
be used to keep the curve in the track, (mechanical
shift)

manufactured gas a low Btu gas that is formed from

the controlled burning or distillation of coal, oil, or
coke-oven feedstocks
MAO maximum allowable overpull
map 1) a two-dimensional representation of the
distribution of some characteristic or characteristics
of the earth's surface or subsurface. Topographic maps
show the elevation of the ground surface, geological
maps show where the various rock layers out crop
on the surface, and structure maps show the subsurface
elevation of a rock layer and isopach maps show the
thickness of a subsurface rock layer. A sheet is a single

map. 2) to collect regional data for the purpose of

producing a map
map projection a systim of lines on a twodimensional map that represent the lines on the threedimensional earth. The three most common are
Mercator, stereographic, and polyconic. Each distorts
the earth's surface in some manner.
mar 1) marine 2) maroon
marble a metamorphic rock formed from limestone
or dolomite. Marble is a fine- to coarse-grained rock
composed of calcite or dolomite mineral grains. Mbl
marbles steel projectiles used in perforating a well
marble shot an openhole well-completion
technique in which explosives packed with glass
marbles are detonated in the well. The glass marbles
break up gypsum beds and can fracture the reservoir
rock.
marg marginal
marginal allowable the amount of petroleum that
a government regulatory agency permits a lowproduction well to produce over a period of time.
The allowable is designed to prevent premature
abandonment of marginal wells. M
marginal unit a unit that cannot produce at the rate
equal to the highest unit allowable for that pool
marginal well 1) a well that is predicted to produce
only enough gas and/or oil revenues to offset the
completion costs of the well 2) a well that is producing
enough net gas and/or oil revenues to barely offset
production costs. A marginal well is defined by law
in barrels of oil per day (BOPD) for various depth
intervals.
margin of overpull the theoretical yield strength
of the pipe minus the weight of the drillstring in
drilling mud. The design valve of overpull margin
in pipe is 50,000-100,000 lbs. MOP
PLANKTON

-=-

marine environments

marine the ocean environment, mar or mam

marine bank a shallow-water limestone deposit that
forms a thick deposit without the framework-building,
wave-resistant characteristics of a reef
marine bar an elongate deposit of coarse,
unconsolidated sediments such as sand or gravel
deposited on the sea floor by currents. Marine bars
can be elongated parallel to the current such as tidal
ridges or perpendicular to the current such as sand
waves.
marine conductor see marine riser
marine-flooding surface a surface in a succession
of sedimentary rocks that separates older from

marine offlap Mark II

younger rocks and represents a very rapid increase
in water depth. A marine-flooding surface is defined
in seismic or sequence stratigraphy and delineates
parasequences.
marine offlap a retreat of the seas from the land.
A marine offlap could be caused either by an absolute
fall in the level of the sea (eustatic) or an uplift of
the land. A marine offlap results in the deposition of
a coarsening upward sequence of sediments.
(regression)
marine onlap an advance of the seas onto the land.
A marine onlap could be caused either by an absolute
rise in sea level (eustatic) or by subsidence of the
land. Marine onlap results in the deposition of a fining
upward sequence of sediments, (transgression)

marine riser

marine riser a 16-20 in.-diameter tube made of

several joints that connects the cellar deck of a drillship
or semisubmersible to the blowout-preventer stack
of a subsea well. The marine riser goes through a
slip joint at the top and is connected to the blowoutpreventer stack through a lubricated, flexible ball joint
in a bushing and hydraulic connector that can be
latched or released with hydraulic pressure. The
drillstring goes through the marine riser. The riser
is used to complete the mud circulating system and
guide the drillstring into the subsea blowout-preventer
stack. From bottom to top, the marine riser consists
of a) hydraulic connector, b) lower flexible joint (ball
joint), c) flexible pipe for choke and kill lines, d)
riser pipe and connectors, e) choke and kill lines
and connections, f) telescopic (slip) joint, g) diverter
system, and h) riser-tensioning equipment. The marine
riser is kept in tension by a riser tensioner. (marine
conductor)
marine riser connection the fitting that connects
the marine riser to the top of the subsea blowout
preventers
mark 1) to measure and put magnetic indicators each
100 ft on a survey or logging cable 2) the magnetic
indicator that is located at each 100 ft on a survey
or logging cable
mark detector the device that uses a moving-coil
pickup to records the marks that are used for depth
control on a survey or logging cable

307

marker bed

marker bed a thin, distinctive rock layer such as

volcanic ash (bentonite), coal, limestone, or sandstone
that can be traced for significant distances. On seismic
records, it is a bed that has a characteristic reflection
over a large area. A marker bed is used for subsurface
mapping and correlation.
marker buoy a buoy used in a survey to mark the
location for a drilling rig or offshore structure
marker crude the crude oil that sets the price
standard against which other crude oils are compared
and prices are set. For OPEC it is Saudi Arabian light
crude, in the United States it is West Texas /
intermediate, and for Great Britain it is Nortrr Sea
Brent, (benchmark crude)
markers the inspection marks made by paint sticks
and tubes on tubulars
marker well a well that is used as a reference for
other wells such as for well classification for natural
price regulation under the Natural Gas Policy Act
marketable title a title that is valid beyond any
reasonable doubt, (merchantable title)
market clearing level a natural gas price that is
competitive with alternate fuels
market-demand prorationing the control of oil
and gas production by a government regulatory agency
based on the demand for oil or gas. Prorationing is
designed to avoid a surplus of the oil and gas and is
ratable among all wells in a reservoir, field, or state.
marketing covenant an implied agreement in an
oil and gas lease that the lessee will sell the petroleum
from the lease within a reasonable time and at a
reasonable price
market-out clause a provision in a gas contract that
if the contract price of the gas purchased plus
transportation costs exceeds the price for which the
gas can be sold, the contract price of the gas can be
recalculated. There are many variations in how the
producer can react to the lower price offered for the
gas, including terminating the agreement.
market price the selling or purchase price for oil
or gas
market-value clause a lease provision that
guarantees the mineral rights owner compensation
based on the current market value of the oil and
gas produced rather than the price received by the
operator
market value lease a gas lease in which the lessor's
royalty payments are based on the market value of
the gas that is produced from the leasehold
Mark II a beam pumping unit manufactured by
Lufkin. The Mark II uses a Class II lever system. (Lufkin
Mark II)

308

marl mast
walking beam

angle
brace
pitman
samson
post

counterweight

Mark II pumping unit

marl a loose term for unconsolidatedsedirm. ts. Marl

is usually applied to sediments with more than 50%
CaCO3. Mrl or mrl
marlstone a consolidated sedimentary rock with
significant but not dominant amounts of limestone.
Mrlst, mrst, or Mrst
marly the property of a sedimentary rock that is
similar to marl in texture and composition. Mrl, mrl,
mly
marn marine
Marsh buggy a vehicle with very large rubber tires
that is used in swamps

Marsh funnel

Marsh funnel a standard funnel that is used to

determine the viscosity of drilling mud at the drilling
rig site. The funnel is 6 in. wide and 12 in. long with
a neck that is 2 in. long with an inside diameter of
3
/i6 in. It holds 1 qt or 1,500 cc. There is a screen
covering half of the top of the funnel to remove any
lumps from the drilling mud. The Marsh funnel is
calibrated with fresh water at a temperature between
70 and 80F that will take 26 seconds to drain one
quart or 27.5 seconds for 1,000 cc. The seconds that
it takes the drilling mud sample to drain is called
funnel or Marsh-funnel viscosity.
Marsh-funnel viscosity the number of seconds that
1 qt or 1,000 cc of drilling mud takes to drain through
a standard Marsh funnel. The longer the time, the
greater the viscosity of the fluid, (funnel viscosity) FV
marsh gas methane (CH4) produced by bacteria
(fermenters) from organic matter in the absence of

oxygen and sulfates at shallow depths from a few

feet below the surface to about 1,000 feet. Marsh gas
is dry gas that is normally about 99-9% methane and
has a distinctive, very light carbon isotope
composition. The gas usually escapes into the
atmosphere but has been trapped in large deposits
below the permafrost in Siberia. Urengoy is the largest
gas field in the world with 285 TcF of recoverable
marsh gas. (biogenic or swamp gas)
MASS or mass massive
mass the amount of matter in a sample. Mass is
expressed in grams (g) in the metric system, m
mass absorption coefficient the linear absorption
coefficient per centimeter divided by the density of
the substance in grams per cubic centimeter
mass assets an accounting procedure used to
amortize equipment costs. All the equipment costs
are carried and amortized in a single account for the
entire production period even if the equipment is
sold.
massive a rock layer without obvious bedding
features. MASS or mass
massive frac or massive hydraulic fracturing a
large-scale frac job used to induce long fracture lengths
of over 1,000 ft from the wellbore. It involves a large
amount of proppant with a high proppant
concentration under very high pressures over a time
of 9-10 hours. Massivefrac is used on low-permeability
formations to expose more of the formation and to
increase production. MHF
mass productivity index the mass of fluids
produced from a well per day per lb/in2 differential
pressure
mass spectrometer an instrument that is used to
determine molecular weights and relative abundances
of isotopes in a substance. The molecular components
are ionized and dissociated by electronic
bombardment. The positive ions are then accelerated
in an electric field and separated magnetically by mass.
A mass spectrometer is often used for gas analysis
because it is fast and accurate. It can determine the
amount of methane, ethane, propane, isobutane,
n-butane, pentanes, hexanes, heptanes, and heavier
hydrocarbons along with carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, nitrogen, and helium content. The mass
spectrometer can be used to calculate the Btu content
of the gas. MS or ms
mass spectrum the mass spectrometer record of
the abundance of specific ions in a sample
mast a portable steel tower made of welded tubes
or structural beams that is erected into working
position as a unit rather than assembled. The mast
is used in the hoisting system of a drilling rig, pulling
unit, or workover rig. A mast can be either a) free
standing or b) mobile mast. The free-standing mast
is made of several individual sections that are fastened
together and are mounted on a separate skid or base.
The free-stand mast is usually raised by wireline. The
raised-floor cantilever mast that accommodates large
blowout preventers is the most common free standing
type of mast. The mobile masts are a) single or double
telescoping pipe masts that include racking platforms,
b) single frame or lattice-types that are wheel mounted,
c) telescoping types, and d) folding types. The mobile

master bushing material balance equation

mast

mast is usually raised hydraulically and secured with

guy wires. The mast is rated by hook load. Two types
of drilling rig masts are full view and cantilever.
The mast on a well-servicing unit is usually a doublepole mast made of tubulars or a telescoping structural
mast made of angular steel. A mast serves the same
function as a derrick, but a derrick cannot be erected
as a unit.

309

master meter a prover that is used to test and

calibrate a positive-displacement liquid meter or
turbine liquid meter that is in service. The master
meter has been calibrated against another standard.
It is connected in series with the line meter to be
calibrated, and its reading is compared to the meter
in service. The master meter measures the true volume
of the liquid, and a meter factor is determined. A
transfer prover uses the same process on a positive
displacement gas meter or turbine gas meter. Other
meter-proving methods include volumetric and
displacement-type provers.
master rams a closing element in the blowout
preventer that uses steel plates with flat rubber surfaces
that fit together to close and open the well. Master
rams can be used only when no pipe is in the well.
Master rams are sometimes called master valve, (blank
or blind rams)
master valve 1) the large valve on a well located
above the casinghead and below the tee on a Christmas
tree. The master valve is typically used only in an
emergency to shut in the well. The valve can be
manually operated and can also contain an automatic
shutdown, (master gate) 2) a term sometimes used
for the master rams on a blowout preventer
Mat material

master bushing (pin type)

master bushing equipment that is either a single

piece of solid steel or two pieces that fit together
and is designed to fit into the rotary table of a drilling
rig. The master bushing transfers rotation of the rotary
table to the kelly bushing. The kelly bushing fits on
the master bushing either with a) a pin drive where
four drive pins on the bottom of the kelly bushing
fit into four holes bored into the master bushing, or
b) a square drive where the kelly bushing fits into a
square recess in the master bushing. The master
bushing also has a tapered seating (bowl) for the
slips that hold the drillstring. (rotary bushing)
master choke line valve a valve on the choke line
that is used to stop the flow through the choke line
if another valve fails
master clutch the device that connects the
compounding transmission that supplies the power
on a mechanical-drive drilling rig to the input shaft
of the drawworks
master gate see master valve
master limited partnership a type of limited
partnership in which units in the partnership are
traded like stock. There is no United States federal
income tax on the partnership, and the payments are
made to the investor who is taxed. The partnership
can be used to spin off the assets of a company to
make the company less attractive for a takeover. MLP

Drilling Slot
Mat

mat
mat 1) the steel frame that rests on the seafloor to
support a mat-supported jackup rig where there is a
soft bottom 2) the foundation for a land rig. The mat
is often made of 3 in. x 12 in. planks.
matched filter a filter used in seismic exploration
that gives a large output to a particular signal a of
specific frequency range. The matched filter identifies
the particular signal when it is masked by the noise
of different frequencies.
material balance equation a complex equation that
relates oil, water, and gas volumes, reservoir pressures,
reservoir temperatures, compressibilities, formation
volume factors, and other variables. The material
balance equation is used to calculate the volume of

310

materials coordinator

economic recovery

fluids in a reservoir and to predict changes in the

variables with production.
materials coordinator an employee of the operator
on an offshore drilling rig who keeps a record of
the equipment and organizes the supplies on the
offshore rig. (matsman)
materials supervisor a drilling or operations
department employee who arranges for the purchase
and delivery of equipment such as casing, cement,
and mud to the drillsite
matl material
matrix 1) the fine-grained particles between the
larger particles in a poorly sorted sedimentary rock.
Mtrx or mtx 2) the lithology or rock type of a formation
such as limestone 3) the metal into which the
diamonds are imbedded on a diamond bit. The
original matrix was a copper-beryllium alloy but
harder alloys with higher melting points are now used.
matrix acidizing a well-stimulation technique using
acid, commonly hydrochloric, hydrochoric/
hydrofluoric, hydrofluoric, acetic, or formic acid to
dissolve low-permeability carbonate reservoir rock
and to increase production. The acid is injected with
pressure less than formation fracture pressure. Clay
stabilizers and emulsion breakers are often added
to the acid. Matrix acidizing is also used to relieve
formation damage, (interstitial acidizing)
matrix density density of the rock (assumed to be
poreless) that is used in formation density log
computations. Matrix density is the density of the rock
portion of a formation. Matrix density for limestone
is 2.71 g/cc, 2.87 g/cc for dolomite, 2.65 g/cc for
unconsolidated sands, and 2.68 g/cc for sandstones.
Matrix density is sometimes called grain density. Bulk
density includes both the rock density and the density
of the fluid occupying the pores of the rock.
matrix erosion the wearing away, primarily by
hydraulic action, of the metal holding the diamonds
on a diamond bit
matrix identification plot a crossplot of data from
neutron, sonic, and density logs that is used to identify
lithologies, gas, and secondary porosity. Apparent
grain density (p) is plotted against apparent matrix
transit time (A/ma). The common matrix minerals of
quartz, calcite, dolomite, and anhydrite will plot at
specific locations. Gas and secondary porosity will
shift the plots. (MID plot)
matrix porosity porosity in the fine-grained portion
of a limestone
matsman an employee of the operator on an offshore
drilling rig who keeps a record of the equipment
and organizes the supplies on the offshore rig.
(materials coordinator)
mat supported an offshore jackup rig that uses a
mat or large steel platform to support the legs on a
relatively soft seafloor. A mat-supported jackup rig is
in contrast to an independent-leg jackup rig with spud
cans.
matting the material under a drilling rig that supplies
support and drainage. Matting boards are often 4 ft
longer than the width of the substructure and are
spaced 3-4 ft apart. Two layers of boards can be laid
and bolted together to form a matting pad.

maturation the chemical alteration of organic matter

in sedimentary rocks by time and temperature with
burial. Maturation can result in the generation of crude
oil and natural gas. Maturation subdivisions include
immature, early mature (the start of oil and gas
generation), peak mature (the peak generation of oil
and gas), late mature (the end of oil and gas
generation), and postmature. The maturation stage
can be identified by chemical analysis or color and
reflectivity of the organic matter. Spore color, thermal
alteration, and vitrenite reflectance indicies are used
to quantify maturation.
maturation hypothesis an idea that light oils are
older and more maturated, whereas heavy oils are
younger in age and less maturated.
mature 1) a sedimentary rock that is the result of
intense weathering and erosion. A mature sedimentary
rock is characterized by an abundance of stable
minerals such as quartz, a lack of unstable grains,
good sorting, and rounding of grains. An
orthoquartzite is an example. Mature is in contrast
to immature. 2) a source rock that has reached the
temperature and time exposure of maturation
necessary to generate hydrocarbons. A mature oil
source rock corresponds to a vitrinite reflectance of
0.5-13%, a thermal alteration index of 2.2-3.5, and
a spore color index of 3.5-9-0. Mature gas-prone
source rocks have a vitrinite reflectance of 0.7%-1.3%3) A basin or area that has been well explored and
drilled.
mature oil crude oil that has been generated by
relatively high temperatures in the oil window. Mature
oil contains lower molecular weights and less asphaltic
compounds than immature oil that is generated at
lower temperatures. It has high API.
maturity the degree to which hydrocarbon
generation has occurred in a source rock. Maturity
can be divided into early, peak, and late mature. Early
mature corresponds to a vitrinite reflectance of 0.50.65%, a thermal alteration index of 2.2-2.3, and a
spore color index of 3-5-5.0. Peak mature corresponds
to a vitrinite reflectance of 0.65%-0.9%, a thermal
alteration index of 2.3-2.6, and a spore color index
of 5.0-7.0. Late mature corresponds to a vitrinite index
of 0.9-1.3%, a thermal alteration index of 2.6%-3.5%,
and a spore color index of 7.0-8.5.
MAW mud acid wash
MAWP maximum allowable working pressure
MAX or max maximum
maximum allowable pressure the maximum
pressure that can be applied to equipment such as a
pipe or tank without rupture
maximum capacity the maximum output that a
system is capable of producing
maximum capacity well a well that is producing
at the maximum pump capacity
maximum connected condition the worst
combination of waves, wind, current, water depth,
and offset that an offshore drilling rig can experience
and continue to hold location with the marine riser
still connected to the blowout-preventer stack
mayimnni economic recovery the highest rate of
production from a gas and/or oilfield without
unreasonable depletion or waste of reservoir energy.

maximum efficient rate meandering river

Maximum economic recovery is similar to maximum
efficient rate.
maximum efficient rate the highest production
rate of a rate-sensitive gas or oilfield that will not
decrease the maximum practical ultimate recovery
from the reservoir. Maximum efficient rate leaves the
minimum oil saturation when the reservoir is
depleted. Too rapid production could bypass oil in
the reservoir or waste reservoir energy. The rate is
generally between 3%-8% of the ultimate recoverable
reserves for that reservoir per year. Maximum efficient
rate is stated in volume of production per day, well,
or for a lease. MER
maximum negative cash flow a method used to
economically evaluate a project such as drilling and
completing a well. Maximum negative cash flow is
the largest cumulative amount of money spent on
the project minus income at any time during that
project.
maximum permissible dogleg the greatest
amount of deviation in the direction and/or inclination
that a wellbore can be permitted to make without
causing tools to stick or excessive stress on equipment
or tubulars in the well
maximum permissible rate a rate of production
that is set by a combination of the maximum efficient
rate (production without waste of reservoir energy)
and economic demand for the gas and/or oil by the
market
maximum production rate an allowable, an
enforced rate of well production. MPR
maximum pump pressure the manufacturer's
recommended maximum permissible force on the
power-end bearing of a pump
maximum-reading thermometer a mercury
thermometer that uses a constriction in the capillary
tube to retain the maximum temperature reading
maximum service pressure the maximum
pressure that a system or equipment such as a blowout
preventer or wellhead is designed to handle, still be
under waranty, and operate safely, (working pressure
or rated working pressure) MSP
maximum water the maximum water-to-cement
ratio that can be used in mixing cement that will
not have water separating from the slurry while setting
during a cement job
maximum water content the amount of mixing
water per sack of cement that will result in 2.5 ml
of free water
maximum working pressure the maximum
operating pressure at which equipment is intended
to be used. MWP
maxipulse a type of marine seismic source.
Maxipulse uses a small cylindrical charge (Vi lb) of
nitrocarbonitrate exploded down a hose to a detonator
on a firing wheel in the submerged gun. The detonator
fires a delay fuse which explodes the main charge
used for the seismic source. A gun transducer records
the signal.
Maxwell solid a substance that is elastic under short
duration stress and plastic under long duration stress
Maysvillian a North American age of geological time
that occurred about 440 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Ordovician period.

311

MB megabyte
mb millibar
mb cementation factor (rock matrix)
M bbl thousand barrels
Mbfpd thousand barrels of fluid per day
Mbl marble
Mbopd thousand barrels of oil per day
Mbr or mbr member
mbrl million barrels
MBT methylene blue titration
MBTU thousand British thermal units
Mbwpd thousand barrels of water per day
MC mud cut
Me microcline
me 1) megacycle 2) mud cake
MCA 1) mud-cut acid 2) mud cleanout acid or agent
MCF, Mcf, or mcf thousand cubic feet
MCF/acre-foot thousand cubic feet per acre foot
MCF/B or McCB thousand cubic feet per barrel
MCFD, MctfD, McfM, or mcf d thousands of cubic
feet per day
MCFGPD thousand cubic feet of gas per day
MCFH thousand cubic feet per hour
MCFS microfossil
MC-GR medium to coarse grained
mchsm mechanism
MCO or MCOIL mud-cut oil
MCP maximum casing pressure
MCRGR micrograined
mcr-x microcrystalline
MCSW mud-cut salt water
MCT 1) computer processed interpretation 2)
synergetic log systems
MCW or MCWTR mud-cut water
MCXL microcrystalline
MD or M.D. measured depth
mD or md millidarcy
md 1) mud 2) milliard
Mdbf measured depth below formation
MDC monel drill collars
MDDO maximum daily deliverable obligation
mdl middle
MDST or Mdst mudstone
md wt mud weight
mdy muddy
MEA monoethanolamine
meander a river channel bend
mean the sum of observed values divided by the
number of observations, (arithmetic mean)
meander belt the width of the flood plain or valley
floor across which a meandering stream shifts its
channel
meandering river a river that flows through a series

312

MEAS or meas measuring device

or ground level (GL) to a point in the well or bottom
of the well. Measured depth is reported in drilling
records and on well logs and is measured by a logging
or survey cable. Measured depth will be longer than
true vertical depth due to well deviation, (logged or
total depth) MD or M.D.
measure electrode the electrical terminal that
makes contact with the formation in a resistivity log
sonde and is used to measure the electric potential
The measure electrode is in contrast to current
electrodes.

meanders

meandering river valley

of bends in its channel. Point bar sands are often

deposited on the inside of the meanders. Deposition
of sand on the inside and erosion of the outside of
the meander causes the meander to shift with time.
When the meander becomes very large, a channel
called a cutoff is eroded across the neck of the
meander. The river then abandons the meander and
leaves an oxbow lake filling the meander channel.
Meandering rivers are in contrast to braided streams.
MEAS or meas 1) measure 2) measurements
MEASD measured

true vertical
depth

measured
depth

measured depth

measured depth the actual wellbore length from

kelly bushing (KB), derrick floor (DF), foundation,

measure in to accurately record the depth of a well

by counting the joints or measuring with a steel tape
each joint of drillpipe or tubing run in a well
measurement while drilling a method used to
sense and record with instruments in the downhole
assembly a a) short normal resistivity log, b) gamma
ray log, c) formation conductivity log, d) downhole
weight-on-bit record, e) directional data, annular
temperature log, g) neutron porosity lag, and/or h)
formation density log or continuous wave as the well
is being drilled. The tool is installed in nonmagnetic
drill collars as close to the bit as possible. Electrical
power is obtained either from turbine generation from
drilling mud circulating through the tool or from
electrical batteries. The data can be transmitted to
the surface by a) fluid pulse, telemetry, b) a wireline
run in the drillstring, or c) storing the data downhole
and retrieving after each bit run. Fluid pulse telemetry
is by pressure pulses with a binary code that is
transmitted every 10-60 seconds. The pulses are
detected by a surface pressure transducer and are
decoded by computer. Negative pulse measurements
while drilling generates mud pressure pulses by
venting fluid into the annulus to cause a sudden
pressure drop. Positive pulse measurements while
drilling causes pressure pulses by restricting the mud
flow through the tool. Measurement while drilling
has two modes of operation. During rotary drilling
a directional survey is made after each connection
and during steering runs with a bent sub and downhole
motor surveys are made at very short intervals. MWD
measure out to accurately record the depth of a
well by counting the joints or measuring with a steel
tape each joint of drillpipe or tubing being run out
of a well
measure point the depth reference point on a sonde
at which the downhole measurements are made.
Measure point is often the lowest sensor on the tool.
measurement ticket a written acknowledgement of
the receipt of a specific amount of crude oil. The
indicated volume is the change in meter reading
during delivery. The gross volume is the indicated
volume times the meter factor. The gross standard
volume is the gross volume at standard temperature
and pressure. The net standard volume is the same
as the gross standard volume minus the sediment
and water content of the oil and is measured in
standard barrels of net clean oil.
measuring device a powered calibrated reel with
measuring line that is used to measure depths in a
well in meters or feet. A calibrated wheel, roller
assembly, and counter are used to measure the footage
of wireline. The measuring device has a slip-free

measuring line MEL

contact and is mounted on movable supports and
measures the depth with the turn of a wheel.
measuring line a solid wireline made of cold-drawn
plow steel that is used with a measuring device to
measure the depth of a well. The measuring line comes
in diameters from 0.066-0.125 in. and lengths of
10,000-25,000 ft. A stainless steel measuring line is
available for wells with hydrogen sulfide.
measuring tank a calibrated tank that is used in a
lease automatic-custody transfer (LACT) unit to
measure the volume of a liquid such as crude oil.
The tank is continuously being filled and emptied to
measure the flow volume with a dump meter, (dump
tank)
mech mechanical
mechanic a person who is trained and employed
to do maintenance and repair on mechanical
equipment
mechanical advantage the weight lifted divided by
the force required to lift the weight
mechanical agitator a motored device that rotates
paddles on a shaft to stir the drilling mud in the
mud tanks, (paddle mixer)
mechanical brake a device that is activated by levers
or rods directly attached to it and is used to slow or
stop a turning shaft. A mechanical brake usually uses
a brake shoe and brake drum.
mechanical buckling the corkscrewing of a tubing
string in a well by tensional forces. Mechanical
buckling is often caused by slacking off too much
weight in setting the packers. Buckling can also be
caused by temperature changes.
mechanical degradation the loss of fluid
properties from a polymer solution used in enhanced
oil recovery by permanent mechanical cutting of the
polymer molecule
mechanical displacer prover an instrument used
to test and calibrate a liquid flowmeter. The flow from
the main line is diverted through the prover which
is a line containing a sphere or piston displacer. The
line pressure forces the displacer to move through
the line which is followed by detectors in the pipe
wall. The time that the displacer takes to move a certain
distance is calibrated to volume. The mechanical
displacer prover can be used for both uni- and bidirectional flow. A smaller version is called a smallvolume prover or ballistic prover.
mechanical-drive rig see mechanical rig
mechanical efficiency log an analysis of
penetration rate, torque, weight-on-bit, and rotary
speed to differentiate lithology changes from bit wear,
cone locking, and stabilizer gouging. MEL
mechanical jar a fishing tool accessory that is
designed to give a sharp, upward shock to the fishing
tool in order to loosen a fish in a well. The mechanical
jar has an oil-filled body and uses a tripping device
in the jar. The force of the shock is controlled by
the torque applied against the tripping mechanism.
(hydraulic jar)
mechanical log a record of the properties of rocks
and their fluids with depth in a well as sensed by an
instrument called a sonde that is raised up the well
on a wireline. Some types of mechanical logs include

313

electric, induction, gamma ray, neutron porosity,

formation density, sonic, caliper, temperature, and
dipmeter. A field copy of the well log is made in
the recording truck after logging. A cleaner office copy
is made later, (wireline log)
mechanical rig a drilling rig in which the source
of power is internal-combustion engines, usually
diesel, and the power is transmitted by mechanical
devices such as chains, gears, and shafts. A mechanical
rig is in contrast to an electric-drive rig. (mechanicaldrive or power rig)
mechanical shift see manual shift
mechanical zero the instrument reading with no
signal input
MED or med median
med or med. medium
med-gr or med gr medium-grained
median The middle value of smallest to largest
observations. MED or med
median cut a measure of the effectiveness of a solidparticle removal device. Median cut is the smallest
sized particle that the device removes at least 5096
of that size particle from a solid-liquid suspension.
P^ point
median line the agreed border of the seafloor and
ocean between adjacent countries
medicated crude sour crude oil
medium gravity crude a crude oil with a API of
25-35. Medium-gravity crude oil fluoresces cream or
yellow.
medium-radius horizontal hole a horizontal hole
with a curvature rate between 8-20 per 100 ft. The
hole is drilled with a high curvature angle-built motor.
meet or release clause a provision in a gas purchase
and sales agreement authorizing the seller to cease
selling gas to the buyer and have the gas released
from the agreement unless the buyer is willing to
meet the price and other purchase terms offered by
another potential buyer.
MEG methane rich gas
mega the metric prefix for 106. M
megabyte computer memory that can store 220or
1,048, 576 bytes or characters. A character is a symbol
such as A or 2. MB
megajoule the metric unit of service equivalent
to moving 1,000 newtons (N) over a distance of
1,000 m
megapascal the System International unit for
pressure. A megapascal is 1,000,000 newtons/m2. The
conventional unit is psi, which can be converted to
the SI unit by multiplying by 0.006895. MPa
mega perforator an expendable jet-perforating gun
with large horizontal-firing charges. The perforations
have a relatively large diameter and the perforation
tunnel is deep. The mega perforator can be used in
an open hole to reduce formation damage.
megapore a pore with an average diameter greater
than 4 mm in contrast to a micropore or mesopore
MEHD minimum effective hole diameter
MEL 1) micro electric log 2) mechanical efficiency
log

314

melangee Messozoic

melange a heterogeneous mixture of highly sheared

and fine-grained rocks that include blocks and slabs.
Melange means mixture in French.
Melobesia red algae that live on marine grass and
are a source of high-magnesium calcite mud
member a rock-stratigraphic unit that is a distinctive
but local part of a formation. A member can be
distinguished from the rest of the formation by color,
rock type, or some other distinctive characteristic. A
member can be formally named with a geographical
and a lithologic name such as the Layton Sandstone
Member of the Coffeyville Formation. A member can
also be a lithologically different but laterally equivalent
portion of a formation such as the sandstone member
of the Holdenville Shale. Mbr or mbr
membrane technology the separation of gas into
components by passing the gas through different
membranes
memorandum of title an abbreviated abstract of
title of land. The abstracter issues an opinion on the
owner of the lands, unreleased oil and gas leases,
conveyances of minerals, and outstanding
encumbrances and liens of record, (certificate of title
or report of title)
memorizer an electronic device used in well logging
to delay signals from various sensors to compensate
for the vertical distance between the sensors on the
logging tool
memory the space in a computer where the data
is stored while it is being processed. Read only
memory (ROM) contains the permanent computer
instructions. Random access memory (RAM) stores
the data when the computer is on and goes blank
when the computer is off. Memory is measured in
kilobytes and megabytes.
men meniscus
meniscus the curvature of the upper surface of a
liquid that is due to capillarity. The liquid surface
will be concave up when the container is wetted by
the liquid and convex up when the container is not
wetted, men
MEOH methanol
MEOR microbial enhanced oil recovery
MEP mean effective pressure
MER maximum efficient rate
MER allowable an allowable, the amount of oil and/
or gas that is allowed to be produced by a government
regulatory agency, that is based on the maximum
efficient rate of the well or reservoir
Meramecian a North American epoch of geological
time that occurred about 355-340 m. y. ago. It is part
of the Mississippian period.
mere mercury
mercap mercaptan
mercaptan a naturally occurring compound similar
to alcohol in structure but containing a sulfhydryl
group (-SH). A mercaptan is one of the ways in which
sulfur can occur in petroleum. It gives the petroleum
a strong, pungent odor of garlic and is used as an
odorant in natural gas. Mercaptan can be removed
by washing with caustic soda to convert it to disulfide.
mercap

merchantable oil crude oil of sufficient quality as

defined in a contract to be accepted by a pipeline
or another purchaser. The quality is usually measured
by the bottom sediment and water content of the oil
such as less than 1%. In cold climates such as the
Rockies, the bottom sediment and water limit could
be 0.5%, whereas it is about 5% for heavy California
oil.
merchantable title a title that is valid beyond any
reasonable doubt, (marketable title)
merchant's pipe early drillpipe that was lapwelded
mercury-injection porosity the porosity of a rock
sample measured by injecting mercury under pressure
into a sample. The volume of mercury that can be
injected into a sample of known volume is used to
calculate porosity. The mercury-vacuum capillary
pressure curve is also used to determine pore-throat
size distribution. Mercury-injection porosity is a
relatively accurate method except that some large
pores might not be measured because they are
shielded by smaller pores.
mercury-vacuum capillary pressure curve a plot
made by injecting mercury under increasing pressure
into a reservoir rock that has been drained of all
fluids from its pore spaces. Increasing pressure is
plotted against volume of mercury injected. The
smaller the pore throat, the higher the pressure
needed to inject mercury through the pore throat.
The curve is used to determine the size of pores in
the reservoir rock. The formula Is r = -j- in which
r is the pore radius andp is the injection pressure.
The volume of mercury injected indicates the porosity
of the sample.
MERID or merid meridian
meridian an accurately surveyed line that runs northsouth. A meridian is used for land surveys. MERID
or merid
meromictic lake a lake that is chemically stratified
mesh the number of openings per linear inch in a
screen or sieve. A 200-mesh screen will have 200
openings per linear inch. A 200-mesh screen has 74
y. openings.

mesh perspective diagram

mesh perspective diagram a three-dimensional

diagram with north-south and east-west lines
Meso mesozoic
mesogenetic porosity porosity in sedimentary
rocks that was formed at great depths. Mesogenetic
porosity is in contrast to eogenic and telogenic
porosity.
Mesozoic an era of time about 250-67 m. y. ago. It
is known as the Age of Reptiles. The Mesozoic is

Messinian meter prover

subdivided into the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous
periods. Meso
Messinian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 6.7-5.3 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Upper Miocene epoch.
META metamorphosed
META, Meta, or meta metamorphic rock
meta 1) metamorphic 2) metamorphosed
metacenter or metacentre a point located on a
vertical line drawn through the center of buoyancy
on a drilling ship or offshore rig. The metacenter
location is an indication of the stability of the structure
when it is tilted. M
metagenesis the changes in sedimentary rocks that
occur at deep depths under high temperatures and
pressures. Metagenesis includes the cracking of liquid
hydrocarbons to form methane and graphite. At
shallower depths, catagenesis occurs.
metal displacement the volume of fluid displaced
by the solid or metal part of a pipe
metallic circuit the electric current path through
the metal portion of a corrosion cell which causes
the metal to deteriorate
metal-petal basket an expanding metal cone that
is used to prevent the downward flow of cement in
a well. The basket is made with flexible spring steel
petals that face upward. Liners can be used to fill in
between the petals. Drilling mud and cement can flow
up the annulus but not downward. Casing collars or
stop rings hold the basket, (cementing basket)
metamorphic rock a rock that has been altered by
heat and/or pressure. Metamorphic rock textures are
a) foliated or b) nonfoliated. A foliated rock has a
planar arrangement of minerals in bands such as
occurs in gneiss. A nonfoliated rock is massive such
as marble. Metamorphic rock commonly forms
basement rock and is usually barren of petroleum
META, Meta, or meta

metamorphism the process in which rocks are

recrystallized under high heat and/or pressure into
metamorphic rocks. Two type of metamorphism are
a) contact and b) regional.
metaph 1) metamorphic 2) metamorphosed
metasediments sedimentary rocks that have
experienced some metamorphism but still have
sedimentary rock characteristics
metasomatic the simultaneous solution of a mineral
and the formation of a different mineral in its place
in a rock, man
meteoric water subsurface water that is fresh
because it has recently entered the ground from the
atmosphere
meter 1) the fundamental metric system unit for
length. One meter is defined as yio.ooo.oooth of the
distance along a meridian from the pole to the equator
of the earth. A meter is equal to 39-37 in. or 3.28 ft.
(metre) m or mtr 2) an instrument used to measure
the volume and/or pressure of fluid that is produced
or passes by a point. Turbine meters are commonly
used to measure crude oil streams. Natural gas meters
include orifice (the most common), displacement,
mass-flow, turbine, and elbow meters. Meters are

315

calibrated with a meter prover. mtr 3) to measure

the flow or quantities of a substance
meter accuracy factor the volume of fluid
registered on a meter divided by the actual proving
volume that flowed through the meter as ascertained
during a meter-proving test. Meter accuracy factor is
the reciprocal of meter factor.
meter calibration 1) a test of the accuracy of a meter.
A flowmeter is tested with a prover that measures
the true volume of flow through the meter. This is
compared with the measured flow, and a meter factor
is calculated for that meter. 2) to adjust meter readings
to accurate values
meter chart a chart used to record flow velocity
or volume measured by a flowmeter. The standard
flow-recorder chart used on a flowmeter is circular
and 12 in. in diameter. The chart has two common
scales. One is a linear scale that goes from 0%-100%.
The other is a square root scale with the graduations
closer at the bottom and spread out at the top of
the chart. A Vee, bucket, capillary, or cartridge pen
is used to record the data. The ink colors for a gas
chart are standard. Red is for differential pressure,
blue for static pressure, and green for temperature.
The most common chart drive makes one revolution
in 24 hours, (flow recorder chart)
meter factor a decimal that is used to accurately
calibrate a specific flowmeter. The meter factor is
determined by meter proving and is equal to the true
volume of a fluid (measured by a prover) divided
by the indicated volume from the meter. Meter factor
is the reciprocal of meter accuracy factor.
meterhouse the shelter that protects a gas meter
metering separator a metal or fiberglass tank
(separator) that both separates produced fluids and
measures the volume of liquids. The metering
separator has a metering chamber and float to record
the quantities of liquids. A two-phase metering
separator will measure the amount of liquid whereas
a three-phase metering separator will measure either
a) the amount of oil or b) the amount of oil and the
amount of water separately.
metering station a flow station with meter proving
metering tank a calibrated tank that is used in a
lease automated custody-transfer (LACT) unit to
measure the volume of a liquid such as crude oil.
The tank is continuously being filled and emptied to
measure the flow volume with a dump meter.
(measuring tank)
metering valve a needle in an orifice valve that is
used to regulate fluid flow
meterman the person responsible for changing the
charts on wellhead orifice meters
meter manifold the piping and valves that connect
an orifice meter to a meter run or tube, (gage or
gauge line)
meter per second a derived unit in System
International (SI) for speed and velocity, mis
meter per second squared a derived unit in System
International (SI) for acceleration, m/s2
meter prover a device that is used to test and
calibrate the accuracy of a meter. The meter prover
measures the volume of a fluid that flows through

316

meter provingg mho per meter

the meter and is used to calculate a meter factor for

that meter. The most common meter provers are 1)
volumetric prover, 2) master meter, and 3) positive
displacement (PD) meter.
meter proving the methods used to test and
calibrate specific flowmeters. Meter proving is
normally applied to positive displacement (PD) and
turbine meters as they give direct readouts of volume
through the meter. The true volume of fluid is then
compared to the indicated volume of fluid on the
meter, and a meter factor is calculated, (proving)
meter proving run a single volumetric
measurement taken during a meter-proving test
meter run the straight lengths of smooth pipe
located upstream and downstream from an orifice
meter, (meter tube) MR
meter run point the location of the field measuring
meter in a gas gathering system
meters/hour the System International (SI) unit for
drill rate. The conventional unit is ft/hr and the
conventional unit can be converted to the SI unit by
multiplying by 0.3048. mlh
meter slippage the volume of a liquid at a specific
flow rate that is not registered by the meter
meters per minute the System International (SI)
unit for annular velocity and slip velocity. The
conventional unit is ft/min and the conventional unit
can be converted to the SI unit by multiplying by
0.3048. m/min
meter tube see meter run
metes and bounds a method of describing the
boundaries of a tract of land by lengths and bearings
that are often in reference to a local, natural, or manmade references. Metes are measurements and bounds
are bearings. Metes and bounds were used for land
surveys in the original 13 states as well as Maine,
Vermont, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Texas,
and parts of Ohio.
meth methane
methane a hydrocarbon (CH4) that is a gas under
surface conditions and forms the bulk of most natural
gas. Methane can form either biologically by bacterial
action or inorganically by high temperatures and
thermal decomposition. Methane has a molecular
weight of 16.043, a specific gravity of 0.30, a boiling
point of 259F at 14.7 psia, a vapor pressure of 5,000
psia at 100F, a critical temperature of 117F, a critical
pressure of 668 psia, and a gross heat content of 10097
Btu per cubic foot. Biogenic gas is almost pure
methane gas. meth
methane hydrate ice with trapped methane gas
molecules in the ice lattice. Methane hydrates
resemble wet snow.
methane series the 30 naturally occurring paraffin
or normal alkane hydrocarbons that form saturated
straight chains. They include gases (Cj to C4), liquids
(C5 to C16), and solids (CI7 and above). Methane (CH4)
is the simplest of the series, (paraffin series)
methanol a colorless, odorless, flammable alcohol
(CH3OH) that can be manufactured from methane.
(wood alcohol or methyl alcohol)
methyl a prefix that means a methyl group (CH3)
is attached to the molecule

methyl alcohol methanol

methylene blue titration a method used to
determine the amount of clay in a drilling mud and
the cation exchange capacity of the clay. A sample of
the drilling mud is boiled in hydrogen peroxide and
sulfuric acid to disperse the clay, remove the organic
matter, and replace the cations on the clay surfaces
with H+. Methylene blue is then slowly added to the
dispersion. The methylene blue replaces the H+ on
the clay surfaces. Addition of methylene blue is
continued until an excess is detected when a sample
is placed on filter paper and a blue halo is observed.
MBT
metr metric
metre see meter
metric system a decimal system of measures and
weights that is based on tens and scientific units. The
metric system has the meter as the unit of length,
gram as the unit of weight, liter as the unit of volume,
and seconds as the unit of time. The metric system
is used in scientific work and in most countries except
the United States. The System International d'Unites
(SI) modified the metric system in I960 and has
substituted kilograms for grams as the basic unit of
weight.
metric ton a metric unit of weight equal to 1,000
kg, 0.9842 long tons, 1.1023 short tons or 2,204.6223
lbs avoirdupois. A metric ton of oil ranges from 6.5
to 8.5 bbls of oil, depending on the "API of the oil
and averages 7.4 bbls to the metric ton. MT
MeV or mev millions of electron volts
mezzanine deck the cellar deck below the drill floor
on a semisubmersible
MF 1) mud nitrate 2) manifold 3) metal factor 4)
medium frequency.
mf mud filtrate
mfa apparent mud filtrate
mfd manufactured
MFE multiflow evaluator
MF-GR medium to fine grained
MFP maximum flowing pressure
MFT multiformation tester
MG motor generator
mg milligram
mgal an acceleration of 0.001 cm/s2, 0.001 dyne/g
or 10~3 gal. A gravity unit is equal to 0.1 mgal. Galileo
or milligal
M-GSC multiple completion, gas, and condensate
M-GAS multiple completion, gas
M-GR or m-gr medium-grained
mgr manager
m/h meters/hour
MHF massive hydraulic fracturing
mho a unit of conductance. A mho is calculated by
amperes divided by voltage (A/V) and is the reciprocal
of an ohm.
mho meter the reciprocal of ohm-meter
mho per meter a unit of conductivity that is equal
to the conductivity of 1 m3 of substance that has 1
ohm of resistance between opposite faces

MIV microfossil
MHV moveable hydrocarbon volume
MHz megahertz
MI 1) mineral interest 2) moving in
mi mile
M, the methyl orange alkalinity of a mud filtrate
reported as milliliters per 0.02 normal acid per mm3of
filtrate
Mic or mic 1) mica 2) micaceous
mic micro
mica micaceous
mica a group of common minerals that are composed
of potassium-aluminum silicates and occur as thin,
elastic flakes. Micas are originally formed in igneous
and metamorphic rocks but are commonly found as
sand-sized flakes in sandstones. The two most common
micas are white mica (muscovite) and black mica
(biotite). Micas are used as lost-circulation material.
Mic or mic
micaceous a rock that contains mica. The micas are
seen as flat, shiny flakes, mica
micellar flood an enhanced oil recovery process
in which water mixed with chemicals is injected into
a depleted oil reservoir. The chemicals are designed
to reduce the surface tension of the remaining oil
and wash it to a producing well. The first slug injected
is usually a water preflush, used to condition the
reservoir. Then a micellar slug of surfactant, alcohol,
brine, and oil is injected to reduce the surface tension
of the oil. Polymer-thickened water is then injected
to drive the oil and micellar slug. Then a fresh-water
buffer is injected to prevent drive water from
contaminating the chemicals, followed by drive water
to push the previous slugs and oil toward producing
wells, (chemicalflood)
micellar fluid a mixture of surfactants, cosurfactants,
salts, and hydrocarbons in water. Micellar fluid is used
in enhanced oil recovery.
micellar-polymer flood see micellar flood
micelle a submicroscopic aggregate of organic and
inorganic molecules in colloidal solution
micgr 1) microangular 2) micrograined
Micr or micr micrite
micrite 1) a very fine-grained limestone that contains
less than 1 % allochems or larger, transported particles.
Micrite is not a good reservoir rock unless it has
secondary porosity such as fracturing or solution. 2)
sediment particles with diameters ranging from 1 to
4 \L that are composed of calcium carbonate. Micrite
is a common matrix in limestone and forms from
chemical precipitation, bioerosion, and calcareous
algae. Micr or micr
micritic limestone a limestone that contains more
than 90% micrite
micro- the metric prefix for 10~6. n
microannulus or micro annulus a small gap in
the cement between the casing and the wellbore in
a well-cemented well. The cement forms a good
hydraulic seal but a poor acoustic coupling. A
microannulus is often caused by internal pressure
on the casing squeezing some of the cement slurry
into a soft formation. When the pressure is relieved,

317

the microannulus forms between the cement and

casing.
microannulus effect the swelling of casing due to
pressure
microballoon a small plastic sphere usually filled
with nitrogen gas. A large number of microballoons
are floated on crude oil in a storage tank to prevent
evaporation.
microbe a microscopic organism such as bacteria
microbial flooding or enhanced oil recovery an
enhanced oil recovery technique that uses
microorganisms that live on an injected food source
or the oil in the subsurface reservoir. The
microorganisms generate gases such as hydrogen and
carbon dioxide and chemicals such as acids and
surfactants that help move and produce oil remaining
in the reservoir. In one variation, a mixed culture of
anaerobic bacteria and molasses are injected into the
subsurface reservoir through injection wells. The
bacteria eat the molasses and generate gas such as
CO2, surfactants, and polymers to reduce the viscosity
and surface tension of the oil and move it through
the reservoir toward producing wells. In a microbial
flood, slugs of nutrients, microbial solutions, and their
products are moved through the reservoir by drive
water that is injected behind them. MEOR
microbreccia a poorly sorted sandstone with
angular grains
microcomputer a computer that has a
microprocessor, a single integrated circuit for the
central processing unit. Home computers are
microcomputers.
microcrystalline a rock composed of very small
mineral crystals that can be seen only under a
microscope, (cryptocrystalline) MCXL, mcr-x,
microxln, or micro-xln
Microdot a very small, colored rectangle of film
that ranges in size from Vn in. x Vs in. to Ve, in.
x 3/32 in. About five Micodots are put in each
barrel of crude oil to identify the ownership of the
oil. Microdots come in four densities to match the
specific gravities of different crude oils. The oil is
filtered to recover the Microdots.
microelectric log an electric type of wireline well
log that measures the resistivity of rocks and their
fluids in a zone adjacent to the well. The microelectric
log is run in freshwater base drilling muds and is
used to locate permeable beds and define bed
boundaries. MEL
microemulsion a stable, finely-dispersed mixture
of oil, water and surfactant. A microemulsion is
translucent and has certain properties of a solution.
Microemulsion are used in chemical floods.
Microfos or microfos 1) microfossil 2)
microfossiliferous
microfossil the preserved remains of ancient plants
and animals that are so small that a microscope is
needed for their identification. Common types of
microfossils include foraminifera (forams),
radiolarians, coccolithopores, diatoms, spores, and
pollen. Microfossils are very useful for petroleum
exploration as they can be picked undamaged out
of well cuttings and used to date the age of the
subsurface rocks and determine their environment

318

microfossiliferous MICT or mict.

microfossils

of deposition. Microfossils are often called bugs.

MCFS, Microfos, or microfos
microfossiliferous a sedimentary rock that contains
microfossils
microlaterolog a shallow investigation (2 in.) log
of the laterolog type that measures^, in a well drilled
with freshwater or saltwater base muds and in highresistivity formations. The microlaterolog uses three
concentric electrodes, one bucking and two
monitoring electrodes, spaced a short distance apart
on a rubber pad that is pressed against the wellbore
wall. The pad reduces the short circuiting caused by
the drilling mud. The microlaterolog measures the
resistivity of a small volume of material in front of
the pad. The log is used with a caliper and microlog
to estimate porosities and define beds. MIL
microlog a microresistivity log that is used to indicate
formation permeability by filter-cake buildup and
formation thickness with a vertical resolution of 2
in. in low and medium-resistivity formations. The tool
has a pad carrying electrodes that are pressed against
the borehole wall by another pad called the backup
pad. The microlog measures two resistivities, a 1 in.
x 1 in. microinverse and a 2 in. micronormal. The
microinverse has a very shallow depth of investigation
and measures the mudcake. The microlog is printed
in Track 2. The micronormal measures the invaded
zone and is recorded in Track 3. A difference in
resistivity of the curves shows formation invasion and
permeability. A caliper log is also recorded in Track
1. MLorMLC
micrometer the System International (SI) unit used
for particle size. The conventional unit is microns
(p.) and the conventional unit can be converted to
the SI unit by multiplying by 1. ^m
micron a unit of measurement in the metric system
that is '/i,ooo mm. An inch equals 25,400 microns, p.
Microol micro-oolite
microorganisms microscopic plants or animals
micropaleontologist a person who studies and
identifies microfossils. (bug picker)
Micropor or micropor microporosity
micropore 1) a space between particles (pore) in
a clastic rock that is less than 0.5 M* is size. A micropore
is often formed in clay platlets and is characterized
by a high irreducible water content. 2) a space between
particles (pore) in a carbonate rock that is equant to
equant-elongate or tabular or platy with an average
diameter of less than Vis mm 3) a pore with an average
diameter less than Vi6 mm in contrast to a mesopore
or megapore 4) a pore small enough to hold water
against gravity and inhibit flow
microporosity the percent volume of space between
particles (pores) with a radius smaller than 0.5 \un
in a rock. Microporosity is in contrast to macroporosity.
<|>m Micropor or micropor

microprocessor an integrated circuit on one chip

that contains the entire central processing unit of the
computer. Microprocessors are described by the
number of bits on each internal data register or data
bus. In general, the larger the number of bits, the
faster the microprocessor.
microresistivity logs a group of electric type
wireline well logs that measure resistivities of a small
volume of rocks and their fluids and mudcake in the
flushed zone close to the wellbore. Microresistivity
logs are made with electrodes on a rubber fluid-filled
pad pressed to the wellbore wall and used primarily
to detect mudcake to indicate permeable rocks and
in some instances to define narrow beds. Some types
are a) microlaterolog, b) microlog, c) proximity log,
and d) microspherically focused log. A microresistivity
log is usually run with a spontaneous potential and
caliper log.
microscopic displacement efficiency the
efficiency of an oil-displacement technique to remove
oil from individual pores in the reservoir rock
microsec microsecond
Micro-seismogram log a type of cement-bond log
that displays an acoustic wave train in an intensity
modulated-time mode. MSG
MICROSFL or micro SFL log see microspherically
focused log
Microsol instrument an instrument used to
determine the density of well cuttings. The instrument
consists of a small tube filled with distilled water and
a float in the water. The cuttings are weighed both
above and below the surface of the water to determine
mass and volume.
microspar a uniform calcite matrix with grains
5-20 JJL in limestone. Microspar forms by the
recrystallization of micrite. Microspr
microsparite 1) a limestone with a carbonate mud
that has been recrystallized to microspar 2) sparry
calcite crystals 5-20 |j, in diameter
microspherically focused log a sphericallyfocused microresistivity log that is a very shallow
investigating (2 in.) laterolog. The tool is mounted
on a pad against the well wall and is used to measure
the resistivity of the flushed zone (Rm). A dual laterolog
is often run with the microspherically focused log
to define the resistivity profile, depth of invasion, 5OT,
moved hydrocarbons, porosity, and permeability and
can also be used with a formation density log. A caliper
log is often run with the microspherically focused
log. The log is used in wells drilled with fresh- and
salt-water base muds. (MICROSFL or micro-SFL log)
MSFL
Microspr microspar
microspread a geophone spread with very short
intervals of a few feet
Microstyl microstylotite
microsucrosic a sedimentary rock texture that is
characterized by very fine-grained crystals. The rock
is often very friable.
microxln or micro-xln microcrystalline
MICS microsurvey log
MICT or mict. moving in cable tools

MICH milliamp
MICU moving in completion unit
MID 1) matrix identification 2) moving in derrick
MID, Mid, or mid middle
midcase outline an outline on a map where
geological and/or geophysical evidence indicates the
location of an undiscovered petroleum reservoir. The
midcase outline surrounds the reservoir with the most
likely reserves and can also be supplemented with
the low-case and the high-case outlines surrounding
the pessimistic and optimistic calculations for reserves
in that reservoir.
'
Mid-Continent an area in North America that is
bounded by the Mississippi River (east), the Rocky
Mountains (west), Canadian border (north), and the
Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican border (south). The
Mid-Continent is often defined as a more restricted
area covering Oklahoma, Kansas and, to varying
degrees, the surrounding states.
Mid-Continent lease a general term for an oil and
gas lease
middle-phase microemulsion a stable, finely
dispersed mixture of oil, water, and chemicals that
has a high concentration of both oil and water
middle row the row of teeth on the cone of a rollercone bit located between the outer (heel) row and
the inner (nose or toe) row of teeth
middle sample a sample of crude oil taken from
near the middle depth of oil in a storage tank
midnight ethyl condensate or natural gasoline that
is used in a car
MID plot a crossplot of data from neutron, sonic,
and density logs that is used to identify lithologies,
gas, and secondary porosity. Apparent grain density
(Pma)a *s plotted against apparent matrix transit time
(lma)<f The common matrix minerals of quartz, calcite,
dolomite, and anhydrite will plot at specific locations.
Gas and secondary porosity will shift the plots, (matrix
identification plot)
midrange a value halfway between the largest and
smallest observations.
Midway a North American age of geological time
that occurred about 67-55 m. y. ago. It is equivalent
to the Paleocene epoch.
MIG metal inert gas
migrated section a seismic section which has
undergone migration processing. Dipping reflectors
have been moved from their recorded position they
appear on the seismic record to their acutal position
as they occur in the subsurface.
migration 1) the vertical and horizontal movement
of oil and gas through the subsurface from source
rock to trap. Primary migration is the movement of
hydrocarbons out of the source rock. Secondary
migration is the movement of hydrocarbons from the
source rock through a permeable route to the
reservoir rock in the trap. Tertiary migration is the
movement of hydrocarbons from one trap to another
or the loss of hydrocarbons from a trap. The route
that the oil and gas moves through is called the
migration pathway. 2) A method used to enhance
seismic records by moving recorded dipping reflectors
from their position on a seismic record to their actual
position. Migration corrects for distortion on the

319

seismic record caused by dipping reflectors and also

collapses diffractions. Migration is usually done after
stacking. Three methods are a) Kirchhoff summation,
b) finite deference, and c) Fourier transform.
(imaging)
mil 1) million 2) one-thousandth of an inch
milcf million cubic feet
mile a statute mile equal to 5,280 ft. mi
Milid miliolid

milling tool

mill 1) to grind up or pulverize 2) a fishing tool or

shoe (junk mill) with diamond or tungsten-carbide
cutting edges used to grind away a fish such as stuck
tools or pipe in a well. Mills are run down the well
on a fishing or tubing string and rotated. A mill can
also be used a) to dress the top of a fish to be caught
by another fishing tool, b) to ream out collapsed casing,
c) to ream tubulars with scale, d) to remove a section
of casing for sidetracking or deviating a well, or e)
to remove cement plugs. Some types of mills are junk,
tapered, pilot and string taper, skirted or guided,
cement, bottom reaming, reamer, and throated mills.
Mills can be flat, concave, or ribbed, (milling tool)
millable materials and tools used in a well that can
be pulverized by milling tools, if necessary
milled teeth cutting teeth machined from a steel
cone on a milled-teeth or steel-toothed roller-cone
bit. One or both sides of the milled tooth is hard
faced with tungsten carbide to create a self-sharpening
effect. The included angle on teeth designed for soft
rocks is 39-42, 42-43 for medium-hard formations,
and 45-50 for hard formations, (mill-teeth)

milled-tooth drill bit (Hughes Tool Co.)

320

milliard mineral lease

milled-teeth bit a common type of roller-cone bit

that has rows of teeth on the cones that were ground
or cut out of the metal cone. The size, shape, and
number of teeth on a cone are determined by the
type of rock it is designed to cut. Long, narrow, widely
spaced teeth are used for soft formations. Hard
formations are cut with teeth that are shorter, wider,
stronger, and closer together. The bit is designed to
flake the rock, (steel-toothed bit)
mill end the end of a pipe having a coupling or
box
millg milling
milli the metric system prefix for 10~3. m
milliamp milliampere
milliard Vf.pm or md
millidarcy one thousandth of a darcy, a unit of
permeability. tnD or md
milligal an accleration of 0.001 cm/s2, 0.001 dyne/g
or 10~3 gal. A gravity unit is equal to 0.1 milligal.
Galileo or mgal
milliliter one thousandth of a liter, a unit of volume
in the metric system. The term is often used
interchangeably with cubic centimeter in drilling-fluid
work, ml
millimeter 1) a metric unit of length equal to 10~3
m. Inches can be converted into millimeters by
multiplying by 25.4, and millimeters can be converted
into inches by multiplying by 0.0394. mm 2) the System
International (SI) unit for length such as hole and
pipe diameters, bit size, liner length and diameter,
nozzle size, and filter cake thickness. The conventional
unit is inches, and the conventional unit can be
converted to the SI unit by multiplying by 25.4. The
conventional unit of V32 in. can be converted to the
SI unit by multiplying by 0.794. mm
milling grinding a hole in the casing of a well or
pulverizing a piece of junk with a mill or milling
tool on a fishing, drill, or tubing string, millg or mlg
milling shoe a rotary shoe used in fishing operations
that is designed to grind up and pulverize junk, (bum
shoe)
milling tool see mill
millipascal seconds the System International (SI)
unit used for apparent and plastic viscosity. The
conventional unit is centipoise, and the conventional
unit can be converted to the SI unit by multiplying
by 1. mPcf
millisec millisecond
millisecond a thousandth of a second, a unit that
is often used to time seismic events or sound velocities
through rock, millisec, msec, or ms
mill scale an iron-oxide scale that forms on the
surface of newly manufactured steel as it cools
mill-teeth see milled-teeth
milk emulsion drilling mud that is made from
water, either fresh or saline, with small droplets of
diesel oil dispersed in the water. The oil is usually
3%-7% and sometimes up to 10% along with CMC,
starch, or gum. Milk emulsion is used under certain
conditions to reduce mud-filtration losses, to enhance

well completions, and to improve drilling mechanics.

(oil-emulsion drilling mud)
MIM moving in materials
M.I.M. 1) moving in materials 2) moving in machine
MIN or min 1) minute 2) minimum
Min or min 1) mineral 2) mineralized
Mindel a European age of geological time that was
the second glacial stage of the Pleistocene epoch. It
is equivalent to the Kansan age in the United States.

mineral

mineral a crystal or grain of a naturally occurring

chemical compound. Minerals have a definite chemical
composition and physical properties and usually a
specific crystal shape. Rocks are formed by aggregates
of mineral grains. Examples of minerals are quartz,
calcite, and feldspar. MNL, Min, min, or mnrl
mineral acre the entire mineral rights for one acre
of land
mineral deed the assignment of a mineral interest
under a specific tract of land
mineral identification plot a cross plot of the
porosities from density (limestone matrix), neutron,
and sonic logs. Limestones will have the same porosity
measurements, whereas a wet sandstone will cause
the neutron porosity to read low and the density
porosity high. Shale and dolomite will cause the
neutron porosity to read high and the density porosity
low. The sonic log is used to differentiate shale from
dolomite. The most common mineral identification
plot is a neutron-density cross plot.
mineral interest see mineral rights. MI
mineral lease a legal printed document that
establishes an ownership of the mineral rights for
the purpose of exploring and drilling on a specific
parcel of land during a certain period of time called
the primary term, usually 3, 5, or 10 years. Initiation
of drilling or delay rental payments at periodic
intervals are necessary to keep the lease valid.
Production of petroleum in paying quantities extends
the term of the lease into the secondary term to cover
the life of the oil and gas production. Typical lease
clauses include granting, habendum, oil royalty, gas
royalty, delay rental, effect of dry hole on delay rentals
and term, proportional interest, free gas, provision

mineral rights MISC or misc

for assignment in whole or part, lease to remain a
unit, warranty of title, continuing production, release
and partial release, subject to actions of governments,
unitization, and succession in interest, (lease)
mineral rights the legal right to search for, drill,
and produce oil and gas from land. The mineral rights
in a parcel of land is conveyed by deed and can be
transferred by a lease. The possessor of the mineral
rights owns the oil and gas. (mineral interest)
minerals mineral interests
mineral servitude the right to explore and produce
minerals
minerals-in-place unextracted minerals such as oil
and gas
mineral takeoff research on the name, address, and
fractional interest of each mineral owner of a tract
of land
MINF minifocus
miniaturized completion a type of well
completion with production casing less than 4.5 in.
in diameter
minicomputer a computer that is intermediate in
size between a microcomputer and mainframe
computer. A minicomputer occupies a relatively large
area and supports 10-100 users.
Minilog a microlog type of well log that uses a
pad resistivity device to measure the resistivity of a
small sample of formations adjacent to the wellbore.
Three small button electrodes spaced 1 in. apart are
mounted on an eccentric oil-filled rubber pad that
is pressed against the borehole wall. MINL or ML
minimum acceptable bid an economic evaluation
made by the United States Geological Survey on an
outer continental shelf lease. A minimum acceptable
bit identifies the minimum bonus that can be accepted
for that lease.
minimum allowable the lowest production level
on a well that an allowable, the amount of oil and/
or gas that a well is allowed by a government regulatory
agency to produce, can be set.
minimum angle the lowest angle, about 18, for
easy azimuth control in a deviated well
minimum commodity bill an arrangement by
which a local distribution company or end user agrees
to take and/or pay for if not taken, a given quantity
of natural gas from a pipeline. Under current Federal
Energy Regulatory Commission rules, such an
obligation can also be satisfied by permitting the
pipeline to transport an equivalent volume of natural
gas.
minimum-delay wavelet see minimum-phase
wavelet
minimum interest rate of return the interest rate
that makes the present value equal to the total future
value, (percentage gain on investment)
minimum miscibility pressure the minimum
pressure at which two fluids become miscible or mix
at a certain temperature. MMP
minimum-phase wavelet energy that occurs over
a relatively long time with the maximum energy
occuring at the beginning of the wave. Most seismic
sources such as dynamite and air gun produce

321

minimum-phase wavelets, (minimum-delay or frontloaded wavelet)

minimum polished rod load the static weight of
the sucker rod string minus the maximum downward
inertial force during the pumping cycle on a beam
pumping unit. The minimum polished road load
occurs near the top of the stroke with the start of
the downstroke and is in contrast to the peak polished
rod load. MPRL
minimum rate return the lowest discount rate that
a company will accept for any investment such as
drilling and completing a well. The discount rate is
a percentage that shows how much that investment
will earn each year over the life of the project. The
minimum rate is used to evaluate proposed projects
and is expressed as a percentage such as 15%. MROR
minimum royalty a minimum specified payment
to the lessor that must be made regardless of the
amount of production from the leasehold. Minimum
royalty may or may not be charged against future
production.
minimum tender the specified minimum amount
of oil that is required before the oil will be accepted
by a pipeline
minimum water content the amount of mixing
water per sacks of cement that will result in a cement
slurry with a consistency of 30 Bc on a consistometer
minimum yield strength the minimum axial load
that will elongate a tubular by 0.5%
minisemi a small scale semisubmersible drilling rig
used in relatively shallow water
mini-Sosie a seismic source that is a variation of
Vibroseis. A manually operated pneumatic hammer
vibrates a plate on the ground to produce a random
source that is not controlled. The source signal is
recorded on a sensor plate. Several mini-Sosie signals
can be summed.
MINL minilog
minor diameter the diameter of a connection
measured from the trough of an external or male
thread to the crest of an internal or female thread
min P minimum pressure
MINS or mins minute
minute 1) a non-System International (SI) unit that
is allowed in SI for time. One minute is equal to 60
seconds, mnut or min 2) a non-System International
(SI) unit that is allowable in SI for plane angle.
One minute is equal to Math of a degree or IT/10,800
radians. T
minute mark a mark that is made on the far left
side of a well log at each one minute interval during
logging to show the logging speed, (tattle tale)
Mio miocene
Miocene an epoch of time about 25-53 m. y. ago.
It occurred near the middle of the Cenozoic Era. Mio
MIPU moving in pulling unit
MIR moving in rig
MIRT or mirt moving in rotary tools
MIRU moving in and rigging u Pn
MISC or misc miscellaneous

322

miscibility mly

miscibility the complete solution of two or more

fluids without any interfaces between the fluids. The
solution can be first-contact miscibility in which two
fluids can be mixed in all proportions without any
interfaces forming, or multiple-contact miscibility in
which two fluids are mixed only by repeated
enrichment of one fluid phase with components from
the second fluid phase.
miscibility pressure the pressure at which an
injected gas will vaporize hydrocarbons from crude
oil in a reservoir to form a miscible transition zone
between the gas and the crude oil
miscible the ability of fluids to be mixed or go into
complete solution without any interfaces between the
fluids. Fluids that do not mix are called immiscible.
miscible (hydrocarbon) displacement, drive, or
flood an efficient method of enhanced oil recovery
in which a solvent that mixes with oil such as a micellarpolymer solution, alkaline solution, hydrocarbons, or
a gas such as high-pressure methane, propane, LPG,
natural gas, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide is injected
into the subsurface reservoir to reduce the interfacial
or capillary forces between oil and water in the pores
of the reservoir rock to increase ultimate recovery
of the oil. The types of miscible hydrocarbon
displacement include a) miscible slug process, b)
enriched gas process, and c) high-pressure lean-gas
process. Miscible drive is expensive because of the
cost of the solvents so a limited amount of solvent
is used as a buffer or scavenger ahead of the drive
fluid.
miscible slug process a type of miscible
hydrocarbon displacement process. A slug of liquid
hydrocarbons is first injected to mix with the reservoir
oil followed by injection of natural gas or gas and
water to drive the oil toward producing wells.
MISR moving in service rig
Miss mississippian
Mississippian a period of time from 365-330 m. y.
ago. It is equivalent to the Lower Carboniferous in
Europe. The Mississippian is subdivided into the
Kinderhookian, Osagean, Meramecian, and Chesterian
North American epochs. It is the equivalent of the
Lower Carboniferous global epoch. Miss
Missourian a North American epoch of geological
time that started about 310 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Pennsylvanian period.
MIST or mist moving in standard tools
mist small droplets of water in gas
mist drilling a type of air or gas drilling that uses
foaming agents injected into the air or gas stream
with chemical pumps. Mist drilling is used to drill
in areas where small amounts of water are
encountered in the well. The small droplets increase
viscosity and the ability of the air or gas to remove
well cuttings from the well. There is danger of an
air-methane downhole explosion during mist drilling.
mist extractor equipment that uses impingement
(a change of flow direction or velocity) centrifugal
force, and/or coalescing to remove small droplets of
water or hydrocarbons from gas in a separator or
scrubber. The wire-mesh pad type is made of finely
woven mats of stainless-steel wire packed in a cylinder.

The vane type is made of parallel plates with liquid

collection pockets. There is also a centrifugal mist
extractor and porous filters.
mis-tie 1) the difference in the starting and final
positions of a surveying line around a loop or between
surveys 2) the difference between the values calculated
by different methods that should give the same result
MIT moving in tools
mix mixer
mixed-base crude oil a crude oil that contains
significant amounts of both paraffin and asphalt. The
crude oil has a high aromatic concentration. Mixedbase crude oil is a refiner's term and is in contrast
to paraffin- and asphalt-base crude oil. {intermediate
base crude oil)
mixed butane normal butane and isobutane
separated from wet gas at a natural gas processing
plant, (field-grade butane)
mixed-layer clay mineral a type of clay mineral
in which two or more types of clay minerals such as
smectite, illite, and/or chlorite are vertically stacked.
Mixed-layer clay minerals can be described as either
random or regular mix-layering and by their clay
minerals species. An example is randomly mixedlayered smectite/illite. (interstratified or interlayered
clay mineral)
mixed string a length of casing made up of joints
with different tensile strengths, collapse resistances
and internal yield strengths. In a deep well, high tensile
strengths are necessary at the top of the well, whereas
high collapse resistance and internal yield strengths
are necessary at the bottom, (combination or graded
string)
mixing the combining of energy recorded from
different channels on seismic to cancel
noise, (compositing)
mixing hopper see mud hopper
mixing tank a tank used to combine parts of a
mixture
mix mud to make drilling mud by mixing solids
with the liquid
mix water the water that is mixed with dry cement
to make a wet slurry. Mix water is measured in gallons
per dry sack or gal/sk.
mky milky
ML 1) microlog 2) mud logger 3) proximity-microlog
4) Minilog1* 5) contact log 6) main line
ml milliliter
m/1 more or less
MLC 1) microlog 2) microlaterlog, caliper log
ML-C minilog, caliper log
ML-C-GR minilog, caliper, gamma ray log
mid milled
mlg milling
MIX microlaterolog
MLP master limited partnership
MLU mud logging unit
MLW-PIAT mean low water to platform
mly marly

MM or mm modu
MM or nun million
mm millimeter
MM bbl million barrels
MMBTU million British thermal units
MMCF or MMcf million cubic feet
MMCFD, MMcfd, MMctfD or MMctfd million cubic

feet per day

MMcfgd million cubic feet of gas per day
MMCFH, million cubic feet per hour
mm Hg millimeters of mercury
mmho millimho
m/min meters per minute
MMP minimum miscibility pressure
MMS Mineral Management Service
MMSCF or MMscf million standard cubic feet
MMSCF/D, MMscCD or MMsctfd million standard

cubic feet per day

mm3 cubic millimeter
mm2 square millimeter
Mn or mn manganese
M-N crossplot or lithology plot a crossplot of
sonic, neutron and density log data that is used to
A/, -At
Nf - N

determine lithology. M = '

and TV = '
Pi ~ P/
9b ~ Pt

in which Aty is the interval transit time of the fluid

(189 for freshwater base mud and 185 for saltwaterbase mud), At is interval transit time from the sonic
log, pb is bulk density of formation, p^- is fluid density
(1.0 for fresh water-base mud, and 1.1 for saltwaterbase mud), Nj is neutron porosity of the fluid (1.0)
and N is neutron porosity from the neutron log.
Common minerals such as quartz (sandstone), calcite
(limestone), dolomite, anhydrite, gypsum, and salt will
each have different values of M and TV and plot in
different locations on the M-N crossplot. (lithoporosity
crossplot)
MNL mineral
mar minor
mnrl mineral
mnut minute
MO 1) moving out 2) motor oil 3) month 4) moveout
m,, shaly-formation cementation factor
M-O&G multiple completion, oil and gas
mob mobile
mobile offshore drilling rig or unit, an
exploratory drilling rig that floats on the ocean when
being towed or propelled to the drillsite. The most
common mobile offshore drilling rigs are jackup rigs,
semisubmersibles, and drillships. MODU
mobile offshore production unit a jackup rig that
has been converted to an offshore production
platform. The mobile offshore production unit is
mobile and reusable. The unit is often used on a
marginal field that is surrounded by several marginal
satellite fields or used for production testing. MOPU
mobile rig a drilling rig mounted on a truck-type
vehicle that was designed for moving the rig. Mobile
rigs are used for relatively shallow wells.

323

mobility the ratio of effective permeability to

apparent fluid viscosity. Mobility is a measure of the
ease with which a fluid moves through a reservoir
rock.
mobility buffer a bank of polymer-water solution
used in enhanced oil recovery to protect a chemical
slug such as surfactant from water invasion and
dilution. The mobility buffer assures a viscosity
transition and mobility control. The leading edge of
the buffer has a mobility equal to or less than the
surfactant, whereas the trailing edge has a mobility
close to water
mobility control the method used in enhanced oil
recovery to keep the mobility of the displacing fluid
or bank equal to or less than that of the displaced
fluid or bank
mobility ratio the mobility of the injected fluid
behind a waterflood or enhanced oil-recovery front
divided by the mobility of the crude oil ahead of it
in the reservoir. The mobility ratio indicates the
displacement efficiency of the process. A ratio of less
than 1 is favorable with an effective displacement,
whereas a ratio of more than 1 is unfavorable. M
mobilization rate the drilling contractor's charge
to move the rig and crew onto location
mock tool joint a collar in the middle of a drillpipe
that is designed to give the pipe extra wall contact
MOCT moving out cable tools
MOCU moving out completion unit
MOD or mod 1) moderate 2) moderately 3)
modification
mode The sample that occurs most frequently in a
group of observations. The sample population can
be unimodal or multimodal.
model form a contract that is generally accepted
by the industry as normal for typical operations. The
American Association of Petroleum Landmen has both
a model-form farmout and operating agreement. The
Canadian Association of Petroleum Landmen has a
model-form operating procedure. The Rocky
Mountain RM-1 and RM-2 are used for Federal
Exploratory Units. The American Petroleum Institute
form is used for offshore operations.
modem a modulator-demodulator that encodes data,
often from a computer, for transmission over
telephone lines or similar communication media. The
speed of modem transmission is measured in bauds.
moderately rich gas natural gas that has between
2.5-5.0 gal of recoverable ethane and higher
hydrocarbons per thousand cubic feet at 60F
moderately volatile oil reservoir a reservoir that
contains oil with relatively large concentrations of
ethane through decane components at reservoir
temperature
modified alkaline flooding an enhanced oilrecovery process in which a cosurfactant and/or
polymer is added to the alkaline flooding process
modified cement a cement with chemical and/or
physical properties that have been altered with an
additive. Modified cement is in contrast to neat cement.
MODU mobile offshore drilling unit
modu modular

324

modular rig moment-of-time break

modular rig an offshore drilling platform in which

the units such as mud, drawworks, and cementing
are mounted on skids and can be installed in various
locations on the platform
modular-spaced workover rig a type of workover
rig that can be broken down and transported in
modules or packages. It is used on offshore wells.
module a self-contained unit that has been
assembled onshore, barged offshore, and is installed
on an offshore platform. Modules are transported
offshore on deck barges and lifted into place by derrick
or crane barges. Some common modules are wellhead,
oil and gas separation, gas compression, platform
power generation, diesel, filter and exhaust, cement
and brine storage, and mud. Modules weigh up to
2,000 short tons, (component or production module)
modulus of elasticity stress divided by strain in a
substance for stresses below the elastic limit. The
modulus of elasticity for steel is 29,000,000.
MOE milled other end
MOGA mid-Continent Oil and Gas Association
Mohawkian a North American epoch of geological
time that ended about 455 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Ordovician period.
Mohr circle a method to graphically represent stress.
The Mohr circle describes all possible normal and
shear stress combinations for a formation in two
dimensions. Tangential and radial stresses are plotted
on the x axis and a circle is drawn through those
two points with the center of the circle on the x axis.
The radius of the circle represents the induced shear
and its valve can be read off the y axis. The Mohr
circle is the simplest and most convenient method
to obtain strain from the maximum and minimum
stress.
Moh's hardness scale a standard of mineral
hardness. The scale is a series of numbers from one
to ten corresponding to reference minerals. The
minerals are talc (1), gypsum (2), calcite (3), fluorite
(4), apatite (5), orthoclase (6), quartz (7), topaz (8),
corundum (9), and diamond (10), with the highest
number being the hardest.
M-OIL multiple completion, oil
Mol or mol moldic
mol mole
molality a concentration equal to the number of
moles of a solute divided by kilograms of solvent. M
molarity a concentration equal to the number of
moles of solute divided by number of liters of solution.
M
molasse sedimentary rocks deposited in the vicinity
of a shoreline between eroding mountains and
deepwater flysch deposits. Molasse deposits are
relatively thick and are part of the sediments formed
during an uplift or orogeny. Molasse deposits include
conglomerates, sandstones, shales, and marls, with
some coals possible.
mold moldic porosity (intergranular-moldic)
moldic pore a void or pore in the rock formed by
the solution of a soluble fossil (biomoldic), oolite
(oomoldic), or mineral grain

MOLE a type of artificial lift (more oil, less energy)

that uses a tower with a pulley at the top. A cable
passes through the pulley and is attached to the suckerrod string in the well on one end and a bucket on
the other end. Water is pumped into the bucket at
the top of the tower causing the bucket to descend
and the sucker-rod string to rise. At the bottom of
the tower, the water is dumped and the the suckerrod string descends.
mole the System International (SI) unit for amount
of substance. A mole is a chemical mass that contains
6.022 x 1023 molecules. The mass of the mole is equal
to the gram formula weight of the substance. A gram
mole of CaCO3 is 40.08 (Ca) + 12.01 (C) + 48.00
(O3) or 100.09 g. mol
molecular ownership a concept in which each
molecule in a gas reservoir is owned proportionally
to each working interest percentage in that reservoir.
Molecular ownership is in contrast to reserve
ownership.
molecular sieve a substance that has the ability to
filter and sort molecules based on molecular size and/
or structure. Minerals called zeolites are often used
as molecular sieves. Molecular sieves can be used as
catalysts and to separate liquids such as LPG, hydrogen
sulfide, and carbon dioxide from natural gas. mol
sieve

molecular weight the sum of the atomic weights

or masses of the atoms that make up a molecule.
The molecular weight of methane (CH4) is 16.043
and of water (H2O) is 18.015. mol wt, Mw, M, or MW
molecule the smallest unit of a compound that has
the same chemical properties of the substance. A
molecule is composed of atoms of one or more
elements that are chemically bound. CaCO3 and C2H6
are examples of molecules.
mole fraction a concentration equal to the number
of moles of one component divided by the total
number of all moles in solution
mole percent the number of moles of one substance
divided by the number of moles of a mixture of
substances times 100. mol percent
mole per cubic meter a derived unit in System
International (SI) for concentration, mol/m*
Moll mollusks
mollusk an invertebrate belonging to the phylum
Mollusca. Mollusks are primarily marine and include
snails, oysters, scallops, clams, squids, chitons and
scaphopods. Mollusks have existed from the Cambrian
period to the present. Many have had shells and are
guide fossils. Moll
mol/m3 mole per cubic meter
mol percent mole percent
mol sieve molecular sieve
mol wt molecular weight
moment force times distance of the force from the
point of rotation
moment of inertia the sum of (masses times
distance from a line squared), (rotational inertia)
moment-of-time break shot break

Monel
Monet a nickel-based alloy with copper, iron,
manganese, silicon, and carbon that is used to make
nonmagnetic drill collars
money left on the table the difference in money
between the highest (winning) bid and the next
highest bid in a competitive lease sale
monitor 1) to observe an action or function 2) an
instrument that records the reading on a control device
and/or emits a signal when a condition is exceeded
3) the cathode ray tube that is used with a computer
to display information
monitor curve a well log curve that is used to
measure tool performance and stability and test the
quality of the measurement
monitor record a display of traces from a single
seismic shot. The monitor record is used as a field
check for data quality. The record is 6-10 in. wide
and several feet long with the traces running vertically.
monkey see derrickman

moraine

325

monocline a zone of steeply dipping sedimentary

rocks in an area of gently dipping or horizontal rocks
monoelectrode one electrode used to measure
formation resistivity when the well is filled with a
conductive fluid
monomer small molecules that can be combined
to make polymers
monomictic a clastic sedimentary rock composed
of one mineral such as quartz in a quartzite.
Monomictic is in contrast to polymictic.
monophasic flow a flow of one phase such as water
or oil or gas in contrast to polyphasic flow
monopod a type of offshore drilling and producing
platform that rests on only one, large-diameter steel
tube. A monopod is used in Arctic regions where
there is moving ice on the surface of the ocean.
monopsony the condition that exists when there
is one buyer such as a pipeline and a large number
of sellers
mont montmorillonite

monkeyboard

monkeyboard (off rotary drilling rig chart)

monkey board or monkeyboard a small platform

near the top of a drilling-rig derrick or mast. The
derrick man (monkey) stands on the monkey board
to guide the top of the stands as the drillpipe is tripped
in or out of the well. Monkey boards are called double,
thribble, or fourble boards depending on the pipe
stand length they are designed to rack. Fingers below
the monkey board are used to rack the pipe.
monkey-motion engine a one-cylinder engine
monkey wrench a wrench with a screw-adjusted
collar that allows the size of the square opening to
be adjusted
monocable a single armored conductor cable used
on a sonde

Monte Carlo method a method used to estimate

risk and evaluate drilling prospects. The Monte Carlo
method involves combining numerous factors
involved in the success of a drilling prospect. Each
factor is given several possible outcomes. The factors,
each with one of the possible outcomes, are combined
to predict the success of the well. This is done
numerous times to give a mean value and range of
uncertainty for the project.
montmorillonite a specific member of the smectite
clay-mineral group that has the chemical formula
Nao 33(Al1.67Mg0 33)(Si4O10)(OH),
with a cell dimension of 10.00 A and a density of
2.63 gms/cm3 Montmorillonite is often used in drilling
mud and is a swelling clay. Bentonite is primarily
composed of sodium montmorillonite. Low-yield clays
are primarily calcium montmorillonite. The term
montmorillonite was first used for a group of clay
minerals that is now called smectite, mont
monument aground marker, such as a bench mark,
used for surveys

moonpool, moon pool, or moonwell the hole

in the hull of a drillship or semisubmersible through
which the drilling occurs and the drillstring and
marine riser pass into the sea. The moonpool is located
on the center of gravity of a floating rig and is generally
20-25 ft in diameter, (drillwell or water table)
mooring plug a rotating table on which the derrick
is mounted on some drillships. The drillship is moored
by anchors to the mooring plug. This allows the
drillship to rotate around the mooring plug while
the drilling rig stays relatively fixed in orientation.
MOP 1) maximum operating pressure 2) movable
oil plot 3) margin of overpull
MOPU mobile offshore production unit
MOR moving out rig

monocline

moraine poorly sorted sediments deposited on the

bottom, side (lateral moraine) or front (terminal
moraine) of a glacier

326

morning report movable oil plot

glacier
moraine

ocfc
moraine

morning report a report made by the tool pusher

on a drilling rig each morning that summarizes the
drilling results of the previous 24 hours running from
6 a.m. to 6 a.m. The report is telephoned or radioed
to the drilling contractor who then reports to the
operator of the well. Morning reports vary between
contractors. A morning report commonly includes
total depth at report time, footage drilled in 24 hours,
activities such as tripping and repairs, a time
breakdown for each 8-hour tour, mud measurements,
daily and cumulative costs, and formations drilled.
(daily drilling report)
morning tour the shift on a drilling rig that goes
from midnight to 8:00 A.M. The morning tour is
between the day and evening tours, (graveyard or
hoot owl tour)
Morrowan a North American epoch of geological
time that started about 330 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Pennsylvania period.
MORT or mort moving out rotary tools
MOS movable oil saturation
mos mosaic
Moscovian a global age of geological time that ended
about 310 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle
Carboniferous.
mosquito bill the oil inlet tube that is mounted
inside a gas anchor on the bottom of a sucker-rod
pump, (dip tube)
mot motor
M.O.T. milling out tools
Mother Hubbard a metal cylinder that is hinged
to fit around a joint of drillpipe as it is being broken
out (unscrewed) when tripping out of the well. The
Mother Hubbard prevents mud from being lost by
squirting out onto the surrounding area. The drilling
mud is emptied with a drain plug onto the shale shaker.
(mud box, mud saver, splash box, or wet box)
Mother Hubbard clause a provision in an oil and
gas lease that protects the lessee from errors in the
description of the land under the lease by including
all the land owned by the lessor in that area, (cover
all or catch-all clause)
mother pool the largest and often deepest of a series
of related oil reservoirs
motion compensator a pneumatic or hydraulic
device used on a floating offshore drilling platform
to allow for the vertical rise and fall (heave) of the
platform with waves. The motion compensator
maintains a constant weight on the bit. It can be either
a) a downhole bumper sub or b) a surface drillstring
motion compensator which can be a) a traveling block
or b) a crown-block compensator.

motion sensor a device that is used to detect motion

during directional surveys and prevent measurements
until after the motion has stopped
motor a device that uses pneumatics, hydraulics, or
electricity to do work. A motor is not an engine, mot
motor-generator rig a drilling rig in which the
equipment is driven by electric motors which are
supplied by electrical power from generators on the
site. A motor-generated rig is in contrast to a
mechanical rig.
motor geometry the curve of a circle that is
described by the three contact points that an
unstressed, stabilized, single or multibend motor
makes with a hole
motorhand, motor man or motorman the crew
member on a drilling rig who is responsible for the
operation and routine maintenance of the prime
movers. The motor man can do minor repairs and
will do other duties when needed.
motor shroud a shell that forces drilling fluids to
flow around an electric submersible motor to cool
the motor before flowing through the submersible
pump, (jacket cover)
motor valve a device used to control the rate of
flow in a line such as a pipe. The motor valve is
operated by electric, hydraulic, or mechanical power
rather than manual power.
MOTT, Mott, or mott mottled
mottled sedimentary rock that is spotted with
different colors. MOTT, Mott, or mott
mouse ahead to decrease the diameter of the wel
mouse hole or mousehole a hole, 7-10 in. in
diameter and about 28 ft long, located near the rotary
table on the V-door side of the drill floor. The
mousehole is used to store a joint of pipe until needed
to make a connection on the drillstring. It is usually
lined with pipe that is sealed on the bottom and sticks
2V2 ft above the drill floor. The mousehole has a
drainhole and can have a heavy-duty spring on the
bottom to cushion the pipe. A plate on the drill floor
often covers the mousehole when not in use.
mousetrap or mouse trap a fishing tool that has
a movable slip to catch fish of variable sizes. The
mousetrap is used primarily to recover fish with
variable diameters such as corkscrewed sucker rods,
mud anchors, and crushed or corroded pipe. The
mousetrap usually can not release the fish.
MOV orifice valve
mor moving
movable block see traveling block
movable oil oil that can be produced from the
reservoir
movable oil plot a well log consisting of three
porosity curves that have been calculated from other
logs. A porosity curve is calculated from a sonic log,
an apparent water-filled porosity is calculated from
a deep resistivity log, and an apparent water-filled
porosity of the flushed zone is calculated from a
shallow investigation log. The separation between the
porosity and the apparent water-filled porosity curves
indicates the amount of hydrocarbons in the
uninvaded zone. The separation between the porosity
and the apparent water-filled porosity of the flushed

move in or moving in Mu
zone indicates the amount of movable hydrocarbons.
The residual hydrocarbons remaining in the invaded
zone is indicted by the difference between the two
separations. MOP
move in or moving in the transportation of a
drilling rig onto a well location before rigging up.
(MI)
moveout or moving out the difference in sound
wave arrival times between different geophones
during seismic exploration. Normal moveout is due
to different distances between the shotpoint and the
geophones. Dip moveout is due to the dip or angle
of the reflector surface. Statics is the difference due
to elevation and weathering. MO
move out the transportation of a drilling rig off the
wellsite after rigging down

moveout-derived or moveout velocity the

seismic velocity of a sedimentary rock layer derived
from moveout calculations. The arrival time of a
reflection from a common surface is plotted versus
velocity for various detectors to determine the
horizontal component of the velocity. A hyperbola is
fitted to the moveout curve. Velocity can also be
determined by seismic amplitude.
moveout filter a filter used to remove selected dips
and apparent dips from seismic data. The filter is used
to eliminate steep noise lineups and multiples in areas
of relatively flat bedding, (dip rejection or velocity

filter)
MP 1) maximum pressure 2) melting pot
MPa megapascal
mPa s millipascal seconds
MPBHDCOD minimum permissible bottomhole
drill-collar outside diameter
MPH or mph miles per hour
MPI magnetic particle inspection
MPL mechanical properties log
MPR 1) maximum permissive rate 2) maximum
production rate
MPRL minimum polished rod load
MPS mild plow steel
mps meters per second
MPT 1) male pipe thread 2) mud pulse telemetry
MPY 1) miles per year 2) mils per year
MR meter run
M-RES mud resistivity
MRF mobility-reduction factor
MRL maximum rate limitation
Mrl or mrl 1) marl 2) marly
Mrlst marlstone
MROON maroon
MROR minimum rate of return
Mrst or mrst marlstone
MS 1) metal seal 2) mass spectrometry 3) mass
spectrometer
ms milliseconds
m/s meter per second
MSA multiple service acid

327

M-SAL mud salinity

MSCF or Mscf thousand standard cubic feet
MSCF/B or MsctfB thousand standard cubic feet per
barrel
MSCF/D, MsctfD, Msctfd, or Mscfd thousand
standard cubic feet per day
MSD mean squares dip
msec millisecond
MSFL microspherically focused log (MICROSFL or
micro SFL log)
MSG micro-Seismogram
MSG-CBL micro-seismogram logcased hole
MSG-CBL-G micro-seismogram, gamma collar
logcased hole
MSG-CBL-N micro-seismogram, neutron collar
logcased hole
MSI multiport selective injection
MSL mean sea level
msm metasomatic
MSP 1) maximum surface pressure 2) maximum
service pressure
MSR mean squared residual
MSRT moderately sorted
MSS 1) manufacturers Standardization Society of the
Valve and Fitting Industry 2) multispectral scanner
mstr master
m/s 2 meter per second squared
MSV 1) multifunction support vessel 2) multipurpose
service vessel
MT 1) magnetotellurics 2) metric ton
MT magnetite
M/T marine terminal
MTD 1) measured total depth 2) mean temperature
difference
mtd mounted
mtg mounting
m 3 cubic meter
m 3 /d cubic meters per day
m 3 /kg cubic meters per kilogram
m 3 /min cubic meters per minute
m 3 /stroke cubic meters per stroke
m 3 /t cubic meters per tonne
MTL mud time lagm
Mtl or mtl material
MTP 1) maximum tubing pressure 2) maximum top
pressure
MTR middle-time region
mtr meter
Mtrx matrix
MTS mud to surface
m 2 square meter
mtx matrix
Mu muscovite

328

|i. mud density

(A 1) viscosity 2) dynamic viscosity 3) coefficient of

viscosity 4) damping factor 5) Lame's shear modulus
6) mean value of probability distribution 7) azimuth
of reference on sonde 8) Poisson's ratio 8) micro9) diameter 10) magnetic permeability 11) micron
Ha 1) air viscosity 2) apparent viscosity
|jLb microbar

mucking to shovel dirt

mud see drilling mud
MUDA mud acid
mud acid an acid used to remove mudcake or filter
cake by dissolving clays deposited on the producing
formation during well completion or during a
workover. Mud acid is composed of hydrochloric and
hydrofluoric acids with inhibitors, surfactants, and
demulsifiers. (mud removal acid) MUDA or MA
mud additive a substance that is mixed with drilling
mud to change the chemical and/or physical properties
of the mud. Some types of common additives are
weighting, lost circulation, thinner, dispersant, shale
control inhibitor, filtrate reduction, emulsifier,
defoamer, bactericide, and alkalinity or pH control.
mud analysis a test of the chemical and physical
properties of drilling mud. The two most common
properties measured are density or mud weight and
viscosity. These can be measured at the drillsite using
a mud balance and a Marsh funnel. Some other
measured properties include filtration and wallbuilding, sand content, liquids and solid content, pH,
filtrate analysis, cation exchange, resistivity, and
electrical stability.
mud anchor one or more joints of large diameter
tubing attached to the seating nipple on the bottom
of the tubing string in an oil well. If equipped with
a mosquito bill, the mud anchor separates liquid from
gas before the liquid enters the pump. The mud anchor
is plugged at the bottom and has perforations at the
top to allow fluids to flow up into the lower portion
of the downhole pump and help break out gas from
the oil before it flows into the pump. The mud anchor,
if equipped with a mosquito bill, is known as a gas
anchor. It is installed with the tubing string.
mud balance a beam balance with a cup that holds
a specific volume used to determine the density or
weight of a sample of drilling mud. The mud balance
consists of a graduated arm on a knife edge. One
side of the arm is the cup and lid and on the other
end is a level bubble, rider, and counterweight. The
balance is calibrated with freshwater that weighs 8.3
lb/gal.
mud ball a large accumulation of drilling mud on
a bit
mud barge a barge that operates with a drilling barge
and stores the excess drilling mud. The mud barge
can have dry storage and freshwater tanks.
mud barrel a small bailer that is used on a sand
line to remove well cuttings from the bottom of a
cable-tool well as it is drilled
mud board a temporary base made of lumber for
a jacket on an offshore platform before it is pinned
to the sea bottom
mud box 1) a compartment on the shale shaker that
receives the mudline flow and sends it to the shaker

screens or uses a bypass gate to divert it to the sand

trap or waste pit. (backtank or possumbelly) 2) see
mud saver
mud bucket a device on a drilling rig that wraps
around the connection when making a wet trip and
collects the mud spray when the connection is broken
down. It returns the mud by hose to the flow line.
mudcake the solid particles in drilling mud
(primarily clay minerals) that are plastered to the sides
of the well by the circulating mud during drilling.
The liquid that goes into the formation is called
filtrate. The volume of the filtrate and the thickness
of the mudcake can be determined in the laboratory
by a filter press. The thickness of the mudcake is
measured in '/32s of an inch and described as soft,
firm, or tough, (filter cake or wall cake) me
mud circulating system the system used on a
drilling or workover rig to pump drilling mud into
the well. The drilling mud is sucked from the mud
tanks where it is stored by the suction line to the
mud pumps or hogs. The mud then flows through
the discharge line to the rotary hose, swivel, kelly,
drillpipe, drill collars, and the nozzles on the drill
bit onto the bottom of the well. The mud then flows
up the annulus between the wellbore and drillpipe,
through the blowout preventers to the surface. On
the surface next to the drilling rig, it flows through
the shale shaker, desander, desilter, and degasser and
back into the mud tanks to be recirculated.
mud cleaner equipment that is used on the
circulating system of a drilling rig to remove finegrained well cuttings from weighed drilling fluid
without excessive loss of barite and fluid. The mud
cleaner uses a combination of desilting hydrocyclones
and very fine mesh screens (40-125 |xm) that vibrate.
The underflow of the hydrocyclones flows onto the
screens.
mud-cleanout acid or agent an acid used to
disperse and remove mudcake from the wellbore and
break emulsions and water blocks. The mud-cleanout
acid is used ahead of cement slurry in a cement job
and to clean up perforations. MCA
mud conditioning the addition of additives and
fluids and the removal of gas and cuttings to maintain
the necessary chemical and physical properties of
drilling mud
mud cup 1) a funnel-shaped cup that is used to
measure the viscosity of drilling mud on a rig. A
certain amount of mud is poured into the cup, and
the time it takes for the mud to flow through is
recorded to estimate the viscosity of the mud. A Marsh
funnel is most commonly used. 2) a cup with
electrodes used to sample the drilling mud and
measure resistivity on a logging truck
mud decontaminant a cement additive that is used
to minimize the effect of drilling mud mixing with
cement
mudded up a well containing thick drilling mud
which prevents or retards drilling
mud density the density of drilling mud (mass
divided by volume) expressed in pounds per gallon
(ppg or lb/gal), pounds per cubic feet (lb/cu ft or
pcf) or kg/m3(kilograms per cubic meter). Mud density
is measured in the field with a mud balance.

mud-density indicator, monitor, or recorder MUDL

Freshwater density is 8.3 ppg, normal drilling-mud
density is 9-10 ppg, and heavy drilling-mud density
is 15-20 ppg. The heavier the mud, the greater the
pressure it exerts on the bottom of the well, (mud
weight)
mud-density indicator, monitor, or recorder an
instrument that is used on the shale shaker and the
suction pit of a drilling rig to determine the density
of the drilling mud and the effectiveness of the solidscontrol equipment
mudding oflf see mud off
mudding up the preparation of drilling mud (mud
mixing)
mud discharge line a horizontal pipe that connects
the vibrator or shock hose from the mud pump
discharge to the standpipe on a drilling rig. The mud
discharge line is usually a AVi-vx. outer diameter,
seamless pipe, but can be 3'/2 in. on smaller rigs.
mud discharge temperature the average mud
return temperature measured at the surface while
circulating
mud drilling drilling with mud made from
commercial clays
Mud Duck a drilling mud probe that monitors H2S
andpH
mud engineer an employee of a service company,
drilling contractor, or operator on a drilling rig who
is in charge of the drilling mud. The mud engineer
prepares, tests, and adjusts or conditions the drilling
mud as the well is drilled. A drilling-fluid engineer
works with drilling mud and other drilling fluids such
as air, natural gas, and foam, (mud man)
MUDF mud filtrate
mud feed the drilling mud flowing into a solidsliquids separator such as a desander or desilter
mud filtrate the fluid that invades the permeable
formation called the invaded zone behind the
wellbore. Mud filtrate is the liquid portion of the
drilling mud without the solid mudcake that is
plastered on the wellbore wall. MUDF, MF, or mf
mudflow a mass of flowing fine-grained material
with considerable water content. Mudflows are
common on land and on submarine slopes, especially
off river deltas where they have been responsible for
several offshore rig failures.
mud-flow indicator or sensor a device on the mud
return flowline of a drilling rig. The mud-flow indicator
contains a paddle that is forced up as the velocity of
mud in the flowline increases. The indicator is attached
to both a gauge and a chart recorder, and an alarm
can sound if mud flow increases too rapidly.
mud flush the circulation of drilling mud on a rotary
drilling rig
mud-gas or mud/gas separator a vessel that is
installed on the mud flowline near the mud tanks
when drilling through a high-pressure gas zone. A
butterfly valve in the flowline can divert the returning
mud to the upper section of the mud-gas separator.
The gas bubbles are removed by either a) flowing
over baffles or b) flowing in a thin layer over a wide
sheet. The top of the mud-gas separator has a gas
flowline to a flare. A line from the bottom of the

329

mud-gas separator (off rotary drilling rig chart)

mud-gas separator returns the degassed mud to the

flowline. (degasser, poorboy degasser or gas buster)
mud gun a centrifugal pump with a pipe that is
designed to jet drilling mud into the mud tanks in
order to mix in additives or agitate the drilling mud
(surface or submarine gun)
mud hog see mud pump
mud hole an excavation near the drilling rig that
is used to hold drilling mud and to trap well
cuttings (slush pit or pond, mud pond, or sump hole)
mud hopper a funnel-shaped device that is used
to mix the components of drilling mud such as
bentonite. An eductor or jet of high-pressure drilling
mud on the bottom is powered by a spare rig pump
and is used to pull the dry components through the
hopper, and mix with the liquid, (mud mixer or mixing
hopper)

mud hose

mud hose a flexible, armored, rubber hose that is

commonly 4 in. in diameter and transmits the drilling
mud from the standpipe to the gooseneck on a swivel
of a drilling rig. The mud hose ranges from 35-75 ft
long and is commonly 50-60 ft long. The inner
diameter is 2-3V4 in. Some mud hoses are made of
steel pipes with swivel joints. API grades of mud hoses
vary by length and pressure rating, (kelly, flexible
mud, or rotary hose)
mud house the storage shed for sacks of dry mud
and additives on a drilling rig
Mud-klT" a cement additive that buffers the cement
from organic compounds found in drilling mud
MUDL mud log

330

mud laboratory mud-pit agitators

mud laboratory the mud engineer's office on a

drilling rig where the mud engineer tests the drilling
mud
mud-level recorder an instrument that records the
level of mud in the mud tanks of a drilling rig
mud line 1) the sea bottom 2) the flexible hoses
such as the rotary or mud hose that carry drilling
mud on a drilling rig
mud-line corrosion cap a temporary metal plug
that is put on the top of an offshore well that has
been temporarily abandoned for protection from
corrosion and marine growth
mud-line suspension the support of casing from
the sea floor on a subsea well

DRILLING

MUD SYSTEM

CUTTINGS SYSTEM

LOG

mud log

mud log 1) the record and evaluation of gas and

oil shows, lithology of formation drilled, and drilling
parameters in a well being drilled. A standard mud
logging format has been suggested by the American
Petroleum Institute, but it has not been widely
accepted. The mud log often records an oil curve
for mud, a methane curve for mud, a total gas curve
for mud, an oil curve for cuttings, a C6+ curve for
cuttings, a methane curve for cuttings, a total gas curve
for cuttings and formation porosity along with
lithology. The mud log can include these drilling
characteristics: penetration or drilling rate, bit weight,
rotary speed, bit number and type, coring intervals,
rotary torque, and can also show mud temperatures,
gas content, chlorides, and pore pressures. Mud logs
were first introduced in 1939. (show evaluation log)
MUDL 2) A microresistivity log run down a well to
determine the resistivity {Rm) of the drilling mud.
mud logger a person or service company that makes
a mud log at the well site as the well is being drilled.

The mud logger samples the well cuttings from the

shale shaker at regular intervals and works in a mud
logging trailer. ML
mud logging the recording of the amount and type
of gas in drilling mud. Mud logging can also include
the recording of oil shows in well cuttings, the making
of a sample log, and the recording of certain drilling
parameters. Gas in the drilling mud is sampled from
a collector or trap and analyzed by a) thermal catalytic
combustion or hot-wire detector, b) gas
chromatography, c) thermal conduaivity detector, d)
flame ionization detector, or e) infrared analyzer. The
gas measurements made are a) total gas reading, b)
background gas reading, c) connection gas reading,
and d) trip gas reading. Well cuttings are sampled
from the shale shaker and hydrocarbon shows are
detected by odor, staining, fluorescence, and cut. Mud
logging also involves the recording of drilling
parameters such as rate of penetration and the
detection of hydrogen sulfide and abnormal high
pressures. Mud logging is made by a service company
and is done in a mud logging trailer at the drillsite
by a mud logger.
mud lubricator a temporary arrangement of pipes
and valves on the top of a well that is used to pump
heavier drilling mud down the well to control an
abnormal high-pressure problem downhole
mud-making formation a subsurface formation
that contains fine-grained solids that disperse in the
drilling fluid when the formation is drilled
mud man see mud engineer
mud mat a specially constructed bottom that is used
for seating steel-template and gravity-base platforms
on the sea floor
mud mixer a device that is used to prepare the mud
slurry from dry mud. Two types of mud mixers are
a) jet-type and b) centrifugal pumps, see mud hopper
mud mixing the preparation of drilling mud
(mudding up)
mud motor a positive displacement or turbine
motor that is located just above the bit on a drillstring.
The mud motor gives rotation and torque to the bit
while transmitting the drill-collar weight to the bit.
The motor is driven by the circulating drilling fluid
that is pumped through the drillstring. The turbine
or turbodrill has blade rotors in a stator, whereas
the positive displacement motor has a solid steel spiral
shaft in a lined stator. Mud motors are used a) to
initiate a wellbore kick-off for a directional hole and
drill a smoothly curved hole in a build-up or dropoff section, b) to drill with diamond or high-speed
insert bits in soft formations, and c) to be combined
with measurement while drilling tools for navigational
drilling. The mud motor turns at 40-200 rpm to drive
the bit up to 800 rpm. Mud motors are usually acquired
on a rental basis and are good for 25 to 30 hours of
drilling, (downhole motor or downhole mud motor)
mud oflf to seal the sides of the wellbore by building
up a filter cake that prevents formation fluid from
flowing into the well
mud-pit agitators apparatus used to stir the drilling
mud in the mud tanks. Two common types of mud
pit agitators are electric-driven rotating blades and
centrifugal pump jets that are called mud, surface,
or submarine guns, (agitators)

mud pits mud settling pit

mud pits Earthen or steel tanks that hold drilling
mud on a drilling site. The circulating pits are usually
steel, whereas the reserve pits are usually earthen.
see mud tanks
mud pond see mud hole
mud preflush a liquid slug that is pumped into a
casing string before cementing to isolate the cement
from the drilling fluid
mud preservative a drilling mud additive such as
formaldehyde and paraformaldehyde that is used to
inhibit bacterial growth
mud pressure the drilling mud pressure recorded
on the mud pump pressure gauge. Mud pressure
commonly is between 500-3,500 psi depending on
the size of the pumps and the depth of the well.
mud program a plan that covers the type and
properties of drilling muds to be used in drilling
various depths in a well. The mud program depends
on formation characteristics, well temperatures,
pressures, and chemistry as well as the casing program.
The density, viscosity, initial and 10-minute gel
strengths, fluid loss, sand content, total solids, oil
content, and chloride, along with the mud supplier
and mud engineer, are listed.

mud pumps

mud pump a reciprocating pump that is used to

circulate the drilling mud on a rotary drilling rig.
The pumps are classified by maximum horsepower
and pressure and strokes per minute. Mud pumps
often have two (duplex) or, more commonly, three
(triplex) cylinders with replaceable liners. A duplex
pump forces the mud into the discharge line on both
the forward and backward strokes of the piston and
is called a double-acting pump. The triplex pump is
single-acting, forcing the drilling mud into the
discharge line only on the forward stroke of the piston.
Triplex pumps have a higher-rated operating speed
than duplex pumps of the same capacity. Most rigs
used two mud pumps. Mud pumps are commonly
denoted by bore diameter and stroke length and rated
by hydraulic horsepower. The mud pumps on an
offshore rig typically have 1,300-1,600 hp. (mud hog
or slush, rig or hole pump) rig or hole pump
mud pump fluid efficiency the actual volume of
fluid pumped times 100 divided by the theoretical
volume of fluid pumped. The mud pump fluid
efficiency is expressed as a percentage.
mud pump pressure gauge the primary mud
monitoring device that consists of a self-contained

331

diaphragm unit connected to the discharge line of

the mud pump. The gauge is connected to a dial
that the driller can read on the drill floor.
mud record or report a description of the physical
and chemical characteristics of the drilling fluid during
a period while drilling a well. A mud record is usually
prepared daily and made by mud engineers. The
record contains the well depth, bit size and number,
pit volume, pump data, solids-control equipment and
drillstring data. Mud properties listed are mud weight,
pH, funnel viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point, gel
strength, chloride content, calcium content, solids
content, cation exchange capacity, and fluid loss, (daily
mud check report)
mud-removal acid an acid used to remove mudcake
by dissolving clays deposited on the producing
formation during well completion or during a
workover. Mud-removal acid is composed of
hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids with inhibitors,
surfactants, and demulsifiers. (mud acid)
mud resistivity log a microlog or microlaterolog
recorded with the arms on the sonde collapsed and
out of contact with the wellbore wall. The mud
resistivity log is used to measure mud resistivity under
downhole conditions.
mud retort an instrument that determines the
amount of oil, water, and solids in drilling mud. The
mud sample is put in a retort cup and distilled in a
mud still.
mud return line the pipe or trough that connects
the top of the wellhead to the shale shaker as a well
is drilled. The circulating drilling mud flows up
through the blowout-preventer stack, through the mud
return line, and over the shale shakers, (flowline)
mud ring the accumulation of drilled gumbo shales
around the lower portion of a drillstring. The mud
ring often adheres around the drill collars and
stabilizers. The ring can be several hundred feet long
and have the texture of modeling clay. A mud ring
can cause pipe sticking, excess swabbing pressures
during tripping out, and higher pump pressures
mud riser A casing or short pipe that is attached
to the top of a blowout preventer on a drilling rig.
The mud riser has an expanded, flanged top that guides
drilling tools into the well. The mud riser also has
connections for the fill line and mud-return line, (bell
nipple orflotustack)
mud room an internal space in the mud tanks where
the mud pumps and their associated equipment can
be installed
mud saver a metal cylinder that is hinged to fit
around a joint of drillpipe as it is being broken out
(unscrewed) when tripping out of the well. The mud
saver prevents mud from being lost by squirting out
onto the surrounding area. The drilling mud is
emptied with a drain plug onto the shale shaker.
(Mother Hubbard, mud box, splash box, or wet box)
mudscow a portable tank that is used to store drilling
mud for a cable-tool rig
mud screen see shale shaker
mud settling pit the compartment on the mud tanks
that receives the flow from the shale shakers. The
mud settling pit is used to remove solids and can

332

mud silo multiple completion

have baffles to slow the mud flow. The pit is

periodically cleaned by opening the lower drain valve.
mud silo a cylindrical tower used to store drilling
mud materials
mudst mudstone
mud still an instrument used with a mud retort to
determine by distillation the volume-percent oil,
water, and total solids content of drilling mud

mudstone

mudstone a sedimentary rock composed

predominantly of fine-grained, silt- and clay-sized
particles. MDST, Mdst, or mudst
mud-suction tank see suction tank
mud-suction temperature the average
temperature of mud discharged from the mud pumps
mud supported a limestone in which all the large
grains are surrounded by limestone mud (micrite).
None of the large grains can be seen to be touching.
Mudstones and wackestones are mud-supported
limestones. Mud supported is in contrast to grain
supported.
mud tanks portable steel tanks that hold drilling
mud at a drillsite. Most rigs have two or three separate
tanks in a row. The mud tanks are generally 8-12 ft
wide, 20-40 ft long, and 6-12 ft deep and can hold
between 200-600 bbls. The most common tanks are
6 ft high, 26 ft long and have a nominal capacity of
200 bbls. The circulating drilling mud, after it flows
out of the well and passes over the shale shaker, flows
in the shaker tank on one end of the mud tanks.
Next, the settling pit allows rock particles to settle
out of the mud. The suction tank at the other end of
the row is where the mud pumps or supercharging
centrifugal pumps suck the drilling mud out to start
the mud circulating. The compartments are also called
removal, addition, and suction sections. The tanks
often have a built-in pipe-and-valve system between
the tanks with 12-18 in. conduits and contain mud
agitators. The tanks are often rimmed with 4-in.
diameter pipe for the mud guns. All tanks are equipped
with doors or valves near the bottom to flush out
settled solids. Four tanks are used with desanders
and desilters. (mud tanks)
mud time lag the time that it takes the drilling mud
to circulate from the bottom of the well to the surface.
Mud time lag is usually shorter than cuttings time
lag. MTL
mud trough a drilling mud bypass on mud tanks
mud up 1) to increase the density of drilling mud
2) to build up a thick filter or mudcake along the
sides of the well
mud volcano a surface cone of mud with natural
gas venting from the cone. A mud volcano is caused
by a high-pressure gas and water seep carrying mud

and sediments up to the surface. They can occur alone

or in groups and can be tens to hundreds of feet
high. Mud volcanos are often associated with anticlines
and faults.
mud wt mud weight
mud weight the density of drilling mud (mass
divided by volume) expressed in pounds per gallon
(ppg or lb/gal), pounds per cubic feet (lb/ft3or pcf)
or kg/m3(kilograms per cubic meter). Mud weight is
measured in the field with a mud balance. Fresh water
weight is 8.3 ppg, normal drilling mud weight is 910, and heavy drilling mud is 15-20. The heavier the
mud weight, the greater the pressure that it exerts
on the bottom of the well, (mud density) M-WT or
md wt
mud weight recorder a device in the mud tanks
that shows the mud weight on an instrument on the
drilling-rig floor
muffler a device used to reduce exhaust noise on
an engine
(ig 1) gas viscosity 2) grain diameter
(ti fluid viscosity at input
mule footed a drilling bit that is worn on one side
mule head a curved horsehead on a beam pumper
mule's ear cave a driller's term for hard shale in
the shape of a mule's ear that caves or sluffs into a
well
mule's foot a knot that attaches a rag to a rope socket
muleshoe or mule-shoe mandrel or sub a guide
shoe used to orient a toolface in a well. A key on
the muleshoe can be aligned with a scribe line on a
deflecting tool such as a bent sub. A single-shot
directional survey is made, and the reference line of
the deflecting tool is recorded in relation to magnetic
north. The drillstring can then be rotated on the surface
to correctly orient the deflecting tool.
mullet an unwise investor in a drilling scheme
multibend motor a positive displacement motor
that is used in drilling a deviated hole that has more
than one angular deflection point in the motor
housing.
multibuoy mooring a system for offshore tanker
loading using five to seven buoys to moor the tanker
as it is filled or unloaded with a hose from the sea
floor
multichannel processing data manipulation from,
several different inputs such as different seismic
geophone groups
multipay well a well with several reservoirs
multiphase flow the movement of either two phases
such as natural gas and crude oil (gas and a liquid)
or three phases such as natural gas, crude oil, and
sediment (gas, liquid, and solid)
multiple a reflection event on a seismic record made
by seismic energy that has been reflected more than
once. A long-path multiple is a distinct event, whereas
a short-path multiple arrives very soon after the
primary reflection and is recorded as a part of it.
multiple completion a well that produces at several
different zones at different elevations in the well. A
multiple completion is made by using packers to
separate the producing zones in the well and separate

multiple coverage
tubing strings for each zone. Separate tanks are used
to store the oil from each zone. Multiple completion
is in contrast to commingling in which a well produces
from several zones through a single tubing string. If
the well produces from two zones through two
different tubing strings, it is called a dual completion
well, (multizone completion)
multiple coverage a relatively large number of
seismic source and detection points at different angles
on the same common midpoint. Multiple coverage
is used to reduce noise and to amplify weak reflectors.
An application of multiple coverage is common depth
point (CDP) stacking.
multiple geophones a number or group of
geophones used in seismic exploration that feed a
single channel
multiple orifice valve a valve that contains two flat
disks with two holes in each disk. As the disks are
turned, the overlap of the holes controls the flow
through the discs. MOV
multiple reflection the signal on a marine seismic
profile that is caused by the seismic energy reflecting
off the air-water interface one or more times. The
strongest multiple reflection is located on the seismic
profile at a depth equal to almost exactly twice the
depth of the primary reflection and is similar to the
primary reflection in geometry except for slopes that
are almost twice as steep. Other multiple reflections
can occur at whole digits (3, 4, etc.) times the depth
of the primary reflection.
multiple service acid an organic acid that is used
in stimulation of all types of wells. Multiple service
acid has very little corrosive effect and does not cause
hydrogen embrittlement. The acid is used as a
perforating fluid and as a retarded acid in hightemperature wells. MSA
multiple-well derrick a skid-mounted derrick that
is easily moved to drill many wells on an offshore
drilling platform without moving the platform
multiple-well platform an offshore production
platform with several flowlines from subsea well as
leading into a manifold center and to the platform
multiple-well pumping system a production
system in which several oil wells are pumped from
a single engine or motor
multiplexer the electronic equipment used in
seismic exploration to switch to different seismic
channels in sequence, at regular intervals, to measure
their amplitudes, and to feed the signals into a single
output channel
multiplicity the number of separate raypaths that
are mixed together to make the final display in a
seismic profile. Multiplicity is the. number of energy
sources per shotpoint times the nurjaber of geophones
per group times the number of records that are
stacked, (effort)
multiplier a device that is used to increase or
decrease the stroke length on a rod line that powers
a pumping well from a central power unit
multipoint test 1) a test used to determine the openflow potential of a gas well. The test is made by
measuring several flow rates and their corresponding
bottomhole pressures. Starting with a shut-in well, a
series of increasing flow rates are run at fixed time

|i p

333

Pi - Plf-

Flow Rate MCFD

multipoint test

intervals. Flows versus the difference of the squares

of the average reservoir and wellbore pressures are
plotted on log-log paper. The plot will be a straight
line and can be used to determine optimum flow
rate. The multipoint test is called a three-, four- or
five-point test depending on the number of flow rates
used in the test, (flow-after-flow test) 2) see multiwell
test
multishot survey a series of downhole
measurements of well azimuth and inclination. If the
well is uncased and nonmagnetic drill collars are being
used, a magnetic multishot directional survey is run.
If not, a gyro multishot directional survey is run. The
magnetic surveying instrument uses a magnetic
compass card, plumb bob, and modified movie camera
that is activated by a timer. The gyroscopic surveying
instrument uses a gryroscope, compass card, plumb
bob, and modified movie camera.
multispectral composed of several bands of
radiation. Many remote sensors are multispectral.
multistage cementing a cement job on a well that
is done with several separate batches of cement. Stage
cementers are installed at selected intervals in the
casing string. Multistage cementing is used for long
casing strings to reduce pump pressures and to reduce
pressure on the formations.
multistage compressor staged compressors that
raise the pressure of a gas in steps. Multistaged
compressors must be used when the compression
ratio is greater than 10-12:1
multiwell drilling commitment a type of farmout
in which the farmor has committed acreage to the
farmout containing several drillsites
multiwell test a type of pressure transient test in
which pressure is measured over time in a shut-in
well (observation well) while surrounding wells
(active wells) are producing. Pressure communication
and flow between wells can be detected by the test.
A multiwell test is used to determine the effect one
well has on another for enhanced oil recovery.
(interference or multipoint test)
multizone completion see multiple completion
(im micrometers
muniment of title an instrument that is filed to
fill in a gap in the chain of title for an interest
\LO oil viscosity

|i p 1) fluid viscosity at producer 2) plastic velocity

3) pore diameter

334

muratic acid

muratic acid hydrochloric acid

|AS microsecond
(i 9 shear modulus
jis or (*sec microseconds
Muse or muse muscovite
muscovite a common mineral formed by layers of
potassium aluminum silicate with a chemical formula
of KAl2(AlSi3)O10(OH)2. Muscovite occurs as colorless
or whitish flakes in igneous and metamorphic rocks
and is often found in sandstones and other sedimentary
rocks. Muscovite has a cell dimension of 10.05 A and
a density of 2.84 gm/cm3. (white mica) Muse, muse,
or Mu
muting the elimination of unwanted traces such as
a direct arrival on a seismic record
mutual solvent surfactant an acid additive used
in matrix acidizing a well to water-wet the sandstone
formation. The surfactant prevents particles from
migrating and plugging pore throats and stabilizes
emulsions. A mutual solvent surfactant is also used
in carbonate formations to improve cleanup and
recovery. Ethylene glycol monobutyl ether is used
as a mutual solvent surfactant.

MUV manned underwater vehicle

1*^ water viscosity
mV or mv millivolt
M-VIS mud viscosity
MW 1) megawatt 2) molecular weight
M^, molecular weight
MWD measurement while drilling
MWE manned work enclosure
mW/m 2 milliwatt per square meter
MWP maximum working pressure
M-WT mud weight
mxd mixed
MXFP maximum and final pressure
m.y. million years
m.y.a. million years ago
m.y.B.P. million years before present
myria- the metric system prefix for ten thousand
mystify to run a tight hole
M/Z mass to charge ratio

N natural gamma ray spectroscopy log

N
N 1) north 2) neutron log 3) neutron porosity 4)
initial oil in place 5) neutron 6) slope of neutron
porosity versus density 7) normal resistivity log 8)
initial oil in place in reservoir 9) a M-N crossplot
parameter 10) newton 11) flow-behavior index 12)
normality
n 1) net 2) saturation exponent 3) backpressure
exponent 4) normal 5) exponent of hyperbolic decline
curve 6) number 7) north 8) nanon' flow behavior index
n* apparent Archie exponent
NA 1) not applicable 2) neutron activation log 3)
not available 4) north addition
nac nacreous
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NACI nonaccredited investor
NACOPS National Advisory Committee on Petroleum
Statistics
nacreous a mother-of-pearl luster in a mineral nac
NAG no appreciable gas
nailed the attachment of unwanted traces on a
seismic record such as direct arrival traces
n-alkane normal alkane
namakier an extrusive sheet of salt on the surface
(salt glacier)
Namurian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 330 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
and Middle Carboniferous epochs.
nano the metric prefix for 10~9. n
nanotesla a unit of magnetic flux density that is 10~9
tesla
naphtha 1) an old term for condensate 2) a refining
cut that comes out between 220 and 315F and is
located between the gasoline and kerosene cuts
naphthene-base crude oil a crude oil that contains
little or no paraffin but has an asphalt residue upon
distillation. When burned, the naphthene-base crude
oil leaves a tar-like residue. Naphthene-base crude
oil is dominated by the napthenic hydrocarbon
compounds. The oil is black in color and tends to
have low "API and a low pour point. Naphthene-base
crude oil represents about 15% of the world's oil
supply. Most of the world's oil is mixed-base or
paraffin-base, (asphalt-base crude oil)
naphthene series a series of saturated, closed-ring
hydrocarbons with the formula CnH2n. An example

335

of the naphthene series is cyclobutane C4H8.

(cydoalkane, cycloparaffin, or alicyclic series)
naphthenoaromatic a hydrocarbon compound that
contains both aromatic (unsaturated) and naphthenic
(saturated) rings
nappe a large mass of rocks that has been thrust
over other rocks
NARO National Association of Royalty Owners
nat natural
national oil company an oil company that is
controlled by the federal government. NOC
nationalization the seizure of private property by
a government. In some instances, the owners have
been compensated for the lost property and in other
instances, there has been no compensation. Oil
companies with their production, transportation, and
refining equipment have been frequent targets of
nationalization by foreign countries, (expropriation)
native gas original gas in or from the subsurface
reservoir as opposed to injected or treated gas
native-mud drilling fluid a drilling mud that is
formed by pumping water down a well to mix with
formation clays. Native mud has a high solid content
and filter loss. NAT-M
native-state core a core that is sealed soon after it
is recovered on the surface. Some methods of
preserving a native-state core are a) coating with
plastic, polyethylene, or paraffin, b) sealing in airtight
cans or tubes, c) sealing in plastic bags, d) freezing,
and e) wrapping in aluminum foil and plastic tape.
A native-state core is in contrast to a cleaned or
restored-state core.
NAT-M native mud
natural clay clay minerals that occur in the
formations being drilled in contrast to commercial
clays
natural completion a well completion with no
stimulation such as fracing or acidizing in contrast
to a stimulated completion
natural deasphalting see deasphalting
natural flow the flow of formation fluids out of a
well without artificial lift. The reservoir pressure is
enough to lift the fluids to the surface, (natural lift)
NF
natural gamma ray log see gamma ray log
natural gamma ray spectroscopy log a well log
that measures the total radioactivity of formations and
differentiates the natural gamma ray emissions from
the radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium, and
potassium. Uranium is found in most lithologies,
whereas thorium and potassium are common in shales.
The natural gamma ray spectroscopy log is an accurate
measure of formation shaliness and can be used to
determine the type of clay minerals present in the
formation. NGS

336

natural gas NC

natural gas a mixture of light hydrocarbons ranging

from Cj to C4 that occur as a gas under standard
pressure and temperature conditions of 1 atm and
60cF. Natural gas is primarily methane gas (CH4) with
no or lesser amounts of ethane (C2H6), propane
(C3H8), and butane (C4H10) gases. The average MidContinent natural gas has a composition of 88%
methane, 5% ethane, 2% propane, and 1% butane.
Lean natural gas has less than 2.5 gal of recoverable
ethane and higher hydrocarbons per 1,000 ft3at 60F.
Moderately rich natural gas has between 2.5 and 5
gal/Mcf and very rich natural gas has greater than 5
gal/Mcf. Nonhydrocarbon gases called inerts, dilutents,
or contaminents, such as water vapor, CO2, N, and
He, can occur mixed with the hydrocarbon gases. If
the gas contains detectable amounts of H2S, it is called
sour gas. If not, the gas is sweet gas. If the gas contains
significant amounts of liquids (retrograde gas or
condensate) under surface conditions, it is called wet
gas. Gas without liquids is called dry gas. Methane
gas that is generated at shallow depths is called
biogenic, swamp,: or marsh gas. Gas that is generated
at deep depths under high temperatures is called
thermogenic gas. Natural gas occurs as a free-gas phase
or in solution in crude oil in the reservoir. Natural
gas can be classified as a) associated, b) nonassociated,
and c) dissolved. An average natural-gas density used
in well logging computations is 0.7 gm/cc. Gas volume
is measured in 1,000s of cubic feet (Mcf) and its heat
content is measured in British Thermal Units (Btu).
(gas)NG
natural gas liquid products the separate liquids
(condensate, butane, propane, and ethane) that are
produced from natural gas liquids. NGLP
natural gas liquids the liquid hydrocarbons that
can be extracted from wet gas. Natural gas liquids
include a) retrograde or condensate (natural gasoline)
which is liquid at standard temperature and pressure
and is composed of pentanes and longer hydrocarbons
and b) liquified petroleum gas (LPG) which is
primarily propane and butane. Natural gas liquids
occur as a free-gas phase or in solution in crude oil
in the reservoir. Natural gas liquids are recoverable
as liquids by cooling or absorption in field separators,
absorbers, scrubbers, gasoline plants, or cycling plants.
NGL
natural gasoline liquid hydrocarbons of very light
crude oil composition that occur as a gas under
subsurface reservoir conditions (high temperature and
pressure) and condense into a liquid upon production
and surface conditions. Natural gasolines typically
grade from colorless to light-colored liquids with tints
of red, green, or blue. Natural gasolines have very
high API that ranges 45-60 and are very valuable
commercially. Natural gas that contains natural
gasoline is called wet gas. If natural gasoline is
recovered on the lease with standard field separator
equipment, it is often combined and recorded with
the crude oil. The Natural Gas Processors Association
has defined natural gasoline as having a vapor pressure
of 10-34 psi, a percentage evaporated at 104F of 24%85%, a percentage evaporated at 275F of not less
than 90%, and an end point in distillation of not higher
than 375CF. Retrograde gas is the preferred term for
natural gasoline, (casinghead, drip, raw or wild

gasoline, drips, condensate, gas condensate, distillate,

gas distillate, retrograde gas, or white oil)
natural gasoline plant an installation that separates
retrograde gas (natural gasoline) and other natural
gas liquids from natural gas by refrigeration (gas
processing plant or gasoline plant)
natural gas trader a company or person engaged
in the purchase of natural gas as a trader for resale
to other purchasers (independent marketer)
natural lift see natural flow
naturally deviated hole see crooked hole
natural period the frequency of a repeating action
natural remanent magnetism the entire remanent
magnetism of a rock. NRM
natural well a well that flows without any well
stimulation such as acidizing or fracing
nauti. mi nautical mile
nautical mile a non-System International (SI) unit
that is allowable in SI for marine and aerial distance.
One nautical mile is Vfcoth of a degree of latitude and
is equivalent to about 6,080.2 ft, 1,853.25 m, or 1.1516
statute mi. nauti. mi, NMI or nmi

nautiloid

nautiloid a marine invertebrate belonging to the

subclass Nautiloidea in the class Cephalopoda of the
phylum Mollusca. Nautiloids have external shells with
simple septa or marking on the shell. Nautiloids are
used as guide fossils and have existed from the
Cambrian period to the present.
Naval Petroleum Reserve an area with probable
or proven oil reserves in the United States that was
withdrawn from oil exploration by Congress in 1923
for defense purposes. Naval petroleum reserves are
located in the North Slope of Alaska, Elk Hills, and
Buena Vista, California, and Teapot Dome, Wyoming.
NPR
riavi-drill a type of positive diplacement motor
navigational drilling drilling a deviated well using
a steerable system consisting of a measurement-whiledrilling tool, a double tilted universal housing, upper
and lower stabilizers and a slow speed mud motor.
The driller on the drill floor watches a driller's dial
that shows the downhole orientation of the tool face
together with the azimuth and inclination of the
wellbore. The driller adjusts the weight on the bit
to control the direction of the wellbore.
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System a navigation
system that uses several satellites, time, the doppler
effect, and orbit information for a position fix
navy navigational satellite system a navigational
system that uses polar satellites for fixes that are
accurate to 10 m. see TRANSIT. NNSS
NB new bit
NB bond number
NBS National Bureau of Standards
n-butane normal butane
NC 1) no core 2) no change 3) number connection

Nc net-oil analyzer
Nc capillary number
NCC natural color composite
nCs N-pentane or normal pentane
nC4 N-butane or normal butane
NCH neutron log-cased hole
NCM 1) normal cubic meter 2) non compos mentis
NCMTL or NCL nuclear cement log
NCT noncontiguous tract
ND 1) not drilling 2) nipple down
NDBOP nippling down blowout preventers
NDC neutron depth-control log
NDE not deep enough
NDT nondestructive testing
NE 1) northeast 2) epithermal neutron log
Ne cumulation oil influx
ne noneffective
NEA, NEAC, or N.E. acid nonemulsion or
nonemulsifying acid
near size particles with a size plus or minus 25%
of a certain screen aperture size
near wildcat an exploratory well drilled to discover
a new reservoir in an area where local geological
control has little significance but oil or gas production
occurs in other reservoirs. The well is drilled usually
less than 2 mi from the nearest production.
neat cement cement with chemical and physical
properties that have not been modified by additives.
Neat cement is in contrast to modified cement.
NEB National Energy Board
Nebraskan an age of geological time that was the
first glacial stage in the Pleistocene epoch. It is
equivalent to the Gunz in Europe.
NEC 1) northeast corner 2) National Electrical Code
necessary evil a packer
neck cutoff a channel (neck or chute) eroded across
a meander neck.

337

neg negative
negative buoyancy the downward pressure on an
immersed body due to the weight of the submerged
body being more than the weight of the fluid such
as water that it displaces
negligence the failure to act in a way that a
reasonable and prudent person would act
nekton free-swimming animals
NEL 1) northeast line 2) Nation Engineering
Laboratory
NELPI National Energy Law and Policy Institute
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
neoformed clay an authigenic clay mineral that is
formed by precipitation from pore water in a
subsurface sedimentary rock. Neoformed clay
minerals include kaolinite, chlorite, illite, smectite,
and mixed-layer clays.
Neogene an interval of geological time that includes
the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. It is the Upper
Tertiary.
NEP net effective pay
NEPA National Environmental Protection Agency
NEPS nonexclusive proprietary survey
neritic 1) the ocean environment between low tide
and 600 ft water depth 2) the ocean environment
over the continental shelf
nest an array of closely spaced geophones used in
seismic exploration
nester a person who lives on an oil lease
net backing the sale of crude oil in which the price
of the oil depends on the price of the refinery products
from the oil. Net backing was initiated during the
1985 buyer's market.
net-back pricing 1) the wellhead price of oil and
gas computed by subtracting the transportation costs
from the downstream (at the end of the pipeline)
price paid for the oil and gas 2) a method of pricing
oil according to the price that the refiner receives
for the refined products of the crude oil
net-back sale the transfer of an interest in naturalgas production with a portion of the proceeds from
the sale of liquids extracted from the gas as payment
net heating value the amount of heat generated
by combustion of hydrocarbons including water vapor.
Net heating value is measured in Btu/ft3 for gas and
Btu/gal for liquids. If the heat from condensing the
steam back into water is included, it is called gross
heating value, (lower beating value)

neck cutoff

neck down to reduce the diameter of a tubular

necking the reduction of the diameter of a metal
tubular or bar due to tension
needle valve A globe type of valve with a needle
stem and conical seat. A needle valve is very efficient
for throttling and is used as a choke. Needle valves
are used on high-pressure tubing and pressure gauges.
NE/4 northeast quarter

net interest the portion of the revenue from

production minus any royalty interests such as those
held by mineral rights owners, a geologist, or others.
Net interest is expressed as a percentage.
net-observed volume the total volume of all
measured petroleum liquids minus the basic sediment
and water content. Net observed volume is in contrast
to gross observed volume.
net-oil analyzer an instrument that determines and
records the amount of oil and water produced from
each well on a lease

338

net-oil computer Neutron Lifetime Log9

net-oil computer electronic and mechanical

devices that are used to automatically determine the
amount of oil in an oil/water emulsion
net operating profits interest the gross workinginterest revenues in a well minus the operating costs.
NOPI

net overburden the weight of the overlying rock

that is supported by grain-to-grain contacts. Net
overburden differs from total overburden in that some
of the weight of the rock can be supported by abnormal
high pore pressure and by the buoyancy effect of
the formation fluid.
net pay the total thickness of the producing reservoir
as identified on a spontaneous potential or gamma
ray and resistivity log. Net pay does not include any
part of the reservoir that is not productive such as
tight sections which are included in gross pay.
net positive-suction head 1) the suction-pumping
pressure minus the vapor pressure of the liquid being
pumped. Net positive-suction head is expressed in
feet of liquid 2) the minimum suction conditions
necessary to prevent cavitation in a pump. NPSH
net proceeds interest or royalty see net profits
interest
net production the measured amount of crude oil
minus basic sediment and water produced from a
well or lease. Net production is in contrast to gross
production, (working-interest oil)
net profits interest a fraction or percentage of the
oil and/or gas production that is based on the net
profits from the operation of a lease or leases. Net
profits interest is the gross working-interest revenue
in a well less the costs of drilling, completing, and
operating the well. Net profits interest is carved out
or the working interest and continues for the life of
the lease, (net proceeds interest or royalty or net
royalty) NPI
net revenue the proceeds from oil and gas sales
at the well minus a) operating costs, b) production,
severance, and excise taxes, and c) royalties, overriding
royalties, and burdens in production
net revenue interest 1) a share of the working
interest in a lease that is free of the costs of drilling
and completing the first well on the lease 2) the lessee's
or some other interest's share of production after
all royalties, overriding royalties, and other
nonoperating interests have been taken out of
production from a well(s). Net revenue is usually
expressed as a percentage. NRI
net royalty see net profits interest
net sand the total measured thickness of a reservoir
as identified on a spontaneous potential (SP) or gamma
ray (GR) log. Net sand does not include tight sands
but can include some of the reservoir that does not
contain oil or gas.
net sand map a contour map of the total thickness
of sandstone in a stratigraphic interval such as a
formation
net sandstone thickness the accumulated
thickness of sandstone in a section that meets a
minimum requirement(s) such as porosity or shaliness
net standard volume the gross standard volume
of oil minus the sediment and water. Gross standard

volume is calculated by adjusting the gross volume

(indicated flow through a meter times the meter factor)
to standard temperature and pressure. Net standard
volume is measured in standard barrels of net clean
oil.
NEUT neutron log
neut neutral
neutral fold a fold that has horizontal closure in
contrast to an antiform or synform
neutralization the reaction of an acid with a base
to form a salt and water
neutral point the point where stress is zero. No
buckling will occur on a tubular such as drillpipe or
tubing at the neutral point
neutral weight of drillstring the measured weight
of the drillstring at the surface with no axial drag
neutron an atomic particle that is part of the atomic
nucleus. A neutron has no charge but has an atomic
mass of 1.00898 and a mass of 1.675 x 10~24g. Neutrons
are classified by their energy levels. Fast neutrons
have 100,000 to 15,000,000 eV, slow neutrons have
about 1,000 eV, epithermal neutrons have about 1
eV and thermal neutrons have about Vio eV. Fast
neutrons emitted by a source such as plutoniumberyllium or americium-beryllium used in well
logging have 4-6 MeV. Neutrons can also be formed
by a neutron generator. N
neutron activation the bombardment of stable
isotope atoms with thermal neutrons to excite the
atoms. The excited atoms emit one or more photons
of gamma rays. The energy level of the emitted photons
is characteristic of the isotope and is used in well
logging to identify lithology.
neutron capture a process in which a neutron
collides with the nucleus of an atom and forms an
unstable compound nucleus. The compound nucleus
will either a) disintegrate with the emission of protons,
alpha particles, beta emissions, or gamma rays or b)
drop to stable ground state with the emission of gamma
rays. Neutron capture is in contrast to elastic and
inelastic scattering.
neutron-epithermal-neutron log a neutron log
that detects high-energy epithermal neutrons to
determine the porosity of the rock. The source and
detectors are skid mounted and press against the
wellbore. The neutron-epithermal-neutron log is used
in air-drilled holes, (epithermal neutron log)
neutron generator a very high-voltage
electromechanical apparatus that focuses a highenergy deuterium beam on a tritium target to form
high-energy neutrons. The neutron generator is used
in Decay Time, Neutron Lifetime, carbon-oxygen, and
activation logging.
neutron lifetime a quantity recorded on a neutronlifetime log. Neutron lifetime is the time in which
the thermal neutron density falls to half. Neutron
lifetime is inversely related to capture cross section.
Neutron Lifetime Log a type of wireline well log
that determines the amount of salt in formation waters
in rocks adjacent to the wellbore. A pulsed neutron
generator in the sonde bombards the rocks with burst
of neutrons. The neutrons lose energy in collisions
with atoms, primarily chlorine, found in the salts of

neutron or neutron porosity log night pusher

the formation waters. The thermal-neutron capture
cross section per unit volume is measured. The
neutron-lifetime log can be plotted as a) thermal decay
time, b) neutron lifetime, or c) capture cross section.
Hydrocarbons in the rocks result in longer decay times
than salt water and the readings are dependent on
porosities. The neutron-lifetime log can be used in
both cased and uncased wells. The log is also used
to document reservoir fluid changes during
production to optimize production. NIL or NL
neutron or neutron porosity log an older,
radioactive-type of wireline well log that bombards
rocks in the well with high speed neutrons from a
radioactive source such as plutonium-beryllium or
americum-beryllium in the tool to determine the
density of hydrogen atoms in the rocks. The neutron
log detects hydrogen collisions by recording a) gamma
rays, b) thermal neutrons, or c) epithermal neutrons
from a single detector. Hydrogen occurs in water,
gas, and oil in the pores of the rock and the log is
used to determine the porosity of low porosity rocks.
The neutron log is scaled in either API units or porosity
and is recorded in Track 2. If gas occupies the pores
of the rock, the neutron log will give an erroneously
low porosity reading. The neutron log can be used
in both cased and uncased wells. The neutron log
has been replaced by the compensated neutron log.
(porosity log) N, NL or NEUT
neutron porosity porosity dirived from a neutron
porosity log. A'
new-field wildcat an exploratory well usually
drilled at least 2 mi from established production. A
new-field wildcat is drilled on a trap that has never
produced oil or gas. (rank wildcat) NFW
new oil oil under the Emergency Petroleum
Allocation Act of 1973 in the United States that was
produced either from leaseholds that were not
producing in 1972 or produced in excess of 1972
production from leaseholds producing in 1972
new-pool wildcat a well drilled to find production
in a reservoir that has not previously produced oil
or gas on a trap that is already producing from other
reservoirs. It can be either a shallower or deeper
pool test. NPW
Newton a derived unit in System International (SI)
for force. A Newton is calculated by kg x m/s2 N
Newtonian fluid a fluid in which the shear rate is
directly proportional to the shear force. Water and
diesel oil are examples of Newtonian fluids. Newtonian

339

fluids immediately flow when pressure is applied and

their viscosities are constant. Newtonian fluids are
in contrast to a non-Newtonian fluid such as drilling
mud. (true or viscous fluid)
newton meter A derived unit in System International
(SI) for moment of force. Nm
new well a well under the Natural Gas Policy Act
of 1978 in the United States that was spudded after
February 19, 1977, or one drilled after February 19,
1977, to at least 1,000 ft deeper than its original
completion depth.
NF 1) no fluorescence 2) no flow 3) natural flow 4)
fast neutron log
Nf neutron porosity of fluid
NFD new field discovery
NFL nuclear flolog
NFL GR nuclear flolog, gamma ray log
NFL GRN nuclear flolog, gamma ray, neutron log
NFL N nuclear flolog, neutron log
N/FLT normal fault
N-FOR national forest
N/4 north quarter
NFW new-field wildcat
NG 1) natural gas 2) no gauge
N.GJV. Natural Gas Act

NGL natural gas liquids

NGLP natural gas liquid products
NGPA 1) National Gas Processors Association 2)
Natural Gas Policy Act
NGPSA National Gas Processors Suppliers
Association
NGS natural gamma ray spectrometry
NGTS no gas to surface
NHAP National High Altitude Photography Program
NHV net heating valve
Magadan a North American epoch of geological
time. It is part of the Silurian period.
NIC not in contact
night pusher a drilling engineer on an offshore
drilling rig who supervises the drillers and is under
the toolpusher. The night pusher usually works the
8:00 P.M. to 8:00 A.M. shift, (junior toolpusher or
tourpusher)

O
I
I
I

I
I

AA

oo ooo

normal Nine-Spot

unverted Nine-Spot
nine-spot waterflood

340

nine spot node

nine spot a type of waterflood pattern in which a

producing well is surrounded by eight injector wells
in the form of a square with the injectors at the corners
and midpoints on each side of the square (normal
nine-spot). On an inverted nine-spot pattern, the
injector is surrounded by eight producers in the form
of a square with the producers at the corners and
mid-points of the square.
nip nipple
NIPER National Institute for Petroleum and Energy
Research

nipple

nipple a short pipe, usually less than 12 in., that

has either threads or welds on both ends, nip
nipple chaser 1) an employee on a drilling rig who
is in charge of obtaining and delivering tools and
equipment 2) a foreman
nipple down to take apart fillings. ND
nipple up to put together fittings in order to
assemble and connect a system such as a blowout
preventers or Christmas tree. NU
NIST National Institute for Standards and Technology
NITRO or nitro nitroglycerine
nitrogen a colorless, odorless inert gas (N2) that is
used in frac jobs and enhanced oil-recovery projects.
Nitrogen is often cooled and compressed into a liquid
and injected into the subsurface in that form. Nitrogen
has a molecular weight of 28.013, a boiling point of
-320.4F, a critical temperature of -232.4F, and a
specific gravity at 60F of 0.808. Nitrogen is obtained
from either natural gas, nitrogen wells, or distilled
from the atmosphere. Nitrogen in crude oil occurs
as a heterocompound and is related to asphalt content.
Nitrogen is an inert found in some natural gas that
can be up to 90% nitrogen. Nitrogen can be separated
from gas by liquefaction and fractionation.
nitrogen-foam injection a type of inert gas
injection process that uses foam to control nitrogen
mobility and channeling
nitroglycerine a heavy, pale yellow liquid that is
very explosive. Nitroglycerine is prepared by
dissolving glycerine in equal parts of citric and sulfuric
acids and adding the mixture to water, where the
nitroglycerine precipitates. Nitroglycerine is used in
making dynamite and was extensively used in
explosive fracturing of wells. NITRO or nitro
nitro shooting a technique that uses a solidified
or gelatin-type explosive such as nitroglycerine in a
torpedo which is detonated in the well to increase
the size of the wellbore and fracture the reservoir
rock. The fractures increase the permeability of the
reservoir and production from the well. The casing
above the shot is protected with a temporary plug
of cement, plastic and/or gravel. Sand and gravel are

often packed around the nitroglycerin shell to contain

the explosion. The explosive is detonated with a time
bomb. After the explosion, the debris is cleared. Casing
cannot be set and an openhole completion must be
used. Nitro shooting has been in use almost since
the first oil well was drilled. The process is called
giving the well a shot, (explosive fracturing or
shooting)
NL 1) north line 2) neutron log 3) Neutron-Lifetime
Log 4) thermal decay time log
N/L north line
NLL Neutron Lifetime Log
NLL CBL neutron-lifetime, automatic cement bond
log
NIX CBL GR N neutron-lifetime, acoustic cement
bond, gamma ray, neutron log
NLL CB N neutron-lifetime, acoustic cement bond,
neutron log
NLL GR neutron-lifetime, gamma ray log
NLL GR CBL neutron-lifetime, gamma ray, acoustic
cement bond log
NLL GR N neutron-lifetime, gamma ray, neutron log
NLL N neutron-lifetime, neutron log
NLPGA National Liquified Petroleum Gas Association
NLY northerly
NM nuclear magnetism log
NM or nm normal cubic meter
N/m neutron per meter
N"1 newton meter
NMI or nmi nautical miles
NML nuclear-magnetism log
NMO normal moveout
NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
NM3, Nm3 or nm 3 normal cubic meter
NN neutron rate count
nN density of neutrons
NNSS navy navigational satellite system
NO 1) new oil 2) number
N/O north offset
No. number
No/B/Hr number of bailerfuls per hour
NOC national oil company
Nod or nod 1) nodular 2) nodules
NODAL systems analysis a method use to calculate
the flow rate at which an oil or gas well will produce
and to evaluate the effects of various parts of the system
such as flowline size, separator pressure, choke size,
tubing size, safety valves, downhole restrictions, and
well completion methods. The analysis is used to
optimize the entire production system to obtain the
most efficient flow rate. The system is analyzed at
various locations called nodes such as the bottom of
the well, top of the well, and at the separator. NODAL
systems analysis is sometimes called production
system analysis and production optimization.
nodding donkey a British term for a pumping unit
node 1) the location of the solution point in a well
that is examined with a system analysis to optimize

nodule nonassociated gas-well allowable

flow. Two nodes are often used in a well, one at the
top and one at the bottom of the well, (solutionpoint)
2) the point where several cross-bracing tubulars join
together on a vertical column on an offshore platform
3) the point on a fault where the apparent displacement
direction changes
nodule a small, hard mass that is irregular or
rounded and has no internal structure. It is formed
by a mineral or mineral aggregate in a sedimentary
rock. Most nodules form by replacement of the
sedimentary rock after deposition. Some common
types of nodules are chert nodules in limestone,
ironstone nodules in coal, and phosphatic nodules
in marine sedimentary rocks. Nod or nod
nodular a sedimentary rock that has nodules. The
nodules are harder than the sedimentary rock and
are often elongated parallel to the bedding planes.
Nod or nod
no go or nogo the end of a rabbit (the last swab
mandrel) on a string of swab-cup mandrels being
brought up the tubing string of a well during a
swabbing operation. The nogo is in the shape of a
cylinder with a diameter slightly smaller than that of
the tubing.
N OH neutron log, open hole
NOIL new oil
No Inc no increase
noise unwanted or undesired signals on an
instrument. On a seismic record, noise can be any
signal that is not a primary reflection. Noise can be
unwanted reflections from within a rock layer,
horizontal sounds such as ground roll, refracted
sound, and air-gun bubble pulsations. Seismic noise
can be classified as ambient and industrial, such as
wind or traffic, and source, such as surface waves or
diffractions. Random noise will sum to zero, whereas
nonrandom noise shows a pattern. Geological noise
is due to inhomogeneities in the rocks.
noise log a record made by a sound detector in a
well. The detector is used in a logging tool to amplify
and record the noise produced by gas or liquid flowing
into the well at various levels. The frequency of the
sound can be indicative of the type of fluid flowing
into the well. A noise log is used a) to check the
effectiveness of a cement job behind the casing, b)
to estimate gas flow into the well from various zones,
and c) to locate lost-circulation zones, underground
blowouts, flow behind casing, and leaks in casing and
tubing.
noise test a preliminary seismic run that is used to
analyze and study the noise pattern in an area. The
test is used to design the field parameters such as
arrays and filters to enhance the signal/noise ratio.
no-log, no-pay contract a type of turnkey drilling
contract in which the drilling contractor can abandon
the well without getting paid before the casing point
is reached. A no-log, no-pay contract is in contrast
to a no-out turnkey contract in which the drilling
contractor must drill until reaching the casing point.
nom nominal
NOMADS National Oil-Equipment Manufacturers and
Delegates Society

341

nominal a value that is calculated rather than

measured, nom
nominal dollars dollars that are not adjusted for
inflation, (current dollars)
nominal decline or nominal production decline
1 da
rate Minus - jr in which q is production rate and t
is time, (continuous production decline rate) D
nominal filter a filter designed to remove an
arbitrary percent weight (as determined by the
manufacturer) of particles of a certain size. A nominal
filter is in contrast to an absolute filter.
nominal weight the weight of a tubular such as
casing or drillpipe that has been calculated using the
formula Wn = 10.68(D - t)t + 0.0722D2lb/ft in which
D is the outside diameter in inches and t is in the
wall thickness in inches. Nominal weight is expressed
in lbm/ft or kg/m based on calculated theoretical
weight per foot of 20 ft lengths of threaded and coupled
pipe. Nominal weight is used for identification, and
the actual weight will be 5%-10% greater. Wn
nominate to identify a tract of United States onshore
federal land on a known geological structure for
competitive bidding
nomination 1) the suggestion of interest in a tract
of land by an oil company to the federal government.
Nominations are used to help select which areas to
put up for bids on the outer continental shelf. 2)
the amount of oil that a purchaser expects to take
from a field. The nomination is reported to a
government regulatory agency that is concerned with
prorationing. 3) the estimated quantity of gas
requested by a gas buyer. A nomination can be changed
as necessary and be confirmed.
nomogram or nomograph a type of graphic
solution for an equation. A nomogram is a chart that
represents three variables that are plotted on their
own calibrated vertical lines. A straight line connecting
two known variables will pass through the third
variable at the correct value. A nomogram is used
for rapid determination of an unknown without
calculations. It is accurate but has less precision than
a mathematical equation.
nonabandoning party a participant in a unit
operating agreement who objects to the unit operator's
decision to abandon a'well. The participant can take
over the well after paying the abandoning party for
the well's salvage value.
nonapportionment rule a legal principle that
royalties from a lease on property that was subdivided
after the lease was granted are not shared by the
various owners of the subdivisions. Instead, the
royalities belong to the owner of the subdivision that
has the producing well. This principle is followed in
most states.
nonassociated gas natural gas that is not in contact
with oil in a subsurface reservoir. Nonassociated gas
is usually dry gas and is in contrast to associated or
dissolved gas. (gas well or unassociated gas)
nonassociated gas-well allowable the amount of
gas permitted to be produced from a well that
produces only gas (nonassociated) during a certain
period of time by a government regulatory agency
(allowable). The amount is fixed at a percentage of

342

noncircumvention agreement

nonlncendive equipment

adjusted open-flow potential for that well. The

allowable is a fraction of the total field nomination
as determined by an allocation formula for that field.
noncircumvention agreement a document that
prevents one party of the agreement from making a
deal with a third party without including the second
party to the agreement
noncommercial well 1) a well that will not produce
enough gas and/or oil to repay the drilling, completing,
and operating costs of the well 2) a well that will
not produce enough gas and/or oil to pay the operating
costs of the well
noncompetitive lease the method used to lease
United States onshore federal lands upon which there
has already been an expired or returned lease. The
Bureau of Land Management publishes a list bimonthly
of all qualified tracts. Applications must be received
within 15 working days of publication, and the lease
is granted based on a random or lottery selection of
applicants. The lease grants the lessee the right to
search, drill, and produce oil and gas from that tract.
Noncompetitive leases have a $75 filing fee and a
10-year primary term. There is a f 1 per acre annual
rental for the first 5 years and $3 per acre for the
last 5 years. The lease has a 12Vi% royalty.
Noncompetitive leases are in contrast to competitive
leases and over-the-counter applications.
Noncompetitive leases are not issued on producing
known geological structures, (simultaneous lease)
non compos mentis having an unsound mind. NCM
nonconductive drilling mud an oil-base or invertemulsion drilling mud that does not conduct electricity
and has very high resistivity. Spontaneous potential
and normal resistivity measurements cannot be made
in wells filled with nonconductive drilling mud.
Induction logs, however, can be run in the well.
(nonconductive mud)
nonconductive mud see nonconductive drilling
mud
~

....-r-*

nonconformity

nonconformity a type of unconformity or erosional

surface located between underlying plutonic igneous
or metamorphic rocks and overlying sedimentary
rocks
nonconsenting party a company or individual who
elects to not participate in a proposed operation under
a joint operating agreement. A nonconsenting party
is in contrast to a drilling party, (nondrilling party)
nonconsent penalty a cash, acreage, or production
penalty assessed to a party that did not consent in

advance to share in the costs of drilling a specific

well in a pooling or unitization agreement
nonconsent well a well drilled in a unitized area
in which one or more of participants in the unitization
or operating agreement does not consent to the
drilling of a well. If the well is plugged and abandoned,
the nonparticipant is not liable for the costs of the
well. If the well is productive, the nonparticipant can
share in the production only after a nonconsent penalty
is paid.
noncontiguous spacing unit or tract a drilling
and spacing unit that is made up of several smaller
tracts of land, some or all of which are not adjacent.
(discontinuous spacing) NCT
nondestructive testing the inspection of material
for detects in a manner that does not damage the
material. Nondestructive testing methods include
ultrasonic, eddy current, liquid penetration, magnetic
particle, and radiographic. NDT
nondrilling or nondrilling lease an oil and gas
lease that grants the lessee the rights to oil and gas
under the lease but prohibits the drilling of a well
on the surface of the lease. Wells that drain the lease
must be drilled on an adjacent lease. This type of
lease is used to prevent the drainage of a free gas
cap which could result in less ultimate oil production
from the reservoir or in areas where drilling on the
surface would be particularly harmful to the surface.
nondrilling party a party that decides not to
participate in an operation under an operating
agreement. This is in contrast to a drilling party.
(nonconsenting party)
nondrilling provision a special provision in a
farmout agreement that provides for a nondrilling
penalty, usually a fixed payment, for noncompliance
with conditions in the agreement, (nonperformance
provision)
nonelectrolyte a substance that does not exist as
ions in a water solution. A nonelectrolyte is in contrast
to an electrolyte.
nonemulsifying acid an acid that contains a
demulsifying agent that is a surface active agent and
prevents the acid from reacting with crude oil to form
a mixture (emulsion) of the two liquids. A
nonemulsifying acid has a faster cleanup time than
normal acid, by preventing or breaking emulsions
in the reservoir. NEA, NEAC, or N.E. Acid
nonexclusive license a permit granted by a country
to explore a block of land but not to produce
petroleum. Nonexclusive license is in contrast to an
exclusive license.
nonexclusive proprietary survey a regional
seismic survey in which the costs and results are shared
by a limited number of parties. The nonexclusive
proprietary survey was initiated in the 1960s to keep
seismic crews and vessels active. The federal
government can underwrite a portion of the survey
of a potential exploration area for a share in the
survey's sale profits. NEPS
nonferrous alloy an alloy that contains less than
iron
nonincendive equipment equipment that cannot
cause a flammable gas to ignite during normal use

nonionic surfactant
nonionic surfactant a surfactant used in enhanced
oil recovery that has no ionic charge. The water-soluble
group does not ionize. A nonionic surfactant is in
contrast to an anionic, catonic, or amphoteric
surfactant.
nonmag collar nonmagnetic drill collar
nonmagnetic drill collar a large- diameter, thickwalled, heavy joint of drillpipe (drill collar) that is
made of nonferrous material such as Monel steel. One
grade of stainless steel is also magnetic. A nonmagnetic
drill collars is used in directional drilling and on
steerable drilling assemblies because it allows for
magnetic deviation surveys, nonmag collar
nonmarginal unit a unit formed by a government
regulatory agency that will produce oil and/or gas at
a rate equal to the highest allowable that was allotted
to the units in that pool.
non-Newtonian a fluid in which there is no linear
relationship between shear stress and shear strain and
in which viscosity changes with flow velocity. Three
types of non-Newtonian fluids are a) Bingham plastic
fluid which is time independent, b) power-law fluid
which is time independent, and c) time-dependent
fluid. Drilling mud is a non-Newtonian fluid, whereas
crude oil and water are Newtonian fluids.
nonoperating interest or working interest a
working interest in land whose owner is without
operating rights and is not responsible for the drilling
and completion of a well or well operations
nonoperator a working interest that is not
designated as the operator for a well or lease. The
nonoperator is not responsible for seeing that the
drilling and completion of the well is done and the
well is operated. In a limited partnership, the
nonoperators are the limited partners.
nonparticipating or nonparticipating area a part
of the unit area in which production is not allocated
under a unit agreement
nonparticipating royalty mineral rights ownership
that is limited to a certain time or amount of production
nonperformance provision a special provision in
a farmout agreement that provides for a
nonperformance penalty, usually a fixed payment, for
noncompliance with conditions in the agreement.
(nondrilling provision)
nonplunging fold a fold in sedimentary rocks that
has a hingle line with a dip of less than 10
nonporous a substance that does not contain pore
spaces
nonretrievable gun a type of perforating gun that
has individually pressure-sealed cases of ceramic,
aluminum, glass, or cast iron to contain the shaped
explosive charges that disintegrate in the well. The
gun is lowered on an insulated shooting cable and
detonated electrically. The explosive blast shoots
fragments of the case into the formation. There may
or may not be a steel carrier to contain the blast,
and the debris remains in the well, (expendable gun)
Expend
nonreturn valve a type of valve that allows fluid
flow in only one direction. Nonreturn valves are
usually opened by pressure on a spring behind the
gate, (one-way or check valve or swing gauge or valve)

normal cubic meter

343

nonrotating stabilizer a stabilizer with blades that

are machined out of a sleeve that fits loosely around
the stabilizer body. The nonrotating stabilizer sleeve
remains stationary while the mandrel and drillstring
rotate. The stabilizer centralizes the drillstring in the
well and reduces wall sticking, but does not ream
the hole.
nonswelling clay minerals that show no reaction
during a wettability test with distilled water.
Nonswelling is in contrast to hygroturbid, hydroclastic,
hydrofissile, and cryptofissile.
nonwetting fluid or phase the liquid, when two
liquids are present on a surface, that has the least
affinity for the surface. The contact angle of the
nonwetting fluid on a surface exceeds 90. The other
liquid is called the wetting phase. In a hydrocarbon
reservoir, natural gas is always the nonwetting fluid,
crude oil is the wetting fluid relative to gas, and crude
oil is the nonwetting fluid relative to brines in a
sandstone reservoir. Carbonate reservoirs tend to be
neutral or have brine as the nonwetting fluid.
no-out contract a type of turnkey drilling contract
in which the driller must complete the well to the
casing point. A no-out contract is in contrast to the
no-log, no-pay turnkey drilling contract in which the
driller can abandon the well at anytime up to the
casing peiftt.
NOP nonoperating property
NOPI net operating profits interest
nor normal
no rec no recovery
Norian a global age of geological time that occurred
about 220-215 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper Triassic
epoch.
normal a line perpendicular to another line or
surface
normal alkane a type of hydrocarbon molecule
(CnH2n+2) formed by a saturated single chain. Normal
alkanes are common in organic matter, sediments,
and petroleum. They include methane, ethane,
propane, butane, and pentane and the higher alkanes
starting with hexane, heptane, octane, and larger
molecules. Normal alkane molecules can have 1-61
carbon atoms. CH4 through C4H10 are gases, C5H12
through C16H34 are liquids, and C,7H36 and longer
are waxy solids. Normal alkanes are derived from
bacteria, algae, and land plants. Up to 30% of crude
oil can be composed of normal alkanes. (paraffin)
n-alkane
normal butane an isomer of butane (C4H10) that
has a specific gravity of 0.58, a boiling point at 14.7
psia of 31F, a vapor pressure at 100F of 52 psia, a
critical temperature of 306F, and a critical pressure
of 551 psia. Normal butane has 3,262 Btu/SCF. Normal
butane is common in crude oil and natural gas except
for biogenic gas. The ratio of iso- to normal butane
is a maturity indicator in sediments, with a high ratio
indicative of immature sediments and a low ratio
characteristic of mature sediments. nC4, n-butane
normal conditions zero C temperature and 760
mm of mercury pressure, (normal temperature and
pressure) Norn
normal cubic meter a cubic meter of natural gas
at 60F (15C) and atmospheric pressure

344

normal curve normal paraffin

normal curve the resistivity curve of a formation

recorded with a normal electrode configuration on
an electric log. A constant current is passed between
a current electrode on the sonde (A electrode) and
a surface electrode (B electrode). The potential
difference is measured between a second electrode
on the sonde (M electrode) and a reference electrode
(N electrode). The space between the M and TV
electrodes is 16 in. for the short normal curve and
64 in. for the long normal curve. The normal curves
are plotted either both in Track 2 or in Tracks 2 and
3.

normal distribution (normal curve)

normal distribution a frequency distribution with

a continuous, bell-shaped curve (normal curve) that
is symmetrical about the arithmetic mean, mode, and
median which are the same. The dispersion of the
normal distribution is measured by the standard
deviation. A normal distribution is also called a
Gaussian distribution.
normal drag folding caused by friction along a fault
plane. A drag fold is a normal fold.
normal emulsion a water-in-oil emulsion

normal-moveout velocity a constant velocity for

an overlying layer that best yields the normal moveout
for a horizontal reflector. Normal-moveout velocity
is computed from normal moveout values during
velocity analysis.
normal polarity remanent magnetism that is similar
in orientation to the present, earth magnetic field in
contrast to reverse polarity.
normality a concentration equal to the number of
equivalents of solute per liter of solution. JV
normalize 1) to form a ratio of data to a standard
called the normal. The ratio is usually dimensionless.
2) to reduce the amplitude of a stacked trace to normal
amplitude
normally closed valve a valve that closes with a
loss of power
normally open valve a valve that opens with a loss
of power
normal mode propagation a phenomenon in
which a seismic wave called a channel wave is trapped
in a subsurface rock layer that is bounded by reflectors
having reflectivities that approach unity, (wave guide
effect)
normal moveout the differences in reflection arrival
times in seismic exploration due to the differences
in shotpoint-to-geophone distances, which is called
offset. Normal moveout depends primarily on velocity,
but also is affected by the dip of the rock layers and
the distance between shotpoint and geophone. Normal
moveout decreases with increasing reflection time.
Seismic data is corrected for normal moveout. A
velocity analyses of rock layers can be made with
normal-moveout measurements. NMO

normal paraffin (pentane)

normal fault

normal fault a fault with predominantly vertical

movement (dip slip) in which the foot wall has been
raised in relation to the hanging wall causing a lost
section. A normal fault is caused by tensional forces
and usually has a dip between 45-90. N/FLT
normal fold a symmetrical fold
normal log a resistivity log with electrode spacing
ranging from 2 in. (Microlog) to 64 in. (long normal)
to 1,000 ft (ultra-long-spaced electric log).

normal paraffin a type of hydrocarbon molecule

that is saturated with single bonds and is in the form
of a straight chain with no side chains . An example
of a normal paraffin is normal butane. Normal paraffin
is in contrast to an isoparaffin that has a side chain(s).
n-parqffin
normal pore pressure normal hydrostatic pressure
in a reservoir. Normal hydrostatic pressure depends
on fluid density and increases an average of about
0.465 psi/ft or 0.105 bar/m of depth. Normal pore
pressure is in contrast to a higher geopressure
(abnormal high pressure) or abnormal low pressure.
(hydropressure)
normal resistivity a type of electrical resistivity well
log in which a constant current is passed from an
electrode on the sonde through a formation in a well
to another electrode and measures the voltage at two

normal pore pressure NPDES permit

other electrodes on the sonde. Two electrodes have
a short spacing of 10-16 in. and measures the shortnormal resistivity. The other electrode is spaced 64
in. away and measure long-normal resistivity. The longnormal resistivity has a deeper radius of investigation
than the short-normal resistivity. The lateral type is
similar but has closely spaced electrodes. N
normal separation the relative downward
displacement of the hanging wall of a fault. Normal
separation is in contrast to reverse separation.
normal solution a solution with a concentration
of 1 gram-equivalent of solute per liter of solution
normal temperature and pressure zero C
temperature and 760 mm of mercury
pressure, (normal conditions) ntp
normal test a test that is often run monthly on a
well to measure the amount of oil, gas, and water
being produced, (routine test)
north-seeking gyro a gyroscope that automatically
seeks true north, (rate gyro)

345

to the lessor. The lessor is then given a specific period

of time to make a demand for performance to the
lessee. After this, the lessor can take legal action.
notification clause a provision in an oil and gas
lease stipulating that if die lessor assigns the interest
or a portion of the interest to another party, the lease
is not in default for improper payment until 30 days
after the date of notification from the lessor
Novae novaculite
novaculite a very dense and hard siliceous
sedimentary rock of microcrystalline quartz with a
light color and cryptocrystalline (extremely finegrained crystals) texture. Novae
noz nozzle

nozzle

nozzle

nose

nose 1) a plunging anticline without closure.

(anticlinal or structural nose) 2) the location on a
geological map where a bed shows the maximum
curvature. A plunging fold forms a nose with the
maximum curvature in the direction of the plunge.
3) gravity or magnetic anomaly that does not have
closure. 4) the pointed end of a cone on a rollercone bit 5) the front of a turbidity current. The nose
transports the coarsest sediments and is in contrast
to the body and tail.
nose row the inner row of teeth on a cone of a
roller-cone bit. The heel row is the outer row of teeth,
and the middle row is located between the nose and
heel row. (toe row)
notch fatigue the failure of metal along a mechanical
or metallurgical defect
notch filter a filter that eliminates a specific band
of frequencies
notch mute the use of filters to remove low-velocity
ground roll
no-term lease a type of oil and gas lease that can
be extended indefinitely by delay rental payments. A
no-term lease has no time limit or term, (perpetual
lease)
notice and demand clause a provision in an oil
and gas lease stipulating that a notice of breach of
any expressed or implied duty of the lessee be given

nozzle a tungsten carbide orifice through which the

drilling fluid jets out between two adjacent cones on
the bottom of a roller-cone bit. The nozzle is used
to form a constriction in the drilling fluid flow to
produce a high velocity for lubricating and cleaning
roller-cone, milled-teeth, and insert bits and to cut
and clean the hole. The orifice sizes on the nozzles
can be changed. There are normally three nozzles
on a tricone bit, each receiving an equal share of
the drilling fluid. The jet deflection bit has one nozzle
larger than the others to preferentially erode one side
of the well for the purpose of kicking off a deviated
well, (jet nozzle) noz
NP 1) no production 2) not pumping 3) nonporous
Np cumulative oil produced
N.P.A. National Petroleum Association
n-paraffin normal paraffin
NPAY new pay
NPC National Petroleum Council
NPD new pool discovery
NPDES permit a permit required by the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System issued before
anything can be disposed in surface waters.
NPE new pool exempt
n-pentane normal pentane
NPI net profits interest
NPL neutral pressure level
N pP cumulative oil produced during primary
production

346

NPE nuclear-precession magnetometer

NPR 1) Naval Petroleum Reserve 2) nonprorated

NPS nominal pipe size
N ps cumulative oil produced at start of flood
NPSH net positive suction head
NPT 1) national pipe thread 2) net plunger travel
NPTF national pipe thread female
NPTM national pipe thread male
NPV net present value
NPW new pool wildcat
NPX new production-exempt (discovery allowable)
NR 1) no recovery 2) no report 3) no returns 4) no
reflection events
NRe Reynolds number
NRI net revenue interest
NRM natural remanent magnetism
NRPT 1) no report 2) not reported
NS 1) no show 2) not shot
n.s. no sample
n/s no show
NSC necessary and sufficient condition
NSG no show of gas
NSO no show of oil
NSO&G no show of oil and gas
NSO compounds organic compounds that contain
sulphur, oxygen, and nitrogen. NSO compounds occur
in organic matter and crude oils. Porphyrins derived
from chlorophyll occur as NSO compounds in organic
matter. Asphaltenes are also NSO compounds. NSO
compounds are separated from crude oil by polar
solvents such as methanol. (beterocompounds, hetero
compounds, or polar fraction)
nstd not standard
NSWA National Stripper Well Association
NT 1) new tons 2) thermal neutron log
nT nanotesla
NTD new total depth
NTL notice to lessee
ntp normal temperature and pressure
NTS not to scale
N/tst no test
NU 1) nippling up 2) nippled 3) nonupset
v 1) kinematic viscosity 2) Poisson ratio
NUBOPS nippling up blowout preventers
nuclear carbon/oxygen log see Carbon/Oxygen
Log
nuclear-cement log a type of wireline well log that
is used to locate cement and holidays behind casing.
The nuclear-cement log is similar to a density log in
that it contains a gamma ray source and measures
the backscattered gamma rays. The source and
detector, however, are arranged to be sensitive to
the density of material in the annulus and can
distinguish between fluid and cement behind the
casing. NCMLT or NCL

nuclear fracturing the use of a nuclear device in

a well to form a cavity several hundred feet in diameter
with numerous radiating fractures
nuclear interface log a radioactive type of wireline
well log that measures the density of subsurface
formations. A radioactive source is used to bombard
the rocks surrounding the wellbore with gamma rays.
By counting the backscattered gamma rays, the density
of the subsurface rock can be computed. From the
density of the rock, the porosity of the rock can be
calculated. The compensated nuclear interface log has
a secondary detector on the sonde that responds more
to the mudcake and borehole irregularities. The
secondary detector is used to correct or compensate
the main detector for these undesirable effects. In
addition to porosity, the log is also used with other
logs as an aid to identifying the composition of the
subsurface rocks, (gamma-gamma, formation-density,
or density log)
nuclear log a well log that uses downhole nuclear
reactions. Neutron, gamma-gamma, and carbon/
oxygen logs are examples of nuclear logs.
nuclear-magnetism or nuclear-magnetic
resonance log a type of wireline well log that is
used to measure free fluids (fluids not bound to
surfaces) in formations adjacent to the wellbore by
measuring the gyromagnetic properties of hydrogen
nuclei in the formations. A magnetic field causes an
alignment of the magnetic movement of hydrogen
nuclei in the formation?When the magnetic field is
removed, the protons return to their original
orientation giving off a radio-frequency signal which
is recorded. The amplitude of the radio-frequency
signal is recorded as the free-fluid index (FFI) which
is an indication of the amount of water or
hydrocarbons that are not bound to any surface in
the formation. Gas will give a low reading due to its
low hydrogen density. The rate of alignment, called
thermal relaxation time, can be recorded to
differentiate between water and oil. (free-fluid log)
NML.NM, or MAGI

nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy an

analytical technique that measures the resonance of
an atomic nucleus with a nonspherical electrical
charge distribution. Nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy is used to identify complex molecules.
nuclear-precession magnetometer a type of
magnetometer, a geophysical instrument used in
petroleum exploration. The nuclear-precession
magnetometer measures the total magnetic field of
the earth and is sensitive to the magnetic content of
subsurface rocks. The magnetometer uses a coil to
induce a magnetic field that reorients spinning protons
in water or kerosene. When the induced field is
eliminated, the protons precess about the earth's
magnetic field at a frequency proportional to the
earth's magnetic field and a voltage is induced in a
measuring coil, (proton-resonance magnetometer)
nucleus the dense center of an atom. The nucleus
contains the protons and neutrons except the
hydrogen atom nucleus that contains only one proton.
nudge to steer a well being drilled away from other
wells

nucleus Nyqist frequency 347

nuisance a condition that endangers life or health,
is offensive to the senses, violates the laws of decency,
and/or obstructs the rightful use of property
num numerous
number connection the pitch diameter of a pin
thread at gauge point. Number connection is used
to differentiate different sizes and styles of threaded
connections. Number connection is expressed as NC
followed by the first two digits of the pitch diameter.
NC
nut a safety shutoff valve
nutating meter a type of flowmeter which uses an
oscillating disk or piston to measure the rate of fluid
flow

N value of gas The specific heat of the gas at constant

pressure by the specific heat at constant volume
NVP or n.v.p. no visible porosity
NW 1) northwest 2) no water
NW/C northwest corner
NW/4 northwest quarter
NWL northwest line
NYA not yet available
Nyquist frequency one-half the sampling frequency
which is the inverse of the sampling interval. The
sampling interval in the conversion of analog to digital
signals in seismic exploration is the time between
measurements of the incoming signal. The Nyquist
frequency is reported in hertz.

348

O or o oersted

O or o 1) oil 2) out of gauge

OA overall
OAH overall height
OAL overall length
O&G oil and gas
O&GCM oil- and gas-cut mud
O&GC SULF oil- and gas-cut sulfur water
O&GCSW oil- and gas-cut salt water
O*GCW oil- and gas-cut water
O&GL oil and gas lease
O&S over and short
OASW oil and salt water
O&SWCM oil- and saltwater-cut mud
O&W oil and water
OAPEC Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting
Countries
OAW old abandoned well
OB 1) off bottom 2) overburden
o.b. oil-base mud
obj object
objective depth the depth to which a well is
contracted to be drilled
objective horizon the formation to which a well
is contracted to be drilled. Obj horizon
Obj horizon objective horizon
obligation well a well that is required to be drilled
to fulfill an agreement such as a farmout
oblique-slip fault a fault in which movement has
been both vertical and horizontal
OBM or OBMUD oil-base mud
OBOC operated by other company
OBQ on-board quantity
obscuration a reduction in instrument sensitivity
observation well a well that is used to monitor
reservoir conditions such as pressure or fluid-contact
elevations and/or to sample reservoir fluids. OBSW
observer 1) the skilled technician on a seismic crew
who heads the cable crew and operates the electronic
equipment. The observer occupies the recording truck
and has several junior observers working under him.
(operator) 2) the person who reads the gravity meter
data on a gravity-survey crew
obsol obsolete

OBSW observation well

OBW&RS optimum bit weight and rotary speed
OC 1) oil cut 2) on center 3) off center 4) operations
commenced
O.C. operations commence
O/C oil change
OCB oil circuit breaker
OCC oil cut cushion
occ 1) occasional 2) occasionally
ocean or ocean water salt water
och ochre
Ochoan a North American epoch of geological time
that occurred about 255-250 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Permian period.
OCM oil-cut mud
OCS outer continental shelf
OCSLA Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
OCS orders rules and regulations issued by the
Minerals Management Service for exploration and
drilling on the federal outer continental shelf sea
bottom in the United States
OCSW oil-cut salt water
octane a liquid hydrocarbon of the paraffin series
(C8Hi8). Octane has a specific gravity of 0.71, a boiling
point at 14.7 psia of 258F, a vapor pressure at 100
F of 0.5 psia, a critical temperature of 564 F, and a
critical pressure of 361 psia. C8
OCW 1) oil-cut water 2) off-center wear
OD outside diameter
od odor
o.d. outside diameter
odorant a chemical or blend of chemicals that is
mixed with gas to give the gas an odor. An odorant
allows the gas to be detected during a leak
odorization the blending of an odorant to natural
gas so that it can be detected during a leak. Methane
and sweetened natural gas are odorless, and about
0.5 lbs of malodorant per MMscf are blended with
the gas. The odorants are blends of two or more
sulfur-containing hydrocarbons, such as mercaptans,
alkysulfides, or cyclic sulfides.
ODT oil down to
OE 1) oil emulsion 2) open end 3) organic extract
OEB other end beveled
OEG oil equivalent gas
OEL oil exploration licence
OEM or OE-M oil emulsion mud
oersted a unit of magnetic field strength in the
cgs-emu system. An oersted is equal to a magnetic
field that would exert a force of 1 dyne on a unit
magnetic pole.

OES-M offshore rig

OES-M oil emulsion salt mud
OETB Offshore Energy Technology Board
OF open flow
off official
offlap the pinching out of sedimentary rocks against
the ancient shoreline or margin of a depositional basin
with a pattern of older, lower beds extending
progressively further inland. Offlap is in contrast to
onlap.
off-lease fermout a type of farmout agreement in
which the farmee consents to drill an earning well
to earn acreage that is not on the earning well drillingand-spacing unit. An off-lease farmout is considered
a property for services transaction and can have
adverse tax consequences.
off-lease gas gas that is sold or used off the lease
where it was produced
off production a well that is temporarily not
producing
OFFS offset
offset 1) a well drilled in the next adjacent drilling
and spacing unit to an existing well. Each well has
four close-in direct-offsets and four diagonal-offset
locations. OFFS 2) the distance in seismic exploration
from the shotpoint to the center of either the nearest
geophone group, any geophone group, or a specific
geophone. Offset can be measured as both
perpendicular and inline offset. 3) the distance in
marine seismic exploration between the recording
boat with the location equipment and the center of
the subsurface coverage 4) the amount of movement
of a seismic reflector on a seismic record from its
originally plotted position to its position after
migration processing 5) the angle between the center
line of a pin and the geometric center of a rollercone bit. Offset causes the cone to create an additional
shearing force or skew across the formation being
drilled. A bit with no offset just rolls. The dragging
effect of the cone increases with the offset. More
dragging means faster drilling and faster teeth wear.
6) a planned or unplanned deviation of a well 7) a
fitting with an S-shape 8) the rotational difference
between a counterweight on a crank arm and the
sucker-rod stroke. The offset is comonly 7V4- 15.
The counterbalance torque lags the well load torque
on the upstroke and leads on the downstroke on a
sucker-rod pump.
offset clause an expressed provision in an oil and
gas lease that requires the drilling of an offset well
by a lessee. A situation requiring an offset well is
the drilling, completion, and production from a well
on an adjacent lease or drainage from the lease by
other wells.
offset drainage the distance from a lease boundary
that an offset well must be drilled on the lease when
a well is drilled on an adjacent lease
offset link A combination roller link and pin link
used for a roller chain with an odd number of pitches
offset royalty a royalty payment that can be made
in lieu of drilling an offset well
offset split dip a type of geophone spread
arrangement used in seismic exploration in which
the geophones are arranged in a line, and the shotpoint

349

is offset perpendicular to the center of the geophone

line
offset sub a small length of bent drillpipe that is
used to kick off a deviated well. The offset sub is
run between the mud or turbine motor and the lowest
drill collar. One of the connecting threads on the
sub is machined with an angle to the axis of the sub,
giving the sub a Vz-2xh bend. A Vz" offset sub will
give an angle change of 2 to 37100 ft and a 2 offset
sub will give 6 to 87100 ft. The offset sub can have
a muleshoe orientating sleeve and key to determine
the actual orientation of the bottomhole assembly in
the well. A survey instrument is run inside the
bottomhole assembly, and a camera photographs the
orientation of the bent-hole sleeve. An offset sub can
also be used with a fishing tool as part of a fishing
string to give the correct approach angle to the fish.
(angle, bent, or crooked sub)
offset well 1) a well drilled on the adjacent spacing
unit from a producing well in an attempt to produce
petroleum from the same reservoir 2) a well drilled
on a lease to compensate for the drainage caused
by a well(s) on an adjacent lease
offset-well covenant an expressed or implied duty
in an oil and gas lease that the lessee will drill an
offset well on the lease to protect the lease from
drainage by any well drilled on an adjacent lease.
(protection covenant)
offsh offshore
offshore bar a low, long ridge of sand parallel to
the shoreline. An offshore bar is formed by breaking
waves and is submerged during high tide. The bar
is usually separated from the beach by a trough.
(longshore bar)
Offshore Installation Manager a person who is
legally responsible to the British energy minister for
safety on a specific offshore drilling platform. The
offshore installation manager is required by British
law and is appointed by the operator of the offshore
installation. On a large, fixed platform, one person
has the sole duty of offshore installation manager,
whereas the toolpusher or bargemaster is often the
Offshore Installation Manager on a jackup rig,
semisubmersible, or drillship. OIM
offshore platform a flat working surface that is
supported above the ocean surface and used for
offshore drilling and/or production. Some types of
offshore platforms include a) piled-steel or steel-jacket,
b) gravity structure, c) articulated, and d) tension-leg
platforms along with e)artificial islands, f) jackup rigs,
g) semisubmersibles, and h) drillships. A subsea
production platform is located below the ocean
surface. The functions of an offshore platform are
a) to provide a drilling base, b) to process produced
oil and gas and to move it ashore, c) to clean produced
water and dispose of it, and d) to prepare water and/
or gas for injection back into the reservoir for pressure
maintenance. An offshore platform can have a crew
of 40-100 tour and nontour employees, (platform)
offshore rig a drilling rig and its supporting structure
that is used to drill a well in the sea bottom. In order
of increasing water-depth capability, the mobile
types of offshore rigs are a) barge, b) jackup rig,
c) semisubmersible, and d) drillship. Development
wells can be drilled from a) fixed platforms, b) guyed

350

off structure

oilfield

towers, and c) tension-leg platforms, and

d) articulated platforms.
off structure a location or well that is not on the
crest (highest elevation) of a trap such as a dome or
anticline, (down structure)
OFL overflushed
OFLU oil fluorescence
OFOE orifice flange one end
OFP open-flow potential
OGCM oil and gas-cut mud
OGCW oil and gas-cut water
OH 1) open hole 2) overhead
O/H oil in hole
OH&P open hole and perforations
ohm a derived unit in System International (SI) for
electrical resistance. An ohm is calculated by VIA. A
one ohm resistance causes a potential drop of one
volt per ampere of current. In well logging, the
resistance unit used is a) ohmmeters (ohm-m) or
b) ohm-meters2 per meter (ohm-m2/m). fl
ohm-cm ohm-centimeter
ohmic a substance that has electrical resistance
ohm-m ohm-meter
ohm-meter or ohm-metet^/meter a unit of
resistivity often used on electric and induction logs.
An ohm-meter is the resistivity of a cube, 1 m on a
side, that has a resistance of 1 ohm between opposite
sides. Dm or ohm-m
Ohm's law R= Ell where R is resistance, E is voltage,
and / is current
OHT conventional openhole drillstem test
OI oxygen index
OIH or O.IJH. oil in hole
oil see crude oil or petroleum. O
oil and gas in a joint operating agreement, oil and
gas is defined as a) oil, gas, casinghead gas, gas
condensate, or gaseous hydrocarbons, and other
marketable substances produced from a well or
b) oil, gas, casinghead gas, gas condensate, and all
other liquid or gaseous hydrocarbons. O&G
oil and gas column the vertical height of a reservoir
rock having oil and gas saturation in the pores
oil and gas in place the total amount of oil and
gas in a subsurface reservoir. Oil and gas in place
will be more than the reserves, as all the oil and gas
in place cannot be produced.
oil axis an imaginary line connecting the two large
oil-producing areas, the Middle East and the Gulf of
Mexico, on opposite sides of the earth, (oil poles)
oil-base drilling mud drilling mud that uses
degasified lease crude, diesel oil, or mineral oil as
the continuous phase liquid. Water is the dispersed
phase, usually from l%-5%, that has been emulsified
with caustic soda or quick lime and an organic acid.
The mud can also contain silicate, salt, and phosphate.
Oil-base drilling mud weighs about 7.5 lbs/gal without
weighting material. The mud is used to prevent water
contamination of the producing formation, for coring,
and for drilling through zones that cause hole
enlargement or sloughing shale, and to prevent

differential pipe sticking. Oil-base drilling mud is also

used in deep holes with high temperatures or in hot
climates and is not contaminated by hydrogen sulfide,
salt, or anhydrite. Oil-base drilling muds are
susceptible to water and air contamination and can
be a fire hazard. An oil-base mud contains less than
5% water, whereas an invert emulsion mud is made
of a water-in-oil emulsion containing up to 50% water.
Oil-base drilling muds have a higher build cost than
water-base drilling muds because of the expense of
the oil, the emulsion stability, and the weighting
materials that are required. Oil-base drilling muds
are known by the supplier's trade name, (oil mud)
OBMUD, OBM, or o.b.
oil birth zone the oil window where temperatures
(about 15O-3OOF) naturally generate crude oil from
organic matter in sedimentary rocks, see oil window
oil bonus royalty in oil that is paid by a lessee usually
to the lessor, (royalty bonus)
oil breakthrough the time when the oil/water bank
from an injection well arrives at a producing well
during enhanced oil recovery
oil column the vertical height of a reservoir rock
having oil saturation in the pores
oil compressibility see coefficient of isothermal
compressibility of oil
oil content the volume percent of oil in drilling
mud
Oil Creek Humbug a dry hole
oil cut crude oil occurring in a fluid, oc
oil-cut mud drilling mud that contains some crude
oil from the subsurface. OCM
oil death zone the area below the oil window where
high temperatures crack crude oil into thermogenic
gas and graphite. The oil death zone occurs at
temperatures greater than approximately 325 F.
oil drum a volume of oil that contains 210 1, 46
U.K. gal and 55.5 U.S. gal
oil emulsion an oil-in-water emulsion with oil as
the discontinuous phase
oil-emulsion drilling mud drilling mud that is
made from water, either fresh or saline, with small
droplets of diesel oil dispersed in the water. The oil
is usually 3%-7% and sometimes up to 10% along
with CMC, starch, or gum additives. Oil-emulsion
drilling mud is used under certain conditions to
reduce mud-filtration losses, to enhance well
completions, and to improve drilling mechanics, (milk
emulsion) OEM or OE-M
oil equivalent the volume of a substance that can
be burned to give the same amount of heat as a barrel
of oil. Six thousand forty cubic feet of average natural
gas is the equivalent of an average barrel of oil. One
average ton of crude oil equals 1.5 average tons of
coal or 1.130 tons of LPG.
oiler an oil well
oil exploration license the first stage in a
concession license granted by a federal government.
The oil exploration license is nonexclusive and has
a term of one year. The license holder can explore
but not drill. OEL
oil field the surface area that is underlain by one

oilfield brine or water oil string

or more petroleum reservoirs in a common trap such
as an anticline
oilfield brine or water subsurface water associated
with gas and oil reservoirs. Oilfield waters are
classified according to their respective positions in
the oil reservoir (bottom, edge, intermediate, or top
waters), their origin (meteoric, connate, or mixed),
or their occurrence (free or interstitial). The waters
are often described by their dissolved salts in both
concentration, usually in parts per million, and
chemical composition. The composition is described
by the dominant mineral ions. Type a has sulfatesodium, Type b has bicarbonate-sodium, type c has
chloride-magnesium, and Type d has chloride-calcium
waters. Type d is most common. The composition
of the water can be shown by using Tickell, Parker,
or Stiff methods and diagrams. Produced water is the
oilfield brine or water that is produced from a well
along with oil and gas.
oilfield equipment the machinery that is used to
drill and complete wells and produce oil
oil finder a person, usually a geologist, who has
had success in locating oil
oil formation volume factor the volume of oil in
the reservoir that is necessary to produce one stock
tank barrel of oil under standard conditions. The oil
formation volume factor is expressed in reservoir
barrels per stock tank barrel (res bbl/STB) or reservoir
cubic meters per stock tank cubic meter (res m3/stocktank m3). The factor is determined in a laboratory.
Bo
oil holdup the volume fraction of oil in a well at a
given instant of time. yoa
oil horizon 1) the height of oil in a well 2) an oilbearing formation
oil in place the amount of crude oil in the pores
of a subsurface reservoir. Only a percentage of this
oil can be produced, and its volume will shrink as
natural gas bubbles out of the oil at the surface as it
is produced. OIP
oil-in-water emulsion a suspension of oil droplets,
the dispersed phase, in water, the continuous phase.
A water-in-oil emulsion is a more commonly produced
fluid than an oil-in-water emulsion, (reverse emulsion)
OIWEorO/W
oil-in-water emulsion mud see emulsion mud
oil jar a fishing tool that is designed to strike a sharp
blow to a fishing tool or fish. The oil jar consists of
a mandrel with a piston that moves through oil in
the hydraulic cylinder.
oil leg the part of the reservoir that contains oil.
The oil leg is located down dip from the gas leg.
oil mining license the last stage in a concession
license granted by a federal government. The license
is granted after a company is satisfied that oil occurs
in commercial quantities. It covers a period of tens
of years and can be renewed. The license gives the
holder the right to exploit the deposit. OML
oil mud see oil-base drilling mud
oil originally in place the amount of crude oil in
a reservoir before production, (original oil in place)
OOIP

oil outlet a drain located near the base of a stock

351

tank that is used to remove crude oil. (sales outlet

or oil outlet)
oil pad oil floating on water in a vessel
oil patch a city or area that is a center of significant
petroleum activity such as exploration, drilling, and/
or production
oil payment a payment in oil, usually to the lessor,
from the oil production on a lease. Oil payments are
free of production costs and terminate after a specific
amount has been paid.
oil pits age-old term for hand-dug wells for
petroleum, (hand dugs)
oil poles see oil axis
oil pool an underground oil reservoir that has a
single pressure system. An oil pool does not
communicate with other pools. Oil reservoir is a more
correct term.
oil prospecting license an intermediate stage in a
concession license granted by a federal government.
The license .holder has the right to explore and drill
in an exclusive area for several years. OPL
oil royalty a percentage or fraction of the oil
production revenue that is paid by the operator to
the lessor of the lease from which the oil was
produced. Oil royalty is free of production costs.
oil run the amount of oil produced during a certain
period of time
oil sales line a line that carries treated crude oil
from a lease or offshore platform to a pipeline
oil sales outlet the drain located near the base of
a stock tank that is used to remove crude oil. (sales
outlet or oil outlet)
oil sand sandstone containing crude oil. O-SD, OS.,
or O sd
oil saver 1) a device on a well through which the
sand line or wireline is run into the well. The oil
saver is used to strip fluids from the sand line or
wireline as it is raised from the well and to prevent
fluids from escaping from the well. An oil saver has
two stripper or wiper rubbers that are squeezed by
a hydraulic cylinder and are separated by a spacer
that wipes the fluid off the wire. 2) a device that was
attached to the top of a flowing oil well to allow the
well to be deepened with cable tools while still flowing
oil shale fine-grained sedimentary rock that contains
kerogen (organic matter) which, when heated to 660F,
will produce crude oil called shale oil. Oil shale is
an immature source rock and is commonly brownishblack or yellowish-brown in color, well laminated,
and resinous. Oil shales have 10%-50% algal organic
matter (either sapropelic, humic, or both), spores,
and pollen.
oil-soluble acid an organic solvent with an organic
acid used in acidizing a well in which an aqueous
acid solution could cause formation damage. OSA
oil staining a change in the color of a rock or sample
such as well cuttings due to the presence of crude
oil. Oil stains are described by their color and the
percent of staining on the sample. OSTN
oil string the deepest and last length (string) of
casing that is run down to or through the producing
. zone. The casing adjacent to the producing zone can

352

oil thief Olig

be perforated to complete the well. Oil string has

the smallest diameter, ranging from 23/s to 9% in.
and typically is 5V4 or 7% in., and is the longest
string of casing in the well. Oil string protects the
hole, isolates formation fluid, prevents fluid migration,
and protects the downhole equipment, (capital, flow,
long, pay, or production string or production casing
or inner conductor)
oil thief a brass, aluminum, or glass cylinder that
is lowered on a line into an oil storage tank to take
a sample of oil or the sediment on the bottom. A
spring-activated device can be used to close the thief
when the line is jerked. The oil thief houses the
thermal-hydrometer that measures the quality, gravity,
and temperature of the oil. (thief)
oil tunnel a long subhorizontal excavation that is
used to mine near-surface crude oil

The water wettability index is equal to

oil wettability index is equal to

The

A T D

CHUDE O i l

'mtu

oil window

oil-water contact

oil/water contact, horizon, or table the boundary

between the oil and water in the reservoir. The contact
can be either sharp or gradational over several feet
and is usually, but not always, level. OWC
oil/water ratio the volume of oil divided by the
volume of water produced from a well
oil well a well that produces crude oil having a
producing gas/oil ratio less than 15,000. The exact
number varies slightly by state law.
oil-wet rock a rock in which oil is the wetting fluid.
A porous rock containing oil and water is considered
to be oil wet if the contact angle of water is greater
than 110. The rock is neutral if the contact angle is
between 70-l 10 and is water wet if the water contact
angle is less than 70. Carbonates tend to be neutral
or oil wet because the rock adsorbs surfactants from
the oil. Sandstones, in contrast, tend to be water wet.
oil wettability index a core test based on the
observation that a strongly wetting fluid will
spontaneously imbibe until the residual saturation of
the nonwetting fluid is obtained. The core is flushed
with water to remove gas and residual oil in
preparation for the test. The core is then placed in
an imbibition tube under oil. The water displaced
by oil is measured (A). The core is then flushed with
oil and the displaced water is measured (B). The
sample is then placed in the imbibition tube under
water. The oil displaced by spontaneous water
imbibition is measured (C). The core is then flushed
with water and the oil displaced is measured (>)

oil window the depth range in the earth where the

temperature is sufficient to naturally generate oil
(about 15O-3OOF) but is not too hot to change the
oil into thermogenic gas. In sedimentary basins, it is
from about 7,000-18,000 ft deep. The temperatures
that define the oil window are affected by the age of
the source rocks with older source rocks having lower
temperatures and the time that the organic matter is
exposed to various temperatures, (liquid window)
oil zone the area in a reservoir between the gas/
oil and the oil/water contacts
OIM offshore installation manager
OIP oil in place
OIPA Oklahoma Independent Petroleum Association
OISC oil-immersed, self-cooled
OIWE oil-in-water emulsion
Ol oligoclase
OLAP overlap of tops
old gas a Natural Gas Policy Act regulatory category
for gas that was begun to be delivered in 1977 or
earlier
Old Maud a cable-tool drilling engine
old oil 1)' under the Emergency Petroleum Allocation
Aa of 1973 in the United States, old oil is oil produced
from leaseholds that were producing in 1972 and
includes oil production up to the 1972 level of oil
production. 2) crude oil for which storage has been
paid but not up to the time of transaction. Old oil is
in contrast to fresh oil.
old well drilled deeper an existing well that was
reentered and drilled deeper. OVCDD or O.W.DD.
olefln a hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon double
bonds and the formula CnH2n. The structure of the
molecule can be normal, branched, and cyclic. Only
minor amounts occur in sediments and petroleum.
An example is propylene C3H6. (alkene)
oleophilic oil loving in contrast to oleophobic
oleophobic oil hating in contrast to oleophilic
Olig oligocene

Oligocene oolite shoal

Oligocene an epoch of geological time 38-25
m. y. ago. It occurred near the middle of the Cenozoic
era. Olig
oligomictic a clastic sedimentary rock that is
composed of a single rock type. An oligomictic rock
is well sorted and the grains are well rounded. An
orthoquartzite is oligomictic. It is deposited in a stable
depositional environment in contrast to a polymictic
rock.
oligopoly a market with only a couple of sellers
in contrast to a monopoly
olivine an olive-green, grayish-green or brown
mineral composed of (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 that is common
in igneous rocks such as basalt and gabbro. olvn
ol' roundy a rotary driller
olv olive
olvn olivine
OM organic matter
OMDP Ocean Margin Drilling Project
11 1) angular frequency 2) ohm
w angular frequency
fl m ohm-meter
OML oil mining license
On-&-Off Tool a downhole tool that is used to
connect and disconnect a pump and sucker rods
on-board quantity the amount of materials
remaining on a ship. OBQ
on bottom and turning to the right to rotary drill
a well
One or one oncolite
oncolite a calcareous mass that resembles an oolith
but was formed by blue-green algae. Oncolites are
pebble to cobble-sized and are laminated. One or
one
1 primary
one-eyed bit a bit used in jet deflection and well
deviation with only one of its jet nozzles open
1 FT first flow period time
1 GAS single completion gas well
one-lung engine a one-cylinder engine
1 OIL single completion oil well
1 O 1 G dual oil and gas well
one-point test a test on a gas well in which the
well is opened from shut in to a certain flow rate
over a period of one to three days. If a multipoint
test has been run previously, the one-point test can
be used later to determine the open-flow potential
of the well after shut-in pressure has decreased with
time and production. Deliverability tests are one-point
tests under specified conditions.
1 STH first sidetracked hole
one-way travel time one-half the corrected travel
time for a subsurface reflection on a seismic record.
Seismic records two-way travel time as the seismic
energy goes down, is reflected off a subsurface
reflector and returns to the surface.
one-way valve a type of valve that allows fluid flow
in only one direction. One-way valves are usually

353

opened by pressure on a spring behind the gate.

(check, nonreturn, or swing valve)
onhire survey an independent survey made of a
drilling rig to evaluate consumables present and the
condition of the rig at the time it is contracted
onlap the pinching out of sedimentary rocks against
an ancient shoreline or margin of a depositional basin
with a pattern of younger upper beds extending
progressively further toward land. Onlap is in contrast
to offlap.
on-lease gas gas that is produced and consumed
on the same leasehold
on line 1) equipment that is operating 2) a line of
observation points such as seismic geophones
online plant a gas processing plant that takes gas
from a trunk pipeline and strips, scrubs, and/or drys
the gas and returns it to the pipeline
onset the beginning of a wave train in seismic
recording
on station the location of a vessel such as a drillship
at a point in the ocean where the operation such as
drilling is planned to occur
on stream equipment or operation that has been
started (coming on stream) and is functioning
on structure a location or well that is on the crest
of a trap such as a dome or anticline
on-structure wildcat an exploratory well drilled on
a potential structure or trap as defined by seismic
but without any previous knowledge of potential
producing zones on that structure
on suction a tank that is being pumped
on the beam a well producing with a beam pumping
unit
on the brake the person in control of machinery
who can operate the brake
on the come a person who is working for an interest
in the production or deal rather than on a salary
on the grass out of work
on die line 1) a pumping unit that is operating and
producing into a pipeline 2) an oil tank in which
the oil is flowing into a pipeline
on the pump a well producing with a pump
OO oil odor
00 or oo Ooid
ooc Oolicast
oocast see oolicast
OODR oil odor
ooid a general term for any spherite that resembles
an oolite or oolith. Oo or oo
OOIP original oil in place
001 or ool 1) oolite 2) oolitic
oolicast pore in an oolitic sedimentary rock formed
by the solution of an oolite. The pore has subsequently
been filled in. (oocast) ooc
oolite shoal a long, low ridge of ooliths that was
formed by strong currents in shallow water. Tidal
currents form oolite shoals parallel to the tidal currents
on limestone platforms. The shoals are composed of

354

oolith or oolite open-hole or openhole log

well-sorted ooliths (grainstones) and have excellent

original porosity. The intershoal areas are not as well
sorted (packstones and wackestones).
oolith or oolite a sand- and silt-sized sphere,
commonly between 0.5-1 mm in diameter, composed
of CaCO3, and precipitated out of sea water. Ooliths
have an internal structure of concentric spheres
around a nucleus. Ooliths form in shallow, waveagitated, tropical waters. The definition of the term
oolite is preferred to be restricted to describe a rock
composed of ooliths. Ooliths and oolites are also
spelled oliths and olites. The word is derived from
the Greek word oon for egg. Ool or ool
oolitic a sedimentary rock texture characterized by
spheroidal or smooth grains with a concentric internal
structure
oolitic limestone limestone composed of oolites.
Oolitic limestone has excellent original porosity and
can be a good reservoir rock
Oom or oom oomoldic
oomicrite a limestone that contains more than 25%
ooliths, less than 25% intraclasts, and more limestone
mud (micrite) matrix than sparry calcite
Oomol or oomol oomold
oomold a pore formed by the solution of an oolith.
Oomol or oomol
oomoldic pores formed by the solution of ooliths.
Oom or oom
oosparite a limestone that contains more than 25%
ooliths, less than 25% intraclasts and more sparry
calcite than limestone-mud (micrite) matrix
ooze a pelagic (oceanic) deposit of fine-grained
sediment containing at least 30% calcareous or
siliceous skeletal grains of pelagic organisms. The rest
of the ooze is composed of clay minerals. The ooze
is named after the composition of the skeletal grains
(calcareous or siliceous ooze) or after the dominant
organism that formed the skeletal grains
(foraminiferal, diatom, globigerina, radiolarian, or
pteropod ooze).
OP 1) oil pay 2) overproduced
op 1) opaque 2) open
opal an amorphous mineraloid formed of hydrous
silica. Opal has an extremely variable color, is often
iridescent, and has a waxy luster and conchoidal
fracture. It is deposited from ground water and is
found in nodules in limestones and in veins. Opal is
the composition of diatom and sponge skeletons.
opalescence cloudiness in crude oil. Opalescence
is caused by wax.
OPBD old plugback depth
OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries
open-access pipeline a pipeline through which gas
is transported on a first come, first served basis for
any qualified party at rates fixed by the Federal
Regulatory Commission
open acreage land with mineral rights that are not
currently being held by a lease or production
Open bonus bid a method of leasing the outer
continental shelf in the United States. Sealed bids are

obtained, and the bidder with the highest bonus (frontend money) wins the lease. There is a fixed royalty.
Open bonus bid is in contrast to an open royalty
bid in which the bonuses are fixed and the highest
royally wins the lease.
open end the end of a tubular that has no collar
open-end lease a type of lease in which the royalty
is determined by the wellhead price for the gas
produced
open flow production without any restrictions such
as a choke. Open flow is different from absolute open
flow which is calculated and assumes 0 psia pressure
at the sand face and no friction or weight of the fluid
column. OF
open-flow capacity the maximum oil and/or gas
production from a well by natural reservoir energy
without any restrictions such as a choke
open-flow potential the flow rate of a gas well if
the bottomhole pressure in the well opposite the
producing formation were zero. Open-flow potential
is usually measured with a multipoint test. OFP
open-flow pressure the pressure at the face of the
producing formation in the wellbore during
unrestricted flow
open-flow test a gas-well test to determine the
maximum amount of gas that the well can produce
over a period of time with all valves open
open formation a subsurface rock layer with good
porosity and permeability. An open formation is a
potential petroleum reservoir.
open gas lift see open-installation gas lift
open hole 1) an uncased well, (uncased well) OH
2) the section of a well below the casing

casing

open hole completion

open-hole completion a type of well completion

in which the well is drilled to the top of the producing
formation and casing is cemented. The producing
formation is then drilled. An open hole completion
is used primarily with hard producing formations such
as sandstones, limestones, and dolomites. In relatively
unconsolidated producing sands, there is a sandcontrol problem and an openhole gravel pack is used.
(barefoot completion)
open-hole or openhole log a wireline well log
run in a well that has not been cased. Openhole
logging makes electrical, nuclear, and acoustical
measurements of formations and can also include rock
and fluid sampling and pressure measurements. Most
wireline well logs are openhole logs in contrast to
cased-hole logs.

opening ratio optimum separator pressure

opening ratio the pressure necessary to open a
blowout preventer divided by the pressure in the well
below the preventers
open-installation gas lift a type of gas-lift
installation in which the flow vales are installed without
packers or standing valves. The tubing string is
suspended in the well without a packer. The gas is
injected down the casing-tubing annulus, and the
produced fluids flow up the tubing string. A fluid
seal prevents the gas from blowing around the bottom
of the tubing. An open installation is in contrast to a
semiclosed or closed installation, (open gas lift)
open-pit treating a method used to separate
produced emulsions before the use of treaters was
accepted. The emulsion was broken in a plastic-lined,
earthen, or concrete pit that was very large but shallow.
The emulsion was heated by the sun and remained
in the pit for a long time.
open sands a sandstone with good porosity
OPER operation
OPER or oper operator
Oper operations
operating agreement a contract between working
interest owners of a gas or oil well that established
the conditions for drilling, developing, operating, and
accounting for that well
operating clause a provision commonly found in
oil and gas leases that provides for the continuation
of the lease as long as gas and oil development is
occurring on the lease. Variations of the clause include
well completion and continuous operating clauses.
operating company the company that is
responsible for maintaining the wells and producing
the petroleum
operating expenses the direct operating costs plus
district overhead plus employee benefits for a specific
producing property
operating interest 1) money left from gas and oil
production after operating and developing costs and
all nonworking interests such as royalty, overriding
royalty, and production payment interests have been
subtracted. Some types of operating interests include
carried, reversionary, individual, disproportionate,
and checkerboard, (working interest) 2) the exclusive
rights granted in an oil and gas lease to explore for,
develop, and produce oil and gas from land. Operating
interest also includes the full costs of those operations.
operating pressure 1) the pressure at which a
vessel, line, or system is normally operated 2) the
gas injection pressure available in a gas lift well to
maintain production under either settled, continuous,
or intermittent operation 3) wellhead flowing pressure
operating rate the average time value of money used
by a company for discounting. io
operating right an interest that is created out of a
lease. The operating right holder can enter the
leasehold to conduct exploration and drilling
operations and can produce oil and gas from the land
in accordance to the lease.
operations department the part of an oil company
that is responsible for the operational details of drilling
and completing wells. The operations department is
headed by a drilling superintendent or manager who

355

is a petroleum engineer. The department also includes

an assistant drilling superintendent or manager and
several drilling engineers or supervisors. There can
also be a materials supervisor along with the support
personnel. The operations department keeps in
constant communication with rig operations, (drilling
department)
operations manual the printed instruction on the
workings of an offshore installation
operator a party that holds all or a part of the working
interest on a lease and has been designated as manager
for exploration, drilling, and/or production on that
lease. The operator is the party that is responsible
for a) initiating and supervising the drilling and
completion of a well(s) and/or b) maintaining the
producing well or wells. In a limited partnership, the
operator is the general partner. OPRT, OPR, OPER,
or oper 3) see observer
operator's agreement a contract made by the
working-interest owners in a pooling or unitization
agreement that defines the rights and obligations of
the unit operator and the other parties
OPF open power fluid
OPI oil payment interest
OPL oil prospecting license
O.P.M. other people's money
opn open
opp opposite
OPR 1) orienting perforating service 2) operator
OPRT operator
OPT official potential test
optically pumped magnetometer a type of
magnetometer; a geophysical instrument used in
petroleum exploration. The optically pumped
magnetometer measures the earth's total magnetic
field and is sensitive to the magnetite content of
subsurface rocks. Two types of optically pumped
magnetometers are the cesium- and rubidium-vapor
magnetometers. Polarized monochromatic light is
passed through a cesium or rubidium vapor chamber
which contains atoms that are precessing about the
earth's magnetic field. The radio frequencies emitted
by the atoms together with the light that is not absorbed
and transmitted through the vapor chamber are used
to measure the magnetic field.
optical television device a tool that is used in wells
to transmit a picture of the borehole. Because it uses
visible light, it works only in wells filled with air or
a very clear liquid. An optical television device can
locate both fractures in the rocks along the wellbore
and gas bubbles entering the well.
optimum filter the filter that best produces a desired
output. Optimum filters are used in seismic
processing. (Weiner or least squares filter)
optimum rate of flow or production the
maximum rate of production from a well that will
avoid excessive reservoir energy loss and a decrease
in the ultimate production from that reservoir, see
maximum efficient rate
optimum separator pressure the separator
pressure that balances the amount of gas evolving
from the oil in the separator and stock tank to yield

356

optimum water organic theory

the maximum amount of stock-tank oil and the

lowest shrinkage of the oil. The optimum separator
pressure results in the minimum total gas/oil ratio
and the maximum stock-tank oil gravity, the
optimum separator pressure for black oils is about
100-120 psig.
optimum water the exact amount of water necessary
for a certain cement slurry
optimum wide-band a type of filtering and stacking
that is used in processing seismic records. The
optimum wide-band eliminates certain events such
as multiples or ghosts and enhances other events such
as primary reflections.
option the right to obtain a right within a certain
time. One type of option is a legal agreement between
a potential lessee and a lessor or mineral rights owner.
The option gives the lessee the right to execute a
lease on the land in a certain period of time, e.g.,
six months, with the payment of a bonus and granting
a royalty to the lessor. The lessee usually gives the
lessor monetary consideration, such as 10% of the
bonus, to enter into the option. A seismic option is
another example.
optionee the company or person who takes an
option such as a seismic option. The optionee is in
contrast to the optionor.
option fee or payment monies paid by an optionee
to a mineral rights owner (optionor) who grants an
option such as a seismic option. The lease form,
royalties, and bonus are specified in the agreement
and the optionee has a specified time within which
to exercise the option to lease.
optionor the landowner that grants an option such
as a seismic option. The optionor is in contrast to
the optionee.
optn to F/O option to farmout
O-Qtz orthoquartzite
OR 1) oil recovery 2) orthoclase
O/R overriding royalty
O.RA. Oil Refiner's Association
or 1) orange 2) residual oil
ORATE oil and/or condensate rate
Orbit orbitoline
or clause a provision in a type of oil and gas lease
called an or lease. The lessee is obligated by the or
clause to drill a well on the leasehold before or on
the first anniversary date of the lease or pay delay
rentals, forfeit the lease, or some other action.
Ord Ordovician
order of accrual an accounting procedure that is
generally used to determine the purchase price of
gas from a well that will be used to compensate an
underproduced party in a gas balancing agreement
by cash balancing. Beginning with the total
overproduction, the parties involved deduct each
month's overproduction on a month-by-month basis
until it is reduced to zero. The value of the
overproduction is calculated by multiplying the gas
price during each month by that month's
overproduction.
ordinary lay a type of wire rope winding in which
the wires in the strands are twisted in one direction

and the strands are twisted in the opposite direction.

An ordinary lay is either right or left handed. A Lang's
lay is the other type of wire-rope winding, (regular
lay)
ordinary oil see blade oil
Ordovician a period of time about 500-425 m. y.
ago. It occurred near the beginning of the Paleozoic
Era. The Ordovician is subdivided into the Upper
Ordovician, Middle Ordovician, and Lower Ordovician
global epochs. It also contains the North American
epochs Ibexian, Whiterockian, Mohawkian, and
Cincinnatian. Ord
OREC oil and/or condensate recovery
O-RES oil resistivity
orf orifice
ORFM orifice meter
org organic
organic formed by plants and/or animals, org
organic acid a mixture of acetic or formic acid and
hydrofluoric acid . Organic acid has a relatively slow
reaction rate and is used in acidization of formationdamaged reservoirs in relatively high-temperature
wells.
organic amine inhibitor a chemical used as a
corrosion retardant
organic geochemistry the branch of geochemistry
that studies organic matter. Organic geochemistry
includes a) the identification of source rocks and the
types of organic matter in the source rocks, b) the
thermal history of the source rocks, c) the prediction
of types of reservoir hydrocarbons, d) the
identification of migration routes, e) correlation of
source rock to oil, f) correlation of oil to oil, and g)
the identification of surface seepages.
organic limestone a limestone formed primarily
by skeletal grains from animals and plants. Organic
limestones include coral limestone, algal limestone,
foraminiferal limestone, chalk (composed of
coccoliths), and coquina (composed of mollusk
shells).
organic matter dead plant and animal material. Type
I organic matter is algae deposited in a lacustrine
environment. It can form oil shale and is relatively
rare. Type II is both terrestrial and aquatic organic
matter deposited in a marginal marine environment.
Algae, pollen, and spores are common. It is the primary
source for crude oil. Type III is woody organic matter
that is gas prone. Type IV is oxidized, recycled, and
altered organic matter. It will not form hydrocarbons.
Humic organic matter is composed of terrestrial plant
material. It can form coal. Sapropellic organic matter
is composed of aquatic plants and zooplankton. It
can form crude oil and natural gas. OM
organic theory the widely accepted theory that
crude oil and natural gas, except for some methane,
forms from the maturation of organic matter preserved
in sedimentary rock. Maturation or thermal alteration
is the change with temperature and time from kerogen,
which is part of organic matter, into petroleum. The
temperature, normally between about 15OC-3OOF for
crude oil and greater than 300F for thermogenic gas,
is obtained by the burial of the sediments in a basin.
The sedimentary rock that generates the petroleum

ORI orphan well

is called the source rock; black shale is a very common
source rock. The petroleum then migrates from the
source rock to a reservoir rock where it is trapped.
ORI overriding royalty interest
orientation the inclination and azimuth of a tool
in a well
orientation trace a line on a dipmeter log showing
the magnetic azimuth of one of the electrodes
oriented core a core sample taken with the side
of the core marked by a blade so that the original
orientation of the core can be determined. A magnetic
surveying instrument in a nonmagnetic drill collar is
run above the core barrel. The orientation of the core
barrel during coring is recorded by photographing
a magnetic compass. Oriented cores can be used to
determine the strike and dip of bedding planes,
fractures, and joints and to determine the maximum
permeability direction.
oriented perforating a method used to perforate
casing or lining in a multiple completion. The
perforating tool detects the direction of the other
tubing string and directs the perforating gun away
from it.
orienting sub a short section of pipe with a key
or slot that aligns with a the scribe line on a bent
sub. A surveying tool is then used to determine the
orientation of the scribe line to determine the toolface
direction.
ORIF orifice
orifice an opening or hole. ORIF or orf
orifice coefficient a number for a specific meter
that is used to calculate fluid-flow volume from meterchart data. The orifice coefficient contains factors for
orifice size and the physical characteristics of the
measured gas at base conditions of standard cubic
feet. The orifice coefficient is used in the orifice gasflow equation. C"
orifice fitting an orifice holder that is installed in
a gas line. Three types are a) senior orifice fitting,
b) junior orifice fitting, and c) simplex orifice fitting.
The orifice plate can be removed from the senior
orifice fitting without interrupting the flow.
orifice-flange tap a pressure-connection hole in the
flange of an orifice holder
orifice gas-flow equation Q = C "Vhw x pf in
which C is the orifice coefficient and V t o xpf is
the pressure extension. The pressure extension is the
square root of the product of the differential pressure
[pressure drop across orifice plate measured in inches
of water column (hw)] times the static pressure [line
pressure in psia (pf)\
orifice meter a head-type meter that is used to
measure the velocity of fluid flow through a line. The
orifice meter uses the pressure differential of the gas
flowing through the orifice to determine flow rate.
The data are recorded on a circular chart and
converted to standard cubic feet (SCF) by a meter
factor. The primary element of an orifice meter
includes the meter run, meter fittings or flange unions,
and the orifice plate. The secondary element is the
recorder. Three types of orifice meters are a) valve
or elbow (the simplest), b) nozzle and plate, and c)
Venturi meter. ORFM

357

orifice plate a metal sheet with a specific hole size

in it that is designed to be inserted into a flowline.
The orifice plate is used to measure the flow volume
and calibrate meters by measuring the differential
pressure drop of the fluid flowing through the orifice.
Two types of orifice plates are paddle plate and
Universal orifice plate. Orifice plates are described
as concentric, eccentric, or segmental depending on
the location of the orifice. Orifice plates are usually
made of 304 or 316 stainless steel or Monel.
orifice plate holder a device that is designed to
hold an orifice plate in a flowline. The orifice plate
holder can be either a pair of orifice flanges for a
paddle plate or orifice fittings for an Universal orifice
plate.
orifice pressure drop the pressure differential
between the upstream and downstream side of an
orifice caused by the increased gas-flow velocity
through the orifice and its associated pressure drop.
Orifice pressure drop is used in an orifice flowmeter
to measure gas velocity and volume.
orifice well tester a nipple with an orifice plate
that is used to measure gas flow by measuring pressure
drop and volume
orig original
original oil in place the volume of oil in a reservoir
before production (oil originally in place) OOIP
original porosity spaces or voids between solid
rock particles or sediments formed when,the rock
was deposited. Original pores include intergranular
and organic pores. Original porosity is in contrast to
secondary porosity, (primary porosity)
original pressure the pressure on the fluids in the
pores of a reservoir before it is disturbed by wells
and production. Original pressure is usually
hydrostatic pressure and will decrease with
production, (virgin pressure)
original survey a cadastral survey that first
establishes the land boundaries
original title opinion an attorney's written
examination of the entire ownership of land that
includes mineral rights, surface rights, royalties,
overriding royalties, and leasehold working interests
O-ring a circular gasket made of solid round rubber
or similar material that is used to make a pressuretight seal in a connection. The thin O-ring fits into a
machined recess on one of the connections and
presses against the surface of the other connection.
or lease an oil and gas lease with a drilling-delay
rental clause that requires the lessee either to
commence drilling operations or pay delay rentals
to the lessor at certain times to extend the lease during
the primary term. If the lessee fails to do either
one, the lessee is liable to pay the delay rental or
lose the lease.
ORNG orange
orogenic large-scale mountain building activity
orogeny the process of mountain building. Orogeny
is the compressional forces that cause folding and
thrusting in rocks.
ORP oxidation-reduction potential
orphan well a well that has been abandoned but
not plugged

358

ORR outer continental shelf

ORR overriding royalty

ORRI overriding royalty interest
orsh orangish
Orth orthoclase
orthochem a mineral that was formed by chemical
precipitation. An orthochem is in contrast to a
transported mineral grain called an allochem.
orthochemical rock a rock that was formed by
chemical precipitation such as a salt. An orthochemical
rock is in contrast to an allochemical or autochthonous
rock.
orthoclase a feldspar mineral composed of KAlSi3O8.
Orthoclase commonly occurs as white, gray, or pink
crystals that are boxlike. It has one perfect and one
good cleavage at 90, a specific gravity of 2.5-2.6, and
a hardness of 6. Orthoclase is common in granite
and other acid igneous rocks and is found in immature
sediments such as arkose sandstone. (K or potassium
feldspar) Orth or or
orthodolomlte dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], a
sedimentary rock and mineral, formed by chemical
or biological precipitation from water. Orthodolomite
is rare and is dense, fine-grained, and well-laminated.
Orthodolomite is in contrast to secondary, diagenic,
or supratidal dolomite, (primary dolomite)
orthogonal 1) at right angles 2) a curve that is
perpendicular to all points on the wave crests of a
refraction diagram, (wave ray)
orthoquartzite a sandstone of well-sorted sandsized grains of almost entirely quartz composition
(generally greater than 90%-95%) with a little
chemical cement and no matrix. An orthoquartzite
tends to be white in color and has excellent original
porosity. Orthoquartzite is an example of a very mature
sedimentary rock. O-Qtz
OS 1) oil show 2) overshot 3) operating system
O.S. oil sand
O/S 1) out of service 2) out of stock
OSA oil soluble acid
Osagean a North American stage of geological time
that ended about 355 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Mississippian period.
OS&F oil stain and fluorescence
oscilloscope an instrument with a fluorescent screen
that is used to display the shape of an electrical wave
O-SD or O sd oil sand
OSF oil string flange
OSHA Occupational Safety and Hazard
Administration
OSHOT overshot
OSI oil well shut in
osmosis the spontaneous flow of the solvent of a
more dilute solution through a semipermeable
membrane to a more concentrated solution. Water
will flow through a semipermeable membrane
separating two aqueous solutions of different salinities.
The flow through the membrane will continue until
the salinities are equal.
OSO offshore supply office
OSP offset seismic profile

OSR 1) oil source rock 2) oil/steam ratio

OST offshore storage and treatment
Ost ostracod
OSTN oil stain
OSTOIP original stock tank oil in place
Ostr ostracod
ostracod or ostracode a subclass of crustaceans that
are small bivalve (two shells) invertebrates that inhabit
both marine and fresh waters. Ostracods range in
age from Lower Cambrian to present and are good
microfossils. ost or Ostr
OSWCM oil and saltwater cut mud
OT open tubing
OTA Office of Technology Assessment
OT&S oil taste and stain
OTC Offshore Technology Conference
OTD or O.TX>. old total depth
other valuable considerations a phrase in an
instrument such as a deed or oil and gas lease that
allows the instrument to be recorded but does not
disclose the amount paid for the transaction. O.V.C.
otl outlet
OTS oil to surface
OTS&F oil taste, stain, and fluorescence
Ottawa sand a hydraulic fracturing proppant. Ottawa
sand is from Canada, well-rounded and well-sorted,
and has high compressive strength.
O2 oxygen
OU oil unit
Ouija board an instrument with a protractor and
attached scales that is used to determine the correct
orientation for a deflection tool to kick off a deviated
well
ounce a unit of weight equal to Vi2 lb troy or
!/i6 avoirdupois, oz
outage 1) an amount of oil lost during storage or
transportation 2) the space in a storage tank between
the liquid surface and the top of the tank, (ullage)
outage bob a dip weight attached to the end of a
dip or gauge tape used in the outage gauge method
to measure oil in a tank
outage gage or gauge a method that is used to
determine the amount of oil in a tank by measuring
the distance between the top of the tank and the level
of the oil in the tank. The outage gauge method is
used when the bottom of the tank is filled with heavy
sediment and is in contrast to the more common
innage gauge method.
outcrop an exposure of rocks on the surface
outer conductor a short string or length of casing
that is run into an offshore well to anchor the wellhead
equipment on the seabed, (anchor string or
foundation pile)
outer continental shelf the portion of the seabed
in the United States that extends from the outer limit
of the inner continental shelf that is owned by the
states to 8,000 ft water depth. The states own the seabed
from the beach out to 3 naut mi, with the states of
Florida and Texas owning the seabed out to the 9-

outlier overpressure
naut mi limit. The federal government regulates the
outer continental shelf through the Minerals
Management Service. OCS
outlier an area of rocks surrounded by older rocks.
An outlier could be caused by erosion of the
surrounding rocks and is in contrast to an inlier.
outline map a small-scale map of a large area that
shows the basic configuration of the area perhaps
including state and county lines
out of gauge a wellbore, drilling bit, tool, or pipe
that has been worn and is no longer circular in cross
section or is below a certain diameter
outpost well a well drilled in the expected extent
of a reservoir that is being developed but at a significant
distance, usually two or more drilling-and-spacing
units, from the nearest producer in that reservoir.
(extension test or well or step-out well)
output the information, either printed on paper,
displayed on a terminal, or stored on magnetic tape
or disk, that a computer generates by calculation.
Output is in contrast to input.
output power the traveling block load times the
velocity of the traveling block, (hook power)
output shaft the shaft on the transmission that goes
to a driven machine. The output shaft is in contrast
to the input shaft.
outrigger a steel arm with a pad that extends out
from the side of equipment such as a crane to the
ground to stabilize the equipment
outside acreage a creage in the area surrounding
an earning well in which the farmee earns an interest
during a farmout agreement, (excess)
outside well a well drilled on an adjacent lease that
must be offset by a well drilled on the lease
out-step well a general term for a well drilled near
a producing well in an effort to extend the field. A
more precise term is a step-out well.
OVC or O.V.C. other valuable considerations
overage production from a well that is in excess of
the allowable, the amount that is permitted to be
produced by a government regulatory agency
over-all length the length of a tubular including
the threads. Over-all length is in contrast to laid length.
over and short the difference between the calculated
amount of oil produced and the oil in the stock tanks.
This difference is due to oil loss by leakage,
evaporation, temperature changes, and inaccurate
measurements. O&S
overbalance a greater pressure exerted by the
weight of drilling mud in the well than the reservoir
pressure exerted on fluids in rocks surrounding the
well. Overbalance prevents fluids in the surrounding
rock from entering the well and forces the drilling
mud into the surrounding rocks. Overbalance is in
contrast to underbalance.
overbalanced drilling drilling with the mud
pressure greater than formation pressures.
Overbalanced drilling is most common and is in
contrast to balanced or underbalanced drilling.
overbank the flood-plain area that is covered by
flooding waters when a river flows over its banks.
River levees are located between the river channel

359

and the overbank area. Overbank is an area of finegrained deposition during floods with occasional
coarse-sediment deposition on a crevasse splay.
(backswamp)
overburden rocks overlying a) the drilling target,
b) a specific sedimentary rock layer, c) a specific depth,
or d) a reflector on a seismic record. OB
overburden pressure or stress the subsurface
pressure exerted by the weight of the overlying rocks.
Overburden pressure increases about 100 psi/100 ft
of depth. Overburden pressure is in contrast to the
pressure on the fluid in the pores of the rock which
is reservoir, fluid, or formation pressure, (earth,
geostatic, lithostatic, or rock pressure)
overburden stress gradient the weight of the
overlying rocks per unit depth. Overburden stress
gradient is about 1 psi/ft.
overcentrifuging the excessive use of
hydrocyclones in the circulating system of a drilling
rig. The removal of too many colloidal-sized solids
reduces the viscosity of the drilling fluid.
overconvey to transfer a larger fraction of the
property interest than is actually owned
overconveyance fractional mineral rights
ownerships on a tract of land that adds up to more
than 100%
overflow the flow of liquid coming out of the top
or wide end of a hydrocyclone such as a desander
or desilter. The underflow takes more solids out the
bottom with its portion of the hydrocyclone flow.
overflush 1) a fluid slug that is injected into a well
during an acid job to flush the acid from the tubing
and casing and into the formation 2) a stage in a
hydraulic frac job during which a slug is injected into
the well to push the frac fluid further back into the
formation
overgauge hole a well with a diameter larger than
the diameter of the bit used to drill it. An overgauge
hole is in contrast to a full-gauge or undergauge hole.
overgrowth secondary mineral material deposited
in crystallographic continuity on a mineral grain in
a sedimentary rock. The overgrowth can be either
the same chemical composition or a different
composition than the mineral grain. Overgrowths
reduce porosity in sedimentary rocks. Ovgth
overhang the top or bulb of a salt plug that protrudes
over the stem
overhaul the ability of a weight on a line to unwind
the line from the drum with the brake released
overhead a company's expenses minus the operating
expenses
overlap the succession of sedimentary rocks
deposited on an unconformity with progressively
younger rocks extending further onto the
unconformity. Onlap is a related term.
overmature source rocks that have been cooked to
produce gas
overmigration the moving of a dipping reflector
on a seismic porfile too far by migration processing
because of using too fast a sound velocity
overpressure abnormal high formation pressure.
Overpressure is fluid pressure in a reservoir that is

360

overpressured

overthrust fault

higher than normal pore pressure or hydrostatic

pressure that increases at a rate of about 0.465 psi/ft
depth. Overpressure occurs in isolated reservoirs that
do not communicate with other reservoirs.
(geopressure)
overpressured a subsurface formation that has
abnormal high pressures, (geopressured)
overprint a texture in a sedimentary rock that has
been superimposed by diagenesis on the original
texture
overproduced well a well that has produced more
than its allowable. OP
overproduction oil and/or gas production that is
produced in excess in either a) an allowable or
b) demand
overpull the amount of upward force exerted on a
tubular such as a drillsring that is greater than the
pipe's weight in a fluid such as air or drilling mud.
Overpull causes tension in the tubular string. Wall
sticking can cause overpull during tripping out. OVPUL
over pumping a condition that occurs in a well when
the pump displacement is greater than the produced
fluids. Over pumping causes cyclic production.
override 1) the flow that is caused by gravity of a
lighter fluid over a heavier fluid in a subsurface
reservoir during enhanced oil recovery 2) an interest
in a well that bears no cost of production, see
overriding royalty
over-ride, override, overriding royalty, or
overriding royalty interest a nonworking interest
in a well that is created from a working interest and
has no associated costs such as production costs. The
only applicable costs are severance and windfall profits
tax. An overriding interest can be created when a
working-interest owner transfers an interest or when
the owner creates a carved-out overriding royalty
interest. A geologist, landman, or lawyer often gets
an overriding interest for putting together and selling
the prospect. O/R, ORI, ORR or ORRI
overrunning clutch a clutch that engages a rotating
member only under certain conditions. The clutch
is used to connect a starter to an engine but disengages
so the engine cannot turn the starter.
overrun penalty a penalty imposed on a consumer
for unauthorized consumption of gas in excess of
the maximum demand on the gas contract
overshot 1) the most commonly used fishing tool
for catching drillpipe and tool joints. An overshot is
composed of a guide shoe, a lower sub with slips
or grapples, a body, and an upper sub. The slips or
grapples (basket or spiral) hold the fish. The overshot
has a pressure-sealing device to allow fluid circulation
through a pipe fish. Mud is first circulated to clean
the fish and a string shot can be run through the
fish to back it off The overshot can be used by itself
or stacked in a double unit to catch two different
size fish. Double and triple bowl overshots each have
different sized slips or grapples to catch several sizes
of fish. The overshot can be released from the fish
by torquing to the right and bumping down. Some
overshots have a mill to smooth the top of the fish
and are called overshot mills. A short-catch overshot
has the slips or grapple near the bottom of the overshot
to catch a very short fish. The long-catch overshot

overshot

has a long bowl section and catches several feet down

from the top of the fish. OS or OSHOT 2) a short
length of casing that fits over the junction of two joints
of casing being patched
overshot grab a fishing tool designed to washover
a fish and latch onto the socket on top of the fish
overshot guide a swage-type fitting that is run on
the bottom of an overshot to guide the tool onto
the fish. The overshot guide is slightly smaller than
the hole diameter.
overshot mill or milling tool a mill run on the
bottom of an overshot to dress the top of the fish to
the necessary diameter for catching
oversize collar a drill collar with an outer diameter
that is slightly smaller than the well. A wash pipe
will not fit over it. A tapered tap or similar fishing
tool must be used if fishing is necessary.
overswing an excessive bit walk
over-the-counter application the method used to
lease United States onshore federal lands on a tract
that has never been nominated for competitive leasing
or has not received a bid during simultaneous leasing.
An over-the-counter application is offered on a firstcome, first-served basis and has a $75 filing fee. The
lessee is granted the right to explore, drill, and
produce oil and gas from the tract. The lease has a
10-year primary term with an annual rental of $1 per
acre for the first 5 years and $3 per acre for the last
5 years. The lease carries a 12Yt% royalty. An overthe-counter application is in contrast to competitive
leases and simultaneous leasing.
over-the-road equipment that is transported on
highways and meets highway load limits
overthrust a large-scale thrust fault. The hanging wall
can be horizontally thrust miles over the footwall.
overthrust belt an area of thrust faulting. An
overthrust belt is the result of compression. Large
drag folds that are located both on and below the
thrust faults can form petroleum traps. Basement rock
is sometimes thrust on top of sedimentary rocks in
an overthrust. (disturbed belt)
overthrust fault a low-angle reverse fault.
Overthrust faults are caused by compressional forces.

overtorque
DISTURBED BCLT

" * *

oxidizing environment

361

OWWO old well worked over

ox oxidized
oxidation 1) a chemical reaction in a substance with
oxygen to form an oxide, ox 2) the loss of electrons
at the anode of a corrosion cell
oxidation number the charge an atom would have
if the bonding electrons were assigned to the more
electronegative element. In water, oxygen has an
oxidation number of 2, whereas hydrogen has +1.
In a nonpolar covalent bond, the bonding electrons
are split evenly.
DEPOSITION

overthrust belt

The angle between the overthrust fault plane and

horizontal is less than 45. (thrust fault)
overtorque to make up a tool joint too tight.
Overtorque is in contrast to undertorque.
overtravel a sucker-rod pump stroke that is longer
than the polished rod stroke length due to stretching
of the sucker-rod string
overtreatment the addition of too much chemical
emulsion breaker to an emulsion

oxbow lake
overturned fold

overturned fold a fold in which the axis is not

straight, and the limbs are not symmetrical
overvoltage see induced polarization
over water subsurface water located over an oil and
gas reservoir
Ovgth overgrowth
ovhd overhead
O-VIS oil viscosity
OVPUL overpull
O/W oil-in-water emulsion
OWB oil/water burner
OWC oil/water contact
OWCM oil and water cut mud
OWDD 1) oil well drilled deeper 2) old well drilled
deeper
O.W.D.D. old well drilled deeper
OWF oil well flowing
OWG oil well gas
ownership map a map prepared by a commercial
firm that shows the boundaries and names of owners
of tracts of land. An ownership map is copyrighted.
OWPB 1) oil well plugged back 2) old well plugged
back
OWPB or O.W.P.B. old well plugged back
OWST old well sidetracked

ox bow lake the body of water that fills a river

meander channel after it has been cut off and
abandoned. If the cutoff faces downstream on the river,
only organic-rich, fine-grained sediments will fill the
lake forming a clay plug. If the cutoff faces upstream,
occasional floods will sweep down the abandoned
channel, eroding the fine-grained sediments and
depositing sand.
Oxfordian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 160-155 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Upper Jurassic epoch.
oxic the presence of free air or oxygen in contrast
to anaerobic. When applied to water oxic is water
that has enough oxygen to support aerobic bacteria
and is above 0.2 ml/1 in oxygen content. Oxic is in
contrast to anaerobic, (aerobic)
oxidation a half-reaction with the loss of electrons
and an increase in the oxidation number. The
compound becomes more positive. Oxidation is in
contrast to reduction.
oxidation-reduction potential the voltage
difference between inert electrodes immersed in a
reversible oxidation-reduction system. The oxidationreduction potential is a measure of the system's
oxidation state. (Eh or redox potential) ORP
oxide a chemical compound with oxygen
oxidizing agent a chemical substance that accepts
elearons from another substance. An oxidizing agent
is in contrast to a reducing agent.
oxidizing environment an environment that has
free oxygen. Aerobic water or sediments are in an

362

oxy ozocerite or ozokerite

oxidizing environment. An oxidizing environment is

in contrast to a reducing environment.
oxy oxygen
oxygen index the quanitiy of CO2 measured by 53
from Rock-Eval pyrolysis relative to total organic
carbon in the sample. It is reported in mg CXVg

<W 01
oxygen scavenger a chemical such as sodium
sulphite that reacts with and removes oxygen. Oxygen
scavengers are used to prevent degradation of
polymers in enhanced oil recovery and corrosion
during waterflooding.
Oyst oyster
oyster a type of pelecypod with two irregular and

inequal shells that lives attached to the shallow sea

bottoms in brackish waters. Oysters have existed from
the Triassic period to the present and are important
guide fossils. Oyst
oz ounce
ozocerite or ozokerite a native bitumen mineral
wax that occurs in irregular veins in sedimentary rocks.
Ozocerite has a microcrystalline structure and is
composed of hydrocarbons in the C22 to C^ range
with a small liquid component. Ozocerite is graded
on the basis of melting point that varies between 147176F and color that varies from black to green. It
has a wide variety of properties and is firm, but breaks
when twisted. Ozocerite is derived from the Greek
words ozo for small and keros for wax.

P packer squeeze

P I ) pressure 2) compressional wave 3) polarization

4) dipole movement/volume 5) pattern 6) proximity
log 7) pound 8) slowness 9) packstone 10) salinity
11) pinched 12) petap 1) pressure 2) pore 3) particle 4) cumulative
produced 5) production time 6) mean 7) pseudo
8) poor 9) picoP/ 1) pumped 2) pumping
PA pooling agreement
PA pressure drop per annulus section
Pa pascal
Pa 1) abandoned pressure 2) absolute surface
pressure
pa propulsion assisted
PAB per acre bonus
packed biomicrite a limestone with greater than
66% lime mud (micrite) matrix compared to sparry
calcite and over 50% skeletal grains
packed column a contact tower that is filled with
small particles that come in contact with a gas. A packed
column is in contrast to having the particles on a
horizontal screen or liquid filled bubble trays.
packed-hole bottom hole assembly a downhole
assembly on a drillstring that is stiff and is stabilized
to full gauge for the well. One to eight stabilizers
are used immediately above the bit, with three or
four stabilizers being common. The packed-hole
bottomhole assembly is used to maintain angle on a
deviated hole and can be divided into mild, medium,
and severe, depending on the number of stabilizers
and their position in relation to the bit. A packedhole bottomhole assembly is in contrast to a fulcrum,
pendulum, or slick bottomhole assembly, (stiff drilling
assembly)
packed oflf 1) the sealing of the annulus in a well
by an annular blowout preventer 2) a portion of the
well that has been isolated by packers
packed-pendulum assembly a downhole
assembly used to drill deviated wells. The packedpendulum assembly is similar to the limber-pendulum
assembly except that it has one or more stabilizers
above the pendulum stabilizer which is located 3060 ft above the drill bit.
packed tower an absorber or stripper that is used
to remove something from a liquid stream to remove
liquid from gas. The packed tower has a vertical shell
with several packing supports that hold the tower
packing. Liquid goes in the top of the tower and out

363

the bottom. The tower can contain a liquid distributor

and redistributor. Gas goes in the bottom and out
the top of the tower.
packer an expandable device that is run in either
an open well, in a cased hole or in tubing to prevent
fluids from flowing vertically. The packer consists of
a sealing element, a holding or setting device, and a
fluid passage. Packers can be expanded either
hydraulically or mechanically. Packers are often used
to isolate portions of the well for testing, for cement
and acid jobs, and to complete a well. Two types of
packers are: a) production packers and b) treating/
testing packers. Production packers are part of the
production equipment in the well, whereas testing/
treating packers are used temporarily during well
testing, completion, or workover. Packers are either
retrievable or permanent. A permanent packer is
designed to be used only once in completion of a
well, has slips to prevent movement up and down
the casing, and has a large bore through which tubing
can be run. A retrievable packer is designed to be
reused. It is part of the tubing string, and the tubing
cannot move in the packer. Retrievable packers are
set either by a) weight (J-set or automatic bottom),
b) tension, or c) rotation. A conventional packer has
of a seal element, packer mandrel, slips, cone, J-shot,
hydraulic hold-down button, and backup ring. The
seal element is elastomer, asbestos, or other material
that changes shape when the packer is set. The packer
mandrel is the metal body of the packer. The slips
are the gripping elements for the inside of casing.
Sometimes two (tandem packers) or more packers
are run to obtain packer seats. PKR orpkr
packer flowmeter a spinner-type of velocity meter
that uses an expandable packer to seal the tool-casing
annulus and force the well fluids to flow up through
the flowmeter. Velocity measured on the flowmeter
can be converted to volume. The packer flowmeter
can operate a relatively low velocities.
packer fluid a fluid that is placed in the annulus
between the tubing and the production casing above
a tubing packer. Packer fluid helps control well
pressure, decreases differential pressure across the
packer, retard corrosion, and aid workovers.
Completion fluids are often used as the packer fluid.
The packer fluid is usually oil-base, brine-base, or
an attapulgite gel. A low-solids packer fluid contains
a polymer viscosifier, corrosion inhibitor, and soluble
salts.
packer mill a fishing tool that is used to remove
packers from a well. A tungsten carbide milling section
is rotated to cut the slips on the packer. A pilot section
goes through the packer bore to grip and retrieve
the packer.
packer seat the area of a well's sidewall where a
packer is engaged
packer squeeze a type of cement squeeze job in
which the slurry is pumped down the tubing and

364

packer test paleogeologic map

into the formation. A retrievable packer on a drillstring

or a retainer packer on a wireline is set above the
formation to be cemented. If no packer is used, it is
called a bradenhead or hesitation squeeze.
packer test a hydraulic pressure test used to
determine whether or not a packer is seated
packing 1) a gravel or coarse sand-filled cavity in
the wellbore at the level of the producing formation.
Packing is used to prevent sand incursion or caving
and to increase the flow of reservoir fluids into the
well. 2) material such as rubber or fiber that is used
to form a pressure-tight seal around a rod or valve
stem to prevent the escape of liquid or gas 3) the
arrangement of sedimentary particles such as sand
grains in a sandstone 4) the number of bytes of
information per unit of magnetic tape 5) the stationary
phase in a gas chromatograph tube or column
packing gland a cylinder that contains compressed
packing around a moving shaft to prevent leakage of
gas or liquid around the shaft as it moves. On a suckerrod pump, the packing gland is the cylinder that fits
around the polished rod and provides a seal between
the tubing and the atmosphere while the polished
rod rises and falls. Guide bearings above and below
the packing provide protection from any misalignment
of the polished rod. Three types of packing glands
are single packing, double packing, and
lubricating, (stuffing box)
packing unit the expandable, moulded elastomer
and steel closing element used in the annular blowout
preventer
pack off 1) to seal 2) to place and seat a packer in
a well
packoff a tool consisting of an upper and lower
sealing element separated by a spacer pipe that is
used to close holes in a tubing string. The packoff is
run on a wireline.
pack-off preventers packing material on a wellhead
that is set by pressure from below and is used to
remove pipe under pressure from a well, (stripper
preventers)
pack-off shoe a filling that is run on the bottom of
a casing string and is designed to protect formations
below the casing from cement contamination during
a cement job. The shoe is run down the well to the
lower limit of cement. A ball is then dropped down
the casing to seat in the pack-off shoe. Pump pressure
then moves an inner piston down to compress a rubber
packing element out to form a seal with the well.
The cementing ports above the packing element are
then opened.

packstone

packstone a type of limestone with large sand-sized

grains touching each other (grain supported) but with

fine-grained limestone (micrite) between the grains.

Pkst, pkst, or P
PACT" a tool used to seal a part of the tubing and
clean out a well. A steel bar is dropped into the tubing
to rupture the seal <an the tool and create a backsurge
to clean out the well.
PAD paragon acid dispersion
pad 1) the surface area on which the drilling rig
sits 2) a rubber surface on an arm of a sonde that
presses against the side of the wellbore to keep the
sonde oriented correctly. The pad has no electrodes
in it and is called the backup pad. 3) an insulated
rubber pillow filled with fluid that has electrodes
mounted in it. The button electrodes are usually flush
with or slightly recessed in the rubber surface of the
pad. The pad is pressed against the wellbore by an
arm from the sonde. 4) a slug of carrying fluid without
proppants that is pumped into the formation before
the carrying fluid containing the proppants during a
hydraulic fracturing job. The pad sometimes contains
acid, (spearhead)
paddle mixer a motored device that rotates paddles
on a shaft to stir the drilling mud in the mud tanks.
(mechanical agitator)
paddle plate a type of orifice plate that is designed
to measure flow volume through a flowline by the
differential pressure of the fluid flowing through the
orifice. A paddle plate is designed to be used with
orifice flanges and has a handle to insert it between
the flanges. The size, pressure ratings, and orifice bore
diameter is stamped on the handle. The other common
type of orifice plate is the Universal orifice plate.
pad eye a metal lifting ring that is welded or riveted
to a structure
pad resistivity device see microresistivity log
pad die log book to enter more footage in the
drilling log than was actually drilled
PAH polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
paid-up lease an oil and gas lease that is in effect
for the entire period of the primary term without
delay rental payments
pair production the annihilation of a gamma ray
to form an electron and a proton. Pair production
requires a threshold energy greater than 1.02 MeV.
PAL pipe analysis log
pal paleontology
PALEO paleontology log
Paleo Paleozoic
paleo paleontology
Paleocene or Palaeocene an epoch of geological
time about 67-55 m. y. ago. It occurred during the
beginning of the Cenozoic era.
Paleogene an interval of geological time that
includes the Oligocene, Eocene, and Paleocene
epochs. It is equivalent to the lower Tertiary.
paleogeographic map a map showing an
interpretation of the geography of the land during a
specific geological time
paleogeologic map a map that shows the geology
of an area of land surface during a specific geological
time. A paleogeologic map is often a geological map

paleogeomorphic trap paraffin

of the rocks that crop out under an unconformity.
Such a map is called a subcrop map.
paleogeomorphic trap petroleum trap that is
formed by old topography such as a cuesta, buried
hill, or karst
paleokarst ancient karst (solution) in limestone that
is buried and covered by younger rocks
paleomagnetic stratigraphy the use of detrital
remanent magnetism in sedimentary rock and the
geomagnetic scale of normal and reverse earth
magnetic-field history to identify stratigraphic units.
(magnetic stratigraphy)
paleomagnetism the remanent magnetism in a rock
formed by the alignment of ferromagnetic minerals,
mainly magnetite. The ferromagnetic minerals aligned
themselves with the earth's magnetic field either
a) in an igneous rock, when the crystals formed in a
cooling melt (thermoremanent magnetism), b) in a
sedimentary rock, as the grains were settling out of
water (detrital remanent magnetism), or c) the growth
of magnetic crystals in a magnetic field (chemical
remanent magnetism). A geomagnetic scale of normal
and reverse earth magnetic-field polarity going back
in geological time has been established.
paleontologic or paleontology log a record of
the characteristics of the rock layers in a well with
emphasis on the stratigraphy and microfossil content
of the rocks. PALEO
paleonotologist a person who studies and identifies
fossils
paleontology the study of fossils, paleo or pal
paleosection a cross section that shows either rock
layers or seismic reflection events at a certain time
in the geologic past. A seismic section can be flattened
on a distinctive horizon, (restored section)
paleostructure map a map that shows the location
of structural features such as folds and faults that were
present in the area at a specific geological time
Paleozoic or Palaeozoic an era of time 570-250
m. y. ago. It is subdivided into the Cambrian,
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous
(Mississippian and Pennsylvanian), and Permian
periods. Paleo
palygorskite see attapulgite
palynologist a person who studies and identifies
fossil spores and pollens
palynomorph a resistant-walled, organic microfossil
body such as pollen, spores, acritarchs, and
dinoflagellates
P&A plugged and abandoned
P&A job plug and abandon job
P&F pump and flow
P and ID piping and instrumentation diagram
P&NG petroleum and natural gas
P&P 1) porosity and permeability 2) porous and
permeable
p and s plugged and suspended
panel the space between girts on the legs of a derrick.
The panels on a drilling rig derrick have a vertical
height of 7 ft. (bay)

365

Pangaea

Pangea the supercontinent that existed from about

300 until about 150 m. y. ago Pangea is often divided
into Laurasis, the northern segment and Gondwana,
the southern segment. The supercontinent was
surrounded by an ocean called Panthalassa. Pangea
is derived from Greek for all lands, see continental
drift
pantograph a drafting instrument that is used to
make a copy at a different scale
Pap or pap paper
PAR per acre rental
Par or par particle

paraconformity

paraconformity an unconformity, a surface of

erosion or nondeposition which is not discernable
from a bedding plane. The sedimentary rocks above
and below the paraconformity are conformable and
parallel.

paraffin

paraffin 1) a type of hydrocarbon molecule

(CnH2n+2) formed by a saturated single chain. Paraffins
are common in organic matter, sediments, and
petroleum and include methane, ethane, propane,
butane, pentane, and the higher alkanes starting with
hexane, heptane, octane, and larger molecules. Paraffin
molecules can have 1-61 carbon atoms. CH4 through
C4H10 are gases, C5H12 through C16H34 are liquids,

366

paraffin-base crude oil partial pressure

and C17H36 and longer are waxy solids. Paraffins are

derived from bacteria, algae, and land plants. Up to
30% of crude oil can be composed of paraffins.
(normal alkane) 2) solid wax removed by cooling,
dewaxing, or de-oiling. The heavier paraffins (C17+)
in a paraffin-based crude oil separate upon cooling
and accumulate on the inside of tubing and flowlines.
Paraffin is derived from a word meaning "having little
affinity" because paraffins are not affected by common
reagents such as acids and oxidizers. (wax) 3) kerosene
in the United Kingdom
paraffin-base crude oil a crude oil that contains
little or no asphalt but has a paraffin residue upon
distillation. When burned, the oil leaves a waxy
residue. Refining of paraffin-base crude oil produces
a high yield of low octane gasoline and lubricating
oil. The oil tends to have high API and pour point
and is green in color. Paraffin-base crude oils represent
2% of the world's oil supply. The original Pennsylvania
crudes were paraffin-based. Paraffin-base crude oil is
in contrast to naphthene-base crude oil. PARF
paraffinic a low-density crude oil on the U.S. Bureau
of Mines correlation index
paraffinicity the properties and composition of
paraffin in crude oil
paraffin inhibitor a chemical that is injected into
the production string of a well to retard or prevent
paraffin deposition

paraffin knife

paraffin scratcher

paraffin knife a device used on a sand line in the

tubing of an oil well to scrape the wax off the tubing.
The paraffin knife has a ring that fits the tubing to
scrape the paraffin.
paraffin removal the removal of wax from tubing
in a well by mechanical knives or scrapers on wireline
or drillpipe, solvents, chemicals, heat, or bacteria
paraffin scale crystalline wax from crude oil on the
walls of a tubular or vessel
paraffin scraper or scratcher a wireline device that
uses knives to remove wax from tubing. The paraffin
scratcher is also used to clean landing nipples and
to fish small segments of loose wireline in a well.
paraffin series the 30 naturally occurring paraffin
or normal alkane hydrocarbons that form saturated
straight chains. The paraffin series includes gases (Cj
to C4), liquids (C5 to C16), and solids (C17 and above).

Methane (CH4) is the simplest of the paraffin series.

(methane series)
paragon acid dispersion an acid with a dispersed
aromatic solvent that is used in acidizing waterinjection wells or converting producing wells to
injection wells. The paragon acid dispersion dissolves
both organic and inorganic deposits. PAD
parallel two electronic circuit elements that are
connected in such a way that an electric current flowing
through either element of the circuit will reach exactly
the same destination. Parallel is in contrast to series.
parallel folding anticlines or domes in sedimentary
rocks in which the sedimentary rock beds are parallel,
there has been no thickening or thinning in the beds,
and the fold becomes more pronounced with depth.
Parallel folding is in contrast to repeated folding.
parallel-free pump a type of hydraulic pump used
on oil wells in which two strings of tubing are used.
The power fluid goes down one string and the
produced fluid comes up the other string of tubing.
A parallel-free pump is in contrast to a casing-free
pump.
parallel stream pattern a stream drainage pattern
that is characterized by a regular spacing of parallel
streams. A parallel stream pattern is formed on a ridge
and slope topography that is controlled by underlying
soft and resistant formations.
parallel tubing-string completion a common type
of dual completion in a well using one single and
one double packer and two tubing strings. The flow
from each producing zone is kept separate and comes
up its own tubing string in contrast to commingling.
parasequence a succession of genetically-related
rock beds or bedsets that are relatively conformable
and are bounded by marine-flooding surfaces or their
equivalents. A parasequence is part of a system tract
that is defined in seismic or sequence stratigraphy.
Some examples of parasequences are lowstand wedge
and basin-floor fan.
parasequence set a sequence of genetically-related
parasequences which form a distinctive stacking
pattern and is usually bounded by major marineflooding surfaces or their equivalents
PARF paraffin-base crude oil
parity check a computer check of magnetic tape
data
Parker diagram a method for showing the chemical
concentration of oilfield brines. A vertical bar is used
to show the parts per million concentration of Ca,
Mg and SO4, Na, Cl2, HCO3, and CO2.
Parmalee wrench a wrench that is designed to fit
all the way around a core barrel
parol evidence verbal rather than written evidence
part partings
parted rods broken sucker rods in a well
partial assignment the transfer of part of either the
lessor's or lessee's interest in an oil and gas lease
partial pressure the pressure exerted by one in the
components of a mixture of gases. The partial pressure
is the same pressure that the component gas would
exert if it were alone in the same volume as the mixture
and at the same temperature.

participating interest pattern

participating interest the proportion or percentage
that a certain party has in the total working interest
in a unit operating agreement, leasehold, or well
participating royalty a royalty interest that also
shares in lease benefits other than production such
as delay rental payments
participation a working interest under an operating
agreement
participation crude see buy-back crude
participation factor a party's percentage of a pooled
or unitized working interest in a unit. The participation
factor is usually determined by that party's contribution
of the estimated volume of hydrocarbons in the unit.
participation formula the formula that is used in
an operating, unitization, or pooling agreement to
divide the costs and production
participation survey a method used to raise money
for seismic. A contractor forms a proposed seismic
survey plan that is prsented to several companies.
Companies that contribute money have a say in the
plan and share the data. The data can later be sold
to other companies and the money used to obtain
more seismic.
participation-type contract a gas contract in which
the gas seller is compensated for the liquids that are
extracted from the gas, depending on how much liquid
the gas contains
particulates fine-grained particles that are small
enough to be suspended in a gas or liquid but are
large enough to be filtered out
parting pipe to separate or cut a stuck downhole
assembly in a well. Parting pipe can be done by backing
off (unscrewing the stuck pipe) or by cutting it with
mechanical, chemical, jet, or explosive cutters
partings very thin layers or sedimentary rocks, prtgs
partition 1) the separation of undivided interests by
horizontal severance into separate surface tracts
2) the separation of undivided interests by vertical
severance into separate subsurface formations
partition coefficient the mol fraction of a
component in the vapor phase (YJ divided by the
mol fraction of the component in the liquid phase
(XJ. The partition coefficient is a function of
temperature, pressure, and composition, (equilibrium
constant, K factor, or vapor-liquid equilibrium
ratio) K
partition column gas/liquid column
partition gas chromatograph see gas
chromatograph
partitioning the mass transfer of a chemical from
one liquid phase to another liquid phase
party a geophysical crew. On land, a seismic party
usually consists of about two dozen people with about
half a dozen vehicles.
party chief the engineer on a land seismic crew
who is in charge of the seismic crew and is responsible
for the completion of the work, the party chief has
two assistants, the computer chief, and the party
manager.
party manager the person on a seismic crew who
supervises the field work and is responsible for

367

equipment maintenance and safety. The party manager

works directly under the party chief.
pascal a derived unit in System International (SI)
for pressure and stress. A pascal is calculated by
newtons divided by meters (N/m2). A kilopascal (kPa)
is commonly used for measurements. A pascal is equal
to 0.479 lbf/100 ft2, and a kilopascal is equal to 6.8947
psi. Pa
passband the frequency range that is transmitted
through a band-pass filter
passivator a chemical inhibitor that is used to change
the potential of a metal to a more cathodic or negative
value. A passivator retards corrosion.
passive a system that either a) has no source of energy
or b) does not generate a signal
passive clay a clay that does not react with drilling
and completion fluids. Passive clay is in contrast to
active clay.
passive margin a continental margin that was
formed by the rifting of a former continent and sea
floor spreading. A passive margin is relatively quiet
tectonically in contrast to a active or transform margin.
passive remote sensing remote sensing that uses
naturally reflected or radiated energy in contrast to
active remote sensing. Aerial photography is an
example of passive remote sensing.
pass production to drill below a commercial zone
pass region the frequency band that is transmitted
pass-through royalty a payment made for a well
that is drilled on one leasehold but produces from
another leasehold
PASWC Petroleum Accountants Society of Western
Canada
pat patented
patch 1) a large geophone group or array used in
seismic exploration that is hundreds of feet in extent
and contains hundreds of geophones that feed into
a single channel 2) a temporary connection 3) a pad
or piece of material that is used to cover a hole or
weak spot. Pch orpch

PATCH
REEFS

patch reef a small, detached reef, often located in

the lagoon of an atoll or barrier reef. The patch reef
has a flat top and ranges in size from about several
hundred feet to a mile in diameter.
patent 1) a government deed. A grant for land
conveyed by a state. 2) a transfer of public land to a
patentee
patentee a person who receives a grant or a privilege
by a patent
P adn local atmospheric pressure
patn pattern
pattern 1) a geometric array of shotholes or
geophones used in seismic exploration 2) the aerial
distribution of producing and injection wells used

368

pattern flood PDB

in waterflood and enhanced oil recovery. The four

basic types of patterns are a) direct line drive,
b) staggered line drive, c) five spot, and d) seven
spot, patn
pattern flood a waterflood that uses a geometrical
well pattern for injection and production wells such
as a two spot, three spot, regular four spot, skewed
four spot, five spot, seven spot, inverted seven spot,
normal nine spot, inverted nine spot, direct line drive,
or staggered line flood. A pattern flood is in contrast
to a dump flood.
pattern life the time during which an enhanced oil
recovery pattern of wells participates in the oilrecovery process
pawl the metal leaf or bolt that springs or fells into
the notches on a rachet wheel to prevent backward
motion

pay

pay \)seepayzone 2) the thickness of the producing

zone in a well. Pay thickness can be measured as
either gross or net pay.
pay formation the formation in a well that produces
commercial amounts of gas and/or oil
pay horizon see pay zone
paying quantities production from a well that
would economically justify continued production by
the operator from that well, (commercial quantities)
payoff the time when a well's production starts to
make money
pay out the time needed for oil and/or gas
production to compensate for (equal) the costs of
drilling, completing, and operating the well up to
that time. Payout is not discounted for the time value
of money as it is in discounted pay out. PO
pay sand sandstone that produces gas and/or oil
pay streak a commercial reservoir in a well
pay string see production string
payt payment
pay-up privilege an option in a carried interest
arrangement in which the carried party can
compensate the carrying party for the balance due
and the carried party will share in the operations
pay zone the vertical extent of the reservoir
producing gas and/or oil in a well. The pay zone

pay zone

can be named after the producing formation or by

the pay depth and thickness, (pay, production, or
productive horizon or producing zone)
PB or P.B. plugged back
Pb or pb bubblepoint or saturation pressure
Pb 1) pressure base 2) absolute pressure at reference
or base condition
PBD 1) plugged-back 2) plug-back depth
Pbh bottomhole pressure
PBHTD projected bottomhole total depth
Pbl or pbl pebble
pbnjiK maximum annular backup pressure
PBP pulled big pipe
PBPA Permian Basin Petroleum Association
PBR polished bore receptacle
PBTD plugged-back total depth
PBTV possum belly tank volume
PC 1) pressure control 2) photoclinometer
Pc 1) capillary pressure 2) compaction pressure
3) casing pressure
Pc or pc 1) critical pressure 2) pressure capacity
pc 1) piece 2) pseudocritical
pcf pounds per cubic foot
p r f flowing casing pressure
Pch or pen 1) patch 2) patchy
pes pieces
p r a static casing pressure
PCT production combination tool
PCT or pet percent
PCT testing a test run on a floating rig similar to a
drillstem test. The PCT test differs from a drillstem
test in that the upper end of the pipe string is supported
from the seafloor wellhead, and the principle control
valve in the test string is operated by annular pump
pressure from the surface rather than by the movement
of the drillstring.
PCV pressure control valve
PCWPC Permanent Council of the World Petroleum
Congress
PD 1) proposed depth 2) paid 3) per day 4) pump
displacement 5) plug down
PD total pressure drop in annulus
pd dew-point pressure
PDB peedee belemnite

PDC pelletizer
PDC 1) pressure differential controller 2) perforating
depth control 3) polycrystalline diamond compact
PDC bit see polycrystalline diamond compact bit
PDCL or PDC log perforating depth control log
PDI pressure differential indicator
PDIC pressure differential indicator control
PDM 1) positive displacement motor
2) photoclinometer dip meter
PD meter an instrument that is used to measure
the volume of fluid flow. The PD meter separates
the fluid such as a gas stream into separate volumes
and measures the number of volumes. Two common
types of PD meters are the diaphragm meter and
the rotary meter. The diaphragm meter uses two
diaphragms in the meter case that are alternately filled
and emptied to measure the gas volume. It is used
for low volumes of clean, dry gas and is the type of
meter used in home gas meters. The rotary meter
uses a lobed impeller or rotating vanes to measure
the gas. The impeller has two figure-8 lobes positioned
at an angle of 90 from one another. The rotatingvane type uses a rotating idler and rotating valves or
pistons. Rotary meters are used to measure high
volumes of gas and can be used with high pressures.
A PD meter provides information on the volume rather
than the flow rate, in contrast to an inferential meter.
(positive displacementflotvmeter, meter, or volumeter)
PDR pressure differential recorder
PDRC pressure differential recorder control
PDRMA Portable Drilling Rig Manufacturers
Association
PDSD probable deep-seated salt dome
PDT production test
PDU products distribution unit
PE 1) pumping equipment 2) petroleum engineering
3) plain end 4) photoelectric effect
P/E see pump to engine ratio
Pe or pe external boundary pressure
Pe 1) effective confining pressure 2) photoelectric
absorption cross section index
P.E.A. Pacific Energy Association
peak the maximum upward travel of a wave. A peak
is in contrast to a trough.
peak demand plant an installation that uses
pressure and supercold (260 F) to make liquified
natural gas on market demand. The plant uses
extensive heat exchanger and compressor equipment.
peak polished rod load the static weight of the
sucker-rod string plus the maximum upward inertial
force during the pumping cycle on a beam pumping
unit. The peak polished road load occurs near the
bottom of the stroke with the start of the upstroke
and is in contrast to the minimum polished rod load.
PPRL

peapicker an inexperienced or clumsy oilfield

worker, (boll weevil)
pea shooter a shotgun used as a seismic source for
shallow, high resolution studies
peat an aggregate of slightly decomposed plant
remains. With deeper burial and increased heat and
pressure, the peat will be transformed into coal.

369

pebble pup an assistant geologist

pebble size a particle grain size with a diameter
between 4 and 64 mm. PEBL, Pbl, orpbl
PEBL pebble
pebs pebbles
pecker neck a rig builder
pecker punch a sidewall corer
Pedestal a centrifugal pump frame
pedestral crane a rotating steel arm that is used
for lifting on an offshore drilling rig or producing
platform
peg legging the sound made by the tools on the
bottom of a cable-tool drilling line when not enough
line is let out and the tools hit only on alternate strokes
pegleg multiple a seismic reflection that
reverberates between two subsurface reflectors before
returning to the surface
PEI Petroleum. Equipment Institute
Pel or pel 1) pellet 2) pelletal
pelagic the deep ocean environment
Peld or peld 1) pelletoid 2) pelletoidal
Pelec pelecypod

pelecypod

pelecypod an invertebrate belonging to the class

Pelecypoda of the phylum Mollusca. Pelecypods are
bivalved with two similar shells, have bilateral
symmetry, and are mostly benthic, living on the sea
bottom. Pelecypods range in age from the Cambrian
period to the present and are important guide fossils.
Pelec or plcy

pelites sediments with a grain size less than 40 p..

Argillites have a grain size less than 2 (JL Pelites are
in contrast to arenites and rudites.
PELL 1) pelletal 2) pelletoidal
pell pelletal
pellet 1) a silt or sand-sized rounded aggregate with
an amorphous internal structure. Pellets are common
in limestone sediments where they originate primarily
from mollusk and worm fecal pellets. Pel or pel
2) an insert-type of tooth on a roller-cone bit
pelleted limestone a limestone with abundant
pellets
pellet impact bit a drilling bit that uses a highvelocity jet from a primary nozzle to draw drilling
mud and pellets into a secondary nozzle and shoot
them into the rock. The pellets are removed by the
mud and reenter the aspirator section of the bit to
be recycled.
pelletizer an organism, such as a mollusk or worm,
that burrows in mud and excretes fecal pellets

370

pelletoi percentage gain on investment

pelletoid a rock, especially limestone, containing an

abundance of pellets. PELL, Peld, orpeld
pelmicrite a limestone consisting of pellets and
limestone mud (micrite) matrix
pelsparite a limestone consisting of pellets and
sparry calcite
pen penetration
Pen-Acid penetrating acid
penal penalty
penalized allowable the amount of petroleum that
is permitted to be produced from a well, leasehold,
or field in a certain period of time (allowable) by a
government regulatory agency that is less than the
standard depth yardstick because of a high gas/oil
ratio or limited well capacity.
pencil abstract a term that generally means an
abbreviated or bobtail abstract
Pend or pend pendular
pendular region the zone in a petroleum reservoir
where the wetting phase occurs primarily in pendular
rings around grain-to-grain contacts. Relatively small
changes occur vertically in the pendular region. The
pendular region is in contrast to the saturation and
funicular regions.
pendular ring the wetting fluid such as water that
clings to the rock surface at contact points between
mineral grains
pendular saturation the wetting phase in the pores
of a rock that covers the rock surface, grain-to-grain
contacts and bridges pore throats. Pendular saturation
is in contrast to funicular or insular saturation.
pendulum assembly or bottomhole assembly a
drillstring that uses a bit or angle, drill collars, one
or more stabilizers, drill collars, and heavy-walled
drillpipe to reduce hole deviation and to drill soft,
unconsolidated formations. Gravity works on the active
length between the bit and the point of tangency on
the drillstring to decrease the well deviation. The
stabilizers can be positioned higher on the assembly
to intensity the gravity effect. A pendulum bottomhole
assembly is in contrast to a packed, slick, or fulcrum
bottomhole assembly.
pendulum effect the tendency of an inclined
drillstring to hang vertically in a well. The pendulum
effect is used to decrease the angle of deviation in a
crooked or deviated well.
pendulum force the weight of the drillstring below
the tangency point on a pendulum bottomhole
assembly.
penecontemporaneous a geological process that
occurs after the deposition of the sediments but before
they are consolidated into sedimentary rocks
penetrating acid hydrochloric acid with a surfactant
additive that is used in acidizing a well. The surfactant
lowers the surface tension and increases the efficiency
of the acid. The solution better penetrates micropores
and backflushes. Penetrating acid also has a
demulsifying action. Pen-Acid
penetration the greatest depth at which reflections
can be identified on a seismic record
penetration rate the rate in which the drill bit cuts
the hole. Penetration rate is often expressed in feet

per hour (ft/hr) or minutes per foot (min/ft).

Penetration rate is recorded on a drilling time log.
(drilling rate)
Perm Pennsylvanian
Pennsylvanian a North American period of time
about 330-290 m. y. ago. It occurred near the end
of the Paleozoic era and is the equivalent of the Upper
Carboniferous in Europe. The Pennsylvanian is
subdivided into the Morrowan, Atokan, Des Moinesian,
Mississippian, and Virgilian North American epochs.
The Pennsylvanian is equivalent to the Middle and
Upper Carboniferous global epochs. Penn
Pennsylvanian grade crude oil crude oil that is
similar to crude oil from Pennsylvania. Pennsylvanian
grade crude oil can be refined to produce excellent
quality lubricating oil.
Pent pentamerus

H
1
H-C1
H

H
1

H
1

- c - - c
1

1
H

H
1
C
1
H

C-H
1
H

pentane

pentane a liquid hydrocarbon of the paraffin series

C5H12. Two isomers of pentane are isopentane (iC5)
and normal pentane (nC5). Isopentane has a specific
gravity of 0.62 at 60 F, a boiling point of 82 F at
14.7 psia, a vapor pressure of 20 psia at 100 F, a
critical temperature of 369 F, and a critical pressure
of 490 psia. Normal pentane has a specific gravity of
0.63 at 60 F, a boiling point of 97 F at 14.7 psia, a
vapor pressure of 16 psia at 100 F, a critical
temperature of 386 F, and a critical pressure of 489
psia. C5
pentanes plus the liquid portion of wet natural gas
at standard temperature and pressure. Pentanes plus
is called retrograde gas, condensate, natural gasoline,
drip gasoline, or casinghead gasoline. C5+
peptlzation an increase of dispersion by the addition
of electrolytes or other chemicals. Peptization is used
to increase the initial yield of drilling muds. Soda
ash is used to peptize calcium montmorillonites.
peptized clay a clay such as calcium montmorillonite
to which an additive such as soda ash has been added
to increase the clay yield
per permeability
percentage depletion 1) a provision in the United
States Internal Revenue Code that allows a taxpayer
who has received payments for interest in a producing
gas or oil well to deduct a specific percentage of
that gross income. Percentage depletion is in
recognition that production depletes the petroleum
reservoir. 2) a method of accounting in which the
depletable basis of leases or equipment is amortized
as a percentage of gross income. Percentage depletion
is in contrast to cost depletion
percentage gain on investment the interest rate
that makes the present value equal to the total future

percentage map perforations or perforation tunnels

value over the period of the project, (minimum interest
rate of return) PGI

percentage map

percentage map a contoured subsurface map

showing the percentage of a certain rock type such
as sandstone in a rock layer such as a formation
percentage of submergence the amount of
submergence divided by (lift plus submergence).
Percentage of submergence is used in gas lift.
percentage sale the sale of gas by a producer to a
gas processing plant for a percentage of the monies
derived from the sale of the gas product
percentage timer an electric programmer that turns
a sucker-rod pump on and off. The most common is
the 15-minute percentage timer that has one on and
off cycle each 15 minutes. The 30-minute percentage
timer is less common.
percent submergence submergence, the depth of
the pump below liquid level in a well, divided by
total lift or pump setting depth
precision the ability of an instrument to reproduce
measurements under the same conditions. Precision
is reported as the maximum difference between
readings or percent of full scale, (repeatability or
reproducibility)
perco percolation
percolate to pass through a filter. Fluids such as water
can percolate by gravity down through the pores of
soil or rock. The percolation of a liquid through a
bed of powder or granules is often used as a filtration
method, perco
percussion drilling a method of drilling in which
the bit is both rotated and bounced off the bottom.
Percussion drilling is used for drilling hard formations,
and a button bit is used.
PERF or perf 1) perforated 2) perforating
3) perforations
perf csg perforated casing
perf d perforated
perfect gas see ideal gas law
perfing perforating
perforate to shoot holes or perforations in casing
or liner, cement, and producing formation to complete
or recomplete a well. Either shaped explosive charges

371

or, less commonly, projectiles or bullets are fired from

a perforating gun. perfs
perforated a tubular such as casing with holes called
perforations shot in it
perforated completion a type of well completion
in which holes called perforations are shot by shapedexplosive charges or bullets from a perforating gun
through the production casing or liner string and
cement to allow the formation fluids to flow into the
well
perforating-depth-control log -a, type of
radioactive log that accurately locates the depth of
each casing collar in a well. The casing collar depths
are then correlated with the pay zone depth to
accurately locate the perforating gun. PDC log
perforating gun a downhole tool that uses either
bullets or, more commonly, shaped explosive charges
that shoot high-velocity ( 30,000 ft/sec) gases to blow
holes called perforations in the casing or liner, cement,
and producing formation in a well. There are several
types of perforating guns. The bullet perforating tool
has several barrels and is fired electronically from
the surface. The high-velocity projectiles called bullets
can be fired individually or simultaneously. The
shaped-charge perforator or jet gun can generally be
described as retrievable or expendable. A retrievable
gun (retrievable hollow carrier gun) can be removed
along with the explosive debris from a well and be
reused. An expendable gun disintegrates and leaves
the debris in the well. There is also a semiexpendable
or semiretrievable gun. Perforating guns are run on
wirelines or a tubing or drillstring. Wireline guns are
fired electronically, whereas the tubing conveyed guns
are fired by pressure or a drop bar
perforating plugging material material that is used
to close the perforations in casing or liner in a well.
Cement filter cake is solid cement that is positioned
as a wet slurry during a cement squeeze job. Ball
sealers are rubber-covered balls of nylon, aluminum,
or plastic that are slightly larger that the perforations.
perforation see perforations
perforation balls or ball sealers hard plastic,
nylon, or aluminum balls coated with rubber that are
pumped down a well with treating fluid to temporarily
plug the perforations in a well. When the pressure
is released, the balls fall out of the perforations and
are backflushed to the surface.
perforation circulation washer a tool that uses
packers that seat and isolate the interval of casing or
liner in a well that was perforated. A pipe with holes
then washes debris from the perforation tunnels.
perforation friction the pressure drop in a fluid
flowing through a perforation in a liner or casing.
Perforation friction decreases production.
perforation log a log that shows the points to be
perforated in a cased hole. The most common
perforation log is a combination gamma ray and collar
locater log. The zones to be completed are located
on the openhole gamma ray log and are correlated
with a cased hole gamma ray log and the casing collar
depths off a casing collar locater log. Perforation logs
are often run with cement logs.
perforations or perforation tunnels holes shot
in the casing or liner, cement, and producing

372

perforation washer permanent guide base

formation by bullets or shaped-explosive charges to

allow oil and/or gas from a producing zone to flow
into the well. The perforations are commonly
described in shots per foot (density), the angular
separation between shots (phasing), size, and length
of perforation in the rock. Zero phasing has each
shot going in the same direction, whereas 180 phasing
has alternating shots going in opposite directions. The
shaped explosives can be shaped to give either
maximum penetration or maximum diameter of
perforation. PERF orperfs
perforation washer a tubing-conveyed device with
rubber cups that uses water to wash sand out of
perforations in a well
perforation washing a method for cleaning out
material clogging perforations in a well. A fluid,
usually brine that has been weighed for well control
and has been filtered, is circulated by a perforation
washer tool through the perforations to wash out the
debris.
perforation plugging the closing of perforations
or holes in the casing of a well usually by a cement
squeeze job or with ball sealers
performance coefficient the coefficient (C) used
in the equation Q=C(Ps2Pfy for backpressure or
isochronal tests. The performance coefficient depends
upon a) effective permeability of the formation,
b) formation thickness and temperature, c) gas
viscosity, gravity, and compressibility factor, d) radius
of drainage, and e) wellbore radius.
performance curve a graph used to monitor the
production of oil, gas, and water along with pressure
versus time in a well. For an oil well, oil production
rate is measured in barrels of oil per day, water
production is measured in barrels of water per day,
and the oil/water ratio or percentage of water cut
and the gas/oil ratio is plotted against time. For a
gas well, gas production rate is measured in thousand
cubic feet per day, condensate production is measured
in barrels per day, and water production is measured
in barrels of water per day, along with flowing tubing
pressure in pounds per square inch gauge plotted
against time.
performance-type leasing a method of bidding on
leases for public lands in which the bidder is selected
on the basis of the guaranteed exploration and
development program rather than the bonus or royalty
perfs 1) perforations 2) perforate 3) perforating
4) perforator
pericline a structure in which the sedimentary rocks
dip radially down and out from a central point. A
salt dome is an example of a pericline. A pericline
is in contrast to centrocline. (quaquaversal)
period 1) a subdivision of eras of geological time.
Periods can be subdivided into epochs. 2) the time
for one cycle. The time is usually measured from
wavecrest to wavecrest.
periodic cash balancing cash payments made by
an overproduced party to an underproduced party
from time to time, rather than upon depletion of the
reserves
periodic flowing a method used to clean a well of
sediments and drilling mud. The well is shut in for
a period of time to allow gas pressure to build up

and then is opened up. Gas, followed by oil, mud,

and sediments rapidly flow out of the well and into
the pits. The process can be repeated several times.
(bleeding or rocking a well)
periodic well test a routine test that is run on an
oil or gas well to determine the well's contribution
of the total production and to delineate any problems.
A periodic well test on an oil well will determine
the oil production in barrels of oil per day, water
production in barrels of water per day, and gas
production in thousands of cubic feet per day, along
with the gas/oil ratio incubic feet per barrel (ft3/bbl)
and the flowing tubing pressure in pounds per square
inch gauge (psig) on that date. A periodic well test
on a gas well will determine the gas production in
million cubic feet per day, condensate production
in barrels of condensate per day, and water production
in barrels of water per day, along with flowing tubing
pressure in pressure per square inch gauge and barrels
of condensate per million cubic feet (MMcf) of gas
on that date.
peripheral a device such as a terminal or disk drive
that is connected to a computer
peripheral pattern a type of reservoir-scale
waterflood pattern in which the injection wells are
located along the edges of the field, and the injected
water drives the oil toward producing wells near the
center of the field
perlite a rhyolite (volcanic glass) that is ground and
heated for use as a very low-weight cement additive
along with 296-6% bentonite to prevent the perlite
from separating out of the slurry
PERM or perm permanent
Perm Permian
Perm or perm permeability
PERM permeable
perm a unit of permeability that is equal to 1.127
darcys. A perm is used to compute the velocity of a
fluid flowing through a rock in barrels per day per
square foot.
permafrost permanently frozen earth occuring at
shallow depths in the Arctic. Permafrost ranges in
thickness up to 300 ft. In some areas, the surface of
the ground melts during the summer to form a swamp.
In Siberia, the permafrost acts as a cap rock for several
shallow giant gas fields. Permafrost with little or no
ice is called dry permafrost.
permafrost cement a type of cement used in wells
in permanently frozen ground. Permafrost cement is
quick setting and produces a relatively low amount
of heat during setting to minimize environmental
problems. Permafrost cement is a mixture of a gypsum
cement blend and a refractor cement blend.
permanent carried interest an interest in a well
or lease that is free of all costs of drilling, completing,
and operating the well(s) for the life of the lease
permanent guide base a heavy steel frame that is
landed on and attached to a temporary guide base
on the sea floor. The permanent guide base serves
as a landing seat for the wellhead, a guide for drilling
tools, and a mount for the blowout-preventer stack
and the completion tree. The base is square and weighs

permanent well completion petal fracture 373

about three tons. There are four guide posts on the
corners through which the guide lines run. PGB
permanent well completion a type of cased-well
completion in which the tubing is run and the wellhead
is assembled only once. All completion and workover
operations are conducted through the tubing.
permeability 1) a measure of the ease in which a
fluid flows through a rock. The units are in millidarcies
(md) or darcys (1,000 millidarcys). A rock has a
permeability of 1 darcy if 1 cm3 of fluid with a viscosity
of 1 cp that occurs as a single-phase fluid and fills
of the pores of the rock flows with viscous flow through
1 cm3 of the rock under a pressure gradient of 1
atm/sec. The more millidarcys, the higher the
permeability and the easier the fluids will flow through
the rock. Some general permeability values for oil
reservoir rocks in millidarcys are <1-15 (poor to
fair), 15-50 (moderate), 50-250 (good), 250-1000
(very good) and >1000 (excellent). Permeability is
directly measured on cores with a permeameter.
Permeability can be measured in three directions
(maximum, horizontal, and vertical). Absolute
permeability is the permeability at 100% saturation
of one fluid. Effective permeability is the permeability
of one fluid when more than one fluid is present.
Relative permeability is the ratio of effective
permeability to the absolute permeability, k, PERM,
Perm, per, or perm 2) a measure of the ease in which
a rock can be magnetized. Permeability is the ratio
of magnetic induction {E) to the magnetic intensity
Of).
permeability coefficient the flow rate of water in
gallons per day through a cross section of 1 ft2 under
a unit hydraulic gradient at either a) ambient
temperature or b) 60F
permeability ratio vertical permeability (kj divided
by horizontal permeability (k^
permeability trap a stratigraphic petroleum trap
formed by an updip decrease in permeability of the
reservoir rock
permeameter an instrument used to determine the
permeability of rocks. A permeameter consists of a
source of dry gas, a pressure regulator, an inlet and
outlet pressure-measuring device, a core holder, and
a flow-measuring device. A rubber holder called a
sleeve holds a sample plug. The sample plug is a
core that has been cut to a dimension usually VA in.
long and IV2 in. in diameter and cleaned of fluids
with a solvent such as acetone, benzene, chloroform,
or carbon tetrachloride. The permeability is measured
by forcing a fluid through the rock core under a known
pressure differential. Air or inert gas (nitrogen or
helium) is often used as the fluid to avoid rock-gas
interactions. The permeability is then calculated by
the volume of gas that passes through the plug under
a specific pressure differential. It is then converted
to liquid permeability with a Klinkenburg permeability
factor. The formula used is K = [(2000 QJ'J.fi.y
(Pt2 PO2)A] in which K = dry air permeability in
millidarcies (md), Qo = outlet air flow in cubic
centimeters per second (cm3/sec), Po = outlet air
pressure in atmospheres (absolute) (atm), Pt inlet
air pressure in atmospheres (absolute), JJL = air
viscosity in centipoises (cp), L = core length in
centimeters (cm), and 4 = core cross section in square

centimeters (cm2). The permeability of vugular,

fractured, crystalline, or laminated samples must be
measured with a full core.
Permian a period of time about 290-250
m. y. ago. It occurred at the end of the Paleozoic
era and is generally known as a time of desert climate.
The Permian is subdivided into the Lower Permian,
Middle Permian and Upper Permian global epochs.
It contains the North American epochs Wolfcambrian,
Leonardian, Guadalupian, and Ochoan. Perm
permissible dogleg a deviation in the azimuth and/
or inclination of a well that is not abrupt enough to
cause sticking tools or excessive stress for equipment
or tubulars in the well. A permissible dogleg is in
contrast to an excessive dogleg.
permit a document that grants permission to a
specific party to do a specific act on a specific parcel
of land. PRMT orprmt
permit man a person on a seismic crew who goes
ahead of the seismic crew persuading landowners
to sign access permits and compensating landowners
for any damage caused by the seismic
permitted depth the maximum depth (true vertical)
that a well is allowed to be drilled by a government
regulatory agency
permitted production the maximum amount of gas
and/or oil that a well, lease, or field is permitted to
produce per given time by a government regulatory
agency. Permitted production is often given in barrels
of oil/day for a certain number of days each month.
The permitted production can be based on depth
and spacing. The right of a state to regulate production
is called prorationing and is based on market demand.
Not all states impose permitted production.
(allowable)
PERML permalog

PRMT or print permit

perp perpendicular
perpendicular offset the distance between the shot
point and a line formed by the projection of a linear
geophone array in seismic exploration
perpetual lease a type of oil and gas lease that can
be extended indefinitely by delay rental payments. A
perpetual lease has no time limit or term, (no-term
lease)
persistence the durability of a corrosion control
inhibitor
PESA Petroleum Equipment Suppliers Association
PET pulse echo tool
Pet or pet 1) petroleum 2) petroliferous
peta the metric prefix for 1015. P
petal basket a mechanical device that is attached
to the outside of the casing below a stage or port
collar and used during stage cementing. The petal
basket allows fluids to flow up but prevents fluids
from flowing down through jt. The petal basket
prevents the upper stage cement slurry from flowing
into the drilling mud below it.
petal fracture an induced fracture in a core that is
caused by the stress generated by the core bit. The
petal fracture has a surface that is similar to the petals
of a flower and is concave downward and outward.

374

petcock petrologen

petcock a small valve

petol tong a hand tong with a flat end for leverage
petrf petroliferous
petrochemicals products that are made from
petroleum feedstocks such as methane, ethylene,
propylene, butylene, and naphthene. Some common
petrochemicals are fertilizers, plastics, nylon, vinyl,
dacron, teflon, polyethylene, explosives, synthetic
rubber, polystyrene, dyes, drugs, and antifreeze.
petrodollars monies from the Middle East and other
oil exporting countries
petrogenesis the study of the formation of rocks
petrography the branch of geology that describes
and classifies rocks with the use of then sections and
microsopes
petrofracturing a method of increasing production
from a well. A mixture of oil, chemicals, and sand
are pumped down the well under pressure to
hydraulically fracture the reservoir rock and increase
permeability.
petroleum the word petroleum is derived from
Latin: petra is rock and oleum is oil 1) a natural liquid
(crude oil) that comes from wells and is composed
of a mixture of hydrocarbon molecules. Petroleum
varies in chemical composition and physical
properties. Its density is measured in "API. A heavy
oil has a density less than 25 API gravity, a medium
crude from 25-35, and a light oil from 35-45. Crude
oil ranges in color from transparent through colors
of greenish-yellow, reddish and brown to typically
black. The light oils with low "API tend to be amber
to yellow in color, whereas the heavy oils with low
"API tend to be brown to black. The smell ranges
from gasoline (normal, sweet crude) to foul (normal,
sour crude) to fruity (aromatic). Types of hydrocarbon
molecules in crude oil are paraffins, naphthenes,
aromatics, and asphaltics. Crude oil can be classified
according to their relative concentrations of paraffins,
naphthenes and aromatics, and NSO compounds.
Petroleum can also be divided into a) black or lowshrinkage oils and b) volatile or high-shrinkage oils.
The low-shrinkage oils are less than 40 API and have
between 0-1000 SCF of natural gas/stock tank barrel.
The high shrinkage oil ranges from 35-5O API and
have between 1000-4000 SCF of natural gas/stock tank
barrel. Petroleum can also be classified into a) heavy
oil, b) black oil, and c) volatile oil. Heavy oil has
less than 20 API, a high viscosity greater than 10 cp,
high density, and a negligible gas/oil ratio. It is
immature or degraded oil. Black oil has between 3045 API gravity. Its critical temperature is greater than
the reservoir temperature. Volatile oil has between
45-70 API. Volatile oil has a very low specific gravity
and exists in the two-phase region. The liquid has a
very high gas/oil ratio. Petroleum has a compressibility
of about 1 x 10~5 vol/vol/psi. Petroleum does not
dissolve in water and is generally, but not always,
lighter in weight than water. Petroleum often contains
significant amounts of dissolved natural gas. Crude
oil is divided into sweet and sour crudes based on
their sulfur content. The exact amount varies, but sweet
crude generally has less than 1% sulfur, whereas sour
crude has greater than 1%. Low-sulfur crude has less
than 0.6% sulfur by weight, intermediate-sulfur crudes
have 0.6%-1.7%, and high-sulfur crudes have above

1.7%. Petroleum has a calorific value of 18,300-19,500

Btu per pound. The specific gravity of petroleum
generally ranges from 0.780 (50 API)-1.000 (10 API).
An average petroleum chemical analysis by % weight
carbon
84-87
hydrogen
11-14
sulfur
0.06-8.00
nitrogen
0.02-1.70
oxygen
0.08-0.14
metals
0.00-0.14
(crude oil and oil) 2) crude oil and natural gas 3)
any naturally occurring hydrocarbon such as crude
oil, natural gas, and solid asphaltines. Pet or pet
petroleum engineer a professional trained in the
drilling, completion, and production of oil and gas.
Types of petroleum engineers include drilling,
completion, and reservoir engineers.
petroleum engineering the technology of
exploiting petroleum fluids from subsurface
reservoirs. Petroleum engineering is concerned with
the design and implementation of methods to recover
commercial amounts of oil and gas. PE
petroleum gas thermogenic natural gas formed by
either heat and time from organic matter or the
thermocatalytic modification of crude oil under high
temperatures
petroleum geologist a geologist trained in the
exploration for oil and gas
petroleum geology the science of the occurrence
and the exploration for oil and gas. Petroleum geology
involves the application of geochemistry and
geophysics along with geology. It is a branch of
economic geology.
petroleum land management a university
program and degree in leasing and lease management
for landmen. PIM
petroleum province a region of similar
stratigraphic and structural geological characteristics
containing numerous petroleum reservoirs such as
the Mid-Continent or Rocky Mountains of the United
States
petroleum revenue tax a tax on British oil fields
that is payable once an oil field produces more than
1 million tonnes per year. The petroleum revenue
tax is for five years and is a varying percentage each
year that is applied to the field's production income
after deducting royalties, supplementary petroleum
duty and exploration, development, and production
costs. PRT
petroleum rock any porous rock, such as sandstone,
limestone or dolomite, in which gas or oil can be
found
petroleum sulfonate a surfactant used in chemical
flooding
petroliferous petroleum bearing, petrf
petrologen organic matter in sedimentary rocks that
is insoluble in organic and aqueous alkaline solvents.
Petrologen is formed from the breakdown of plant
and animal material. Petrologen can be classified
visually by morphology and color into groups called
macerals and chemically into types by the elemental
composition of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In
shales, petrologen ranges from 80%-95% of the
organic matter. The term was originally restricted to

petrologist Phasor Induction log

the insoluable organic matter in oil shale. Heat and
time changes the petrologen in sedimentary rock into
petroleum in a process called maturation. Petrologen
is in contrast to bitumen that is soluble in organic
solvents, (kerogen)
petrologist a geologist who studies rocks to
determine their composition, occurrence, and origin
petrology the study of the composition, texture,
occurrence, and origin of rocks
petf omietic a sedimentary rock containing unstable
rock fragments
petrophysics the study of the physical aspects of
reservoir rocks including the pores and their
characteristics. Petrophysics is sometime more
narrowly defined as the study of pores and their
shapes.
petroporphyrin see porphyrin
PF power factor
pf per foot
PF bottomhole flow pressure
Pf 1) absolute static pressure (flowing) 2) fluid
pressure
pf interface pressure
PFC 1) perforating control log 2) perforating
formation collar
PFC GR perforating control, gamma ray log
PFC N perforating control, neutron log
pfd preferred
PFE percent frequency effect
P^ fracture gradient pressure
P50 point a measure of the effectiveness of a solid
particle removal device. Median cut is the smallestsized particle that the device will remove at least 50%
of that size particle from a solid-liquid suspension.
(median cut)
PFM 1) power factor meter 2) flowmeter
PFN prompt fission neutron
PFP formation pressure
PFRAC fracturing pressure
PFT pumping for test
PG 1) per gallon 2) pressure gauge
Pg seismic wave refraction through basement
PGA Potential Gas Association
PGB 1) permanent guide base 2) polymer gel blocks
PGC Potential Gas Committee
PGCOA Pennsylvania Grade Crude Oil Association
pg'd plugged
PGDM pressure gauge datum
PGDP pressure gauge depth
PGI percent gain on investment
PGT powered gamma-gamma tool
PGW producing gas well
PH per hour
PH or pj, hydrostatic pressure
pH an potential hydrogen ion and the symbol for
alkalinity and acidity. It is the negative logarithm of

375

the hydrogen ion concentration and is expressed on

a scale of 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. The lower
the number, the more acidic the liquid, the higher
the number the more alkaline.
ph phase
phantom a line drawn on a seismic section parallel
to an adjacent reflector event. A phantom is used when
the reflector event is discontinuous and cannot be
traced for any significant distance.
phantom income income that was never realized.
An example of phantom income is an exchange of
property for services. Phantom income has bad tax
consequences and is treated as current income.
phase 1) the point or stage in the passage of a wave
or cycle of rotation or oscillation. Phase is usually
expressed as angular measure. (j> 2) a part of a system
that has the same properties and sharp boundaries
between other phases present. Crude oil and oilfield
brines are phases. In enhanced oil recovery, phase
is a separate fluid that coexists with other stable fluids
such as in a microemulsion. ph 3) in physical
chemistry, a phase is a gas, liquid, or solid
phase-comparison system a marine navigational
system that uses three or more shore base stations
and a mobile station. The interference between
stations is used to create standing waves.
phase converter an electrical device that is used
on a sucker rod well to convert single-phase power
to three-phase power for the prime mover. The types
of phase converters are a) capacitor, b)
autotransformer and c) rotary.
phase diagram a diagram that uses two or more
variables such as temperature, pressure, and
concentration as axes to show with phase envelopes
the stability regions of gas, liquid, and solid phases
of a substance
phase inversion the compression of a wave
becoming a rarefaction and vice versa
phase properties the types of fluids, compositions,
densities, viscosities, and relative amounts of oil,
microemulsion, or solvent and water formed when
a micellar fluid or miscible solvent is mixed with oil
during enhanced oil recovery
phase rule F = C P + 2 in which F is the degree
of freedom such as temperature, pressure, and
concentration, C is the number of components in the
system such as natural gas, crude oil, and water that
forms a three-component system, and P is the number
of phases present such as gas, liquid, and solid.
phase velocity the velocity of a specific phase of a
wave such as a trough or crest
phasing the interference composite of several
reflections which could include a polarity reversal
of one or more of the reflections. The modified
waveform seen on seismic could be a hydrocarbon
indicator.
Phasor Induction log a type of high-resolution
induction log that also records the out-of-phase
component (quadrature) of the induced signal from
the formation to improve the shoulder bed response
and accurately determine the skin effect. The log uses
wellsite processing and yields very accurate formation
resistivities.

376

PHC photon log

PHC pyrolytic hydrocarbon yield

I 1) porosity 2) potential 3) azimuth
<>
| 1) dilational potential 2) phase
phi a logarithmic transformation of the Wentworth
grain-size scale that is used to describe sediment grain
size and to facilitate computations. Phi is the negative
logarithm to the base of two of the grain size in
millimeters. One mm is 0 phi, lA mm is 1 phi,
Vt mm is 2 phi and 2 mm is 1 phi.
4a 1) absolute porosity 2) apparent porosity
<&B porosity occupied by water bound to clay
4>b matrix porosity
<&CNl compensated neutron log apparent porosity
&, cutoff porosity
<fD density-log apparent porosity
"&DC corrected density-log apparent porosity
4DR porosity calculated while drilling
<tDS density-sonic log porosity
4e effective porosity
4>EPT electromagnetic propagation tool apparent
viscosity
4>F 1) free-fluid density 2) free-fluid index
Djg intergranular porosity
^in, intermatrix porosity
<I>K TDT-K apparent porosity
4M macroporosity
<&m microporosity
ON neutron-log apparent porosity
I>NC corrected neutron-log apparent porosity
4Ncl neutron-log equivalent porosity of clay
4*,^, neutron-density log porosity
<INf neutron-log equivalent porosity of fluid
4Nmf neutron-log equivalent porosity of mud filtrate
<&T total porosity
4>t total porosity
4>s sonic-log apparent viscosity
3>SN sonic-neutron log porosity
4>SNP sidewall neutron porosity apparent viscosity
OTA apparent total porosity
pH meter an instrument that is used to determine
the pH (acidity/alkalinity) of a solution. The pH meter
measures the electropotential between a glass
electrode and a reference electrode that are immersed
in the solution. The electopotential will vary with the
pH and is calibrated with buffered solutions of known
pH values.
phone see geophone
Phos or phos 1) phosphate 2) phosphatic
phosphate-treated mud a bentonite drilling fluid
containing phosphates that act as inorganic thinners.
Phosphate-treated mud is used when the drilling fluid
is contaminated with drilled solids or cement. The
phosphates are not stable at high temperatures where
other thinners must be used.

phosphatic a sedimentary rock that contains

phosphate (PO4) minerals such as apatite. Phos or
phos
phosphatic nodule a round, black mass that ranges
in size from a fraction of an inch to over 10 in. in
size. Phosphatic nodules consist of shells, bones, fecal
material, sponge spicules, or sand or mica grains
covered with a hard, shiny crust of calcium phosphate.
Phosphatic nodules occur in marine sediments and
are deposited in a relatively deep, anoxic environment.
photoalldade an instrument used to measure
azimuth and inclination to objects on oblique aerial
photographs. The photoalidade consists of a telescopic
alidade, a plate holder, and a hinged arm mounted
on a tripod.
photoclinometer a wireline well logging
instrument that measures the inclination or azimuth
and inclination at a specific depth in the well. One
type of photoclinometer has a light source hanging
from a cable that burns a mark on a sensitized paper
disk with graduations marked on it to record only
the inclination. Another photoclinometer uses a
compass needle and a steel ball rolling in a curved,
graduated glass to determine both inclination and
azimuth at several locations. A photographic film is
used to record the data. PC
photoelectric absorption the reaction of an atom
when a gamma ray with less than 100,000 eV passes
close to the nucleus of an atom and is absorbed,
causing an electron to be ejected. The photoelectric
effect is dependent on the atomic number of the
nucleus and is used in well logging to determine
the elemental composition and lithologies of
formations.
photoelectric absorption cross section index
a downhole measurement of the energy levels of
incident gamma rays recorded with a Litho-Density
or Compensated Spectral Density tool that is related
to the atomic numbers of the atoms in the formation.
The index is used to determine the lithology of the
formation and is combined with a density log to
determine porosity. Pe
photoelectric effect a change in the electrical
property of a substance due to incident radiation.
Photoelectric absorption is an example. PE
photogeology the use of aerial photographs to map
the outcrop of formations, the location of structures,
and the geomorphology of the earth's surface such
as stream drainage patterns. Stereo pairs of aerial
photographs can be viewed with a stereoscope to
view relief.
photomap a map made with an aerial photograph
or mosaic of aerial photographs. A photomap can have
a scale, geographical names, and a reference grid.
photomosaic an assembly of joined and/or
overlapping aerial photographs
photon a quantum of electromagnetic energy or
radiation such as radio waves, light waves or gamma
rays. A photon is equal to hf in which h is Planck's
constant (6.626 x 10~34 joule sec) and/is the frequency
of the radiation. PL
photon log a type of wireline well log that is similar
to a density log. The photon tool bombards the rocks
adjacent to the wellbore with gamma rays from a

pH paper pigtail
source and measures the backscattered gamma rays
with a detector. A photon log differs from the density
log in that it is not pressed against the wellbore by
a pad and is sensitive to the diameter of the wellbore
and the density of the fluid in the well.
pH paper a paper that is impregnated with different
dyes. When the pH paper is wetted, the pH of the
solution is indicated by the color of the paper, (litmus
paper)
phr phreatic
phreatic zone the zone in the subsurface rocks
where the pores are filled with water. The phreatic
zone is located below the water table. The vadose
zone or zone of aeration is located above the water
table, (zone of saturation) pbr
Phs hydrostatic pressure of squeeze column
Phyl or phyl phyllite
phyllite an argillaceous metamorphic rock that is
is characterized by a shinny surface caused by mica
flakes. A phyllite is intermediate between a slate and
a mica schist in degree of metamorphism. Phyl or
phyl
phy pot physical potential
phytoplankton floating plants
PI 1) productivity index 2) pressure indicator
3) penetration index 4) Petroleum Information
5) production index
P, or p, initial pressure
P:I or P/I profit-to-investment ratio
Piacenzian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 4.6-2 m. y. ago. It is part of the Pliocene
epoch.
piano string or wire a steel measuring line that is
used with a calibrated instrument to measure the depth
of a well. Piano wire has relatively little stretch.
(Halliburton line)
PIC 1) pressure indicator control 2) Perforating
Investigating Committee
pick 1) the location of the top or bottom of a
subsurface rock layer on a well log 2) a geologist's
hammer with a sharp point on one end 3) a seismic
reflection with a distinctive wiggle
Pickett crossplot a crossplot of porosity versus deep
resistivity (RM or R^) on three cycle log-log paper.
The Pickett crossplot is based on true resistivity (Rt)
being a function of porosity (4>), water saturation (Sw),
and the cementation factor (m). The crossplot is used
to determine a) water saturation (Sw), b) formation
water resistivity (Rw), c) cementation factor (m) and
d) matrix parameters (htma and p ma) for porosity
logs.
pickle a weight used above the hook on the end of
a wireline to keep the wireline straight
pickling the use of an inhibitive fluid to prevent
shales from hydrating as they are being drilled
pickup see geophone
pick up the depth when the sonde is lifted off the
bottom of the well
pick-up line a cable used for general lifting on a
drilling rig. The pick-up line has chains on each^end
and is attached to the traveling block in single or

377

double lines. The pick-up line is used to lift heavy

loads such as the blowout preventers and the rotary
table in contrast to the lifting line or catline.
pickup or pick-up oil oil that seeped or overflowed
from a well or storage tank
pickup points the locations on the drilling line that
are at the top of the crown block sheaves or bottom
of the traveling block sheaves when the drillstring is
lifted from the rotary during tripping out. The pickup
points on a drilling line experience severe wear.
pickup position the time when a floor crew on a
drilling rig latches the elevators onto drillpipe during
tripping out
pickup station a surface pit or trap that gathers
pickup oil that has leaked from a well or storage
tank
pico- the metric prefix for 10"12. p
PIEA Petroleum Industry Electrical Association
piercement the breakage of overlying rocks by a
rising plug of shale or piercement salt as occurs on
a salt dome
piercement dome a body that has pierced or
appeared to pierce the overlying rocks by the flow
of plastic, underlying rocks such as salt or shale into
overlying rocks. The flow is often caused by pressure
or density differences. Examples of a piercement dome
include a salt stock or plug and a mud diapir. (diapir)
piercement folding folding in sedimentary rocks
such as an anticline in which incompetent beds such
as shale or salt have been extruded through the crest
of the structures, (diapiric folding)
piezoelectric effect the characteristic of certain
crystals such as quartz to develop an electric potential
when strained
piezometric contour a contour line of ground
water pressure head, (equipotential, isopiestic, or
isopotential line)
piezometric surface a surface defined by the height
to which water from an aquifer will rise in wells in
an area, (potentiometric surface)

Jk.
PIPELINE

F~

BATCH

PIG

pig

pig a device, usually a hard rubber or plastic sphere

or a metal cylinder, that is sent through a pipeline
to clean, test, or separate batches of fluids. The pig
shape can be a ball, elongated or segmented. Pigs
are used to clear condensate out of low areas of
pipelines such as river crossings. Pigs are put into
and taken out of the pipeline from launchers and
receivers, (rabbit)
pig a line to run a pig through a pipeline
pig iron equipment made of iron or steel
pigtail the pair of wires that extend from a geophone
case

378

pile pinch in

pile a long, steel, thick-walled pipe measuring up

to 54 in. or longer in diameter and several hundred
feet long that is grouted in a drilled hole or driven
by pile driver into the sea floor to anchor the jacket
of an offshore platform
pile assembly the top of the outer conductor on a
subsea well that forms the base for mounting the
wellhead equipment
piled-steel platform a common type of offshore
platform that uses legs anchored to the sea bottom
by piles to support the drilling and production
platform above the surface of the sea. Two legs are
often equipped with flotation chambers so the
platform can be towed horizontally to the site. The
platform is then flooded with water and sunk to the
sea bottom. The topside equipment such as modules
are then installed on the platform. Almost all offshore
platforms constructed between 1947 and the mid1970s are this type. A piled-steel platform is in contrast
to a pileless platform, (steel jacket or steel-template
jacket platform)
pile follower a spacer device that allows piles used
to anchor an offshore platform to be driven into the
sea bottom by a hammer above the surface of the
sea
pile guide a guide located on the corner of a steeltemplate jacket platform that allows piles used to
anchor the platform to be driven into the sea bottom
by a hammer above the surface of the sea
pileless platform a type of offshore drilling and
production platform that uses its own mass of
reinforced concrete and/or steel on the seafloor for
stability. The massive base often has cells that can
be used for flotation as the platform is assembled
and floated out to the offshore site in an upright
position. On location, the cells can be used for storage
of crude and diesel oil and for ballast water. The
cells are surrounded by a protective skirt on the
seafloor to inhibit scouring from currents. Four
columns often connect the massive base with the
platform located above sea level. One of these columns
can contain pumps and piping to the cells below.
The other columns can conduct the wells with the
production risers going down the inside of the
columns. A pileless platform is in contrast to the other
common type of fixed production platform called a
piled-steel or steel-jacket platform that uses piles
driven into the seafloor for stability. The pileless
platform is primarily used where there is a need for
offshore storage such as where there is a hard bottom
and pipelines are not practical, (gravity-base structure
or platform, gravity platform or structure)
pile piling the securing of an offshore platform jacket
to the seafloor with piles. The piles are long, thickwalled, steel pipes that are hammered or drilled into
the seafloor. The jacket is then bolted to the piles.
pill a batch or slug of an additive or treatment
pill tank the section in a suction tank used for heavy
mud mixing and conditioning (slug tank)
pilot an extension of the bottom of a downhole tool
that is used to guide the tool. The pilot on a pilot
mill guides the pilot mill into a tubular fish. A pilot
on a reamer keeps the tool concentric in the hole.
(stinger)

pilot bit a drilling bit with a smaller diameter than

the wellbore. A pilot is used with deflecting tools to
kick off a deviated well or with a hole opener or
reamer pads to enlarge the wellbore.
pilot flood a small waterflood or enhanced oilrecovery project that is run on small portion of a
field to determine the field's suitability for a large
scale project
pilot hole the hole drilled by a small-diameter pilot
bit from a deflecting tool in a well to kick-off a deviated
well. The pilot hole is surveyed and enlarged.
pilot mill a type of fishing tool with tungsten carbide
cutting edges that is used to grind up junk in the
well. The pilot mill has a pointed pilot or stinger
located below the cutting edge to guide the pilot mill
onto the open end of the junk. The pilot mill is rotated
on a fishing string to drill up casing, tubing, screens,
liners, and wash pipe in a well.
pilot pin the protrusion on a bearing pin end that
fits into the nose of a cone on a roller-cone bit
pilot scale a small-scale project usually involving the
development of part of a field for evaluating techniques
and equipment. Pilot scale is in contrast to field-scale.
pilot test a small-scale test such as the mixture of
drilling muds and additives in a container
pilot waveform a waveform from a seismic source
that is cross-correlated with a recorded signal to
produce the seismogram record

pin 1) the end of a tubular with male threads. Pin

is in contrast to box. 2) a steel pipe up to 4 ft in
diameter and over 600 ft long that is used similar to
piles to pin and secure an offshore platform jacket
to the sea floor 3) the shank on a drill bit that screws
into the drillstring
pin-and-pin a type of coupling that joins two rods
with male threads on the ends. A box, a cylinder with
female threads, is used to join the rods. Pin-and-pin
is in contrast to a pin-and-box coupling.
pin angle the angle between a line perpendicular
to the axis of a journal on a cone and the axis of
the roller-cone bit. At a pin angle of 45, the cones
are entirely rolling. The lower the pin angle, the more
gouging and scraping of the rocks. The size of the
angle also affects the size of the cone, with increasing
journal angles equating to decreasing cone size. The
optimum pin angle for soft rocks is 33 and for hard
rocks is 36 (journal angle)
pinch to use a choke to reduce flow
pinch a -valve to partially close and reduce the fluid
flow through a valve
pinch in to decrease the orifice size of an adjustable
choke

pinchout or pinch out pipeline

pinchout or pinch out 1) a sedimentary rock layer
that thins to zero thickness into another sedimentary
rock layer forming a wedge shape, (wedgeout) 2) to
narrow in thickness
pin-drive master bushing a master bushing that
has four holes bored into it to accommodate the four
pins on the bottom of the kelly bushing. Pin-drive
master bushing is in contrast to a square-drive master
bushing.
pineapple a cone on a roller-cone bit
pin end the male-thread end of a pipe
pinger a transponder that emits an acoustical signal
pinion 1) a gear with numerous small teeth on its
circumference that mesh with a larger wheel or rack
2) the smallest gear in a train of gear wheels
pinnacle reef a relatively small, isolated reef with
a steep cone- or spire-shape. The slopes on a pinnacle
reef are from 45 to vertical.
pin packer a packer in which the packing element
is held contained with steel or brass pins during
positioning. When weight is put on the packer, two
metal sleeves shear off the pins. The packing element
then expands to pack off the well.
pinpoint or pin-point pore a small, isolated pore.
Pinpoint pores are not part of the effective porosity
of a rock. Pinpoint pores are most commonly found
in limestone. PPP.ppp, or pp.
pin pt pinpoint
PIP pump-in pressure
pipe oilfield tubular goods such as drillpipe, casing,
liner, pup joints, or tubing. Pipe can be either seamless
or electric welded. Pipe is classified by inner and
outer diameters, weight, pressure rating, construction,
and extra features. Drillpipe is classified by pipe grade
based on yield strength and characteristics. Pipe weight
is usually in pounds per foot (lb/ft). Pipe range is
the approximate length of the pipe.
Pipe Analysis log a combination of magnetic-fluxleakage and eddy-current measurements used to locate
flaws in both the inner and outer casing walls in a
well. PALm
pipe bundle several parallel pipes that have been
fastened together

379

pipe capacity the volume of fluid that a pipe can

hold internally. Pipe capacity is usually expressed in
barrels per foot of pipe length.
pipe cutter a tool that is used to cut casing, drillpipe
and tubing in a well. Pipe cutters can be both inside
and outside cutters and are either hydraulic or
mechanical. The inside cutter uses spring-loaded
knives. The carrier body is run in the well and into
the pipe to the bottom end of the pin on a joint.
The cutter is then activated by jarring upward and
the knife arms extend. The knives can be released
by a tripping action and the process can be repeated.
Chemical cutters can be used for small diameter
tubing.
pipe dolly a cart with rollers used to move
drillpipe and collars on a drilling rig. The pipe dolly
has a hook fitted to the bottom of the dolly and is
used to lift the end of drill collars to slide the collars
out the catwalk.
pipe drag 1) the difference between the static,
buoyant hanging weight of a drillstring in a well and
the up-stroke or down-stroke weight when tripping
2) the additional force or torque necessary to move
the drillstring due to friction against the wellbore.
(drag)
pipe fingers the protrusions used to rack pipe on
a finger board on the derrick of a drilling rig
pipe fitter a person who assembles and repairs pipe
pipe hook a metal hook with a handle that is used
by a drilling rig crew to manipulate drillpipe
pipe jack a long lever that is used on the drill floor
to slightly raise a stand of pipe in the derrick of a
drilling rig in preparation for tripping in
pipe joint a heavy duty connector of box (female)and-pin (male) design that is used to couple drillpipe.
It has coarse, tapered threads and seating shoulders
and is made in various sizes and designs. The pipe
can be screwed or welded onto the drillpipe. (tool
joint)
pipeline a tube system, usually made of steel pipe
that is welded together and is used to transport oil,
gas, or other fluids. A pipeline can be located above
ground, buried in the ground, suspended above the
ground, on the sea floor, or buried in the sea floor.
Types of oil and gas pipelines include lead, flow, lease,

pipeline

380

pipeline connection Pisol or pisol

gathering, feeder, and trunk lines. A pipeline is usually

designed to carry either oil or gas, but some pipelines
from offshore production platforms are designed to
carry both to avoid having to construct two pipelines.
The gas is kept moving in a pipeline by compressor
stations at various intervals, whereas oil pipelines use
pump stations. Pipelines are coated before they are
buried to prevent corrosion. Offshore pipelines have
a weighed coating. PL, P.L or pi
pipeline connection the outlet on a tank or vessel
that drains the oil to the pipeline
pipeline gas see pipeline quality gas
pipeline gauger an employee of the purchaser who
measures the amount of oil or gas flowing through
a pipeline
pipeline oil crude oil that is of sufficient quality,
usually less than 1% basic sediment and water, to
be accepted by a pipeline or transport system. PLO
or P.L.O.

pipeline pressure the minimum gas pressure

underwhich a specific pipeline operates. The pipeline
will not accept gas at a lower pressure. Pipeline
pressure is usually between 700 and 1,000 psig in
order to reduce the diameter of the pipeline needed
and to keep the gas as a dense phase to prevent
condensation and two-phase flow.
pipeline quality gas gas that meets the
specifications of a gas pipeline purchase contract.
Pipeline quality gas is dry enough that liquid
hydrocarbons will not condense out in the pipeline
and does not contain corrosive gases or excessive
moisture that can form hydrates. Pipeline quality gas
also has a minimum Btu content that is usually between
900 and 1,050 Btu/ft3 and has sufficient pressure from
the well to match pipeline pressure which is usually
between 700 and 1,000 psi. A typical gas pipeline
purchase contract might specify a maximum of 4-7
lb/MMSCF of water, V* grain/100 SCF of hydrogen
sulfide, 15F hydrocarbon dew point at 800 psig, 0.2
grain/100 SCF mercaptans, 1-5 grain/100 SCF total
sulfur content, 1-3 mole percent of carbon dioxide,
0-0.4 mole percent of oxygen and a minimum of
950 Btu/SCF, along with being commercially free of
solids and having a maximum delivery temperature
of 120F and a minimum delivery pressure of 700
psig. (pipeline gas or sales quality gas)
pipeline trash anything flowing in a gas pipeline
other than natural gas. Pipeline trash is often sand,
scale, and dirt.
pipe protector a rubber sleeve used to cover a pipe
joint
pipe racker a pneumatic or hydraulic apparatus that
is used on a drillship to move pipe from a pipe rack
to the derrick or from the well to the pipe rack
pipe racker or stabber the drilling crew member
who uses the lead tongs, (lead-tong man)
pipe racks platforms made of steel pipe that are
located next to a drilling rig and are used to hold
horizontally-stacked drillpipe. Pipe racks are 20 ft long.
Two pipe racks oriented perpendicular to the catwalk
are used on each rig.
pipe ram a type of closing element used on a blowout
preventer. The pipe ram has two steel blocks with

rubber sealing surfaces that have inserts cut into the

end to fit around a specific size pipe in the well.
The pipe ram can be thrown either manually or
hydraulically with 300-5,000 psi. A variable pipe ram
can fit around a range of pipe sizes, (gate)
pipe ramp a sloping surface made of steel that leads
from the area of the pipe rack up the drill floor of a
drilling rig. The pipe ramp is used to drag the drillpipe
up onto the drill floor. (V-door)
pipe-recovery log a record of the stuck intervals
of pipe in a well including length and severity . The
tool is a sonic device that uses signal attenuation to
identify stuck pipe and is calibrated in free pipe. The
pipe-recovery log is usually run on a wire line with
a gamma ray log to identify problem-causing
formations.
pipe rubber a rubber doughnut that fits around
drillpipeto reduce wear on the casing. Pipe rubbers
are usually located 3 ft above the tool joint on alternate
tool joints. Pipe rubbers are not used in open holes.
(casing protector)
pipe setback load the weight of pipe stands in a
derrick
pipe spinner an air motor that drives a silent chain
on rollers to hand tighten or untighten drillpipe when
making a connection before or after using the tongs.
(spinner hawk)
pipe sticking drillpipe or drill collars that have
inhibited movement in a well. Pipe sticking can be
divided into a) differential pipe sticking, b) mechanical
pipe sticking, and c) key seating. In differential pipe
sticking, the drillpipe or drill collars adhere to the
well wall because of the differential between
hydrostatic and formation pressures. In mechanical
pipe sticking, a cave-in or sloughing packs off the
space along the sides of the drillstring. In key seating,
the drill collars become stuck in a narrower part of
the wellbore.
pipe tapping drilling a hole through the wall of a
pipe filled with fluid under pressure. A saddle is used
to attach a valve to the pipe, (hot tapping)
pipe vendor a service company that sells tubular
goods such as drillpipe, conductor pipe, casing, liner,
tubing, and flowlines. The tubulars are kept in stock
and the pipe vendor can also supply a design service.
pipe wind-up angle the twist of drillpipe caused
by rotating torque
pipe wiper a rubber donut-shaped disk used to wipe
drilling mud and other fluids off tubulars such as
drillpipe as they are pulled from a well. The pipe wiper
is located below the rotary table by removing the
split master bushings. The pipe wiper will also deflect
any dropped tool.
piping a general term for casing or standpipe in soil
piping and instrumentation diagram a flow
diagram that shows the location, connections, and
details of piping and instruments in a system. P and
ID
PIR porosity indicator ratio
Piso or piso 1) pisolite 2) pisoid
Pisol or pisol pisolite

pisolite plagioclase
pisolite a rock that is made of pea-sized particles
such as peloids or oolites. A pisolite is usually a
limestone and is formed on a subaerial surface of
carbonate sediments, (grapestone) Pisol, pisol, Piso,
orpiso
piston the disk or short cylinder that is moved by
a piston rod up and down the inside of a cylinder
in an engine or compressor to exert pressure on a
fluid in the cylinder
piston pin the link between the piston and the piston
rod in the cylinder of an engine or compressor, (wrist
pin)
piston prover a type of flowmeter prover in which
a piston forces a fluid out of a calibrated cylinder
through the meter being tested. The true flow volume
can then be compared to the recorded flow volume.
A piston prover is commonly used in lease automatic
custody transfer systems.
piston pump a type of pump that uses a
reciprocating piston in a cylinder to move fluid. The
stroke is longer than the piston.
piston ring the metal ring that forms a seal around
the circumference of a piston as it moves up and
down in the cylinder of an engine or compressor
piston rod the shaft that is connected to the piston
by a piston pin and drives the piston up and down
the inside of a cylinder in an engine or compressor
piston stroke the length of piston movement in the
cylinder of an engine or compressor from top dead
center to bottom dead center
pit pitted
pit 1) a depression bulldozed into the ground on a
drilling site. Pits are used to store drilling mud,
cuttings, salt water, and other wastes and are often
lined with plastic. Earthen, dirt, or ground pits are
used to store drilling mud. 2) a depression caused
by corrosion
pit-alert sensor an instrument used in the mud tanks
of a drilling rig to monitor the level of drilling mud
pitch 1) a dark brown to black, solid or very viscous
liquid that is composed almost entirely of
hydrocarbons. Pitch is formed by distillation of organic
substances such as coal or wood tar. 2) the distance
between two adjacent rollers in a roller chain 3) the
up and down motion of the fore and aft of a ship
on the ocean 4) the spacing between teeth on a row
of teeth and the spacing between adjacent rows of
teeth on a roller-cone bit. The pitch determines the
point of tooth impact on the rocks. 5) the degrees
of slope on wireline as it goes from one wrap to
another during spooling
pitch lake a surface accumulation of degraded
reservoir bitumen such as asphalt
pit drill an exercise on a drilling rig that is supervised
by the tool pusher and is designed to make the driller
aware of the fluid level in the mud tanks. Without
warning to the driller, the float in the mud tank is
raised or lowered. The time that the driller takes to
notice the pit level change and, if drilling, signals to
pull up the kelly is recorded on a Pit-O-Graph. Less
than Yi minute is acceptable. The test record is then
signed by the tool pusher and driller.

381

pit level the height of drilling mud in the mud tanks

of a drilling rig
pit-level indicator see pit-volume totalizer
pit liner plastic sheets that are used to prevent
seepage of oil, mud, or brine into the ground from
earthen pits or any leaking pit
pitman 1) the steel beam that connects the rotary
counterbalance with the walking beam on a beam
pumping unit. The pitman is located on the side of
the walking beam opposite the well and transfers the
motion of the prime mover to the walking beam. An
equalizer moves and compensates for any
misalignment between the two pitmen. 2) the
connecting beam between the bandwheel and walking
beam on a cable-tool rig
Pitot tube a device used to measure the velocity of
a fluid at a point. The impact of the fluid flowing
into the tube forces a liquid up the tube against gravity.
The height of the liquid column compared to the
static pressure height of the column is a measure of
the flow velocity. An annubar averages the pitot tube
pressures from four impact ports.
Pitot-tube meter a type of flowmeter that uses a
Pitot tube to measure the difference between the flow
and static pressure on a liquid to determine the velocity
of the flow
pitting corrosion small areas of localized corrosion
pit-volume indicator see pit-volume totalizer
pit-volume recorder a gauge in the driller's
location of the drill floor of a drilling rig that shows
the total volume of drilling mud in the mud tanks
as measured by the pit-level indicators
pit-volume totalizer an instrument used on a
drilling rig to monitor the volume of mud in the
tanks. Transducers in each mud tank are connected
to a float that rises and falls with the mud level. These
are connected electronically to the pit-volume totalizer
that sums the mud volume in barrels. The volume is
recorded and an automatic alarm can sound or flash
if the mud volume becomes too high or low. (pitlevel or pit-volume indicator) PVT
PJ 1) pump jack 2) pump job
Pk convergence pressure
pk pink
pkd packed
pkish pinkish
PKRorpkr packer
PKRF packer failure

Pkst or pkst packstone

PL 1) property line 2) pipeline 3) photon 4) proximity
log
PI plagioclase
pi pipeline
P.L. pipeline
Plag plagioclase
plagioclase a type of feldspar mineral with a
chemical composition of (sodium-calcium) aluminum
silicate. Plagioclase occurs as white-to-gray wellformed crystals or granular masse and is a common
rock forming mineral. Plagioclase has a specific gravity

382

plain end plattern kalk

of 2.6-2.7, two good cleavages at 86 and a hardness

of 6-6.5. Types of plagioclase include albite, oligoclase,
andesine, labradorite, bytownite, and anorthite based
on the sodium and calcium content of the mineral.
Plag or PI

plain end the end of a tubular without threads or

tool joints. PE
plain end weight the weight of a tubular joint
without threads and coupling on the ends. The weight
is expressed in pound meters per foot (lbm/ft) or
kilograms per meter (kg/m). Plain end weight is in
contrast to threaded and coupled weight.
plains-type fold see compaction anticline
plane table a drawing board mounted on a tripod
that is used for surveying. An alidade, a telescope
with a straight edge, is used on the plane table to
make angular measurements between a base line and
points to be surveyed. A stadia rod is sighted through
the alidade to give distance and angular direction.
plane wave a wave in which the wavefronts form a
planar surface. A plane wave is in contrast to a spherical
wave.
planimetric map a map of surveyed physical and
cultural features such as rivers, lakes, towns, and roads
planktonic an animal or plant that floats in water.
Planktonic is in contrast to nektonic or benthic.
plant in seismic exploration, it is a) the coupling of
the geophone to the ground, b) the way in which
the geophone is placed on the ground, or c) to place
a geophone on the ground
plant air air that is not as pure as instrument air
and is used to drive air motors, (utility air)
plant liquids liquid propane, butane, pentane, and
heaviers that have been removed from natural gas
Plas or plas plastic
plastic cement an expensive specialty type of
cement used to selectively plug open holes and
perforations and to cement waste-disposal wells.
Plastic cement is a mixture of water, liquid resin and
catalyst, and API class A, B, G, or H cements.
plastic deformation deformation of a substance that
is permanent and without rupture. The deformation
starts at the yield stress and is continuous after that
without an increase in stress. Plastic deformation is
in contrast to elastic deformation. Pkts or plas
plastic fluid a fluid in which the shear rate is not
proportional to the shear force. A specific pressure
is necessary to initiate and maintain fluid flow. Drilling
mud flows with plastic flow. The yield point of drilling
mud measures the pressure need for the drilling mud
to flow. Plug flow is movement of a plastic fluid as a
unit without shearing when it first starts to flow. Plastic
flow is in contrast to a Newtonian fluid such as oil
or water.
plasticity the ability of a substance such as a drilling
mud to be deformed without rupture
plastic shale shale that contains a relatively large
amount of water and can squeeze into the wellbore
plastic squeezing a method of sand control in which
resinous material is injected under pressure into
unconsolidated pay sands and hardened with

chemicals. Plastic squeezing cements the sand grains

together but leaves a permeable producing formation.
plastic viscosity the internal resistance of a fluid
to flow due to the interaction of solids such as drilling
mud in the fluid. Plastic viscosity is the viscosity after
the yield stress of a Bingham plastic fluid is reached.
Plastic viscosity is usually measured in centipoises (cp)
or dynes/cm2 and is calculated from a direct-reading
viscometer by subtracting the 300 rpm consistency
index from the 600 rpm consistency index. PV
plat a scale diagram of a tract of land as determined
by survey
plate coalescer a device used in produced water
treating to remove oil droplets. The oil droplets rise
to the plate coalescer surface where they are coalesced
and collected. Three types of plate coalescers are
a) parallel plate interceptors, b) corrugated plate
interceptors, and c) cross-flow interceptors.

plate tectonics

plate tectonics a relatively recent theory (1967) in

which the earth's surface is composed of about twentyeight large, moving sections called plates. The plates
are formed at the crest of the midocean ridge by
seafloor spreading, are moving out at right angles to
the midocean ridge, and are destroyed in subduction
zones such as deep ocean trenches and mountains.
The spreading rates of the plates range from 1-7 in.
per year. The plates are composed of lithosphere
which is about 45 mi thick. They are thought to move
on the asthenosphere or low-velocity layer. Plate
margins are described as active, passive, and transform.
The theory helps explain the formation of many of
the major features of the earth such as mountains,
volcanos, ocean trenches, and earthquakes.
platf platform
platform 1) a land area formed by flat-lying or gently
dipping sediments. A limestone platform is an area
of limestone deposition. 2) see offshore platform
platform chief the person in charge of an offshore
platform
platform jacket see jacket
platform privileges permission to be on a drilling
rig and to have access to the drilling and test
information
platform tree a production or Christmas tree located
on an offshore platform
plattern kalk rhythmically bedded micrite

play plug flow 383

- TIDAL

CUSMNTS
SHEUS

RIMMED

FINE-GRAINED

limestone platforms

play a particular reservoir rock, cap rock, and trap

type that has proven to contain commercial petroleum
by previously discovered petroleum fields of that
combination in that area. More fields of that play can
be expected to be found.
playback a method used to verify the quality of
seismic data recorded by checking an analog response
displayed by camera or on a consol
PLCU programmable logic control unit
plcy pelecypod
PLD or pld pulled
PLE plain large end
Pleist pleistocene
Pleistocene an epoch of time about 2 m. y- 10,000
years ago when the world climate was colder than
today and more precipitation occurred. Glaciers of
ice covered up to one-third of the land area of the
world, and sea level fell about 300 ft below present
level. There were four major cycles of glaciation
separated by warmer periods called interglacials when
sea level was higher than present. The Pleistocene is
part of the Tertiary period. (Ice Ages) Pleist
PLEM pipeline end manifold
plenum an enclosed area in which the atmosphere
is kept at a slightly higher pressure than the outside
atmosphere. The pressure prevents potentially
dangerous gases from seeping into the area from the
outside.
pi fos plant fossils
pig pulling
plgd plugged
Pliensbachian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 190-185 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Jurassic epoch.
P-LIF plunger lift
Plimsoll mark a line on an offshore drilling rig such
as a semisubmersible that marks the maximum depth
to which the rig can be loaded or ballasted
Pllo Pliocene
Pliocene Aan epoch of time about 53-2 m. y. ago.
It occurred near the end of the Tertiary period. Plio
PLM Petroleum Land Management
pin plan
plngr plunger
PLO 1) pumping load oil 2) pipeline oil
PX.O. pipeline oil

plot 1) to place data on a map or diagram 2) a map

showing the location of data
plotted section a seismic record in which seismic
reflectors or events are shown by lines or points.
The horizontal scale is distance along the seismic line
and the vertical scale is either time or depth.
plotter a device used to put data on maps or diagrams
plow oil to drill with crude oil in the well
plow steel a good grade of steel that is a) basicoxygen steel, b) acid or basic open-hearth steel, or
c) electric-furnace steel. There is also improved and
extra-improved plow steel. PS
PLSS production logging stack system
PLT production logging tool
PLT, Pit, or pit plant
pit pilot
pity platy
PLUG plugged tools
plug 1) to place cement in a well and/or a metal
plate over it to abandon the well 2) cement filling
an area of the well. Plugs are used primarily for
well abandonment, plugback, and deviation. 3) a
small-diameter core that is used for porosity and
permeability measurements. The plug is cut by a coreplug drill and is typically 1-1 Vi in. in diameter and
1-3 in. long. Both horizontal and vertical plug samples
can be taken. A plug is in contrast to a whole core
from which the plug is cut. 3) a high-viscosity polymer
used during cementing casing in a barefoot
completion to protect the producing formation.
plug and abandoned to place a surface cement plug
in a dry or depleted well. Cement plugs are required
at specific depths in the well by law to prevent
pollution of fresh water reservoirs. Usually the top
100 ft of the well is cemented and the casing is cut
to 6 ft below ground level. A steel plate is welded
to the top of the casing, and the hole is filled with
dirt. An abandonment marker or dry-hole post is left
in the hole. A permanent plaque on the post gives
the company name, well location, depth, and other
information. Plug and abandon is in contrast to shutting
in or suspending a well. P&A
plug a well the sealing of a well usually with cement
in order to prevent fluids from flowing from one
subsurface strata to another or to the surface in the
well
plug back or plugback an operation on a well to
abandon and plug a deeper reservoir with a plugback plug and move up the well to complete a
shallower reservoir
plug-back cementing a secondary cement job on
a well in which a cement plug is spotted at a specific
depth in the well
plug-back plug a cement bridge used in a well to
seal the lower portion of the well. A plug-back plug
is often used after a lower producing zone becomes
depleted and a completion is to be made in an upper
zone.
plug container the part of a cementing head that
holds the wiper plugs
plug flow a type of laminar flow in which there is
no shearing in the center of the flow. Plug flow can

384

plugged and suspended pneumatic drilling

The most common gas used is production gas. A valve
on the bottom of the plunger closes when it hits a
bumper on the bottom of the well. Rising bottomhole
pressure activates a flowline controller at the surface,
and the plunger rises to lift the oil. At the top of the
well, the plunger strikes a bumper that opens a valve
to release the gas below it into the flowline and the
plunger falls. Plunger lift is used to dewater gas wells
and on low volume, high gas/oil ratio wells, weak
flowing wells, and wells with excessive gas. (freepiston
lift) P-UF

plug flow

occur with low velocities in drilling muds during

drilling of a well.
plugged and suspended the state of a well that
has been temporarily abandoned with a bridge plug
but can be reopened, p and s
plugged bit a drilling bit with the mud or water
courses clogged. A plugged bit is indicated by an
increase in mud pump pressure
plugging the clogging of screens with solid particles.
The plugging of shale shaker screens with well cutting
decreases the efficiency of the shale shake.
plugging back to set a cement plug, usually with
the balanced plug method, across a zone in a well
to isolate that zone. Plugging back is used to a) abandon
a lower depleted zone, b) abandon a well, c) kickoff a deviated well, or d) seal a lost-circulation zone.
plugging material material that is pumped down
a well to temporarily or permanently seal off a zone(s)
while treating or working on another portion of the
wellbore. Lost-circulation material is used to seal off
a lost-circulation zone during drilling.
plug valve a common, low-pressure oil flowline
valve with a steel plug in a conduit bore that can be
rotated 90 to open or close the valve. The plug can
be cylindrical, spherical, or conical in shape
plumb or plumb bob a weight with a pointed end
that is attached to the end of a line or measuring
tape to hold it vertically by gravity. A gauge bob is a
type of plumb bob used on a tank gauge to determine
by the innage method the amount of oil in a tank.
plumb-bob effect the pendulum effect of gravity that
pulls a drillstring toward vertical
plunge 1) the inclination of a fold axis in sedimentary
rocks measured from vertical 2) to set the horizontal
crosswire on a theodolite during surveying in the
direction of a grade
plunger the fluid end piston on a reciprocating
pump. On a sucker-rod pump it is attached to the
sucker-rod string and contains the traveling valve. The
plunger moves up and down in the barrel of the
pump to lift the oil. One type of plunger is metal-tometal and can be either box-end or pin-end and plain
or grooved. Another type is soft packed and can be
either the cup or ring type.
plunger lift an artificial lift method for oil wells.
Plunger lift uses a free-moving piston that travels up
and down the production tubing to lift the oil. The
energy comes from gas in the casing-tubing annulus.

plunger overtravel the vertical distance that is

added to the top and bottom of a sucker-rod stroke
by rod stretching and compression due to acceleration
or deceleration
plunger pump a reciprocating pump that has a
plunger longer than the stroke. A plunger pump is
used to produce fluid pressure higher than a piston
pump.
plunging fold a fold in sedimentary rocks in which
the fold axis plunges between 10 and 80. A plunging
fold is in contrast to a horizontal or vertical fold.
plutonic rock an igneous rock which crystallized
from a hot melt below the surface of the ground. A
plutonic rock typically has large-sized mineral grains.
Granite is a common plutonic rock. Plutonic rock is
in contrast to an extrusive rock.
PLYH polyhalite
Pm phenophthalein alkalinity of drilling mud in
number of milliliters of 0.02 normal acid required
per milliliter of mud
pm pumping or pumped
Pm meter pressure
Pnrt mud filtrate salinity
P.M.I. pulse modulated inverter
PML proximity minilog
pmp pump, pumping, or pumped
Pmpg or pmpg pumping
pmpd pumped
PMPU pumping unit
PN plugged nozzle
Pn net pressure
PNC pulsed neutron capture
pneu pneumatic
pneumatic operated by the force and movement of
a gas under pressure. Pneumatic is in contrast to
hydraulic, (air activated) pneu
pneumatic drilling drilling with either air, natural,
gas, or air and water (mist) as the circulating fluid.
Pneumatic drilling is similar to drilling with mud
except a compressor is used. Conventional roller cone
bits are used and the weight on the bit is increased
and the revolutions per minute reduced compared
to mud drilling. Pneumatic drilling is often used in
shallow wells or in drilling through formations that
are susceptible to formation damage. The drilling is
often faster and less expensive than rotary drilling,
but it cannot control abnormal high pressures and
prevent the sides of the well from sluffing.

pneumatic sucker-rod pump or pneumatic surface unit polished rod

pneumatic sucker-rod pump or pneumatic
surface unit a type of artificial pump using a suckerrod pump driven by an vertical pneumatic cylinder
mounted on the wellhead. The sucker-rod string is
driven by gas pressure on a piston in the cylinder.
Some units have two cylinders mounted on each other
with a common polished rod and a piston in each
cylinder. The upper cylinder is the counter balance
cylinder, whereas the lower cylinder is the drive
cylinder. The gas is usually compressed natural gas.
pnl panel
PO 1) payout 2) pumps off 3) pulled out 4) pulling
5) purchase order
Po 1) overburden pressure 2) pressure in oil phase
POB 1) plug on bottom 2) pump on beam
POC pump-off control
pod 1) a series of hydraulic valve controls that operate
the blowout-preventer rams 2) the housing for a
thruster on a semisubmersible or a drillship 3) the
water-proof housing for the hydraulic equipment on
a subsea blowout-preventer stack
POE plain one end
POGW producing oil and gas well
POH 1) pulled out of hole 2) pull out of hole
point 1) one percent of an interest in production.
A royalty of \2Vi% is called 12V4 points. 2) one tenth
of a pound per gallon of drilling-mud density or weight
3) a unit on a weight indicator
RIVER MEANDER

385

of 1 cm/sec while separated from a stationary surface

by 1 cm that is filled with that fluid. A poise is equal
to 1 g/cm/sec. Viscosities of crude oil vary greatly
with "API, the amount of gas dissolved in the oil,
and temperature.
Poisson's ratio the ratio of lateral unit strain to
longitudinal unit strain in material that has been
stressed longitudinally within its elastic limit. Poisson's
ratio is a measure of the squeezability of the
substance, p
Pol or pol polished
polar compound a chemical compound that has
both a positively- and negatively-charged end. Water
is a polar compound
polar fraction see NSO compound
polarity the peak or trough of a seismic wave. By
SEG convention, upward ground motion on a
geophone is represented by a trough. On a normalpolarity section, compressional reflections are
displayed as a trough, whereas on a reverse polarity
section, the compressional wave is displayed as a peak.
polarity reversal the change of a waveform from
trough to peak or peak to trough. A polarity reversal
can be caused when the acoustic impedance of a
reservoir rock is slightly larger than the cap rock and
the reflection polarity goes from plus to minus. Polarity
reversal can be a seismic hydrocarbon indicator.
polarize to retard an electrochemical reaction by the
deposition of a corrosive product
polecat oil sour crude oil
pole drill to spring-pole drill a well
pole mast a mast used for well servicing that is
constructed of tubulars. Double-pole masts are used
to suspend sucker rods and stack tubing. Pole masts
are elevated and extended with wire ropes.

B
polished
rod

point bar

point bar a crescent-shaped accumulation of sand

deposited on the inside of a river meander. A point
bar is formed by the migration of a river meander
toward the outer bank and commonly has a fining
upward sequence.
pointed out a well that has become too narrow with
depth to continue drilling
point zero a point on the bottom of a stock tank
directly below the reference point. The tank gauge
is lowered into the tank at this spot to measure the
height of oil in the tank, (gauging bar)
pois poison
poise the cgs unit of viscosity. A fluid has a viscosity
of 1 poise when a tangential force of 1 dyne causes
a plane surface of 1 cm2 to move at a constant velocity

polished rod

polished rod the smooth length of brass or steel

rod that moves up and down through the stuffing
box or packing gland of a sucker-rod pump. The
polished rod is located just below the walking beam
and is at the very top of the sucker-rod string. The
rod provides a connection on a sucker-rod pump
between the sucker-rod string and the bridle on the

386

polished-rod clamp pool

pumping unit. The polished rod also forms part of

the sealing system between the tubing and the
atmosphere in the stuffing box. The rods range in
diameter from 1-1 Vi in. and are 8-22 ft long. Smoothsurfaced rods available in piston steel, common steel,
stainless steel monel, bras, and special alloys. Polished
rods have a pin-and-pin construction. PR
polished-rod clamp a device that is used to hold
the top of the polished rod to the bridle on a suckerrod pump
polished-rod liner a cylinder that is abrasion and
corrosion resistant, shock proof, and antimagnetic that
is used to protect the polished rod on a sucker-rod
pump
pollen very small grains composed of several male
cells of seed flowers enclosed in microspore walls.
Pollen is carried great distances by wind and is an
excellent microfossil in sedimentary rocks to
determine age and climate during deposition of the
sediments. Gymnosperm pollen has existed from the
Pennsylvanian period to the present, and angiosperm
pollen has existed from the Cretaceous period to the
present. Specialists in identifying ancient spores and
pollen are called palynologists. Poln
Poln pollen
poly polygonal
polyacrylamide a very high molecular weight
material used in polymer flooding

polycrystalline diamond compact bit

polycrystalline diamond compact bit a shear type

of drilling bit that uses synthetic diamonds. The cutting
is done with rows of small cylinders called drill blanks
or compacts that are composed of a layer of manmade polycrystalline diamonds cemented to & tungsten
carbide stud. The bit body is either a heat-treated
alloy steel or tungsten carbide matrix with at least
three jet nozzles, and the bit profile is either a double
cone or a shallow cone. The advantages of the
polycrystalline diamond bit are that there are no
moving parts, it drills by shearing, requiring less effort,
and the bit is well suited for turbine drilling.
Polycrystalline diamond bits are self sharpening and
need less weight on the bit than a conventional drill
bit. The bit does not work well with water-base drilling
muds and is more expensive than conventional bits
but has a longer life in hard rocks than other types
of bits. (PDC bit or stratapax bit)
polyhedral pore a flat-sided pore in dolomite
formed between dolomite rhombs
polymer a long-chained, high-molecular weight
molecule that, when mixed with water, increases the

viscosity of the water. Polymers are formed by joining

two or more smaller molecules (monomers) of the
same kind end to end. The molecules have the same
elements in the same proportions but differ in
molecular weights and have different physical
properties. Polymers are often used as a driving force
for the other fluids in a chemical flood and to drive
oil in polymer flooding. Polymers are also used as a
drilling-mud thickener, but are expensive.
polymer flooding an enhanced oil-recovery
process used when reservoir conditions cause a
regular waterflood to be inefficient. Such reservoir
conditions could be caused by natural fractures of
high-permeability that cause the injected water to
channel, leaving most of the oil in place. The condition
is also caused by heavy, viscous oils. Polymers are
added to the injected water to make it more viscous
and efficient. Fresh water is then injected behind the
polymer slug to prevent contamination by the drive
water.
polymerization the combining of smaller
molecules to make larger molecules
polymer mud a drilling mud that contains a polymer
additive for increased viscosity
polymer stability the ability of a polymer used in
enhanced oil recovery to maintain its original
properties
polymitic a clastic seimentary rock composed of
many rock types. A polymictic rock is rapidly deposited
and buried. It is characterized by poor sorting and
angular grains. Arkose and graywacke are polymictic.
Polymictic is in contreast to oligomictic.
polynuclear hydrocarbon a hydrocarbon
molecule formed by two or more benzene molecules
linked together
PI see SI
pontoon 1) a circular buoyancy chamber at the base
of a stabilizing column on a semisubmersible. A
pontoon is in contrast to a hull-shaped buoyancy
chamber 2) the deck of a jackup rig
pontoon barge a barge that is designed to transport
equipment to an offshore platform
pony collar a 10-15-ft drill collar
pony rod a shorter length sucker rod. Pony rods
come in the same diameters and grades as sucker
rods but occurs in IV2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12-ft
lengths. A pony rod is used to make the sucker-rod
string the correct length and is run at the top of the
string below the polished rod.
pony sub pony substructure
pony substructure a 3-6-ft high substructure that
is used with a normal substructure to raise the height
of the drill floor on a drilling rig. Two pony
substructures are used parallel to each other and
connected with cross members. They are located on
the bottom of the substructure and are connected to
the substructure with large bolts and locking elements.
pony sub
POOH 1) pulled out of hole 2) pull out of hole
pool 1) an old term that has been replaced by the
terms reservoir or zone. A pool has a single pressure
system and does not communicate with other pools.
A major pool is defined as having greater than 50 M

pooled working interest pore

bbls of recoverable oil. (reservoir or zone) 2) to
combine several leaseholds into one unit for drilling
3) to combine large leaseholds on a producing
reservoir to coordinate pressure maintenance, water
flooding, or enhanced oil recovery
pooled working interest working interests from
several leases that have been combined or pooled
and are operated as a unit, (unitized working interest)
pooling 1) combining small tracks of fractional
interests in mineral rights in order to drill a well.
(unitization) 2) combining mineral rights of larger
tracts on a producing reservoir to coordinate pressure
maintenance, water flooding, enhanced oil recovery,
or any other method that will maximize the ultimate
recovery from that reservoir. Pooling can be either
voluntary (voluntary pooling) or by order of an agency
(forced pooling). The term pooling is most commonly
used for combining interests in order to drill a well.
(communitization)
pooling clause a common oil and gas lease
provision that allows the lessee to combine all or
part of the acreage with other acreage for drilling
and production
pooling provision a clause in a lease form that
stipulates that if the working interest combines with
other leases to pool or unitize, the nonworking and
royalty interests in the lease will also be part of the
agreement
pool opener the discovery well for a reservoir
pool operator one of several operators of gas wells
in a gas pool that was formed by a local distribution
company or pipeline to establish an aggregated supply
of natural gas. The local distribution company or
pipeline makes monthly nominations to the pool
operators.
poop shot the detonation of a small charge in seismic
refraction to determine the effect of the low-velocity
layer or weathering on the surface, (short or
weathering shot)
poor boy 1) a well being drilled with a minimum
amount of money 2) an oil or drilling company with
very little money 3) to make something cheaply
4) something made cheaply
poor-boy corer an early type of corer used in rotary
drilling. The poor-boy corer was a pipe with teeth
cut into the lower end. After the core was cut, the
teeth were bent inward to trap the core by increasing
the rotation speed and decreasing the circulation.
(Texas-type corer)
poor boy backoff a method used to unscrew pipe
in a well. In a poor-boy backoff, the joints are all
tightened with right-handed torque under tension or
overpull. Slow, left-handed torque applied by the pipe
tongs with the swiveldisconnected is then applied
with overpull. After one turn, the overpull is increased
and the assembly should unscrew near the free point.
(blind backoff)
poor boy degasser see mud/gas separator
poor-boy junk basket an early rotary fishing tool.
A poor boy junk basket consisted of a piece of casing
with saw-teeth on the bottom welded onto a bit sub
or tool joiiit. The junk basket was rotated on a
drillstring while circulating. As the poor-boy junk

387

basket was rotated, the saw-teeth would bend inward

trapping any junk in the casing.
poorly sorted a sedimentary rock that contains a
large range of grain sizes. PSRT
poorly-washed biosparite a limestone that
contains subequal amounts of both limestone mud
(micrite) and sparry calcite along with allochems or
large, transported grains
POP putting on pump
pop see shot
pop or pop off a vent
pop-off valve a valve that is designed to open when
the pressure on a liquid or gas reaches a specific
level. The pop-off valve is used to prevent excessive
pressure buildup, (relief, pressure-release, pressurerelief, or safety valve)
popper valve a one-way valve used in a riser or
downhole packer to allow fluid to flow down but
not up the well
poppet valve a type of one-way pneumatic valve
popping of gas the flaring or blowing of gas into
the air to dispose of natural gas from a well
popping shale a shale formation with abnormal high
pressure that causes the shale to split off into a
wellbore. (geopressured shale)
popping straws drilling development wells
population a real or hypothetical collection of
everything with certain properties
pop-up buoy a buoy that is attached to the sea floor
and can be released by a sonic signal, (recall or subsurface buoy or call-back marker)
pop valve a spring-loaded safety valve
POR, Por, or por 1) porosity 2) porous
porcel porcelaneous
porcelaneous having the appearance of unglazed
porcelain, porcel

GRAIN

CEMENT
pore

pore the space between the solid rock particles. Pores

are usually occupied in sedimentary rocks by a fluid
such as water, gas, and/or oil. Primary pores are formed
as sedimentary rocks are originally deposited.
Secondary pores are formed in the subsurface. The
pore type name can describe its geometry (vug,
cavernous), origin (solution, fracture, organic), or

388

pore pressure porosity unit

location (intergranular, intercrystalline). Macropores

are larger than 0.5 M-m *n size in contrast to micropores.
The volume percent of pore space in a rock is called
porosity. P
pore pressure the pressure exerted by the formation
fluid on the walls of the pores in the formation. Normal
pore pressure is hydrostatic pressure that is equal
to about 0.45 psi/ft depth. Abnormal high pressure
or geopressure is higher than hydrostatic pressure,
whereas abnormal low pressure is lower. Pore
pressure is the same as fluid, formation, or reservoir
pressure, (formation pore pressure) Pp
Porifera

pore throat

pore throat the narrow connection between two

pores. Pore throat sizes control the permeability of
a rock. The pore-throat size distribution in a rock
sample such as a core can be measured by the
a) porous diaphragm technique, b) centrifugal
technique, or c) air-mercury injection technique. A
plot of saturation versus capillary pressure will yield
a profile of the pore-throat size distribution.
pore volume the total volume of all pores in a
reservoir. PORV or PV
pore volume compressibility the change of pore
volume per unit of pore volume per unit of pressure
change. The pore volume compressibility for
sandstones and limestones is about 2xi0~ 6 to
25*10~ 6 perpsi.
pore water the free or interparticle water in a
reservoir rock that can flow through the rock. Pore
water is in contrast to bound and irreducible water
Porifera the phylum that includes sponges. Porifera
are mainly marine bottom-dwelling invertebrates.
Many have calcareous or siliceous internal skeletal
elements called spicules that are preserved as fossils.
Porifera have existed from the Precambrian era to
the present.
porosimeter an instrument that uses the mercuryinjection and air-injection methods to measure the
porosity of a rock. The porosimeter consists of a
volumetric mercury or air pump and pycnometer
vessel, pressure gauges, sample chamber, and

handwheel. The rock sample is a plug that is usually

V/i in. in diameter and VA in. long. In the mercuryinjection method, the volume of mercury injected into
the pores of the plug is measured, whereas the volume
of air injected is measured in the air-injection method.
A Boyle's law porosimeter is commonly used for core
porosity measurements.
porosity the percent volume of pore space in a rock.
Porosity is a measure of the reservoir rock's storage
capacity for fluids. Some general porosity values for
oil reservoirs are 0%-5% is negligible, 5%-10% is
poor, 10%-15% is fair, 15%-20% is good and 20%25% is very good. Total or absolute porosity includes
all the pore spaces, whereas effective porosity includes
only the interconnected pores. Macroporosity is a
measure of all pores greater than 0.5 |x m m s * ze in
contrast to microporosity. The porosity of a sample
can be measured by bulk-volume measurements such
as a) mercury displacement, b) a bulk-volume meter,
c) mercury pump, d) caliper measurements, and
e) buoyancy and pore-volume measurement such as
a) dry grain density, b) wet grain density, c) Boyle's
law single- and double-cell methods, d) WashburnBunting method, e) summation of measured fluids,
and 0 hydrocarbon resaturation. The symbol for
porosity is <J>. POR, Por, orpor
porosity curve the spontaneous potential curve on
an electric well log
porosity cutoff a minimum porosity valve that is
chosen to define the lower limit of a productive
reservoir rock. Porosity cutoff is used on porosity logs
to define net pay.
porosity exponent an empirical number used in
the Archie formula for well log analysis. The porosity
exponent generally ranges from 1.0-3.0 and is 1.3
for unconsolidated sediments and commonly about
2.0 for most reservoir rocks. The exponent is
influenced by the rock geometry that controls the
shape of the conductive solution in the pores.
(cementation or shape factor) m
porosity log 1) one of the three wireline well logs
(acoustic velocity, density, and neutron) that are used
to determine porosity
porosity overlay a plot of porosities that were
calculated from different wireline well logs
porosity reversal the change of originally porous
rock with geological time into rocks that lack porosity
or visa versa
porosity unit a measure of formation porosity used
on the scale of a neutron porosity or other porosity

porous medium postplotting

sensing log. The porosity unit is calibrated to 1%
porosity. PUorp.u.
porous medium a solid that contains pores
porphyrins hydrocarbon ring complexes that
contain nitrogen and a metallic nucleus that is usually
vanadium or nickel. Porphyrins occur in hydrocarbons
ranging from C25 through C35 and are most common
in C30 through C32. Porphyrins occur in crude oil
(ranging from less than 1 to 1300 ppm) and are formed
from the green coloring matter (chlorophyll) in plants,
suggesting the organic origin of crude oil.
(petroporphyrins)
porphyry an igneous rock that contains a bimodal
distribution of both fine-grained and coarse-grained
mineral crystals. A porphyry is formed by slow cooling
and partial crystallization followed by rapid cooling.
prphy
port portable
port 1) an opening 2) the left side of a ship in contrast
to the starboard side
portable well tester a trailer-mounted unit that
contains separation and measurement equipment used
to measure fluid production from a well
port collar a short steel cylinder that couples joints
of casing and has ports in it. The port collar has a
sliding sleeve that can open or close the ports when
activated by rotation or movement of the drillpipe
inside them. A port collar is used to give access to
the annulus and is normally closed. A port collar is
used in multiple stage cementing in a well and is
similar to a stage collar. It is also used for gravel
packing.
ported nipple a landing nipple with ports or holes
in its sides
Portland cement powdered cement without
additives. Portland cement consists of tricalcium
silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate,
tetracalcium aluminoferrite, calcium sulfate, magnesia,
and lime. The relative percentages of the components
affect the properties of the cement. Portland cement
is finely ground and used from the surface to 6,000
ft to bind the casing to the sides of the well. Portland
cement is the same as API Class A cement.
POKV pore volume
pos positive
positioning system ask system
positive buoyancy the upward pressure on an
immersed body due to the weight of the submerged
body being less than the weight of the fluid, such as
water, that it displaces
positive choke a choke that is not adjustable and
has only one size orifice in contrast to an adjustable
choke, (fixed choke)
positive clutch line clutch that uses clamps to
engage a rotating member. Two types are a) jaw and
b) spline clutches
positive-displacement flowmeter, meter, or
volumeter an instrument that is used to measure
the volume of fluid flow. A positive-displacement
flowmeter separates the fluid such as a gas stream
into separate volumes and measures the number of
volumes. Two common types of positive-displacement

389

flowmeters are a diaphragm meter and a rotary meter.

The diaphragm meter uses two diaphragms in the
meter case that are alternately filled and emptied to
measure the gas volume. It is used for low volumes
of clean, dry gas and is the type of meter used in
home gas meters. The rotary meter uses a lobed
impeller or rotating vanes to measure the gas. The
impeller has 2 figure-8 lobes at 90. A rotating vane
type uses a rotating idler and rotating valves or pistons.
The rotary meters are used to measure high volumes
of gas and can be used with high pressures. A positivedisplacement flowmeter provides information on the
volume rather than the flow rate in contrast to an
inferential meter. (PD meter)
positive-displacement motor a downhole motor
that uses the flow of drilling mud down the drillstring
to turn rotors to provide rotary power to the bit.
The motor consists of a dump valve, motor assembly,
connecting rod or universal assembly, and bearing
orbit assembly, each in a section. The motor assembly
has a rotor on a solid steel spiral shaft, and stator in
an outer tube lined with a rubber-like material.
Positive-displacement motors can be either a highspeed, low-torque motor or a low-speed, high-torque
motor. The low-speed motor is the most commonly
used today.
positive-displacement pump a reciprocating
plunger that moves a specific quantity of fluid with
each piston stroke
positive separation a higher value for the
micronormal resistivity curve than the microinverse
curve on a well log. Positive separation usually
indicates the presence of a mudcake.
positive-volume prover equipment used to test and
calibrate the accuracy of a flowmeter. The positivevolume prover consists of a vessel of known volume
that is accurately calibrated. A liquid is passed through
the line meter to the prover vessel, and the volume
of liquid is measured and compared with the meter
reading. The vessel can be atmospheric, open to let
vapors evaporate, or pressurized.
positron an atomic particle that has a positive charge
and very low mass
poss possible
possible reserves oil and gas that is inferred to be
present by speculative geological information and can
be produced if located. Geological knowledge is
insufficient to yield anything but vague indications
of possible recovery.
possumbelly or possum belly 1) an eroded, outof-gauge section of the well 2) see mud box 3) see
trip tank
post to record seismic travel time to a specific
reflector on a base map
posted price or posted field price the declared
price that a purchaser will pay for oil from a field.
The name comes from the fact that the price used
to be posted in the field by purchasers.
posthole digger a small drilling rig
posthole well a shallow well
postplotting a navigational technique in which new
data is used to rework and process old data using
different corrections. The data is stored on magnetic
tape.

390

pot powder

pot potential
pot the chamber that holds the suction and discharge
valves in a reciprocating or plunger pump. Pots are
located on the fluid side of the pump. Pots are classified
by the API as to size and dimensions, (valve pot)
potable water water that is drinking quality
potash potassium carbonate (K2CO3)
potassium-argon age dating a method used to
determine the age of a rock using the radioactive
decay of K40 (parent) to Ar40 (daughter) that has a
half life of 1.3 billion years. A chemical analysis of
the amount of K40 and Ar40 is made to determine
the age of the mineral. Micas are commonly used.
potassium feldspar see orthoctase K-feldspar
pot belly an enlarged wellbore due to sloughing
of a soft formation such as shale, (cavity)
pot dif potential difference
poteclinometer a instrument used to continuously
measure the inclination and azimuth of a wellbore.
The poteclinometer contains a pendulum that moves
the wiper arm of a potentiometer to measure a
resistance that corresponds to the inclination. A
compass moves on a wiper arm of another
potentiometer to measure azimuth. Another
pendulum moves a third wiper arm to measure relative
bearing.
potential 1) the amount of oil and/or gas that a well
can produce daily as determined from a potential
test run in the well 2) the electrical voltage with respect
to a reference, pot
potential energy stored energy in a body because
of its configuration or position. Potential energy is
in contrast to kinetic energy.
potential reserves future oil and gas production
in a known reservoir that will be produced by future,
improved recovery techniques. Potential reserves are
reserves beyond what the reservoir is expected to
produce under present facilities, (indicatedadditional
reserves)

potential surface show a ratio of the volume of

gas added to drilling mud per unit of time divided
by the volume of rock drilled per unit of time. PSS
potential test a test used to determine the maximum
amount of gas and oil that a well can produce under
fixed conditions during a specific time, such as 24
hours. The test is usually run on each new well and
is repeated periodically during the well's life. The
oil produced is measured by tank gauging or meter
and the gas by an orifice meter or orifice well tester.
The potential test can be required by a government
regulatory agency to assign a production allowable.
PT
potentiometer an instrument used to measure
electrical voltage
potentiometric surface a surface denned by the
height to which water from an aquifer will rise in
wells in an area, (piezometric surface) PS
pothead a flat motor cable with a special terminal
that is designed to conduct electrical power to an
electric submersible pump but maintain a fluid seal
pot man the cable-tool drilling crew member who
is in charge of the boilers

WIRELINE
STUFFING
iX AND
LUBRICATOR
PORTABLE POWER DRIVEN WINCH

BOTTOM HOLE
PRESSURE GAUGE

potential test

potting the encasing of electronics in silicone, epoxy,

elastomeric, or asphalt to prevent contact with
moisture
pound a unit of weight in the English system equal
to 16 oz or 7,000 gr avoirdupois, or 12 oz or 5,760
gr troy. A pound can be converted to kilograms by
multiplying by 0.4536. P or Ib
pound-atom the mass in pounds of a given element
that is equal to the element's atomic weight. One
pound-atom of silicon is 28.086 lbs.
pound equivalent one gram per 350 ml of fluid
which is proportionally equal to 1 lb/bbl.
pound-mol the mass in pounds of a given compound
that is the equal of the compound's atomic weight.
One pound-mol of methane is 16.043 lbs.
pour ASTM the pour point using the ASTM method
pouring a socket a method of attaching a rope
socket to a sand line. The sand line is inserted into
the rope socket and the strands are separated and
twisted. Melted babbitt is then poured from a babbit
ladle into the rope socket until it flows from the weep
hole. The babbit solidifies and the rope socket is used
to attach a tool to the sand line.
pour point the lowest temperature at which a certain
oil will flow. Pour point is an indication of the
oil's wax content: the higher the pour-point
temperature, the more wax it contains. Pour points
in oil range from -75F to 104F. Cloud point is a
similar test.
pour-point depressant a solvent used to lower the
temperature at which a waxy or paraffin-rich crude
oil solidifies. The pour-point depressant is used to
increase production in wells and flow in pipelines.
P over E ratio see pump-to-engine ratio
POW producing oil well
powder explosive

powder hole Pr
powder hole a dry hole
power the rate of doing work. Electrical power is
measured in watts and mechanical power in
horsepower. PWR
power generator a prime mover and an electrical
generator or alternator that produces either direct
or alternating electrical current
power-law fluid a fluid in which the shear stress
is related to the shear strain by the equation t
K(y/* in which T is the shear stress, K is the consistency
index, -y is the shear strain, and n is the flow-behavior
index that varies between 0 and 1.
power metal a metal used in bit matrices that is
very wear-resistant
power of attorney an instrument that grants
regulatory powers to an agent or attorney-in-fact. PPA
power oil cleaned and pressurized crude oil that
is used to drive the production pump on a subsurface,
hydraulic pumping system
power rig a drilling rig in which the source of power
is internal-combustion engines, usually diesel, and the
power is transmitted to the rotary table by mechanical
devices such as chains, gears, and shafts. A power
rig is in contrast to an electric-drive rig. (mechanical
rig)
power rod tongs a sucker-rod wrench that*s power
(hydraulic or pneumatic) activated
power slips a wedge-shaped device that is part of
a modern rotary table and powered by air or hydraulic
fluid from a throttle or a pedal at the driller's position
on a drilling rig. The power slips are used to suspend
the drillstring in the well and are constructed with
several slip segments attached to a lifting ring.
(automatic slips)
power sub a short section of pipe that is used on
a drilling rig to make up or break out drillpipe
power swivel a top-drive swivel that is suspended
from a hook, elevators, on elevator bails, and has an
electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic motor in it to drive
the drill or tubing string below it. The power swivel
eliminates the rotary table and kelly and allows for
a longer string of pipe to be drilled before making
a connection. Power swivels are used when rig time
is very expensive. To make a connection, the new
joint of drillpipe is screwed into the power swivel
while the drillstring is being held by slips. A power
swivel also provides for very smooth operation and
throttling and is used to rotate the drillpipeduring
workover operations and for drilling out cement,
milling and pipe cutting, coring, and slim-hole drilling.
A stiff arm keeps the power swivel from turning.
power takeoff a wheel or hub on a shaft turned
by an engine or motor. PTO
power tight a threaded connection that has been
made up or screwed together by mechanical means
such as power tongs. Power tight is in contrast to
hand tight.
power tongs a mechanical wrench used on the floor
of a drilling rig o make up and break out joints of
drillpipe, casing, and tubing as it grips the tubular.
Power tongs are either air or hydraulic powered with
a throttle handle. Most power tongs require backup
although some have their own backup. Some power

391

tongs also have an automatic torque adjustment. The

power tongs are suspended from the derrick on a
wireline. They are reversible and have two speeds.
High speed is used for making up and low speeds
for breaking out.
power tools equipment operated by electric,
pneumatic, or hydraulic power
POWF producing oil well flowing
POWP producing oil well pumping
pozzolan siliceous or siliceous and aluminous
material that, when finely divided and mixed with
moisture and calcium hydroxide, will form a cementlike substance
pozzolan-lime or pozzolanic cement type of
cement used for primary cementing wells with
temperatures above 14OF. Pozzolan-lime cement is
a mixture of siliceous material that is either natural
such as volcanic particles or artificial such as fly ash,
hydrated lime, a small amount of calcium chloride
and water. The siliceous material increases the strength
and lowers the permeability of the cement. Pozzolanlime cement is light in weight, economical and easily
retarded, (silica-lime cement)
PP 1) pulled pipe 2) production payment 3) pump
pressure 4) pinpoint
pp 1) production payment 2) pinpoint
P.P. pulled pipe
p.p. pinpoint porosity
Pp pore pressure
PPA power of attorney
PPB pounds per barrel
PPB or ppb parts per billion
ppbw parts per billion by weight
ppc pseudocritical pressure
PPERF preperforated
PPF pinpoint fluorescence
PPG or ppg 1) pounds per gallon 2) parts per gallon
PPG pounds of proppant per gallon
PPI 1) production payment interest 2) parallel plate
interceptors
PPM or ppm parts per million
PPM/VOL parts per million in a specific volume
ppmw parts per million by weight
PPM/WT parts per million in a specific weight
P-POR poor porosity
PPP or ppp pinpoint porosity
p p r pseudoreduced pressure
PPRL peak polished rod load
PPROA Panhandle Producers and Royalty Owners
Association
PPSG pounds of proppant per gallon of slurry
PPT or ppt parts per thousand
ppt precipitate
PR 1) pressure recorder 2) polished rod
3) penetration rate 4) productivity ratio
pR reservoir pressure
PR (pseudo) reduced pressure

392

pr pressure

pr 1) pair 2) pseudoreduced
pr reduced pressure
prairie-dog plant a small refinery that is located
in a remote area and is used to furnish diesel fuel
and gasoline from light crude oil to a drilling rig
PR&T pulled rods and tubing
PRC pressure recorder control
prcst precast
PR-D proposed depth
prd period
preamplifier and analog filter the filters used in
seismic exploration to help adjust the recorded pass
band to the frequency of the seismic signal. The lowcut filter is usually set at 8 Hz.
PreCamb Precambrian
Precambrian an era of time that extends from the
beginning of the earth, about 4.5 billion years ago,
to about 570 m. y. ago. The Precambrain is divided
into the Archeozoic and Proterozoic. PreCamb
precipitate insoluble solid particles that form by
chemical reaction in a fluid such as water and settle
out of the fluid, ppt
precipitated grain a sedimentary grain which
crystallized from dissolved salts in water
precipitator a vessel used for treating produced
water. The precipitator contains a bed of excelsior
or similar material for coalescing oil globules as the
produced water flows through the vessel.
precoat a covering of cellulose fibers and
diatomaceous earth on screens used for filtering
pred predominantly
predictive deconvolution a process used to
enhance seismic data. Seismic data from the earlier
part of the seismic trace is used to predict the effects
by the rocks on the seismic energy which is called
convolution. Deconvolution, removal of these effects,
is made on the later part of the trace. Predictive
deconvolution can be used to remove reverberations
and multiples.
predictive error the difference between the
predicted value during predictive deconvolution and
the actual value
predom predominately
prefab prefabricated
preferential right to purchase a right reserved
by parties to a pooling, unitization or operating
agreement to buy the interest of any party to that
agreement who has received a bona fide offer from
an outside entity, before the party can sell to the
outside entity, (first right to refusal)
preflush a fluid that is designed to condition a well
or formation before a treating fluid is pumped. A
preflush is used to wash and dilute the drilling mud
in a well during a cement job as a spacer before the
cement slurry is pumped, to reduce the formation
salinity during enhanced oil recovery, and to form a
spearhead for acidizing.
preform to crimp the strands of a line
prehtr preheater

prehydration tank a steel tank used on a drilling

rig to hydrate bentonite before it is added to the
mud system
preignition the premature ignition of the air-fuel
mixture in the cylinder of an engine before the piston
is in the correct position. Preignition causes knocking
prelim preliminary
preload to purposely induce stress in a direction
opposite the anticipated stress in a substance to
increase its strength. A substance that has been
preloaded is called prestressed.
preloading to lower the legs of a jackup rig to the
sea floor followed by raising the hull above the water
surface
PREP, Prep, or prep preparing
prepacked gravel-packed liner a double-wall liner
that is filled with a permeable synthetic sandstone
pack. The liner is used to complete a well.
prepaid IDC an advance payment made by a limited
partner to the general partner for drilling a well
preperforated liner a liner with holes that have
been drilled into it before it is set in a well. The
holes, called perforations, are usually XA in. or larger
in diameter.
preprocessor a computer that manipulates the data
before the main processing is done
pres preserved
present assignment an arrangement in a farmout
agreement in which the farmee receives 100% of the
working interest in the earning well drilling-andspacing unit, and the farmor has an overriding interest
that converts after payout to a working interest. The
leases are transferred immediately upon entering the
contract. Present assignment is in contrast to assigned
when earned.
present value a method to financially evaluate an
investment such as drilling a well. Present value is
computed by subtracting the costs of the well (drilling,
completing, and operating), discounted for time, from
the production revenues of the well, discounted for
time, (present worth) PV
present value profit a method of evaluating a
project such as drilling and completing a well. Present
value profit is the discounted net cash flow of the
investment. The expenses discounted for the future
value of money are subtracted from the income
discounted for the future value of money. Present
value profit is discounted at a rate that takes into
account the time value of money and such factors as
inflation and investment loss. A positive present-value
profit will be less than the actual profit. PVP
present worth see present value. PW
preservative an additive such as paraformaldehyde
that is used to prevent a substance, such as starch,
from fermenting
PRESS or press pressure
pressure force exerted over an area. The English
units of pressure are pounds per square inch (psi).
The derived System International (SI) units are
Newtons per square meters which is expressed as
pascals. A kilopascal (Kpa) is most commonly used.
One psi is equal to 6.9 Kpa. Pressure can be described

pressure base pressure surge

as fluid, lithostatic, bottomhole, casing, tubing, flowing,
or static. PRESS, press, P, or p
pressure base the atmospheric pressure to which
gas volume calculations are made. The pressure base
is defined by law or contract and is often 14.73 psia.
The pressure base is 14.65 psia in Texas and 15.025
psia in Louisiana. Pb
pressure bomb a wireline instrument that contains
a Bourdon tube for measuring pressure and a stylus
for recording the pressure. Pressure is recorded with
time and corrected for temperature. The pressure
bomb was used in wells before small pressure gauges
became available.
pressure buildup the rate at which pressure
increases in a shut-in well after production
pressure-buildup curve or plot a plot of
bottomhole pressure versus dimensionless time
[(T + AT)/A7] on semilog graph paper made during
a drillstem test. T is the stabilized flow time (minutes
or hours) before the build up test starts. AT is the
cumulative shut-in time from well shut in to the
recording of bottomhole pressure in the same units
as T. The pressure-build up curve is used to determine
the bottomhole flowing pressure without the effects
of wellbore and afterflow
pressure-charged valve a gas lift valve that uses
gas pressure, usually nitrogen, in the responsive
element, which is usually a bellows, to close the valve
pressure clause a provision in a gas purchase
contract that terminates the agreement if the gas
pressure from a well or leasehold falls below a certain
level. Below that pressure, the gas cannot be delivered
to the pipeline because of the pipeline's higher
working pressure.
pressure compensator the lubricated-bearing
container located on the leg of a roller-cone bit. The
pressure compensator is designed to maintain an equal
pressure on the bearings.
pressure core a (core) cylinder of subsurface rock
that was drilled by a coring barrel that maintains
reservoir pressure in the core as it is brought to the
surface. Nitrogen is used to maintain pressure up to
5,000-7,000 psi to prevent loss of gas and liquid and
to prevent mud invasion.
pressure depletion drive a gas drive that produces
natural gas from a reservoir that has no water drive.
Pressure depletion is caused by the expanding gas.
(expansion gas drive)
pressure drawdown a reduction in a well's
bottomhole pressure
pressure drawdown test a test run on a well to
determine the capacity of a well to produce. The
pressure drawdown test is conducted after a shut-in
period. Flow rates at different bottomhole pressures
are recorded.
pressure-drop loss the pressure lost by a fluid
flowing through a pipe or annulus. The pressure-drop
loss is dependent on the velocity and properties of
the fluid and the roughness and configuration of the
pipe walls.
pressure extension a number computed by
dividing the square root of the differential pressure
by the square root of the absolute static pressure.

393

An integrator machine is used to convert gas meter

chart data to pressure extension to calculate gas
volume.
pressure gage or gauge an instrument used to
measure pressure on a fluid. The pressure gauge often
uses a Bourdon tube, weighed piston, liquid column,
or other device to measure the difference between
atmospheric and fluid pressure.
pressure gradient the difference or rate of change
in pressure between two points often measured in
psi/ft. A pressure gradient causes fluids to flow.
pressure log a computer analysis of drilling
parameters and data. The data include continuous mud
weight, temperature and resistivity, bulk density and
shale factor, pit volume totalizer, and differential mudflow measurements. The pressure log is used to
estimate formation pressure and is used primarily on
exploratory wells.
pressure maintenance injection of water or gases
into a subsurface reservoir during production to
maintain reservoir pressure to increase the ultimate
oil recovery. The gas is usually produced gas that
has been stripped of its hydrocarbon liquids and is
dry gas. Pressure maintenance is often used to control
reservoir performance by augmenting a weak water
or gas-cap drive. Pressure maintenance is sometimes
used to correct improper well locations and poor
completions, (gas reinfection or reinfection)
pressure operated valve a gas lift valve that uses
injection gas pressure to operate
pressure probe a downhole instrument used to
measure pressure on a gas-lift well and confirm a
gas leak
pressure-pulse test a test made by inducing a sharp
pressure pulse in one well and detecting the pulse
in another well. A pressure-pulse test is used to
determine reservoir characteristics between the wells.
pressure ratio the net pump area divided by the
net engine area on a single acting pump. It is called
the pump to engine ratio on a double acting pump.
pressure-release or pressure-relief valve a valve
that is designed to open when the pressure on a liquid
or gas reaches a preset level. A pressure-release valve
is used to prevent excessive pressure buildup, (popoff, relief, or safety valve)
pressure ridge a small-scale fold formed by strikeslip movement on a fault
pressure-sensing instrument an instrument that
is bolted to the motor of an electric submersible pump
and measures temperature and pressure. The
pressure-sensing instrument contains a transducer and
sending unit that transmits the information to a surface
readout. PSI
pressure side the high-pressure or upstream side
of a valve where the fluid flows into the valve
pressure sink a low-pressure area
pressure snubber see pulsation dampener
pressure solution the solution of a substance such
as a mineral in a rock caused by the pressure in a
grain-to-grain contact. Pressure solution is important
in the formation of styolites in limestones.
pressure surge a short, sudden pulse of increased
pressure

394

pressure survey primary stratigraphlc trap

pressure survey a measurement of pressure, either

flowing or shut-in at various depths in a well. The
pressure survey is measured on a wireline pressure
bomb and is either recorded in the self-contained
unit or on the surface.
pressure test see leak-off test
pressure transducer survey a survey of a well
using a pressure transducer to find where the mud
is flowing and where it is static to locate lost-circulation
zones in the well
pressure transient test 1) a test that determines
the effect of pressure changes in one well on other
wells in the field 2) a test on a well in which the
flow rate is closely controlled to obtain pressure
transient data to evaluate pressure variations as a
function of time. The pressure transient test is used
to qualitatively identify the parameters that control
production such as formation permeability and
thickness, skin effect, static reservoir pressure, and
reservoir boundaries and limits. Types of pressure
transient tests include a) drawdown, b) buildup and
c) falloff.
pressure-volume relations see flash vaporization
pressure wave see P-wave
pressurize to increase the pressure on a fluid in a
closed container
prest prestressed
prestack or prestak a computer process, such as
migration, made on seismic data before it is stacked
prestressed a structural member that has stress
preloaded into it that is opposite of the loading stress.
A prestressed member has a greater strength than
an unstressed member, prest
pretensioning the adjustment of the pull load on
each mooring system line on a floater, such as a
semisubmersible, to compensate for the forces the
line is expected to encounter
pre-torque the hand tightening of a pipe joint before
power tongs are used
prev prevent
preventer a blowout preventer
previous run a logging operation made on a
preceding trip
Prf recovered fluid salinity
PRHP polished rod horsepower
pri primary
Priabonian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 41-38 m. y. ago. It is the Upper Eocene
age.
price bulletin the price per barrel of oil posting
that a purchaser will pay for each grade of crude oil
from a field
price redetermination clause a gas contract
provision that allows for gas price revisions at periodic
intervals or at the request of a party
price upgrade an increase in the contract price a
purchaser pays for either oil or gas
Pridolian a global age of geological time that ended
about 405 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper Silurian
epoch.

prills ammonium nitrate pellets that are used for

shothole explosives in seismic exploration.
prim primary
Primacord an explosive rope that can be used to
connect charges used in seismic exploration and to
back off pipe
primary cementing the first cement job in a well
in which the cement slurry is pumped between the
casing and the rock walls of the well to hold and
protect the casing and prevent fluids from flowing
vertically in that space. Primary cementing is in contrast
to secondary cementing.
primary deflecting tools a whipstock, knuckle
joint, spudding bit, jet bit, and downhole motor
primary dolomite dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], a
sedimentary rock, formed by chemical or biological
precipitation out of water. Primary dolomite is rare.
It is dense, fine grained, and well laminated. Primary
dolomite is in contrast to secondary, diagenic, or
supratidal dolomite, (ortbodolomite)
primary drive the original force or forces that
caused the oil and/or gas to flow into the well. In
an oil field, the most common primary drives are
solution gas, free gas, water, and gravity drives. Every
oil field has one and sometimes two of these drives.
The relative importance of the drives can change with
production. A gas field has an expansion gas or water
drive.
primary means of escape fixed metal stairs or
ladders
primary migration the migration of oil and gas out
of a source rock. Primary migration is caused by the
volumetric expansion of organic matter into gas and
oil. The pressure generated by the formation of
petroleum fractures the source rock to create routes
of migration. Primary migration is in contrast to
secondary and tertiary migration, (expulsion)
primary oil recovery the crude oil that is produced
from a reservoir by the natural reservoir drive or
energy. Primary oil recovery averages about 30% but
varies considerably with the reservoir drive, reservoir
rock characteristics, and crude oil properties.
(primary production or recovery)
primary porosity spaces between the solid rock
particles in sedimentary rocks formed when the rock
was deposited. Primary pores include intergranular
and organic pores. Primary porosity is in contrast to
secondary porosity, (original porosity)
primary production or recovery see primary oil
recovery

primary reflection seismic energy that has been

reflected off a subsurface layer only once. Primary
reflections are in contrast to multiples.
primary reserves the amount of oil and gas that is
recoverable commercially at current prices and
conventional methods by the reservoir drive from a
reservoir
primary stratigraphic trap a stratigraphic trap
formed by the deposition or diagenesis of the reservoir
rock such as a limestone reef, river channel sandstone,
an updip pinchout of a sandstone wedge in a shale
layer, or an oolite shoal. A primary stratigraphic trap

primary structure produced gas

is in contrast to a secondary stratigraphic trap.
(lithologic trap)
primary structure the jacket and piling of an
offshore platform. The primary structure is in contrast
to the secondary structure which is the deck and
modules.
primary term the time in which a lease is in effect
during the exploration and drilling phase even
through no commercial petroleum production has
been established. Payments, called delay rentals, may
be required periodically to continue the lease during
the primary term which is generally 3, 5, or 10 years.
After the primary term, only commercial petroleum
production can extend the lease into the secondary
term.
primary tracer a chemical that forms a detectable
chemical compound in reservoir fluids when injected
into a test well
primary water water produced from the oil zone
primary wave see P-wave
prime to prepare an explosive charge
prime mover an engine, usually natural gas, diesel,
or electric, that provides power on a drilling rig or
pumping unit. On pumping wells, most prime movers
are three-phase, 60-cycle, 1,200 rpm, AC electric
motors ranging from a fraction of a horsepower to
150 hp. On a drilling rig, the prime mover is usually
an internal combustion engine driven by diesel oil
or, less commonly, natural gas. From two to four
engines are used, developing from 500-3,000 hp. The
number and size of the engines depends on the size
and rating of the drilling rig. Electrical rigs have diesel
engines that drive electric generators. The original
prime movers on cable-tool rigs were single-cylinder
steam engines.
prime pipe pipe that meets all inspection and testing
requirements
primer a small explosive which is set off by a cap.
A primer is used to detonate a larger explosive which
cannot be set off by the cap.
prin principal
principal meridian a surveyed, north-south line
through a specific point. A principal meridian is used
in land surveys and is the primary north-south line
from which township boundaries are initiated. A base
line is the east-west line.
printed circuit a thin laminated board on which
electrical circuits are drawn and components are
mounted
pris prism
private carrier a transporter such as a pipeline that
owns the commodity such as natural gas that it
transports. Most interstate gas pipelines are private
carriers in contrast to common and contract carriers
private drilling fund a drilling fund that is exempt
from registering with the Securities Exchange
Commission. A private drill fund has units that are
sold to a relatively small number of investors. The
investor commonly contributes $20,O0O-$15O,0OO. The
drilling sites have been selected in advance and there
is a memorandum. A private drilling fund is in contrast
to a public drilling fund.

395

PRL 1) propagation resistivity log 2) polished rod

load
prly pearly
PRMT or print permit
prncpl lss principal lessee
pro prorated
prob probable
probable reserves oil and gas whose existence is
not proven by geological information but is probably
present due to proximity to proven reserves and
can be produced if located. The geological and
engineering data are insufficient to state with certainty
that the oil and gas could by produced under current
economic and operating conditions but could be
termed economically recoverable with a slight
increase in geological or engineering data. Probable
reserves are less accurate than proven reserves.
probate to establish the validity of a will
probe 1) a sensor 2) a steering tool on a conductor
line in an orienting sub
proc process
processed gas natural gas that has had the liquid
hydrocarbons removed in a gasoline plant
processing changing the form and quality of data,
usually by computer. Processing includes the methods
used in seismic exploration to enhance the signalnoise ratio and the ability to interpret the seismic
data. The field seismic tape along with written records
are taken rocessing center. The processing proceeds
through a) demultiplexing, b) grouping of traces in
CDP gathers, c) deconvolution tests, d) deconvolution,
e) statics corrections, f) velocity analysis, g) normal
moveout, h) muting, i) residual statics application,
j) transfer of stacked traces to stacked tape, k) filtering,
and m) making of seismic section.
processing plant an installation that is used to
remove any hydrocarbons that can be liquified from
natural gas. The hydrocarbons can range from
condensate to ethane and the processes most
commonly used are refrigeration and absorption.
process system or train the treatment system on
an offshore platform for produced fluids from subsea
wells. The process train includes the cooling, treating,
separating, compressing, and transferring equipment.
(production train)
PRO-D projected depth
Prod, producer
Prod or prod production
prod or prod. 1) produce 2) producing
prodelta the subaqueous area or environment in the
front of a delta located below wave base and above
the basin floor. The prodelta is an area of fine-grained
sedimentation. The slope tends to be very unstable
with frequent mass movements of sediments.
prod magnetization magnetization of pipe for
inspection by passing an electric current through the
pipe with prods
prods hand-held electrodes that are used to
magnetize a pipe for inspection
produced gas natural gas that is produced from a
well. Produced gas can be either associated or non-

396

produced water

production license

associated gas. During mud logging, produced gas is

the gas that flows into a well as the well is being
drilled, the same as if the gas were being produced
from a completed well.
produced water water that is produced from a well
along with oil and gas. The subsurface water associated
with gas and oil reservoirs is called oilfield brine.
The waters are often described by their dissolved salts
in both concentration, usually in parts per million,
and chemical composition. The composition is
described by their dominate mineral ions. Type a has
sulfate-sodium, Type b has bicarbonate-sodium, Type
c has chloride-magnesium, and Type d has chloridecalcium waters. Type d is most common. The
composition of the water can be shown by using
Tickell, Parker, or Stiff methods and diagrams.
producer 1) a well that will flow commercial
amounts of gas and/or oil. Prod 2) any owner of
an economic interest in a well. Producers includes
working, royalty, overriding, and net profits interest
owners.
Producer's 88 a general term for a lease form.
Producer's 88 was originally a lease form printed by
Burkhart Printing Company in Tulsa, Oklahoma in
1916 as a lease (number 88) for Producer Oil Company
that later became synonymous with all lease forms.
(88 lease)
producible well a well capable of producing
petroleum in paying quantities. The well may not be
presently producing due to lack of permanent
production or transportation facilities.
producibility-index log a calculated well log that
shows effective porosity and percent porosity filled
with clays. Low clay content is indicative of high
permeability.
producing gas/oil ratio the number of standard
cubic feet of gas produced at the surface of a well
per stock tank barrel of oil at a specific time. The
gas includes both free gas and solution gas. The
producing gas/oil ratio is usually reported in SCF/SRTB
or SCM/STCM. (instantaneous total gas/oil ratio)
producing platform see production platform
producing well a well that produces petroleum in
a field. A producing well is in contrast to an injection,
service, or plugged and abandoned well
producing zone the vertical extent of the reservoir
producing gas and/or oil in a well. The producing
zone can be named after the producing formation
or by its depth and thickness, (pay zone, pay,
production, or productive horizon or pay)
production 1) the removal of petroleum from a
subsurface reservoir by wells 2) oil or gas wells
3) oil and/or gas produced from wells 4) the part of
the petroleum industry that is concerned with bringing
gas and oil to the surface and separating, gauging,
storing, and preparing it for transport Prod or prod
production casing see production string
production ceiling the maximum production that
a field, county, or region obtains due to a) technical,
b) production-sharing, c) government reasons
production combination tool a tool used on high
flow rate wells that combines a) a continuous

PRODUCTION or
OIL STRING CASING
(5 1/2")

production casing

flowmeter, b) a fullbore spinner, c) a gradiometer,

d) a manometer, and e) a thermometer PCT
production cost factor an economic evaluation tool
for a project that is computed by adding the capital
cost of exploring, drilling, and production and dividing
by the estimated oil production in barrels per day
production costs the cost of lifting the oil and gas
together with its gathering, treating, and storing
production facility the equipment such as
separators, treaters and compressors that separate a
well stream into its oil, gas, and water phases and
processes them into marketable products or disposes
of them
production foreman an employee of the oil
producer who supervises lease operations. The
production foreman coordinates all lease work
through the pumpers or head roustabouts. The
production foreman also supervises the completion
of new wells, well servicing and workovers, and the
installation of any new equipment on the leases. The
production foreman works under the field
superintendent, (field foreman or lease
superintendent)
production horizon see production zone
SI
production index
from Rock-Eval
pyrolysis PI
production in paying quantities production of
enough oil and/or gas for the operator to make a
profit above operating costs
production island an artificial island, usually made
of gravel or larger particles, that is constructed to
accommodate producing wells in shallow water
production license an exclusive agreement
between a country and a party for that party to search
and produce petroleum from a block or concession.

production liner production string

The party is committed to an annual expenditure on
exploring and drilling. The country will receive a
royalty on any production. A production license is
for a specific term, usually with an option to extend
the term.
production liner a string of pipe that serves as
production casing adjacent to the producing zone in
a well. It does not extend to the surface. The
production liner can be perforated or slotted.
production log a wireline well log that is run inside
tubing to evaluate a problem in a producing well.
The small-diameter sonde can include a continuous
flowmeter, packer flowmeter, densimeter,
gradiomanometer, manometer, watercutmeter,
thermometer, radioactive tracers, through-tubing
calipers, casing-collar locater, and fluid samplers. The
well logs can include temperature, spin meter,
radioactive tracer, caliper, casing corrosion, noise,
pressure, and gamma ray logs.

397

and is limited in a) quantity, b) money, or c) time

PPorpp
production-payment interest a networking
interest in a well that is limited to a specific amount
of oil, gas, money, or time, after which it expires. A
production-payment interest is created from a working
interest. PPI
production-payment loan a loan that is made on
future production from a well or lease. The operator
carves out a royalty payment to the lender.
production plateau a period of relatively steady
production from a field after the wells have been
drilled and put on line and before the reservoir energy
is sufficiently depleted to reduce production

production logging the determination of oil, gas,

and water flow profiles in a producing well. The
production log measures the volume and type of fluid
that enters the well from different locations in the
well. The amount of fluid is determined from the
velocities, and the type is determined from the
densities. Production logging uses flowmeters,
radioactive tracers, and densimeters.
production module a self-contained unit that has
been assembled onshore, barged offshore, and is
installed on an offshore platform. Production modules
are transported offshore on deck barges and lifted
into place by derrick or crane barges. Some common
production modules are wellhead, oil and gas
separation, gas compression, platform power
generation, diesel, filter and exhaust, cement and brine
storage, and mud. The modules weigh up to 2,000
short tons, (module)
production optimization a method used to
calculate the flow rate at which an oil or gas well
will produce and to evaluate the effects of various
parts of the system such as flowline size, separator
pressure, choke size, tubing size, safety valves,
downhole restrictions, and well completion methods.
Production optimization is used to optimize the entire
production system to obtain the most efficient flow
rate. The system is analyzed at various locations called
nodes such as the bottom of the well, top of the well,
and at the separator. (Nodal system analysis or
production system analysis)
production packer an expandable device that is
used to block the annular space between the casing
and tubing to prevent fluids from flowing vertically.
The packer is run on the tubing string and is seated
either hydraulically or mechanically. The packer can
have two sets of slips with one set in tension and
one in compression. The packer can be set by rotating
the tubing 90 and raising 6 inches. The packer can
also be inflated with the wellbore fluids. After the
packer is set, the packer isolates the producing zone(s)
in the welt, protects the casing from pressure and
corrosive fluids and eliminates heading or surging.
(tubing packer)
production payment a fraction of production from
a well or property that is free of production costs

production platform (Kerr McGee)

production platform an offshore structure

designed to receive flowlines and to support
producing subsea wells. The production platform
usually has a platform above the surface of the water
to accommodate the equipment such as wellheads,
tanks, separators, treaters and pumps along with the
crew to operate it. One producing platform can often
service an entire offshore field with numerous wells
drilled out from the platform with deviation drilling.
The treated oil and gas is usually brought ashore by
a submarine pipeline. The production platform can
be a piled steel-template jacket, gravity structure,
articulated, tension-leg, or subsea production
platform, (producing or well platform)
production rate the quantity of oil, usually
expressed in barrels per day (B/D), and gas, usually
expressed in thousands of cubic feet per day, from
a well or field
production rig see worker rig
production shutdown the manual or automatic
stoppage of a process train
production skid an oil and gas production unit
mounted on a skid that can be transported and installed
on an offshore platform. A production skid is used
to treat, separate, store, and pump the oil and gas
ashore.
production string the deepest and last length
(string) of casing that is run to or through the
producing zone. The casing adjacent to the producing
zone can be perforated or shot with holes to complete
the well. Production string has the smallest diameter,
ranging from 23/s in. to 9% in. and typically is 5V4
in. or 75/s in., and is the longest string of casing in
the well. Production string protects the hole, isolates

398

production system profit-sharing bidding

formation fluid, prevents fluid migration, and protects

the downhole equipment, (capital, flow, long, oil or
pay string or production casing, or inner conductor)
production system a subsea facility that has
pumping, operation, and completion equipment to
receive crude oil from one or more manifold systems
and send it to a gravity storage platform.
production systems analysis see production
optimization
production tank see stock tank
production tax the state and municipal tax on the
operator of wells for crude oil, condensate, and natural
gas production. Each state has its own laws and
administrative procedures concerning production
taxes, (gross production or severance tax)
production term the period of an oil and gas lease
when the lease is held in effect by production . The
production term follows the primary term, (secondary
term)
production test 1) a general term for any well testing
after the well has been completed with the final casing,
liner, flow string, and downhole equipment installed.
A routine or normal production test involves only
the periodic measurement of oil, gas, and water
production, which is often done on a regular schedule.
A production test can also include more involved tests
such as potential, productivity, and pressure transient
tests. 2) a regularly scheduled measure of a well's
oil, gas, and water production under normal operating
conditions. Parameters measured include oil
production rate in barrels per day (B/D), water
production rate in barrels per day, the gas/oil ratio
in standard cubic foot per stock tank barrel the oil
cut in percent, the "API of the oil, a water sample
analysis, casing and tubing pressure in pounds per
square inch (psi), choke size in Vfetths, and separator
pressure and temperature in pounds per square inch,
and F, along with a description of the pumping system.
PDT
production train see process system or train

production tree

production tree surface completion equipment

consisting of a casinghead housing, casing and tubing
head spools, and production valves and chokes used
to control the flow of a well that flows to the surface
under its own pressure. Production trees vary in
construction, but all have at least one master valve
to control the flow of the well. On the top is a swab
valve and a pressure gauge. To the side of the flow

cross or tee is the flowline valve. Most production

trees are single-wing but some are double-wing when
the well is a dual completion. Most trees are machined
out of a solid block of metal (block tree), whereas
some are assembled with individual valves (loose-valve
tree). The production tree has a hollow passageway
that connects to the top of the tubing in the well.
Flowing wells that use production trees include all
gas wells and, less commonly, oil wells, especially
early in the development of the field. On the seafloor,
production trees can be either wet-trees or dry-trees.
(Christmas tree or tree)
production tubing see tubing
productive horizon see producing zone
productive to earn a farmout agreement in which
the farmee must drill a producing well to earn the
acreage
productive well a well that extends the lease by
a) producing in paying quantities or b) producing
in commercial quantities. A productive well includes
a shut-in well that is capable of producing in paying
or commercial quantities.
productivity factor a measure of the formation
damage in a well. The productivity factor is equal to
the production rate at a fixed drawdown from the
well divided by the theoretical production rate with
no formation damage, (condition ratio)
productivity index the flow rate that a well can
produce per psi difference between reservoir and
bottomhole pressures (static and flowing bottomhole)
in bbl/day-psi or m3/day-kPa. Productivity index is an
indicator of that well's ability to produce oil. The
formula is PI or / = " in which q = flow rate
in stock tank barrels per day (STB/d), Ps = shut-in
bottomhole pressure in pounds per square inch (psi),
and PUf = flowing bottomhole pressure in pounds
per square inch. Productivity index is a measure of
the reservoir drive in a well. The productivity index
of a well will decrease with production and time.
The specific productivity index is calculated per foot
of pay. /, J, or PI
productivity ratio the productivity index of a well
divided by the productivity index of a standard well
PR
productivity test a test used to determine a well's
stabilized inflow capabilities. The productivity test
measures the effect of different flow rates on
bottomhole flowing and static pressures. The
maximum potential rate of flow can be calculated
from the test without risking well damage by flowing
at the maximum possible rate.
profiler a marine seismic-reflection system with a
low-energy, high-frequency source. A profiler can
consist of a sparker source and one or two hydrophone
groups with a single-channel plotter.
profitability index a method of economically
evaluating an investment such as drilling a well.
Profitability index is the return rate on the investment
that is discounted for time, (internal rate or return,
scientific rate of return, investor's rate of return, and
discounted cashflow rate of return)
profit-sharing bidding a type of bidding for
offshore state or federal leases. A small bonus is offered

profit-to-investment ratio proration factor

along with a percentage of the net profits. The lease
goes to the bidder who offers the highest percentage
of net profits.
profit-to-investment ratio a method to evaluate an
investment such as drilling and completing a well.
Profit-to-investment ratio is the ultimate actual-value
profit of an investment divided by the investment.
The investment can be calculated as a) after tax,
b) capitalized, c) total cash outlay, or d) maximum
negative cash flow. PJ or P/I
prog progress
prograde to deposit sediments out into a basin or
ocean. A shoreline will advance seaward with the
progradation of sediments.
program a set of computer instructions. The program
is in a programming language such as BASIC or Pascal.
progressing cavity pump a type of nonpulsating,
positive displacement, downhole sucker-rod pump.
The pump consists of a single-threaded helical rotor
that spins eccentrically in a double-threaded helical
stator of two pitch length. The rotor and stator form
a series of sealed cavities, 180 apart that move from
the suction to the discharge side of the pump. The
rotor is made of chrome-plated tool steel, and the
stator is a metal tube with molded elastomer on the
inside.
progressive gel a gel with a gel strength that
increases with time in contrast to a fragile gel
progressive royalty a royalty that is based on a
specific sliding scale depending on the size of the
field discovered. Large fields have large royalties. A
progressive royalty is used to encourage the
development of smaller fields.
proj projected
project life the length of a project in years
PROJ TO projected total depth
Prolog a wellsite, computer log analysis system
prom prominent
promote 1) to try to sell an oil and gas deal 2) the
amount or percentage of money that goes to the person
or company that sells an oil or gas deal to an investor(s)
Pronto Plug lost-circulation material made with
a blend of water-soluble polymers and hardwood
particles
PROP propping agents
prop 1) proportional 2) proposed
propagation effect see skin effect
propane a colorless, odorless gas (C3H8) found in
natural gas. Propane has a molecular weight of 44.097,
a specific gravity of 0.51, a boiling point of 44F at
14.7 psia, a vapor pressure of 190 psia at 100F, a
critical temperature of 206F, a critical pressure of
616 psia, and a gross heat content of 2517.5 Btu/ft3.
Because propane burns relatively hot, propane is often
removed from natural gas, liquified and sold separately
as liquified petroleum gas. C3
propene an olefin or alkane with the chemical
formula CjHg. (propylene)
proportional control a type of valve opening in
which the opening is proportional to the change in

399

a variable, such as the position of a needle.

Proportional control is in contrast to snap action.
proportional torque differential indicator an
instrument used to determine natural gas specific
gravity. The proportional torque differential indicator
measures the difference in torque produced by a jet
of natural gas and a jet of air blowing on the shaft
of an impulse wheel to determine the specific gravity.
proportionate reduction clause an oil and gas
lease provision that permits the lessee to reduce
payments proportionately to the lessor if the lessor
has less than 100% of the mineral rights, (lessor interest
clause)
proportionate working interest a working interest
in a well in which the working interest costs are
proportional to the working interest revenues from
production. A proportionate working interest is in
contrast to a disproportionate working interest.
proportioning equipment the meters and mixing
truck that mixes frac fluids, proppants, and chemicals
for hydraulic fracturing
proppant concentration the weight of a proppant
material in pounds per gallon of carrying fluid used
during hydraulic fracturing. Proppant concentration
is typically 6-8 lbs/gal.

PROPPING AGENTS

propping agents

proppant material, proppants, or propping

agents small, well-sorted grains that are hard and
granular or spherical shaped. Proppants are suspended
in a liquid (frac fluid) and pumped down a well during
a frac job to hold the fractures open when the frac
fluid is flowed back. Sand was the first proppant used
in 1948 and is still the most common. Common
proppants used include Ottawa sands, Texas brown
sand, resin-coated sand, and sintered bauxite pellets.
The most common proppants used are those that are
caught between 20-40,10-20, and 8-12 mesh screens.
PROP

proprietary information or data kept secret

propylene an olefin or alkane with the chemical
formula C3H6 (propene)
pro-rata cutbacks in production takes that are made
proportionally without any consideration such as
price, (ratably)
proration factor the percentage of a particular well's
allowable or amount of gas and/or oil that the
government regulatory agency allows to be produced
from that well on a calendar basis that is usually

400

prorationing proved undeveloped reserves

monthly. The government regulatory agency adjusts

the proration factor monthly based on the supply and
demand for gas and oil.
prorationing the restriction of production by a
governmenl regulatory agency. Prorationing is done
by granting an allowable or amount of oil and/or gas
that is allowed to be produced in a certain time to a
well, lease, or field.
proration unit the acreage upon which only one
producing well from a certain producing zone can
be located. The proration unit is set by a government
regulatory agency. Forty acres is common for an oil
well and 640 ac for a gas well, (drilling-and-spacing
unit)
prospect a location where the geological information
and economic realities justify the consideration of
drilling a well for petroleum
prospecting license a permit granted by a country
to a party to explore for petroleum in any part of a
large designated area not covered by a production
license, (exploration or reconnaissance license)
prospect map a map showing a proposed well
location along with the stratigraphic interval to be
drilled, a structural and isopach map of the target,
the number and thickness of the potential pay zones,
the position of known oil and gas producers with
cumulative productions and dry holes, the fluids
recovered from each well by drillstem testing, and
hydrodynamic data.
prot protection
protective acreage land that is covered by current
leases held by a party that is exploring and/or drilling
in that area. Present geological data does not indicate
a commercial reservoir below that land, but the party
has leased the land in case future information indicates
a reservoir and to prevent other parties from leasing
the land.
protection covenant an expressed or implied duty
in an oil and gas lease that the lessee will drill an
offset well on the lease to protect the lease from
drainage by a well on an adjacent lease, (offset well
covenant)
protection well a well drilled on a lease to
compensate for the drainage caused by a well on
another lease, (offset well)
protective string or protection casing string a
length (string) of casing that is set in a well between
the surface and production casing strings. The
protection casing string ranges in diameter from 5
to H3/4 in. and is typically 9% in. The casing is used
to isolate potentially troublesome formations in the
well, such as abnormal high- or low-pressure zones
or salt layers; to protect normal pressure zones when
drilling deeper using heavy mud weights; and to
protect production casing from corrosion.
(intermediate, protective, or salt string or intermediate
casing string)
protector the device used on an electric submersible
motor to isolate the motor from the well fluids. Two
types are the a) positive seal with elastomers and
the b) labyrinth path.
Protero Proterozoic

Proterozoic a division of the Precambrian era of

time. It is the most recent division of the Precambrian
and occurred about 2.5 billion years-570 m. y. ago.
There is some fossil evidence for plants and animals
existing during this time. Protero
proton an atomic particle that is part of the atomic
nucleus. A proton has a charge of +1 and a mass of
1.00759 atomic mass units and 1.673 x 10~24 gm.
proton-resonance magnetometer a type of
magnetometer, a geophysical instrument used in
petroleum exploration . A proton-resonance
magnetometer measures the earth's magnetic field
and is sensitive to the magnetite content of subsurface
rocks. A hydrogen nucleus, either a proton in water
or kerosene, precesses in orientation with the earth's
magnetic field. A coil induces a magnetic field which
reorients the protons. When the field is terminated,
the protons reorientate themselves back to the earth's
magnetic field and precess at a frequency which is
proportional to the earth's magnetic field strength.
This induces voltage in a measuring coil which is
recorded, (nuclear-precession magnetomenter)
Protozoa the phylum that includes single-celled
animals called protozoans. Some members have
carbonate or siliceous skeletons and are important
as microfossils. Protozoa include foraminifera,
radiolarians, and coccolithophores.
PROV province
prove to measure the accuracy of a flowmeter using
a prover
proved acreage an area that is underlain by proven
reserves that have been identified by drilling and those
adjacent areas where the geological and engineering
data show the proven reserves to extend
proved area the part of a property that contains
proved reserves
proved developed reserves the estimated amount
of oil and gas that is expected to be produced from
a) existing wells and b) improved recovery techniques
that have had a successful pilot test. Proved developed
reserves are in contrast to proved undeveloped
reserves.
proved oil and gas reserves an estimate of the
amount of crude oil, natural gas, and natural gas liquids
which existing geological and engineering data
demonstrate with reasonable certainty that can be
recovered from a well, lease, or reservoir under
existing economic and operating conditions. Proved
reserves need the data of production or formation
tests and delineation wells that define the gas/oil and
oil/water contact and the extent of the reservoir.
Proved oil and gas reserves can also include reserves
produced by improved recovery techniques. Two
types of proved reserves are proved undeveloped and
proved developed reserves, (proven reserves)
proved property property with proven reserves in
contrast to unproven property
proved undeveloped reserves the estimated
amount of oil and gas production that is expected
to be produced from a) new wells drilled,
b) recompletions of old wells, and c) improved
recovery techniques that need pilot tests to be
confirmed. Proven undeveloped reserves are in
contrast to proved developed reserves.

provenance PSIA or psia

provenance the place where the sedimentary grains
were originally formed by weathering before they
were transported and deposited to form sedimentary
rocks
proven behind-pipe reserves commercial
amounts of oil and gas whose location behind casing
in a well is established and can be produced by
recompleting the well
proven reserves see proved oil and gas reserves
prover a device used to calibrate meters
prover tank a tank in which liquid flowmeters are
calibrated, (calibration tank)
prove up to drill and define the limits of a petroleum
reservoir
province a distinct geographical area with similar
geographical features such as stratigraphy and
structures and where numerous petroleum fields
occur in a similar geological environment. Examples
are the Mid-Continent and the Gulf Coast. The province
can be subdivided into subprovinces such as individual
basins or districts. PROV
proving the methods used to test and calibrate
specific flowmeters. Proving is normally applied to
positive displacement (PD) and turbine meters as they
give direct readouts of volume through the meter.
The most common proving methods are a) volumetric
prover, b) master meter, and c) displacement-type
provers. The true volume of fluid is then compared
to the indicated volume of fluid on the meter, and a
meter factor is calculated, (meter proving)
PROW process well
proximity log a microresistivity wireline well log.
The proximity log is a contact tool with a focused
current similar to a microlaterolog but with a deeper
sensor. PROXL, PL, or P

proximity switch an electrical contact that is

magnetically activated when a ferrous metal comes
near. A proximity switch is used to count the rpms
on a rotary table.
PROXL proximity log
PROX-MLC proximity minilog
proximity survey a seismic survey used to
determine the distance from a well to a structural
feature such as a salt dome
prphy porphyry
PRPT preparing to run potential test
PRSD piercement type salt dome
PRT petroleum revenue tax
PRTD platinum resistance-temperature detector
Pr Temp precision temperature log
prtgs partings
prtn partition
prudent operator standard the test that is
commonly applied to determine if the lessee has
complied with the implied lease covenants. The
standard assumes what a competent operator acting
in good faith and economic incentive would do under
a situation.
PRXP pulled or pulling rods and pump

401

pry bar a heavy steel bar that is used for leverage

or to move heavy equipment short distances
PS 1) pressure switch 2) potentiometric surface
3) plow steel
ps pseudo
Ps static pressure
ps 1) shut-in pressure 2) support pressure to resist
collapse
PSA packer set at
psammite see arentie
psephite see rudite
PSC public service commission
Px or p,,. pressure at standard conditions
PSD 1) permanently shut down 2) production
shutdown
PSE plain small end
pseudodamage a production restriction that is due
to the type of completion rather than formation
damage. Pseudodamage can be due to turbulence in
the flowline or restricted perforations
pseudogas effect the effect of sandstone on a density
and neutron porosity curve recorded in limestone
units. The density curve reads 1.5 porosity units too
high, whereas the neutron porosity curve reads 4
porosity units too low.
pseudo-oolitic a sedimentary rock texture
characterized by rounded clastic grains that are similar
to oolites
pseudoplastic a substance that changes apparent
viscosity with a shear rate change
pseudoplastic fluid a non-Newtonian fluid that will
start to flow at a pressure greater than zero, but the
apparent viscosity decreases instantaneously with
increasing shear rate until the viscosity becomes
constant
pseudoplastic shale shale that contains colloidal
clays, such as montmorillonite, that hydrate when
exposed to water. When pseudoplastic shales are
drilled, the introduction of water from the drilling
fluid causes the clay minerals in the shale to expand
and the shale to heave, squeeze, or swell into the
wellbore. Bentonitic shales are pseudoplastic.
(heaving shale)
pseudoreduced temperature and pressure a
hypothetical property of gas that is used to correct
for the compressibility factor in gases, pp. or tp.
pseudostatic SP or spontaneous potential a
spontaneous potential measurement or calculation
made on shaly rock in contrast to static SP. PSP
pseudosteady state a flow regime in a well in which
the pressure front from the well has reached the
drainage boundaries of the well, and the average
reservoir pressure will decrease with time as reservoir
fluid is produced. The pseudosteady state occurs after
the transient state.
psf pounds per square foot
PSI 1) stress function 2) profit sharing interest
3) pressure-sensing instrument
PSI or psi pounds per square inch
PSIA or psia pounds per square inch absolute

402

PSIFORPsi/ft pull in

PSIF or Psi/ft pounds per square inch per foot

PSIG or psig pounds per square inch gauge
PSL public school land
PSM spiral pipe
Psmax maximum allowable surface squeeze pressure
Psool of psool pseudo-oolite
PSP pseudostatic spontaneous polarization or
potential
p SP separator pressure
pSP pseudo-spontaneous potential
PSRT poorly sorted
PSS potential surface show
Pst pumice stone
P s , standard pressure
PSU production spacing unit
PSW seamless pipe
PT 1) potential test 2) peak torque
P/T pressure-temperature
Pt or pt 1) part 2) pint
P, tubing pressure
PT&R pulling tubing and rods
"P" tank a dry bulk storage tank used on an offshore
drilling rig for barite, bentonite, and other materials
PTB or ptb pounds per thousand barrels
PTd peak torque on downstroke
PTF production test flowing
p tf flowing tubing pressure
PTG 1) pulling tubing 2) parting
Ptg of ptg parting
PTGL production test, gas lift
P3 see S3

PTI production test intimitter

PTINT part interest
PTO power takeoff
PTP production test, pumping
PTR 1) pulling tubing and rods 2) packer-type
retrievable
PTS 1) production test, swabbing 2) pressuretemperature sonde
PTSH potash
p te static tubing pressure
PTTF potential test to follow
PTU peak torque on upstroke
P2 see S2
PU 1) pumping unit 2) pulled up 3) pulling up
4) picked up 5) porosity unit
Pu absolute formation pressure
p.u. 1) porosity unit 2) 1% porosity
public domain land United States federal land has
always belonged to the federal government. Public
domain land is in contrast to acquired land.
public drilling fund a method for raising drilling
funds. An oil company contributes undeveloped leases
and investors contribute the funds for drilling by

buying units in the drilling fund. The units commonly

cost between $2,000-15,000. The drilling fund usually
creates a limited partnership with the oil company
being the general partner and the investors being
the limited partners. The investors receive a portion
of the net revenues from production and most or
all of the intangible drilling and development costs
for tax purposes. In a blind-pool drilling fund, the
oil company puts up some of the monies and has
no predetermined drilling locations, just an area of
interest. Public drilling funds are registered with the
United States Securities and Exchange Commission
in contrast to private drilling funds.
public land United States federal land that is either
acquired or public domain land with the exception
of a) outer continental shelf land and b) land held
for the benefit of Indians, Aleuts, and Eskimos. Public
land is administered by the Bureau of Land
Management.
public utility any public or privately-owned
business that is subjected to government regulations.
A public utility is a "business affected with a public
interest" and provides an essential service to the
consuming public.
PUC Public Utility Commission
puddling 1) the spotting of a cement slurry in an
open well and then running the casing in the well
while rotating the casing. This is called a puddle job.
2) the rotation of casing during cementing to remove
air bubbles 3) the agitation of cement slurry to remove
air bubbles
Pugh clause an oil and gas provision that separates
pooled portions of the lease from unpooled portions
of the lease. This prevents drilling and production
on the pooled portion from maintaining the lease
on the unpooled portion. The Pugh clause is named
after Lawrence Pugh of Louisiana, (freestone rider)
Pugh clause rentals monies paid to the lessee in
order to extend the life of a portion of a lease that
is not included in a unit. Pugh clause rentals are
included under the terms of a Pugh clause in an oil
and gas lease.
PUIC pulled up in casing
pull a well to remove rods or tubing from a well
pull a well in to collapse a mast or derrick on a
drilling rig
pullback line a %- or 1-in. rope that is tied to the
mast and is used by the derrickman to wrap around
and pull in the upper part or a stand of pipe when
racking pipe
pull down 1) the vertical displacement downward
on a seismic section of seismic reflectors located under
a low-velocity layer such as salt. A pull down is in
contrast to a velocity pull-up, (velocity pull-down)
2) a snubbing unit that is designed to apply force to
a drill or tubing string that is being run into a well
under pressure
pulled down a decrease in wire-rope diameter due
to a failure of the core
pulled threads damaged or stripped threads on pipe
or tubing
pull in to bring a flowline into a subsea production
system wellhead cellar by a wire

pulling pulsed neutron, pulsed-neutron capture, or pulsed-neutron decay log

pulling to remove equipment or tubulars from a
well. Pulling is in contrast to running.
pulling casing the lifting of casing out of a well.
Pulling casing is often done as the well is abandoned
in order to salvage the casing.
pulling flange the neck on a pulling tool
pulling machine see pulling unit
pulling out raising the drillstring from the well.
(tripping out)
pulling rods the lifting of sucker rods out of a well.
Pulling rods is done to repair or replace the rods
when they have corroded or have broken or to repair
or replace the bottomhole pump, (rod job)
pulling the slips to lift the slips out of the bowl
on the rotary table by their handles
pulling tool a fishing tool used in cased holes to
exert a very high tensile force on a fish. The pulling
tool is a hydraulic jack run on a fishing string just
above the fishing tool and fastens to the casing with
pulling tool anchors. The tensile force is applied either
mechanically by rotating the fishing string or
hydraulically by the drilling mud. (hydraulic pulling
tool)
pulling tools hoisting the drillstring out of the well

403

central power unit to the surrounding pump jacks.

The pull line is located 1-2 ft off the ground on metal
posts with wooden guides that are greased, (rod or
shackle rod line)
pull one green to pull a drill bit out of the well
before it was worn out and necessary to pull the bit
pull out to come out of a well
pull rod a steel or wood rod with joints on each
end to connect to other pull rods. The pull rods form
a pull line that connects the eccentric on a central
power unit to the surrounding pump units. Pull rods
are about 25 ft long and % or 1 in. in diameter, (shackle
rod)
pull the plug to shut down a well permanently
pull-up the vertical displacement upward on a
seismic section of seismic reflectors located under a
high-velocity layer such as a dense limestone reef.
Pull-up is in contrast to a pull-down, (velocity pullup)
pulsation
dampener

imp

pulsation dampeners (off rotary drilling rig chart)

pulling unit

pulling unit hoisting equipment including a mast

and winch that is mounted on a truck or trailer. The
pulling unit is designed to do maintenance work on
a producing interval in an oil or gas well and has its
own crew. Most commonly, the sucker rods are pulled
from the well to change the downhole pump or repair
the rod string. The rods are suspended in the mast.
The pulling unit is also used to pull tubing by
rearranging the equipment for the heavier load. The
stands of tubing can be stacked vertically in a rack
on the mast. A pulling unit is never called a workover
rig that has rotary and circulating equipment and is
designed for more extensive repairs on a well, (well
service or service unit)
pulling unit operator the employee who is in
charge of the pulling unit and crew that pulls sucker
rods and tubing from a well, (head well puller or
crew chief)
pull it green 1) to screw a connection too tight
2) to pull a drilling bit before it is necessary
pull line a line of jointed steel or wood rods (pull
or shackle rods) that connects the eccentric on a

pulsation dampener equipment used to reduce

fluid pressure pulses on a pumping system such as
the mud pumps on a rotary drilling rig. The pulsation
dampener consists of a spherical metal chamber that
is either liquid filled or gas cushioned. The liquidfilled dampener is used close to a pump and uses
the compressibility of the liquid to absorb pressure
pulses. The dampener works best with a gaseous
liquid. The gas-cushion damper has a rubber
diaphragm or bladder to separate nitrogen or natural
gas which is under about two-thirds of the operating
pressure from the pumped fluid, (dampening bottle
or pressure snubber)
pulse 1) any short duration wave 2) a seismic
waveform that is relatively short in duration compared
to the time interval of interest
pulsed neutron, pulsed-neutron capture, or
pulsed-neutron decay log a type of wireline well
log that uses a pulsed-neutron sonde and measures
gamma rays that are produced by the interaction of
the neutrons with the nuclei of atoms in the formation.
An accelerator-type of neutron generator emits
periodic bursts of high-energy neutrons with a
frequency of 1,000 impulses per second. The highenergy neutrons are captured when they hit atoms
in the formation, and gamma rays are emitted.
Chlorine, present in sodium chloride in formation
waters, dominates the capture. The log can be run
in both an open and a cased well and through 23/s
in. tubing and is used to identify lithologies and
measure hydrocarbon saturations. The log can locate

404

pulse-echo method pumping well

gas/oilAvater contacts and document saturation in

changes with time. The pulsed neutron log has a very
shallow depth of investigation and is affected by mud
filtrate. The log yields accurate hydrocarbon
saturations only with porosities above 10%. Pulsed
neutron logs include the Carbon/Oxygen Log,
gamma spectrometry log, Neutron Lifetime Log,
Thermal Decay Time Log, and Thermal Multigate
Decay Log
pulse-echo method a corrosion detection method
that uses ultrasonic waves induced into a structure
to measure wall thickness and locate flaws
pulse echo tool a type of cement-bond logging tool
that uses eight transmitters to determine the radial
pattern of cement behind the casing. PET
pulse-echo ultrasonic borehole televiewer a
downhole tool that uses a pulsed, narrow acoustic
beam to scan the wellbore. The amplitude of the
reflected beam is displayed on a cathode-ray tube to
show a picture of the wellbore.
pulse test a type of interference test in which the
active well is alternately produced and shut in for
short periods
PUMP 1) pumping 2) pumped
pump a mechanical device used to increase fluid
pressure or move fluids. Pumps can be divided into
kinetic or dynamic pumps in which energy is added
to increase the fluid velocity and positive displacement
pumps in which the volume containing the fluid is
decreased. Most kinetic pumps used in production
facilities are centrifugal with axial, mixed, or radial
flow, whereas most positive displacement pumps are
reciprocating. Reciprocating pumps include piston,
plunger and diaphragm. Some other specialty pumps
include jet and gear pumps. Pumps are identified by
a) displacement, b) slip, c) capacity, and d) efficiency.
pmp
pumpability time the length of time that a particular
cement slurry remains fluid during and after being
pumped down a well. Pumpability time is the time
from the initial application of pressure and
temperature in a consistometer to the cement slurry
reaching a consistency of 100 B6. (thickening time
or pumping time)
pumpage the amount of fluid moved by a pump
pump by heads to pump intermittently
pump down to lower the liquid level in a well with
a downhole pump to a) the level of the downhole
pump or b) the standing valve in the downhole pump
pumpdown a method of servicing a well by using
a surface pump to circulate equipment through the
flowline which is either the casing-tubing annulus or
tubing. Pumpdown can be used to run, service and
pull gas lifts and jet pumps along with flow and
pressure control devices. Pumpdown can cut paraffin,
wash sand, break sand bridges, shift sleeves, measure
bottomhole conditions and treat the producing
formation. Pumpdown is used for servicing subsea
wells, (through flowline)
pumped off a condition in which a pump is working
but there is no fluid to flow. A pump off can damage
an electric submersible centrifugal pump because of
the lack of cooling fluid, (underload)

pumper 1) the person employed to operate the

equipment such as pumpers, separators, and stock
tanks on a lease. The pumper is responsible for
accurately recording the amounts of oil sold. The
pumper can also be assigned to make minor repairs
and maintenance on the equipment, gauge the oil
in the stock tanks, test the wells, and make reports.
(custodian, lease operator, or switcher)!) see pumping
unit
pumper drill a water pump and light drillstem with
no bit that is used to wash out soft soil for shot holes
pumping derrick or rig a smaller derrick that
replaced the original derrick used for drilling the
well. A pumping rig was kept above the well and
used for well workover. Pumping rigs have been
replaced by modern mobile pulling units.
pumping pit an open pit that was used in the first
stage of separating crude oil and water from wells.
(settling or skimming pit)
pumping schedule the daily program during which
a pumping well is turned on and off. The timing is
usually done with a percentage timer.
pumping station see pump station
pumping tee the T-shaped pipe fitting that
accommodates the polished rod on a sucker-rod pump
well. The polished rod moves up and down vertically
as the fluid comes out horizontally from the pumping
tee to a flowline. The pumping tee is the connection
between the tubing, flowline, and packing element
on a sucker-rod pump. The pumping tee contains a
bleed-off valve and an outlet for a pressure gauge.
pumping time see pumpability time

pumping unit (Dowell Schlumberger)

pumping unit 1) an artificial lift oil well that uses

a downhole sucker-rod pump to lift the oil. Types
of pumping units include conventional, mechanically
balanced, air balanced, winch and cable, beam
balanced, and pneumatic or hydraulic, (pumper) PU
2) a high-pressure, high-horsepower pumper that is
used to pump stimulation fluids down a well. The
pumping unit usually consists of a prime mover such
as a diesel engine or turbine, transmission, and
positive-displacement triplex plunger pump. The
plunger sizes can be changed to change the pressure
range, (pump truck)
pumping well an oil well in which the oil is lifted
to the surface by artificial methods in contrast to a
flowing well

pump jack or pumpjack PVT study

pump jack or pumpjack 1) a surface pumping unit
that is not operated by its own power unit. Several
pump jacks are operated by a central power unit using
rods or cables. 2) see beam pumping unit. PJ
pump lift the vertical distance that a pump can raise
water vertically by suction. The theoretical limit is
34 ft at sea level.
pump man a member of a drilling rig crew with
the responsibility of maintenance and operation of
the mud pumps
pump manifold a series of interconnected pipes
or lines that connect several pumps
pump oflf to pump a well too much so that the level
of the oil falls below the pump in the well and the
well becomes temporarily dry
pump-off control a device that is used to turn a
sucker-rod pump on and off. The earliest controls
were percentage timers. Pump-off control types
include a) stand-alone analogs, b) stand-alone
microprocessors with communication equipment, and
c) centralized system in communication with pumps.
The control detects fluid pound and can be operatorset for an allowable limit. The unit also monitors
maximum and minimum rod loads and load span.
(rod pump control) POC
pump pressure the fluid discharge pressure on a
pump
pump station a pumping installation that is used
to keep the oil moving in a pipeline. An inlet pump
station starts the oil flowing, and intermediate pump
stations keep the oil flowing. Pump stations are located
at various intervals of 80-150 mi along the pipeline
depending on the diameter of the pipeline and the
terrain. The pump station can also include separators,
storage, scraper traps, and control equipment.
Compressor stations are used on a gas pipeline.
(pumping station)
pump stroke counter or indicator an electronic
device that uses switches on the mud pumps or an
AC generator driven from the pump pinion shaft and
displays mud pump strokes and a time-averaged stroke
counts on the driller's console or logging unit. The
pump stroke counter is used to detect pump trouble.
pump-through tubing plug a plug set in tubing
that will permit pumped fluids down the tubing but
prevents back flow up the tubing
pump truck see pumping unit
pump to engine ratio the net pump area divided
by the net engine area on a double acting pump. It
is called the pressure ratio for a single acting pump.
P over E ratio or PIE

pup pick-up pump

pup joint a short length of tubulars such as tubing
or casing that is used to make the string the correct
length
purchase agreement a contract between an
operator and a purchaser for the sale of oil and/or
gas from certain leases
purchase letter an agreement in which a lease
owner drills a test well on the lease. After the well
is drilled, the lease owner transfers certain acreage
to the assignee in the purchase letter. In return, the

405

assignee gives the lease owner money for drilling

the well. A purchase letter can be either a bottomhole
agreement in which the assignee pays if the well is
a dry hole or a bottomhole letter in which the assignee
pays when the well is drilled to a specific depth.
pure-component volume the volume that a
component gas in a mixture of gases would occupy
under the same temperature and pressure as the gas
mixture
purge method a method used to take a gas sample
for analysis. An undiluted sample is obtained by
alternately filling and emptying the sample container
with the gas several times
purging 1) the displacing of one liquid by another
2) to clean the inside of vessels or pipe
purging a well the intermittent removal of water
from the bottom of a well. Purging a well is necessary
when the normal velocity of fluid up the tubing is
not sufficient to prevent water from building up on
the bottom of the well. A surface bypass arrangement
uses an intermitter to alternate flow through a normal
choke and a large diameter choke. The higher flow
rate through the large-diameter choke purges the
water. The intermitter can be either time or pressure
activated.
PURP or purp purple
PURW purchased well
pusher a toolpusher
pushrod the link between the valve and cam in an
engine
push wave see P-wave
put a well on to start a well pumping or flowing
put in stalk to make a connection on a drilling rig
put on the pump to put a pumping unit on an oil
well and start production by pumping. POP
putting on a wildcat tail to drill a development
well deeper than the producing reservoir to test an
unproven, deeper reservoir
PV 1) present value 2) pore volume 3) plastic viscosity
pv vapor pressure
PVC polyvinylchloride
PVF pump volume factor
pvmnt pavement
PVOL pad volume
PVI present value index
PVP present value profit
PVP/I present value profit/investment
PVT 1) pressure-volume-temperature 2) trade name
for pit volume totalizer
PVT study the laboratory proceedures that are used
to identify the physical properties of reservoir fluid
samples for materials balance calculations on that
reservoir. The studies include a) chemical
composition, b) flash vaporization, c) differential
vaporization, d) separator test, and e) oil viscosity
measurements. The properties of the fluids that are
determined include a) bubblepoint pressure,
b) formation volume factor for oil, c) solution gas/
oil ratio, d) total formation volume factor, e) coefficient
of isothermal compressibililty of oil, 0 oil viscosity,

406

PW P/Z versus rate/cum decline plot

g) Z factor, h) formation volume factor of gas, i) gas

viscosity along with the quantities and properties of
separator gas, stock-tank gas, and stock-tank oil.
(reservoir fluid study)
PW present worth
Pw or pw bottomhole pressure
Pw pressure in the water phase
P-wave an elastic wave that travels through the body
of the medium with the particles of the medium
moving in the same direction as the wave propagation.
The velocity of a P-wave varies with the square root
of the elastic constant divided by the density of the
medium. The P-wave is the wave used in conventional
seismic exploration. A P-wave is in contrast to shear
and surface waves, (primary, compressional,
longitudinal, push, or pressure wave)
PWBS working burst strength
Pwcs working collapse strength
P^ or p,^ bottomhole flowing pressure
Pwi injection well bottomhole pressure
Pwp producing well bottomhole pressure
PWR power
P^ or p^, bottomhole static pressure
PXA plugged and abandoned
Py pyroxene
Pybit pyrobitumen
pycnometer a container, often made of glass, that
holds a specific volume of liquid at a certain
temperature. The pycnometer is filled and weighed
to measure the specific gravity of a liquid. For core
analysis, a cylindrical steel pycnometer filled with
mercury is used. The core is put into the pycnometer,
and the volume of mercury that is displaced is
measured to determine the core bulk volume.
PYR, Pyr, or pyr 1) pyrite 2) pyritic
Pyr pyrhotite
Pyrbit or pyrbit pyrobitumen
pyrcl pyroclastic
pyrite a common, brass or bronze-yellow mineral
composed of FeS2. Pyrite is a heavy mineral with a
density of 5.01 gms/cm3and often occurs as cubic
crystals in sedimentary rocks. Pyrite can be both

detrital (deposited with the rest of the sedimentary

grains) or authigenic (formed by chemical reactions
in the subsurface). Authigenic pyrite is indicative of
anaerobic sulfide diagenesis. Pyrite in sedimentary
rocks can give misleading readings on resistivity logs.
(fool's gold) PYR, Pyr, or pyr
pyrite framboid a spherical aggregation of
microcrystalline pyrite. Pyrite framboids are common
in highly organic shales
pyrobitumen a naturally occurring, dark, hard
hydrocarbon. Pyrobitumen is insoluable in CS2 and
chloroform and decomposes into gases and liquid
hydrocarbons, primarily bitumens, when heated to
350C. Most native bitumens such as Albertite,
Elasterite, Impsonite, and wurtzilite are pyrobitumens.
The presence of pyrobitumen indicates
overmaturation. Pyrbit, Pybit, or pyrbit
pyroclastics volcanic ash
pyrolysis a method of analyzing the composition
of a substance by heating the sample in the absence
of oxygen and measuring the temperature and
composition of the gases given off. The gases are
often analyzed with gas chromatography or a mass
spectrometer. Hydrous pyrolysis occurs in the
presence of water, whereas anhydrous pyrolysis occurs
in the absence of water. Pyrolysis is thermal cracking.
pyrometer a temperature-measuring instrument for
high temperatures
pyroxene a group of minerals composed of calcium,
magnesium and iron silicates. Pyroxenes are greenish
to black in color and form short, eight-sided prismatic
crystals. Pyroxenes have two cleavages at 90, a specific
gravity of 3-2-3.6, and a hardness of 5-6. Pyroxenes
are formed in igneous rocks. Some common
pyroxenes are augite, enstatite, hypersthene, and
diopside. pyrxn or Py
pyrxn pyroxene
P/Z gas pressure that is adjusted for the Z factor. The
Z factor compensates for the fact that the gas is not
an ideal gas.
P/Z versus rate/cum decline plot a graph of a gas
well using P/Z on one axis and either production
rate or cumulative production on the other axis. The
plot is used to predict future and ultimate production
for that gas well.

Q quartz

Q
Q 1) heatflow 2) cumulative flow rate 3) charge
4) quadrillion 5) quality factor 6) tetrajoule 7) shale
volume
q 1) flow rate 2) charge 3) production rate
4) quadrillion
q' flow rate
Qb flow rate at base conditions
qk or qrf pumping rate
QC quality control
Qd or QD flow rate per day
qj displacement rate
qjah downhole flow rate
q t production rate at economic limit
QP bottomhole flow rate
Qf flow rate at flowing condition
Qg or qg gas flow rate
Qi, or QH flow rate per hour
Qj, flow rate at base condition
qj reference production rate on a decline curve
Qj liquid flow rate
q,,, mass flow rate
Q method an obsolete method used to determine
shale volume (Q) from sonic and density log data.
The equation is Q = (total porosity from the sonic
log-density log reading)/total porosity from the sonic
log.
Qo or <lo o 'l flw r a t e
q oi initial oil production rate
Q_ cumulative production
Qr volume flow rate at base condition
qry quarry
Qs 1) flow rate at flowing condition 2) slippage flow
rate
q^ surface production rate
Q st flow rate at standard conditions
Q, or q, total flow rate
qt quart
Q3 quartz
qtr quarter
qts quarts
QTZ, Qtz, or qtz quartz
QTZC quartzitic

407

qtee quartzite
qtzose quartzose
QTZT, Qtzt, or qtzt quartzite
qty quantity
QUAD or quad quadrangle
quad 1) quadrant 2) quadrillion
quadrangle a four-sided tract of land or a map or
plot of that land that is bounded by parallels of latitude
and meridians of longitude that are 1 apart. QUAD
or quad
quadrant a quarter of a compass circle. In surveying,
the first quadrant is the northeast quadrant, the second
is the southeast, the third is the southwest, and the
fourth is the northwest, quad
quadrillion 1015
qual quality
quality factor the ratio of 2IT times the peak energy
in a wave divided by the energy absorbed. The quality
factor is 70-150 in sands and sandstones, 100-600 in
limestones and dolomites, and 200-600 in granites
and basalts. The absorption coefficient is
approximately equal to ir x f/Q x V. Q
quan quantity
quaquaversal a structure in which the sedimentary
rocks dip radially down and out from a central point.
A salt dome is an example of a quaquaversal. A
quaquaversal is in contrast to centrocline. (peridine)
quaquaversal dome an anticline that is
approximately circular in plan view
quarterboat the boat used as living quarters for a
geophysical crew
quarterline a north-south or east-west line that
bisects a section of land. The quarterlines divide a
section into quarter sections.
quarter post a post used to mark a corner of a quarter
section of land in the United States Public Land Survey
system
quarter-quarter section a sixteenth of a section of
land in the United States Public Land Survey system.
A quarter-quarter section is one quarter mile on a
side and covers 40 ac.
quarter section one-fourth of a section of land in
die United States Public Land Survey system. A quarter
section is Vi mi on a side and covers 160 ac.
quarters platform an offshore platform that serves
as living accomodations. In shallow water, the quarters
platform is separated from the production platform
for safety and connected by a bridge. In deep water,
it is part of a single platform.
quartz a common mineral composed of SiO2. Quartz
is very hard, is relatively inert chemically, and is very
resistant to abrasion. Quartz occurs as six-sided
prismatic crystals or granular masses, has a specific
gravity of 2.65, a hardness of 7, a greasy luster, and

408

quartzarenite Qw or qw

a conchoidal fracture. It is commonly colorless or

white. Quartz is a very common rock-forming mineral
and is common in granite, gneiss, and many other
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Most beach sands
and sandstones are composed primarily of quartz
grains. QTZ, Q^ Qtz or qtz
quartzarenite a sandstone that is composed of more
than 95% quartz sand grains. A quartzarenite is similar
to an orthoquartzite.
quartziferous a quartz-bearing rock
quartzite a very hard sandstone consisting primarily
of quartz sand grains that are well cemented together
with silica cement. A quartzite is so hard that it breaks
across the quartz grains rather than around the grains.
QTZT, Qtzt, qtzt, or qtze
quartzose A rock consisting primarily of quartz
mineral grains, qtzose
quartz sandstone a general term of a sandstone
composed primarily of quartz sand grains
Quaternary a period of time from 2 m. y. ago to
present. The Quaternary is part of the Cenozoic Era
and is subdivided into the Pleistocene and Holocene
epochs.
quebracho a drilling mud additive made of tannic
acid from the quebracho tree. Quebracho is used
for thinning or dispersing to regulate viscosity and
thixotropy of the mud. The name quebracho is Spanish
for axe breaker.
quench to suddenly cool a hot substance
quest questionable
quick cycle a short adsorption cycle (15-20 minutes)
used in the adsorption process for removing liquids

from wet gas. The heavier hydrocarbons are retained

on the dessicant and are removed by coolers. A longer
cycle would cause water to replace the hydrocarbons.
quicklime or quick lime calcium oxide. Quick
lime is used in oil-base drilling mud to neutralize
organic acid.
quick-look log a well log that is processed by an
onboard, truck-mounted computer at the wellsite. The
most common log uses deep resistivity, spontaneous
potential, gamma-ray, neutron and density porosity,
and caliper measurements to calculate water
saturation. Other types of quick-look logs include a
lithology analysis, dipmeter computations, two-way
travel times, vertical seismic profiling, borehole profile
and cement volume, and wellsite production log.
(wellsite computer log)
quick sand driller's term for sand that caves and
settles rapidly
quick union a connection that is coarse threaded
for a quick lock and has a lubricated O-ring seal
quiet title action proceedings to establish a land
title
quiet well a well with no lost circulation or abnormal
high-pressure problems
quitclaim an instrument in which the grantor
releases all interest in the land he owns
QT 1) volume flow rate at base condition 2) vapor
quality 3) concentration of charges
q,. 1) volume flow rate 2) volume flow rate at flowing
condition
Qyn normalized Qv
Qw or q^, water flow rate

R radian

R
R 1) electrical resistivity 2) range 3) recovery
4) reservoir 5) current or producing gas/oil ratio
6) universal gas constant 7) real part 8) Rankine
9) reflection coefficient 10) running 11) ran
r 1) rare 2) radial distance 3) reduced 4) resistance
5) relative 6) residual 7) revolution
R. reaming
R degrees Rankine
RA 1) radioactive 2) right angle
R.A. rignt angle
R/A 1) regular acid 2) right angles
rabbit 1) the last-swab cup mandrel on the sand line
used in a swabbing operation. The rabbit is different
from the other swab-cup mandrels in that its end is
just slightly smaller in diameter than the tubinga.
2) a device, usually a hard rubber or plastic sphere
or a metal cylinder, that is sent through a pipeline
to clean, test, or separate batches of fluid. The rabbit
shape can be a ball, elongated, or segmented. Rabbits
are used to clean condensate out of low areas of
pipelines such as river crossings. Rabbits are put into
and taken out of the pipeline from launchers and
receivers, (pig) 3) a cylinder of specific size that is
run through casing or tubing to insure its size. The
rabbit is dropped through each joint of new tubing
as it is picked off the pipe rack to be put in the well.
If the rabbit hangs up in the tubing, the tubing is
rejected as out of gauge, (drift mandrel) 4) a tool
that is pushed through pipe to straighten it 5) a metal
marker that is inserted into the inner core barrel
before coring. When the core is extracted from the
barrel, the rabbit falls out to show that the barrel is
empty, (core marker)
rabbiting to run a rabbit through a tubular to make
sure it is clear and in gauge
race the groove that holds the balls in ball bearings
or the rollers in roller bearings
rack 1) to place on a rack such as pipe rack. Stands
of drillpipe are racked vertically in the finger board
during tripping out on a rig. In shallow to medium
holes, the stands are racked on the pit side of the
mast which is the derrickman's right hand side. On
deep wells, the stands are racked on both sides of
the monkeyboard. 2) a framework used for supporting
materials such as pipe on a pipe rack 3) a bar with
notches that is used as a ratchet
rack back to stand tubulars in the derrick

409

racker a carriage used on the outside of an offshore

derrick to rack tubulars. The system uses a lower
carriage for casing and the kelly and an intermediate
and upper carriage for drillpipe and drill collars. Each
racker is mounted on a track to travel the width of
the derrick and contains a powered arm with hand
that moves from the carriage to the center of the
derrick . The racker is remotely controlled.
racking arm a telescoping arm that is driven by
hydraulics to move pipe on a drill floor
racking board a platform with fingers that is located
high up on a pulling or well-service unit mast. The
derrickman stands on the board to rack tubing or
sucker rods being pulled from the well, (racking
platform)
racking board guys wire cables that are used to
steady the mast of a well-service unit. Two guys run
from the racking board to anchors called deadmen
in the ground and are used when tubing is standing
in the racking board.
racking in die fingers to place stands of drillpipe
in the finger board on the derrick of a drilling rig
or tubing or sucker rods in the fingers of the racking
platform on a pulling or well-service unit mast. Racking
in the fingers is directed by the derrickman standing
on the monkeyboard or finger platform.
racking platform see racking board
rack pipe 1) to stand pipe in a derrick or mast
2) to rack pipe horizontally on a pipe rack
rack rods to stand sucker rods in a mast
racks of macaroni stands of drillpipe racked in the
derrick
RAD radiation log
Rad or rad radial
rad 1) radius 2) radian
Radax radiaxial
radial clearance the distance between the walls of
a hole and the walls of a tubular or tool joint
radial flow the flow of fluids from all horizontal
directions to or from a point. The flow of reservoir
fluids through a reservoir into a well and the flow
of injected fluids from an injection well is radial flow.
radial refraction a refraction seismic technique
a) using a pattern of linear geophone arrays radiating
out from the shot point, (fan shooting) or b) using
a geophone in the borehole of a well to detect seismic
waves from shotpoints scattered at different distances
and directions from the well. Radial reflection is an
old method used to locate the position of salt domes.
radial stream pattern a stream drainage pattern that
is characterized by streams flowing outward from a
central, elevated area. Radial patterns can form on
volcanic cones and buried hills.
radian the System International (SI) supplementary
unit for a plane angle. A radian is a measure of an

410

radiation R&LC

angle in which 2ir radians equals 360. One radian

is about 57.3- rod
radiation energy such as light, heat, sound, atomic
particles or other form that is sent out from a substance
and propagated through matter or space, radtn
radical two or more elements that are combined
to act as a chemical unit and have a charge. Examples
of radicals are CO3~2 and SO4~2.
radioactive-tracer log a survey that uses slugs of
radioactive tracers in oil or water to document the
movement of fluids in a well. A radioactive-tracer log
can be used to show leaks in casing and to estimate
fluid flow at various points in the well. In the velocityshot method, the radioactive tracer is injected into
the flowstream and the travel time to two gamma
ray detectors is measured. In the timed run or
controlled time method, the radioactive tracer is
injected at the bottom of the tubing string. Gamma
ray logging runs are made at time intervals to locate
the radioactive slug. In the differential injection
method used in an openhole completion with the
hole size unknown, the tubing is run to the openhole
section, the radioactive tracer. RJA Tra or TRL
radioactivity the property of atoms of some isotopes,
such as C14, K40and U235, to spontaneously decay by
emitting an alpha particle, beta particle, and/or gamma
radiation. Radioactive decay of the unstable isotope
forms another isotope which may or may not be stable.
The atom that decays is called the parent, and the
atom that forms by decay is the daughter. The rate
of radioactive decay varies between isotopes and is
measured in half lives.
radioactivity log a wireline well log that measures
either the natural radioactivity of rocks adjacent to
the wellbore (natural gamma ray log) or bombards
the rocks with neutrons or gamma rays to induce
radioactivity (neutron log and gamma-gamma log).
radiogenic formed by radioactive decay
radioisotope a radioactively unstable isotope of an
element such as C14or K40. A radioisotope will
disintegrate spontaneously by emitting an alpha or
beta particle and/or gamma rays.

and on fixed platforms are used for triangulation. The

method is accurate to + or 5-25 meters.
radius of curvature the change of inclination in a
buildup section in a deviated well measured in
7100 ft. (angle-build rate)
radius of drainage the maximum distance within
which fluids move toward a producing well. Effective
radius of drainage is the radial distance from a
wellbore beyond which negligible pressure drop
occurs.
radius of investigation 1) the depth back beyond
the wellbore walls that a tool such as an induction
sonde senses and is affected by the rocks and their
fluids 2) the distance that a pressure transient pulse
has moved back into the formation after a rate change
in a well, r, or R-INV
radtn radiation
rag line the Manila rope used for the cable-tool
drilling line
R/A Grd radiation guard log
railroad-strap seal a numbered, malleable strip of
metal that is used to secure a valve. The railroadstrap serial number is recorded and the strap has to
be cut to open the valve.
rainbow the iridescent colors shown by a film of
crude oil on water
RALOG running radioactive log
RAM random access memory

ram-type blowout preventer

radiolaria

radiolaria or radiolarian a single-celled animal

with a SiO2 shell that floats in the ocean. Radiolarians
are useful as microfossils and range in age from the
Cambrian period to the present. In some areas, the
ocean bottom is covered with relatively pure radiolaria
deposits called radiolarian ooze. Some chert deposits
have been formed by radiolarians.
radiolite survey instrument a well survey
instrument that records azimuth from a compass and
inclination from hanging dip arms with radioactive
paint and photographic film
radio positioning a method used for navigation at
sea. The directions of radio beacons located onshore

ram a closing element on a blowout preventer that

forces together two steel blocks with rubber surfaces
to form a seal with each other (blind or shear ram)
or around a string of pipe (pipe ram). Variable-bore
pipe rams can close around a range of pipe diameters.
Ram preventers are more rugged and reliable than
the annular type of preventers. During normal drilling
operations, the drillstring fits through the rams in
the blowout preventers. The rams are activated by
hydraulic pressure.
ramp 1) a sloping passage or incline that is used to
connect two levels 2) a portion of a thrust-fault surface
that is steeply inclined in a relatively competent
sedimentary rock bed. A ramp is in contrast to a flat.
3) a limestone or carbonate ramp that is a sloping
segment of the sea bottom leading from the beach
to deep water in an area of limestone deposition
R&D research and development
R&L road and location
R&LC road and location complete

R&O rathole or rat hole

R&O rust and oxidation
random access memory computer memory where
data can be stored. Any location in the memory can
be found, on the average, as easily as any other location.
The memory goes blank when the computer is turned
off. Random access memory is measured in kilobytes
or megabytes and is in contrast to read-only memory.
RAM
random deviation the intentional drilling of a well
that is not vertical without regard to the azimuth
direction of the deviation. Random deviation is done
to either straighten or sidetrack the well.
R&T or R.&T. rods and tubing
range 1) a system of north-south strips six-miles wide
that are defined by range lines and are used for land
subdivision in the United States and Canada. RNG,
Rge, rge, R, or rng 2) the source-to-detector distances
in refraction seismic 3) the maximum distance at
which a signal can be received 4) the distance to a
positioning station 5) the nominal length of joints of
tubular goods such as casing, drillpipe, and tubing.
The American Petroleum Institute defines Range 1
as 16-25 ft for casing, 18-22 ft for drillpipe, and 2024 ft for tubing. Range 2 is 25-34 ft for casing, 2730 ft for drillpipe, and 28-32 ft for tubing. Range 3
is 34 ft or more for casing and 38-45 ft for drillpipe.
6) the difference between the largest and smallest
measurements
rangeability the maximum divided by the minimum
flow rate that a meter can accommodate
range line a north-south boundary between
townships. Range lines are six miles apart and are
numbered east or west of the meridian line starting
with one.
range-range system a navigational system that uses
two base stations, each with a transmitter and receiver.
Each base station receives a signal from a mobile
station and transmits the signal back. The signal time
is used to determine the distance to each station.
Rankine temperature scale a scale that uses
Fahrenheit degrees to indicate temperature above
absolute zero which occurs at 45972F. Water
freezes at 491.60R and boils at 671.69R. To convert
Fahrenheit to Rankine, add 459-72. The Rankine
temperature scale is named after W.J.M. Rankine. The
scientific scale that also uses absolute zero but with
centigrade degrees is the Kelvin temperature
scale. R
rank wildcat an exploratory well drilled at least
2 mi from known production. A rank wildcat is drilled
into a trap that has never produced commercial
amounts of gas and/or oil. (new-field wildcat)
Raoult's equation the partial pressure of a gas-liquid
mixture component is equal to the mole fraction of
that component in liquid times the vapor pressure
of the pure component. Raoult's equation is valid only
if the gas-liquid mixture is an ideal solution.
rapid sand filter a small liquid-filtering unit that
uses sand. Layers of sand on gravel use gravity and/
or pressure to remove suspended solid particles from
a fluid. Backwashing is used to clean the sand filter.
rasp an old fishing tool that was similar to a mill
and was used to reduce the size of a box or collar
in preparation for another fishing tool.

411

ratable taking 1) production within the limits of

an allowable 2) production in quantities from a
producing formation so that each land owner over
the producing formation receives their fair share of
the oil or gas in place 3) a statutory or contractual
provision requiring a production purchaser such as
a pipeline to take production proportionately from
all working interest owners within a common source
of supply 4) a clause in a gas purchase contract to
purchase gas from sellers at a certain rate
ratably cutbacks in production takes that are made
proportionally without any consideration such as
price, (pro-rata)
rated load the maximum weight that a structure is
designed to support
rated working pressure the maximum internal
pressure that a system or equipment such as a blowout
preventer or wellhead is designed to handle and still
be under warantee and operate safely, (maximum
service or working pressure)
rate gyro a gyroscope that automatically seeks true
north, (north-seeking gyro)
rate of penetration the vertical speed of drill bit
penetration often recorded in units of minutes per
foot drilled. The rate of penetration is affected by
the drilling parameters a) weight on bit, b) type of
bit, c) bit rpm, d) bit condition, e) downhole assembly,
and f) mud hydraulics and by formation parameters
such as a) hardness, b) pore pressure, and c) porosity.
In general, a rotary rig will drill sedimentary rocks
at a rate of 1-20 min/ft.
rate-of-penetration recorder a device, patented in
1939, that is used on a drilling rig to measure and
record the rate of penetration. It uses a hydraulic
head to measure the height of the swivel.
rate of return the percentage return on invested
capital on a project such as drilling a well. The book
rate of return is used for corporate evaluation. A project
is evaluated by a) internal rate of return, b) external
rate of return, c) minimum interest rate of return,
or d) growth rate of return.
rate of take provision a gas purchase contract
provision that defines the rate at which gas is to be
taken by a pipeline. The rate is a ratio of the daily
gas-take volume to the proven-reserves volume.
rate schedule an instrument that is subject to federal
or state regulations that defines the rates and other
terms under which natural gas is to be transported
or sold.
rathole or rat hole 1) to reduce the diameter of
the well and continue drilling 2) a smaller diameter
well on the bottom of the main hole 3) the initial
small-diameter hole made for directional drilling
4) a hole and pipe in the drilling-rig floor used to
place the kelly, kelly bushing, and swivel during
tripping in and out of the well. The rathole is located
further away from the rotary table than the mousehole
and on the driller's right of the mousehole. The pipe
is 8-12 in. in diameter and 3-5 ft longer than the
kelly. The pipe extends 4 ft above the drilling floor
to protect the kelly and contains a small drainhole.
Offshore, the rathole extends from the derrick floor
down to the cellar floor. RH

412

rathole or rat-hole ahead real gas

rathole or rat-hole ahead to drill a small-diameter

hole on the bottom of the well. Rathole ahead is used
for drillstem tests.
rathole or rat-hole digger a service company that
uses a small truck-mounted unit to drill the rat hole,
mouse hole, and conductor hole for a large drilling
rig before it is brought onto the site. A rathole digger
uses the blueprints of the rig to position the holes
and augers of different diameters to drill the holes.
The conductor hole is drilled with an auger, and the
conductor pipe is cemented in. The other holes are
left open, (ratholer)
rathole or rat-hole guide an articulated tool used
to guide the hole opener into the rat hole, a smalldiameter hole used to initiate deviation drilling
rathole or rat-hole method a method used to run
a drillstem test on a section in well that has a smaller
diameter hole than the hole above it due to coring.
A cone-shaped packer is seated on the shoulder of
the well to form the seal for the test. The anchor
pipe does not touch the bottom of the well, (cone
packer method)
rathole port a hole in the drilling floor near the
V-door on the driller's side for the rathole
ratholer see rathole digger
ratification an agreement that affirms that a party
agrees to the adoption of terms of another instrument
ratify to approve and confirm
rating the maximum depth that a drilling rig is safety
designed to drill using standard equipment and tools.
The size, weight, and amount of equipment increases
with the depth rating of the rig. (depth rating)
ratis test a small-scale test used to determine the
most effective ratio of emulsion breaker to emulsion
rattlesnake cage a cylindrical, metal enclosure for
a valve with an open top on the surface of the ground
R/A Tra radioactive tracer log
Rauhwacke see dissolution boxwords
raw crude oil untreated crude oil from a well. Raw
crude oil contains water, sediment, and solution gas
before it passes through a separator.
raw gas untreated natural gas from a well before
water, inerts, hydrogen sulfide, and any hydrocarbons
that can be liquified are removed (raw natural gas)
raw gasoline see retrograde gas
raw mud drilling mud flowing out of a well before
being processed by solids-control equipment such
as the shale shaker and hydrocyclones on a drilling
rigraw natural gas see raw gas
ray a wave energy in constrast to particle energy
Rayleigh wave a type of acoustic or seismic wave
that travels along the surface of the earth. A Rayleigh
wave is generated whenever a P- or SV-wave is
generated in the vicinity of a free surface. A Rayleigh
wave is the most common wave in ground roll.
(R-wave or LR-wave)

raypath a line that is perpendicular to a wavefront

propagating in isotropic material
ray tracing a method used in seismic prospecting
that is used to predict the arrival time of seismic energy

at geophones using Snell's law and known rock

velocities
RB 1) rock bit 2) rotary bushing
RBF roller-ball friction
Rbl or rbl rubble
RBM rotary bushing measurement
RBP retrievable bridge plug
RBR roller-ball roller
rbr rubber
RBSO rainbow show of oil
RBSOF rubber-ball-sand oil frac
RBSWF rubber-ball-sand water frac
RBXS rock bit and scraper
RC 1) running casing 2) remote control 3) reverse
circulation
R,. Rockwell hardness
RCB retrievable concentric bypass
R^i clay resistivity
RC-log reflection-coefficient log
RCO returning circulation oil
RCR reverse-circulation rig
RCSG running casing
RCV remote-controlled vehicle
RD 1) rigging 2) rigged down 3) rigging down 4)
rotor diameter 5) random drilling
rd 1) road 2) round 3) red
R/D 1) redrilled 2) redrilling
rd radius of drainage
RDB rotary drive bushing
Rd Bds red beds
RDB-Gd rotary drive bushing to ground
rdd rounded
RDR redrilled hole
RDS roads
rds rods
rdsh reddish
RDSU rigged down swabbing unit
RDT radial differential temperature
rdtp round trip
RDX cyclonite, a common explosive used for shapedcharge well perforating
Re Reynolds number
re 1) external boundary radius 2) drainage radius
reacd reacidize
reaction -value the weight of an ion in a solution
in milligram per liter times (valence/atomic weight)
reactive torque the tendancy of a drillstring to turn
in the opposite dicection of the bit
read-only memory computer memory that cannot
be changed. The computer can read instructions from
it but cannot store data in it. Read only memory is
measured in kilobytes or megabytes and is in contrast
to random access memory. ROM
real gas any gas. A real gas has molecules that occupy
volume and have electrostatic charges in contrast to

real gas equation reciprocating pump

an ideal gas. Real gas under low pressure acts similar
to an ideal gas.
real gas equation PV ZnRT in which P is absolute
pressure, V is volume, Z is the compressibility factor,
n is the number of moles, R is the gas constant, and
T is the absolute temperature. Z compensates for the
fact that it is not an ideal gas.
real time occurring at the same time as an event;
no time lag
ream or ream down or out to enlarge the diameter
of a wellbore. rm

reamer (taper mill reamer)

reamer a sub used to enlarge an undergauge well

to gauge, ream out ledges and split casing, remove
key seats, and straighten a well. The reamer has cutting
blades, rollers, or cones of tungsten carbide on it
and is run down the well on a drill or work string.
A reamer is often used just behind the bit to produce
a gauge hole and stabilize the bit. The original reamers
had three or four fixed blades. Roller reamers with
roller cutters are more typical today. Three-point and
six-point reamers are common. The teeth can be sharp
or flat or inserts can be used. An expansion reamer
has expanding arms to enlarge the wellbore in the
pay zone. A tapered reamer is used to increase the
size of the wellbore. RMR
reamer mill a mill that is used to enlarge the hole
to its original diameter or to clean out the inside of
tubulars. Two types of reamer mills are string reamer
mills with vertical or spiral blades of full gauge that
are used between the drill collars and bottom reamer
mills that are run below the drill collars. The bottom
reamer mill is full gauge, similar to the junk mill,
and is used to clean cement and scale from tubulars.
reamer pad the flat surface above the bottom cutting
surface of a diamond bit that is used to enlarge the
hole
reamer-type hole opener a tool used to enlarge
pilot or rat holes
reasonable development covenant an implication
in an oil and gas lease that once production is initiated
to hold the lease, the lessee will continue to develop
the lease in a prudent manner rather than hold the
lease with only the initial producing well
reassignment obligation a farmout commitment
to offer the acreage back to the farmor before the
primary term of the lease expires
rebar reinforcing bar
rebel tool a cylindrical tool with a top and bottom
paddle on the outside that is designed to cause the
bit to deviate to the right or left while drilling. The

413

body is similar to a short drill collar (8-16 ft) that

has a diameter of 4I3/i6 in.-87/s in. Along the length
is a recess that accomodates a shaft or tortion rod
with a curved paddle at each end. The rebel tool is
usually run in the tangential section of the hole to
correct for bit walk.
reboiler distillation apparatus that is used to separate
water from a wet glycol solution that was used to
dehydrate natural gas. A reboiler can be either a direct
or indirect heater.
REC 1) recover 2) recoveries 3) recovery 4)
recovered
Rec recent
Rec or rec recovery
rec 1) recover 2) recovered, 3) recovery 4) recorder
5) recommend
recall buoy a buoy that is attached to the seafloor
and can be released by a sonic signal, (pop-up or
subsurface buoy or call-back marker)
reed received
recem recemented
Recent an epoch of geologic time from 10,000 years
ago until the present. It is part of the Quaternary
period. (Holocene) Rec
recess an enlarged opening at the end of tubular
goods
recharge area an outcrop of an aquifer where fresh
water enters the rock and flows into the subsurface
recip reciprocating
reciprocal sonde a wireline well log instrument
with the position of the current and measuring
electrodes interchanged from normal
reciprocal time the overall time from one end of
a detector line to the shot point after the shot point
and geopone have been reversed
reciprocating compressor a compressor that uses
pistons moving back and forth in cylinders to compress
gas. The steps in the reciprocating cycle are
compression, discharge, expansion, and suction. A
double-acting cylinder compresses gas on both sides
of the piston in the cylinder to balance the load. A
reciprocating compressor is widely used in gas
processing because of its flexibility in throughput and
discharge pressures.
reciprocating engine an engine that uses the up
and down motion of pistons in a cylinder to drive a
crankshaft
reciprocating pump a type of pump that uses
pistons moving back and forth in cylinders to move
liquids. Reciprocating pumps are commonly used as
mud pumps or hogs on a rotary drilling rig and have
removable liners. A duplex has two pistons and two
removable liners. The duplex pump is double acting,
pumping the drilling mud into the discharge line on
both the upward and downward strokes of the pistons.
More commonly, the triplex pump with three pistons
and three removable lines is used as a mud pump.
The triplex pump is single acting, the mud being
pumped only on the upward stroke of each piston.
Reciprocating pumps handle relatively small volumes
compared to centrifugal pumps, but generate high
pressures.

414

recirc redox log

recirc recirculate
reclaimer distillation apparatus that is used to purify
an monoethanolamine solution that has been used
to remove hydrogen sulfide from sour gas
reclined fold see recumbent fold
recognizability the ability to identify something
from a remote sensing image
RECOM or recomp recompletion
recompletion to workover a well to change
producing formations. Recompletion involves
plugging the older producing formation with a plugback plug of cement and completing a new producing
formation that is usually higher in the well. RECOM
or recomp
reconcentrator the apparatus used with a contact
or absorber tower to take water out of wet glycol. A
reconcentrator consists of a preheater, stripping
column, and reboiler to produce lean glycol.
recond reconditioned
reconnaissance a short investigation of broad extent
covering a region
reconnaissance license a permit granted by a
country to a party to explore for petroleum in any
part of a large designated area not covered by a
production license
reconnaissance study or survey a geological and
geophysical investigation over a large or broad area.
A reconnaissance study is in contrast to a detailed
study or survey.
record a collection of data. Examples of records are
seismic profiles and well logs.
recording truck a vehicle used in seismic
exploration. The recording truck contains amplifiers
and recording instruments.
record ownership the party that is the apparent
owner of an interest according to a chain of recorded
instruments
record section see seismic section
record time the time after a seismic shot
recoverable oil-in-place the amount of oil in the
subsurface reservoir that can be expected to be
recovered by production methods that are
economically justified
recovery 1) the amount of liquid in a drillstem after
a drillstem test in which the liquid did not flow to
the surface 2) the amount of core recovered compared
to the length of well actually cored 3) the relocation
of an old survey point in order to tie in a new survey
4) the amount of petroleum that can be produced.
Recovery is a function of technology and economics.
Rec, R, or rec

recovery efficiency or factor the percentage of oil

or gas in the reservoir that will ultimately be produced
by primary production and/or water flood and
enhanced oil recovery. The recovery factor for primary
production depends on the reservoir drive, along with
reservoir permeability, reservoir heterogenuity, oil
and gas viscosity, and other factors, and averages 30%.
The recovery factor ranges from 5%-30% for a
dissolved-gas drive, 20%-40% for a gas-cap drive, and
35%-75% for a water-drive reservoir. The recovery
factor for heavy oil is usually only 10%-15%. The

recovery factor for gas in a gas-expansion reservoir

is about 80%. RF
recp receptacle
RECR recorder
rect 1) rectifier 2) rectangle
rectangular stream drainage a stream drainage
pattern characterized by streams and tributaries that
flow though right-angle bends. The streams are flowing
on an underlying fault or joint pattern. An angular
stream pattern is formed when the faults or joints
are not oriented at right angles to each other.
rectification see fractionation
rectifier an electric circuit made with diodes that
transform alternating current into direct current, rect
rectify 1) to adjust the record on a wireline well
log for true vertical depth 2) to permit electric current
to pass only in one direction

recumbent fold

recumbent fold an overturned fold in sedimentary

rocks with the axial plane dipping between 0-10.
A recumbent fold is in contrast to a upright or inclined
fold, (reclined fold)
recy recycle
recycled gas natural gas dissolved in drilling mud
that escapes degasifying
recycling the reinjection of gas back into a
retrograde gas reservoir as it is produced. Before the
gas is reinjected, it is stripped of liquid hydrocarbons.
Recycling maintains pressure on the remaining
subsurface gas and prevents premature condensation
of hydrocarbons liquids while still in the subsurface
reservoir.
recycling unit a facility that buys basic sediment
and water and recovers crude oil from it (asphalt
plant)
red reducing
red bed red-colored sediment formed by an iron
oxide coating of the grains. Red beds are thought to
be originally deposited in a desert environment.
RdBd
red butt the dissatisfaction of a worker
red-lime mud a water-base drilling mud containing
tannates, caustic soda, and lime. Red-lime mud is a
red mud that has been made into a lime-treated mud
with a pH between 12 and 13.
red mud a high or low pH, fresh water-base drilling
mud containing caustic soda and tannates. Red mud
is red in color.
redox log a record of the redox potential of the
formations encountered in a well

416

reef apron

reference section

Large reefs are called fringing and barrier reefs, which

are parallel to the shoreline and atolls, which are
circular or elliptical. Small reefs are called patch, table
and pinnacle reefs, and faroes. Large reefs can be
divided into environments such as lagoon or back
reef, reef flat, and fore reef. Small reefs can be divided
into reef core and reef flank. Rforrf
reef apron the shallow area located lagoonward of
the reef flat. Sand eroded from the reef is deposited
in the reef apron
reef core the pan of the reef formed in place by
the growth of framework or reef-building organisms
such as corals. Organic boundstones are deposited
in the reef core. The reef core is surrounded by reef
flank deposits. The term reef core is applied to smaller
reefs such as pinnacle, patch, and table reefs.
reef flank the portion of the reef that surrounds
the reef core which is made of framework-building
organisms. The reef flank is composed of reef talus
that is dipping away from the reef and is composed
primarily of sediments eroded off the reef core. The
term reef flank is used primarily for smaller reefs
such as pinnacle, table, and patch reefs.
reef flat the portion of a large reef such as a barrier
or fringing reef or atoll where a framework-building
organism such as corals occur in abundance. The reef
flat is the area of greatest biological activity and fastest
deposition of limestone (organic boundstones). The
reef flat is covered with shallow water and exposed
only during the lowest tides. The reef flat is flanked
by back reef or lagoonal deposits on one side and
fore-reef deposits on the ocean side.
reef front the upper part of the seaward slope on
a reef. The reef front extends from the seaward edge
of the reef edge to the lower limits of abundant corals
and coralline algae.
reef limestone a limestone formed by framework
or reef-building organisms such as corals, sponges,
bryozoans, rudistids, calcareous algae, serpulids, or
other organisms. Reef limestone forms an organic
boundstone.
reef milk limestone mud (micrite) deposited in the
back reef or lagoonal area that is formed by abrasion
of limestone on the reef core and flank
reel 1) a circular drum used to wind and store wire
line, cable, or tubing. Measuring reels used in wells
are a) skid or base mounted, b) truck mounted and
driven, c) trailer mounted, d) boat mounted and
engine driven, and e) wellhead mounted with an
automatic paraffin scraper. An offshore reel often has
a double drum for routine and heavy-duty work.
2) to wind wire line, cable, or tubing around a drum
reeled-pipe unit a well-service unit that uses
flexible small-diameter steel tubing wound as a
continuous length on a hydraulically powered tubing
reel. The reel can store up to 16,000 ft of tubing
with a '/i-lVi in. outside diameter. A reeled pipe unit
is in contrast to other types of well-service units that
use joints of relatively stiff pipe. The reeled pipe unit
is usually used on producing wells that need pressure
control. Reeled pipe is used for sand or paraffin clean
out in tubing, initiating flow, and well stimulation
and cementing. A limited amount of drilling can be
done with a downhole, hydraulic motor. The unit

often has a crew of two. The blowout-preventer stack

usually includes four rams including hydraulic cutter,
pipe, blind, and slip rams. As the tubing feeds off
the tubing reel, it goes through a counter which is
attached to a level wind assembly and a pipe
straightener. An injector head with friction blocks
pushes or pulls the tubing in or out of the well. The
coiled tubing greatly reduces trip time. Other
equipment on the unit includes a circulating system
for nitrogen, acid or other fluids, lubricator, tubing
injector head, and hydraulic crane, (coiled tubing,
endless tubing, or continuous tubing unit)
reeled tubing high-stength ductile steel tubing with
an outer diameter of 1V4 in. being common. The tubing
is made of low carbon steel alloy with very low carbon
along with chromium, copper, and nickel for ductility
in lengths up to 19,000 ft. (coiled, continuous reeled
or reeled tubing)
reel truck a vehicle used on seismic surveys to
transport the seismic cables and geophones
reentry or re-entry 1) to run a drillstring into a
well that has already been completed and suspended
or plugged and abandoned in order to drill deeper
2) to run the drillstring back in into an offshore well
on the seabed after the drillstring was pulled out and
the rig moved because of weather, an iceberg, or
other reason
reeling a line to run a line from a winch up to
the crown block and back to the derrick floor on a
drilling rig to hoist something
reeve to pass wireline through the sheaves on a block
reeving pattern the arrangement of drilling line
through the blocks on a rig. The most common is
left-handed with a deadline anchor located to the left
of the derrick vee.
ref 1) refined 2) reference
refer refrigeration
reference crude see benchmark crude
reference electrode a standard cell of known
voltage that is used to make voltage measurements.
Reference electrodes are commonly made of Calomel
and copper sulfate.
reference magnets magnets in the wall of a
nonmagnetic drill collar used to show the orientation
of a deflecting tool in reference to magnetic north.
A picture of a magnetic needle at the magnets and a
magnetic north compass is used.
reference point 1) a point located on a tank hatch
or gauging platform on a stock tank. The tank gauge
is lowered into the tank from the reference point to
measure the height of oil in the tank. The gauge point
or point zero is located on the tank bottom directly
below the reference point. 2) a section of casing that
is either shorter or longer than the other casing. The
reference point can be located after the casing string
is run in a well with a collar locater. Reference points
are usually placed near the producing zone in a well.
3) see measure point
reference section a vertical rock section that is
designated to supplement a type section and be used
as a standard for correlation in an area. The reference
section is correlated to the type section and usually
differs from the type section by facies change.

reference seismometer regional fractures 417

reference seismometer a geophone used to record
and compare successive seismic shots. A reference
seismometer is used in well shooting to determine
formation velocities.
refg refining
refl 1) reflux 2) reflection
reflectance see reflection coefficient
reflected refraction a seismic event caused by
refracted seismic energy that is reflected off a
discontinuity such as a fault
reflected wave an elastic wave that has been
reflected off the boundary between two elastic
substances such as sedimentary rock layers
reflection the direct return of energy such as seismic
from a discontinuity or reflector. A reflection is formed
by an alignment of echoes on a seismic section. Primary
reflections travel only once to and from the reflector
in contrast to multiples, refl
reflection branches several reflections from the
same reflector. A reverse branch is oriented opposite
the actual reflector.
reflection character analysis a study of the lateral
changes such as continuity, amplitude, frequency, and
wave shape in a reflection
reflection coefficient the ratio of the amplitude
of a reflected wave to the original wave. The formula
for normal incidence of a seismic wave on a rock
interface is -^-2

in which e, and e2 are the

e2V2 + exVx

densities and Vx and V2 are the velocities of the two

rock layers. A typical sedimentary rock layer has a
reflection coefficient of about 4%, whereas a bright
spot has a reflection coefficient of about 20%. The
reflection coefficient of a soft-ocean bottom is 33%,
a hard-ocean bottom is 67%, the base of weathering
is 63%, and sand or shale on limestone at 4,000 ft is
21%. (reflectance, or reflectivity) R
reflection seismic shooting or surveying a
seismic investigation of an area using the recording
and timing of subsurface reflections from an energy
source on or near the surface of the ground. The
structure of subsurface rocks can be mapped by
recording the arrival times of seismic events.
Lithologies can be defined by velocities determined
from normal-moveout measurements and from the
amplitude and character of the reflected seismic
energy. A reflection survey is the most common type
of seismic survey in contrast to a refraction survey.
reflection time see two-way travel time
reflectivity see reflection coefficient
reflector a discontinuity in the subsurface rocks that
has a contrast in acoustic impedance (seismic veloaiy
times density) and produces a detectable seismicenergy reflection
reform reformer
refr refractory
refraction the change in the direction of energy such
as a seismic wave or light as it enters a layer having
a different velocity
refraction seismic survey a seismic investigation
of an area using refraaed energy. Refraction seismic
uses head waves which are seismic energy that

penetrate a high-velocity layer called a refractor near

the critical angle and then travel through the refractor
parallel to the refractor surface. The geophones are
located several miles from the source. The arrival
times of head waves are used to map the depth of
the refractors. Refraction surveys are used to
determine the presence of high-velocity layers and
velocity gradients. One to several horizons are
mapped. A refraction survey is in contrast to a
reflection survey. More vehicles are needed and depth
determinations are less accurate than reflection
seismic.
refraction wave a seismic wave that travels down
at an angle, enters a high-velocity layer (refractor) at
an angle of incidence, travels parallel to the highvelocity layer, emerges from the high-velocity layer
at an angle of emergence and travels upward at an
angle
refractive index the ratio of the sine of the angle
of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
measured normal to the surface of a substance. The
refractive index of crude oil is measured on an Abbe
refractometer and ranges between 1.39-1.49. The
refractive index of the oil is dependent on the density
of the oil, with heavier oils having the higher indices.
The refractive index of small oil samples from cutting
or cores is used to determine the character of the
oil. (index of refraction) RI
refracuvity the ability of a substance to refract light.
The index of refraction is a measure of refractivity.
refractometer an instrument used to determine the
refractive index of a substance
refractor a layer of rock that has a higher seismicwave velocity through it than the overlying rock layers.
Head waves used in refraction surveys travel through
refractors.
refractory a substance such as a rock or mineral
that is resistant to heat and hard to work, refr
refraction survey see refraction survey
refrigeration a lowering of the temperature of a
substance. Refrigeration is a common method used
to remove natural-gas liquids out of natural gas.
refrigeration-absorption plant a gas plant that
combines both refrigeration and absorption for an
effective separation of natural-gas liquids from natural
gas. The plant operates at 10 to +20F and recovers
up to 85% of the propane.
refy refinery
reg 1) regular 2) regulator
REGAC regular acid
ReGD resistivity (electromagnetic wave propagation)
gamma ray and directional log
regen regenerator
regeneration gas wet gas that has been heated to
400-460cF and passed through an absorber tower
to remove absorbed water
regional fractures fractures in rocks that occur over
a large area with relatively little change in orientation.
Regional fractures commonly occur in two
perpendicular orientations, are always perpendicular
to the bedding plane, and show no offset across the
fractures. There is a principal and subordinate set.

418

regional office

relaxed fluid-loss oil mud

regional office the company office that is

responsible for the exploration and production of
petroleum in a large regional area such as a geological
province. The Mid-Continent, Gulf Coast, and Rocky
Mountain regional offices are possible examples. The
regional office reports to the headquarters and can
be divided up into smaller district offices.

LAND

regression

regression a retreat of the seas from the land. A

regression can be caused either by an absolute fall
in the level of the sea (eustatic) or an uplift of the
land. A depositional regression is caused by rapid
deposition along a shoreline such as a delta. A
regression results in the deposition of a coarseningupward sequence of sediments, (marine off lap)
regressive sediments deposited during the retreat
of seas from the land
regular acid a solution of 15% HC1 by weight and
water. RIA or REGAC

regular lay a type of wire rope winding in which

the wires in the strands are twisted in one direction
and the strands are twisted in the opposite direction.
A regular lay is either right or left handed. A Lang's
lay is another common type of wire rope winding.
(ordinary lay)
regulator apparatus that reduces and maintains fluid
pressure at a specific level
Reid vapor pressure a measure of the tendency
of a liquid to vaporize. Reid vapor pressure is the
pressure of the vapor portion of a liquid plus the
enclosed air plus the water vapor under standard
conditions. Reid instruments measure Reid vapor
pressure in pounds per square inch at 100F. The
Reid vapor pressure of crude oil depends primarily
on the amount of dissolved natural gas and is plotted
on a crude oil analysis graph. Stabilized crude oil
usually varies between 2-10 psi. An unstabilized crude
oil will have a Reid vapor pressure of about 100 psi.
Higher Reid vapor pressure liquids are more
dangerous. RVP

10

20

reinf 1) reinforce 2) reinforced

reinf cone reinforced concrete
reinjection injection of produced water or gas into
a subsurface reservoir during production to maintain
reservoir pressure in order to increase the ultimate
oil recovery. The gas is usually stripped of its
hydrocarbon liquids and is dry gas. (pressure
maintenance or gas reinjection)
rej reject
rel 1) relay 2) release 3) released
REL running electric log
relative bearing the angle in degrees measured
clockwise from the top of the wireline tool from the
drift angle to Pad #1 or Reference Electrode #1
relative density the density of a substance divided
by the density of another substance with the same
volume. Specific gravity is relative density with water
as the second substance.
relative humidity the amount of water vapor in air
divided by the maximum amount of water the air
could hold at that temperature and pressure
relative oil volume the volume of the liquid in a
cell divided by the volume of residual oil during a
differential vaporization test. BoD
relative permeability the ratio, expressed as a
decimal from 1.0 to 0.0, between effective permeability
of a fluid at partial saturation (ke) to the permeability
of that fluid had it been at 100% saturation (&). An
oil relative permeability of 0.0 means that the water
in the pores prevents any oil from flowing, whereas
an oil relative permeability of 1.0 means that the oil
will flow as if there is no water sharing the pores.
Relative permeability can be either two-phase relative
permeability such as oil and gas or three-phase relative
permeability such as water, oil, and gas. kr
relative roughness the absolute roughness divided
by the pipe diameter
relative thickness the ratio of the thickness of a
rock layer to the electrode interval on a sonde
relative volume the volume of a liquid at a pressure
divided by the volume of that liquid at bubblepoint
pressure. V*
relaxation time the rate of stress release during
plastic deformation of a substance
relaxed fluid-loss oil mud an oil-base drilling mud
with no fluid loss additives

OIL SATURATION
relative permeability (gas/oil)

90

100

420

repeater station reserves

deposited. The folds become more acute with depth

and the sedimentary rocks are thinner on the crests
and thicker on the flanks of the folds. Unconformities
represent sudden increases in the folding during the
time of sediment deposition. Repeated folding is in
contrast to parallel folding.
repeater station an electronic surveillance and
control system used for remote production operations
repeat formation tester a wireline tool that is
used to sample reservoir fluids and measure formation
pressure versus time at specific depths in an open
hole. The tool consists of a piston device, backup
shoe, and a packer. At each station, the repeat
formation-tester tool first records mud pressure and
then hydraulically inserts a probe into die sidewall.
A fluid sample (10 cc) is taken at a low flow rate,
and the pressure drawdown is measured. A second
sample is taken at a faster rate, and the pressure
drawdown is again recorded. The pressure buildup
is then recorded. The probe is retracted and reset at
the next depth. Two large sample chambers can be
fitted to hold 1-12 gal of formation fluids. The pressure
drawdown and buildup records are used to calculate
formation permeabilities. The tool has a shallow depth
of investigation and works in low-permeability
formations. The repeat formation tester is used when
well conditions prevent running a drillstem test. RFT
repeat section a short section of a well log, usually
about 200 ft, that is logged twice to check repeatability
of the log measurements
reperf reperfor'ated
reperforating to perforate a well a second time.
Reperforating is usually done for a) cement squeezing,
b) remedial perforating, or c) after a limited timeentry simulation. Remedial perforating is often done
after the original perforations in a producing well
have become clogged.
REPF reperforations
Repl 1) replaced 2) replacement
repl replace
replacement density the density used for Bouguer
corrections on gravity data. A density of 2.67 g/cm3
is used for regional studies.
report of title an abbreviated abstract of title of land.
The abstractor issues an opinion on the ownership
of the lands, unreleasedoil and gas leases, conveyances
of minerals, and outstanding encumbrances and liens
of records, (certificate or memorandum of title)
repressuring the reinjection of a fluid into a
subsurface reservoir in which the natural pressure
has been depleted by production
reproducibility see repeatability
req requisition
reqd required
reqmt requirement
reqn requisition
rerun to reuse a drilling bit that has been dressed
RES resistivity
Res or res residue
res 1) reservoir 2) resistance 3) resistivity 4) resistor
5) research 6) reserve

resaturation effect the trapping and bypassing of

oil in pores when the formation is waterflooded where
gas bubbles formed during primary production from
lower permeability rocks
resaturation method a method used to determine
the porosity of a rock sample such as a core. The
weight of the clean core is compared to the weight
of the core that has been resaturated with a liquid
of known density.
res bbl reservoir barrel
resedimented a rock consisting of reworked
sediments derived from preexisting sedimentary rocks
RESER reservoir
reservation the right retained by a grantor in a
conveyance
reserve buoyancy the volume of water-tight space
located above the waterline on a floating drilling rig
reserved land United States federal land that has
reservations in contrast to vacant public lands
reserve life index an estimate of the number of
years during which the reserves will be produced.
Reserve life index is made by dividing proven reserves
by one year's production.
reserve ownership a concept of gas ownership in
that each party owns a percentage of the gas reserves
in a reservoir that is proportional to their working
interest. Reserve ownership is in contrast to molecular
ownership.

reserve pit

reserve pit an excavation with earthen banks that

covers about 100 ft3 near a drilling rig. The reserve
pit is a waste pit that holds discarded drilling mud
and well cuttings. The shale slide carries well cuttings
into the reserve pit. Drilling mud in the reserved pit
can be used in emergencies.
reserves the amount of gas and/or oil that is
estimated to be produced from a well, lease, or field
in the future. Types of reserves include proven,
probable and possible, primary and secondary, and
developed and undeveloped. Proven reserves are well
denned by drilling and have geological and economic
certainty. Probable or prospective reserves are based
on estimates made by the probable geological extent
of the reservoir which has yet to be confirmed by
drilling and have a 50% certainty. Possible reserves
have less geological control than probable reserves
and have a 25% certainty. Proven developed reserves

reverse separation reservoir volume factor

are economically recoverable from existing wells with
present operating methods. Proven undeveloped
reserves are economically recoverable from wells to
be drilled or with deepening or recompletion of
existing wells. Reserves can also be divided into
a) proved and b) potential which includes probable,
possible, and speculative reserves. Reserves are often
estimated by the volumetric formula or the decline
curve method. RESV
reverse separation the relative upward movement
of the hanging wall of a fault
reserves-to-production ratio the estimated time
needed to produce the remaining gas reserves. A
reserves-to-production ratio is made by dividing the
current annual gas production rate into the known
gas reserves, (life index) RIP ratio
reservoir 1) a single continuous deposit of gas and/
or oil in the pores of a reservoir rock. A reservoir
has a single pressure system and does not
communicate with other reservoirs, (pool or
zone) RESER, R or res 2) the portion of the trap that
contains petroleum, including the reservoir rock,
pores, and fluids. RESER, R, or res 3) a pond, lake,
or environment that is used to store liquids
reservoir bitumen hydrocarbons in a reservoir that
were formed by in-situ alteration of liquid
hydrocarbons. The processes that form reservoir
bitumen are thermal cracking, deasphalting,
inspissation, water washing, and microbiological. Pitch
and asphalt are formed by the last three processes.
reservoir drive the natural energy in a reservoir
that forces the fluids out of the rock and into the
well. Every oilfield has at least one reservoir drive.
Types of reservoir drives in oilfields include a) solution
gas, b) gas cap, c) water, d) gravity, e) fluid expansion,
and 0 combination. Reservoir drives in gas fields are
a) expansion gas and b) water drive. Reservoir drive
is a major factor in the rate of production and ultimate
recovery.
reservoir engineer a petroleum engineer who
oversees the overall production from a field and
coordinates pressure maintenance, waterflood, and
enhanced oil recovery
reservoir engineering the application of scientific
and engineering principles to the production from a
developed reservoir for maximum economic return.
Reservoir engineering is the "art of development and
production for high-economic recovery."
reservoir fluid study the laboratory procedures that
are used to identify the physical properties of reservoir
fluid samples for materials balance calculations on
that reservoir. The studies include a) chemical
composition, b) flash vaporization, c) differential
vaporization, d) separator test, and e) oil viscosity
measurements. The properties of the fluids that
are determined include a) bubblepoint pressure,
b) formation volume factor for oil, c) solution gas/
oil ratio, d) total formation volume factor, e) coefficient
of isothermal compressibility of oil, f) oil viscosity,
g) Z factor, h) formation volume factor of gas, i) gas
viscosity along with j) quantities and properties of
separator gas, stock-tank gas, and stock-tank oil. (PVT
study)
reservoir geologist a geologist who coordinates the
development of an entire field

421

reservoir heterogeneities lateral and vertical

variations in the properties of a reservoir. Reservoir
heterogeneities that affect production include
horizontal and vertical variations in permeabilities,
porosities, grain sizes, along with shale streaks,
pinchouts, faults, and sedimentary structures.
reservoir interval the measured thickness of a
producing zone in a well. Reservoir interval can be
gross interval, gross reservoir interval, gross sand, net
sand, or net pay.
reservoir modeling a physical device or
mathematical expression that scales and duplicates
the fluid processes in a reservoir and can be used
to describe and predict reservoir performance. Sand
packs, cores, and core plugs are used for physical
models. Mathematical models use volumetrics, Darcy
relationships, and conservation of mass to describe
the reservoir. Complex mathematical models of
multidimensional and multiphase reservoir analysis
use computers to divide the reservoir into smaller
sections called cells or nodes. The smaller the size
of the cells, the more accurate the computer model
of that reservoir, (reservoir simulation)
reservoir pressure the pressure on fluids in a
subsurface formation. Reservoir pressure is usually
measured in psi, psia or atmospheres. Normal
reservoir pressure depends on the hydrostatic
pressure increase with depth, which depends on the
density of the ground water. The hydrostatic pressure
increase is 45 psi/100 ft for water with a salinity of
55.4 ppt and 46.5 psi/100 ft for water salinity of 100
ppt. Abnormal high and low pressures deviate
significantly from normal hydrostatic pressure.
(formation or fluid pressure)
reserve recognition accounting an accounting
procedure proposed by the SEC that uses valuations
of future production of proved oil and gas reserves
discounted at the rate of 10% per year. Reserve
recognition accounting was intended to replace full
cost (FC) and successful efforts (SE) accounting as a
basis for financial statements after a trial period that
proved unsuccessful. RRC
reservoir rock 1) a rock with good porosity and
permeability, usually sandstone or a carbonate 2) the
porous and permeable rock in a trap that holds
petroleum
reservoir simulation see reservoir modeling
reservoir temperature the temperature of the
subsurface formation and formation fluids. The
reservoir temperature can be directly measured as
bottomhole temperature or by estimate from the
geothermal gradient. TR or Tr
reservoir volume factor the number of reservoir
barrels of crude oil that are needed to be lifted to
the surface and shrink to one barrel of stock tank
oil after the solution gas has bubbled out. The reservoir
volume factor depends on the solution gas/oil ratio
of the reservoir. Deeper reservoirs usually have higher
solution gas/oil ratios and larger reservoir volume
factors. The reservoir volume factor generally varies
between 1.1 and 1.6. The reservoir volume factor
curves are determined experimentally from an oil
sample. The reservoir volume factor for wet gas is
the volume of reservoir gas necessary to produce one

422

resid resistivity logging

stock tank barrel of retrograde gas (condensate) on

the surface, (formation volume factor) RVF
resid residual
residence time the time that a phase such as
produced water remains in a process stream such as
a separator. Two-phase separators for light oils are
designed to have about 30 seconds residence time
and 150 seconds for heavy oils. Three-phase separators
for light oils have about 1 minute residence time and
6 minutes for heavy oils, (retention time)
residual the observed value minus the regional
value. In a trend surface analysis, residual is the
observed minus the computer value.
residual field the magnetic field held by
ferromagnetic material after exposure to a magnetic
force
residual hydrocarbon saturation the volume
percent of crude oil and natural gas that is left after
production. Residual hydrocarbon saturation is
expressed as a percentage of the pore volume. RHS
residualizing the subtraction of regional gravity
from actual gravity measurements to delineate gravity
anomalies
residual method a pipe inspection method that uses
residual magnetism to indicate flaws
residual oil 1) crude oil left in the subsurface rock
after primary oil production or after waterflood 2)
the liquid at atmospheric pressure and 60 F that
remains after differential vaporization, a reservoir fluid
study method
residual oil saturation see residual saturation. ROS
residual resistance factor the reduction in
permeability to water of a reservoir due to the
adsorption of polymers during enhanced oil recovery
residual saturation the minimum oil saturation in
the pores of a reservoir at which oil will flow through
the reservoir. Residual saturation is about 15%. (critical
saturation)
residual stress the force or pressure in a member
after it has been installed in a structure but before it
has been loaded
residual water the thin layer of water absorbed to
mineral grain surfaces and the discontinuous pendular
water held by capillary pressure at grain contacts and
at the ends of larger pores. Residual water will not
flow through a permeable rock, (irreducible water)
residue gas 1) the gas that is left after natural gas
liquids have been removed from natural gas. Residue
gas is any gas that comes from gas processing and
can be sold as commercial natural gas. (tail gas)
2) natural gas left in^he subsurface rock after
conventional gas production
residue gas saturation the volume percentage of
natural gas that cannot be produced from a reservoir
by ordinary production methods. Residue gas
saturation is expressed as a percentage. RGS or 5^
resin a hard, yellowish-to-brown, transparent-totranslucent, solid or semisolid, amorphous substance
produced by plants. Resins don't have definite melting
points. A resin is composed of NSO compounds and
can be either recent or fossil. Resins are sometimes
added to drilling mud and cements.

resin cement a type of cement used in wells. Resin

cement is a mixture of water, liquid resin, catalyst,
and cement. Because of its high cost, it is used primarily
for plugging open holes and perforations.
resinous a luster or reflection on the surface of a
mineral grain that appears similar to resin, rsrts
resin-sand pack type of well completion used where
there is a sand control problem with an unconsolidated
sand reservoir. The producing interval is underreamed
and sand is-irijected. An organic resin or plastic is
then injected to consolidate both the injected and
formation sands.
resistance Tthe opposition of a material to the flow
of a direct electrical current. Resistance is the resistivity
times the length of the current path divided by the
cross-sectional area. Resistance is measured in ohms.
Conductors have low resistance, whereas insulators
have high resistance, res or r
resistance factor a measure of the resistance of a
polymer solution flowing through a reservoir relative
to the resistance of water flowing during enhanced
oil recovery
resistance thermal detector an instrument that
uses the change in electrical resistivity of a wire in
an electrical circuit to sense changes in temperature.
RTD
resistivity the resistance of a material to the flow
of electrical current. Resistivity is a common
measurement made by an electric or induction type
of wireline well log and is measured in ohms-meter
or ohms-meter2/meter. Resistivity is the inverse of
conductivity. R, RES, p, or res
resistivity index the ratio of the resistivity of a
hydrocarbon-bearing rock (Rt) to the resistivity of the
same formation 100% saturated with formation water
(Rw). The resistivity index depends on water saturation,
pore geometry, and overburden pressure. The
resistivity index is calculated from TTT; in which Sw
is water saturation and n is the saturation exponent
that varies between 1.0 to 2.5 and is often 2.0. RI
resistivity log a wireline well log that measures the
resistivity or conductivity of rocks and the fluids in
the pore spaces adjacent to the wellbore. An electrical
current from a generator on the surface is forced
through the formation. Resistivity logs are used for
a) correlation, b) bit selection (formation hardness
correlates with resistivity), c) permeability indication,
d) formation fluid detection and water saturation, and
e) lithology confirmation and bed boundaries.
Resistivity logs are called normal, lateral, laterolog,
and induction logs. Microresistivity logs measure
resistivities from a much shorter distance back from
the wellbore. The resistivity is measured in units of
ohm-meter (ohm-m) or ohm-meter2/meter. Low
resistivities come from shale and salt water. High
resistivities come from petroleum and fresh water.
The resistivity curve is often displayed in Track 2 and
sometimes in both Tracks 2 and 3, with a spontaneous
potential curve in Track 1.
resistivity logging a drill hole induced polarization
(IP) or resistivity survey in a well which uses closely
spaced electrodes to investigate the electrical
properties of the rocks adjacent to the wellbore. (IP,
electric and hole logging, and hole probe)

resistor retrograde gas

resistor an electric component with a fixed
resistance, res
resolution the shortest distance between two
features that still allows the features to be identified
as individual features. Vertical resolution is the
minimum vertical distance between two discrete
reflectors, whereas lateral resolution is the minimum
subhorizontal distance between two discrete
reflectors.
resource cost the costs of capital, materials, and
labor that are necessary to produce and market a
resource, (economic cost)
restored section a cross-section that shows either
rock layers or seismic reflection events as they occured
in a particular time in the geological past. A seismic
section can be flattened on a distinctive horizon to
make a restored section, (paleosection)
restored-state core a core that was originally
cleaned with solvents to remove formation fluids. The
core was then saturated with a brine followed by crude
oil. The core was then aged at reservoir temperature
for weeks. A restored-state core is in contrast to a
native-state or cleaned core.

restricted basin

restricted basin a body of water separated from the

ocean by a shallow sill or bar at the entrance resulting
in restricted water circulation through the entrance
of the basin. Salts or highly organic sediments are
often deposited in restricted basins.
resurvey a cadastral survey to relocate and mark the
boundaries of a previous survey
RESV reserves
RET retainer
ret 1) retard 2) return 3) retain
RETAC retarded acid
retainer a drillable tool that is used to spot cement
during a cement job on a well. A retainer consists of
a packer and pressure valve that is used to close the
annulus of the well.
retaining element apparatus used to hold a packerhanger element in the body of a tubing or casing
head
retarded acid an acid that has had its reaction time
slowed by the addition of gums, thickening agents,
or other retarders. Retarders work on the common
ion or barrier effect. Retarded acid is used in fracture
acidizing in moderate to high temperature wells.
Retarded acid allows deeper penetration of the acid
back into the carbonate formation during acidizing.
Organic acids such as acetic or formic acids have a
naturally slow reaction time. RETAC

423

retarded cement cement slurry that contains an

additive to increase the cement thickening time.
Retarders such as gypsum, calcium lignosulfonate,
organic blends, carboxy methyl hydroxy ethyl
cellulose, borax, sodium chloride (in high
concentrations), and most fluid-loss agents are used.
Retarded cement is often used in high-temperature
wells.
retarded slow-set cement cement with an
increased setting time due to additives in contrast to
unretarded slow-set cement
retarder a chemical that slows a chemical reaction
retd returned
retention the loss of chemicals during enhanced oil
recovery due to adsorption onto the rock surface,
precipitation, or trapping in the reservoir
retention pit an excavation with a large surface area,
from a fraction of an acre to several acres, that is
used to reduce the volume of produced water from
wells by evaporation. The pit is either dug in
impermeable soil or lined with clay or an impermeable
liner such as plastic. The concentrated brine is
disposed of in another location, (evaporation or
evaporative pit or pond)
retention time the time that a phase such as
produced water remains in a process stream such as
a separator. Two-phase separators for light oils are
designed to have about 30 seconds retention time
and 150 seconds for heavy oils. Three-phase separators
for light oils have about 1 minute retention time and
6 minutes for heavy oils, (residence time)
retip a bit to dress or recondition a drilling bit
retort a spherical container usually made of glass
with an outlet. Heat is used to distill or decompose
a fluid in the retort. A saturation retort is used to
determine the relative amounts of fluids in rock
samples. A vacuum retort distills the fluid from the
sample under low pressure. The apparatus can also
be called a retort oven or still.
retrievable a piece of equipment that is designed
to be easily removed from a well. Some common
types are tubing or wireline retrievable or pump-down
retrievable. RETRV
retrievable hollow carrier gun a type of
perforating gun that consists of a steel tube sealed
against hydrostatic pressure and containing shaped
explosive charges. The charges are in an atmospheric
pressure environment. The gun tube and debris can
be pulled from the well after perforating. RHC
retrievable valve mandrel a bulge in a tubing string
that is designed to receive wire line retrievable gaslift equipment and still permit the full tubing inner
diameter
retro-arc basin a basin formed in continental crust
behind a continental arc with a folded thrust belt. A
retro-arc basin is a type foreland basin.
retrograde condensate see retrograde liquid
retrograde condensate gas see retrograde gas
retrograde gas liquid hydrocarbons of very light
crude oil composition that occur as a gas under
subsurface reservoir conditions (high temperature and
pressure) and condense into a liquid upon produaion

424

retrograde gas-condensate reverse osmosis

and surface conditions. Retrograde gases typically

grade from colorless to light-colored liquids with tints
of red, green, or blue. Retrograde gases have very
high "API that range between 45 and 60 and are very
valuable commercially. If retrograde gas is recovered
on the lease with standard field separator equipment,
it is often combined and recorded with the crude
oil. The Natural Gas Processors Association has denned
retrograde gas as having a vapor pressure between
10-34 psi, a percentage evaporated at 104F of 249685%, a percentage evaporated at 275F of not less
than 90%, and an end point in distillation of 375F
or less. Retrograde gas has a gas/oil ratio greater than
3,300 SCF/STB and is the preferred term that has many
synonyms, (casinghead, drip, natural, raw or wild
gasoline, drips, condensate, gas condensate, distillate,
gas distillate, white oil)
retrograde gas-condensate see retrograde gas
retrograde liquid liquid hydrocarbons (condensate
or natural gasoline) that condense out of natural gas
in a retrograde gas reservoir because of the drop in
reservoir pressures during production. Any liquid that
condenses in the subsurface reservoir cannot be
recovered except for a small fraction that will
revaporize with further decrease in pressure. In a
gas-condensate reservoir, 5096-6096 of the liquid can
be lost due to retrograde condensation. The
condensate is valuable and should be prevented from
condensing in the subsurface by pressure maintenance
with dry gas recycling, (retrograde condensate)
RETRV retrievable
return bend a pipe with two 90 bends in it. The
return bend is used to connect two parallel pipes.
return on investment a method of financially
evaluating a well. Return on investment is the
anticipated production revenues divided by the cost
of the well and production. Return on investment is
not discounted for the time value of money in contrast
to the discounted return on investment. ROI
returns the drilling fluid, well cuttings, and
formation fluids that circulate back up the well as it
is being drilled
REV 1) reverse 2) reversed
rev 1) reverse 2) revolution 3) revise
revenue income from the sale of hydrocarbons,
equipment, supplies, leases, and/or services
revenue interest an interest in a lease or well that
receives a proportionate share of all revenue and is
identified in the division orders
reverberation a seismic record multiple that occurs
when the seismic energy reflects between the water
surface and seabed, (ringing)
reversal of dip a 180 change in the direction in
which a sedimentary rock bed is inclined. A reversal
of dip could indicate closure on a trap.
reverse to reverse the location of a shot point and
a geophone on the oppostie end of a geophone line.
Reverse is used for dipping reflectors to determine
true velocity and dip.
reverse circulation 1) to circulate drilling mud
down the annulus so that the drilling mud and well
cuttings circulate back up through the drillstring.
Reverse circulation is used to prevent formation

damage and in fishing to remove fish or junk from

the bottom of the well. A junk basket is run on a
fishing string and reverse circulation is used to wash
the junk up and into the junk basket. Reverse
circulation can be used during coring to float the
core to the top of the barrel, (counter flush) RC 2)
to circulate heavy fluid down the annulus to displace
a lighter fluid from the drillstring
reverse circulation coring a method of coring
using drilling mud in reverse circulation to bring the
core sample up the center of the drillstring. An inner
core barrel is often used to retain the core at the
surface.
reverse circulation sub a short section of pipe that
is run in the drillstring during a drillstem test and is
used to recover the fluid sample. The sample is either
recovered by reverse circulation or is held in the
drillstring. (hollow pin impact-reversing sub)
reverse combustion the movement of the burning
front in a fire flood from the producing well toward
the injection well. Reverse combustion is used to
produce oil from tar sands and is in contrast to
foreword combustion.
reverse drag a reversal of dip in sedimentary rocks
along a fault that is opposite in direaion than would
be caused by drag or friction along the fault plane.
Reverse drag forms rollover anticlines on growth
faults, (rollover or turnover)
reverse emulsion a suspension of oil droplets (the
dispersed phase) in water (the continuous phase). A
water-in-oil emulsion is more common as a produced
fluid than a reverse or oil-in-water emulsion, (oil-inwater emulsion)

reverse fault
reverse fault a fault with predominantly vertical
movement (dip slip) in which the foot wall has moved
down in relation to the hanging wall causing a double
section. Reverse faults are caused by compressional
forces!RIFLT
reverse jetting the jetting of drilling fluid upward
from a jet sub onto the cones of an underreamer
during underreaming of a well
reverse nozzle bit a drilling bit that has one nozzle
directed upward in contrast to the other nozzles. The
upward-pointing nozzle creates a pressure drop at
the bit to aid in the removal of well cuttings from
the roller-cone teeth.
reverse osmosis diffusion of a solution through a
semipermeable membrane leaving the salts behind.
Reverse osmosis is used to separate salts and other
contaminants from water.

redox potential reef

redox potential the voltage difference between inert
electrodes immersed in a reversible oxidationreduction system. The equation is Eh=K log pr where
K is about 70, R is the concentration of reduced
substances, O is the concentration of oxidized
substances or electron acceptors. The redox potential
is a measure of the system's oxidation state. (Eh or
oxidation-reduction potential)
redox reaction a reaction involving oxidation, the
loss of electrons, and reduction, the gain of electrons
red pattern a dipmeter interpretation that is
characterized by an increase in formation dip with
increasing depth in the well and constant azimuth.
There is also a green and blue pattern.
redrid or redrild redrilled
Redrig redrilling
reduced crude oil crude oil that has had some of
its lighter hydrocarbons removed by distillation
reduced environment see reducing environment
reduced pressure absolute pressure divided by
critical pressure. Pr
reduced take the acquisition of oil or gas by a
purchaser in lesser quantities than stated in a purchase
contract
reduced temperature or volume absolute
temperature or volume divided by the critical
temperature, or volume
reducer see speed reducer
reducing a fitting, connection, or flange that joins
pipe of two different diameters. A swage is an example.
reducing agent a chemical substance that gives
electrons to another substance. A reducing agent is
in contrast to an oxidizing agent.
reducing chimney the rocks that are chemically
reduced and extend vertically from a subsurface trap
filled with hydrocarbons to the surface of the ground
directly above the trap. If the trap is seeping
hydrocarbons, primarily methane and ethane, they
will chemically reduce the rocks and soil above the
trap. This is used as a basis for geochemical
prospecting for oil and gas.
BACK REEF
LAGOON

reducing environment an environment that lacks

free oxygen and there is an excess of electrons for
release. Oxygen is removed from chemical
compounds in a reducing environment. Anoxic or
anaerobic water or sediments occur in a reducing
environment. A reducing environment is in contrast
to an oxidizing environment, (reduced environment)
reducing nipple a short pipe with different sized
ends
reduction a chemical reaction in which a compound
gains electrons and becomes more negative. Reduction
is in contrast to oxidation.
reduction gear a herringbone and helical gearing
or spur gearing and chain-drive arrangement that
converts high-speed, low-torque energy to low-speed,
high-torque energy
reduction in area the cross-sectional area of the
original and broken pieces divided by the crosssectional area of the original. Reduction in area is
commonly expressed as a percent.
reduction works an installation that removes
helium from natural gas
redundancy a repetition of data or information
gathering
Redwood seconds a unit of viscosity measured on
a Redwood viscometer
Redwood viscometer an instrument that is used
to measure the viscosity of drilling mud. The Redwood
viscometer measures the viscosity at 100F in Redwood
seconds.
Redwood viscosity a measure of drilling mud
viscosity expressed in seconds and measured on a
Redwood viscometer
REE rare earth elements
reef 1) a mound-like structure of carbonate that is
formed primarily by biological processes and is still
at or near the position where it originally formed
2) a moundlike structure formed with a framework
of wave-resistant organisms such as corals. Ancient
reefs had framework-building organisms that were
clams (rudists), gastropods (snails), calcareous algae,
bryozoans, serpulids, sponges, and other organisms.
Reefs are described by their location and geometry.

REEF FLAT

FORE REEF

BASIN

MICRITE
S10PE

LIME MUDSTONES
DOLOMITE A N D
EVAPORITES

ORGANIC
BOUNDSTONES

415

ORGANIC
ARGILLACEOUS
GRAINSTONES LIME MUDSTONES

reef environments

reverse-pressure perforating
reverse-pressure perforating perforating with
downhole pressure less than formation pressure.
Formation fluids will flow into the well when the
casing or liner is perforated to clean the perforation
tunnels, (unbalancedperforating)
reverse SP a condition in wireline well logging in
which the mud filling the well is more saline than
the formation waters in the rock layers, and the
spontaneous potential (SP) characteristics on an
electrical or induction log are opposite normal.
reversing out a technique used during squeeze
cementing in which the circulating valve is opened
and the excess cement is pumped up the drillstring
reversing tool a tool that is used on a fishing string
to convert right-handed torque in a fishing string to
left-handed torque in a fishing tool below it. The
reversing tool has planetary gears with a ratio of 2.1
to increase the torque and is anchored in the casing.
The reversing tool cannot be used on an open hole.
reversion the return of an estate to the heirs after
the termination of granted interest
reversionary 1) a future interest that is created by
the conversion of a present interest 2) an interest
that is restored after the present owner dies
reversionary working interest an interest in a well
in which the party shares in neither the cost nor the
revenues from production until a specific time or
event in the well such as the farmee recovering the
costs of drilling, completing, and production from
the production revenues, (subordinated working
interest)
rev/min revolutions per minute
rev/o reversed out
revolution a non-System International (SI) unit that
is allowable in SI for revolution. One revolution equals
2 ir radians, r
rev up 1) to start a motor 2) to sharply increase
the revolutions in a motor
REWKD reworked
rework a general term for any operation on a
completed well that is designed to maintain, restore,
or improve production from a reservoir that is
currently producing. Reworking can include well
stimulation but excludes routine repair and
maintenance that is generally covered under well
servicing. Sand cleanout, removal of scale or paraffin
buildup, acidizing and fracing, deepening, and
plugging back are common reworking procedures
and are often done with a workover rig. (workover)
rwk
reworking clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that allows the lease to be extended without
production during periods of workover on the well
Reynolds number the ratio of inertial to viscous
forces. It is a dimensionless number that is used to
differentiate laminar from turbulent fluid flow. The
Reynolds number is equal to -, in which D =
diameter or depth, V = velocity, p = density and
ft. = viscosity. Below 2,000 is laminar flow; 2,000 to
3,000 is transitional; and above 3,000 is turbulent flow.
It can be stated as Re = 928 , where v = mean

rheometer

425

velocity in feet/second, d1 = diameter of pipe in

inches, p2 = density of fluid in pounds/gallon and
Nj = plastic viscosity in centipoises. The Reynolds
number is also equal to 379 - in which G = flow
Njd,

rate in gallons per minute, dt = diameter of pipe in

inches, pj = density of fluid in pounds per gallon,
and Nj = plastic viscosity in centipoises. NRe or Re
Reynolds-number factor a number that corrects
for the variations in the discharge coefficient of a fluid
with different Reynolds numbers. Fr
rexlzd recrystallized
RF 1) rig floor 2) recovery factor
Rf or rf reef
R/FLT reverse fault
r.f.p. rounded, frosted, pitted
rfr refraction seismograph
RFT repeat fluid tester
rft reflection seismograph
RG rounded gauge
rg ring
RGD resistivity, gamma ray, and directional log
Rge or rge range
rgh rough
RGS residual gas saturation
RH 1) rat hole 2) right hand
rhabdomancy the use of divining rods to find
subsurface water or oil
Rhaetian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 215-200 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Upper Triassic epoch.
Rhb or rhb rhomb
RHC retrievable hollow carrier (perforating gun)
R H Dip four-arm high resolution dipmeter
rhe the cgs unit of fluidity. Rhe is the reciprocal of
a centipoise and is equal to 1 sec-cm/cg
rheo rheostat
rheology the science of flowing fluids and their
change of shape. Circulating drilling mud is an
important aspect of rheology.
rheometer an instrument used to measure the
viscosity of a liquid. A rolling-ball rheometer uses a
steel ball that rolls through a barrel filled with oil at
an angle. It can be sealed and the oil measured at
any temperature and pressure. The time that the ball
rolls through the tube is electronically measured and
is calibrated to centistokes of viscosity. Absolute
viscosity is usually measured with a capillary-type
instrument by determining the time a given volume
takes to flow through a glass capillary. It is measured
in centistokes or centipoises. A container with a hole
or jet on the bottom is used to measure viscosity in
the field. A standard March funnel holds one quart
of drilling mud. The time that the drilling mud takes
to drain is measured in seconds and called funnel
or Marsh funnel viscosity. In the laboratory, a Saybolt
Universal (SSU) or Saybolt Furol is used in the United
States and is recorded in seconds. A Redwood I or
Redwood II is used in the United Kingdom and records
in seconds. An Engler viscosimeter is used in Europe

relay repeated folding

relay a device that automatically opens or closes a
circuit or performs other control functions
release a termination instrument
released oil old oil under the United States
Emergency Petroleum Allocation Act of 1973 that was
matched with an equal volume of new oil and sold
at market price
release of oil and gas lease an instrument placed
on record by the lessee in a county or parish
courthouse that partially or fully discharges an oil
or gas lease. The lessee is then free of future
obligations such as delay rentals.
releasing fluid an unweighed or semiweighed
organic solution that is spotted in a well with stuck
pipe. The releasing fluid is used to reduce the
differential pressure in the well at the stuck point
interval and free the pipe, (soak solution or soaking
fluid)
relegs reinforcements, usually pipe, for a drilling
derrick
relict sediment surface sediments that were
deposited during the previous environment and are
not characteristic of the present environment
relief 1) the difference in elevation between the
highest and lowest points in an area 2) the range of
values over any anomaly such as gravity, rlf
relief map a map that uses shaded surfaces to show
topography
relief valve a valve that is designed to open when
the pressure on a liquid or gas reaches a specific
level. The relief valve is used to prevent excessive
pressure buildup, (pop off, pressure-release, pressurerelief, or safety valve)
relief well a well that is drilled to stop a wild well
blowing out of control. The relief well is a directional
well drilled at a safe distance from the wild well. A
straight kick is used for most relief wells but some
are S-shaped. The relief well approaches the wild well
in the subsurface near the bottom or top of the well
and is used to pump control fluids directly or indirectly
into the wild well annulus. A relief well is used when
a surface kill is not possible. The wild well is then
cleaned out and either a cement plug is set for
abandoning or casing is set. (killer well)
reloc relocate
RELOG running electric log
Rem remains
rem remote
remaining reserves the amount of oil and gas that
has yet to be produced. The remaining reserves are
usually estimated from decline curves or by subtracting
the cumulative production from the calculated
ultimate reserves.
remanent magnetism the natural or permanent
magnetism in rock. Remanent magnetism is caused
by the alignment of ferromagnetic substances such
as magnetite crystals. Remanent magnetism can be
either thermo-remanent or chemical remanent
magnetism in igneous rocks or detrital or depositional
remanent magnetism in sedimentary rocks.
remigration the movement of hydrocarbons out of
the original trap

419

remote BOP control panel a auxiliary series of

controls that is located in a remote location from a
drilling rig and is used to operate the valves on a
control manifold that directs hydraulic fluid to various
components in a blowout preventer. The remote BOP
control pannel is in contrast to a driller's BOP control
panel that is located on the drill floor, (remote station)
remote choke panel controls located on the drill
floor for the choke manifold of a drilling rig
remotely controlled or operated vehicle a nearly
neutral buoyancy submarine that is manipulated from
the mother ship by an umbilical. The vehicle is used
for both observation of subsea equipment and to
maintain the equipment with a manipulator.
(unmanned submersible) RCV or ROV
remote-maintenance vehicle a submersible that
can perform inspections on an underwater manifold
center and can replace control modules and manifold
valves. The vehicle is towed into position by a surface
vessel. A buoy is released from the underwater
manifold center and the positive-buoyancy, remotemaintenance vehicle is pulled down the buoy cable.
The vehicle is then engaged on a railroad track on
the underwater manifold center where it uses sockets
to do work. The work is monitored by underwater
television and controlled by cables to the surface
vehicle. RMV
remote sensing the formation of images in visual,
infrared, ultraviolet, microwave, and radar spectra of
the land surface by airplane or satellite. Passive
methods measure natural radiation of the earth's
surface. Active methods beam an energy source on
the earth's surface and measure the reflected energy.
remote station see remote BOP control panel
removal of fixture clause a provision in an oil and
gas lease that allows the lessee to remove all the
equipment that the lessee placed on the land after
the lease has expired.
removal price the selling price of a barrel of oil
rent rental
rental a payment made in lieu of an action. A delay
rental is made by the lessee to the lessor to extend
the life of a lease during the primary term instead
of drilling a well on the lease. A shut-in rental paid
to the lessor by the lessee allows the well to be shut
in. rent
rental date the exact date on or before which delay
rental payments must be made to extend the life of
the lease during the primary term
rental term the time period during which the lease
can be extended by delay rental payments if drilling
or production is not established
REP 1) repair 2) repairs 3) repairing
rep 1) report 2) repair 3) replace 4) replaced
5) replacement
repeatability the ability of an instrument to
reproduce measurements under the same conditions.
Repeatibility is reported as the maximum difference
between readings or percent of full scale.
(reproducibility or precision)
repeated folding anticlines or domes in
sedimentary rocks in which the folding occurred
during the time in which the sedimentary rocks were

426

rheostat rigging down

and records in Engler degrees. A concentric cylinder

viscometer uses two cylinders, an outer cylinder or
rotor sleeve and an inner stationary cylinder. A fresh
sample fills the cylinder up to a line, and the outer
cylinder is rotated at 300 or 600 rpm. The torque
on the inner cylinder is measured with a precision
torsion spring. Some rheometers can rotate at 3, 6,
100, 200, 300, and 600 rpms. (viscometer or
viscosimeter)

rheostat a variable resistor that is used to regulate

electrical current, rheo
rhombic a sedimentary rock texture characterized
by medium to coarse-sized grains of well-formed,
equal-sized grains in the shape of rhombs. The
rhombic texture is usually formed by pure dolomite.
RHM rat hole mud
RHN Rockwell hardness number
p 1) resistivity 2) density 3) Poisson's ratio
pa density of ash
Pb 1) bulk density 2) mean density of porous media
pc 1) density of coal fluid 2) density of cement
pf 1) fluid density 2) filtrate density 3) density of
flowing fluid
pg gas density
Pi,c density of hydrocarbons
p,,g density of mercury
p t o density of limestone
pm 1) bulk density 2) density of drilling mud
Pma r o c k matrix density
Pmaa apparent grain density
p^ density of mud filtrate
pn normal density of clays
po density of oil
p oR density of oil at reservoir conditions
ps density of sulfur
Psi, density of shale
pSTO density of stock tank oil
p, density of vapor
pw density of water
RHP rotary horsepower
RHS residual hydrocarbon saturation
Rhumba a type of screen used on shale shakers
rhyolite an extrusive igneous rock (lava) that is acidic
in composition. Rhyolite is composed of very finegrained crystals that are predominately quartz and
orthoclase. Rhyolite has a matrix density of 2.60
gm/cc and is commonly white or light yellow, brown,
or red in color. RYOL
RI 1) royalty interest 2) refractive index 3) resistivity
index
Rj 1) resistivity of annulus zone 2) invaded zone
resistivity 3) pore radius
r, 1) radius of investigation 2) sampled desired signal
RIB retrievable integral bypass
rich amine amine solution that contains acid gases.
Rich amine is formed in an absorption tower for gas

treating and is heated to liberate H2S and CO2 to

form lean amine.
rich gas 1) natural gas that contains significant
amounts of condensate 2) gas having a calorific value
greater than 900 Btu/ft3
rich glycol triethylene glycol that has absorbed water
in an absorber tower. Rich glycol can be
reconcentrated into lean glycol by heating it to drive
off the steam, (wet glycol)
richness a measure of how much organic carbon,
usually in weight percent, a source rock contains.
Richness is described as rich, good, fair, and poor.
Richmondian a North American age of geological
time that ended about 425 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Ordovician period.
rich oil crude oil that has absorbed liquids from
natural gas in a tray-filled absorption tower. Rich oil
is heated in a still to distill and recover the absorbed
liquids and to form lean oil.
rich solution a glycol-water solution with less than
95% glycol content by weight. Rich solution is similar
to rich glycol and is in contrast to a lean solution.
rider an attachment that specifies details on an
agreement. On a lease, a rider is a separately listed
provision, (allonge or exhibit)
ride the blocks to travel up and down in the derrick
of a drilling rig by standing on the traveling block.
Riding the blocks is usually done by the derrickman
to get to and from the monkeyboard.

rift

rift 1) a large fault with predominately horizontal

movement 2) a long graben
rift valley a deep and wide fracture
rig 1) the equipment on a cable tool, rotary, or
workover rig 2) a tractor-trailer
rig builder a person who assembles the derrick on
a drilling rig
rig down see rigging down
rig fixer a person who builds drilling rigs
rig floor the elevated platform on a drilling rig on
which the derrick sits. The rig floor is supported by
the substructure. The rotary table, drawworks, driller's
console, and other equipment are located on the floor,
and the well is located in the center. The rig floor is
where the drilling operations occur. On an offshore
drilling rig, the rig floor is the work area surrounding
the opening where the tools and drillstring are run
into the ocean, (drill, drilling, or derrick floor) RF
rig up see rigging up
rigging down to dismantle the drilling or workover

rigging up riser angle

rig right after drilling or servicing the well, (tear down)
RD or R.D.

rigging up the erection of a drilling or workover

rig for drilling or servicing a well RU or R.U.
right-handed thread a thread on a connection that
winds clockwise in a receding direction when viewed
axially. A right-handed thread is far more common
than a left-handed thread.
righting arm or lever the horizontal distance that
separates the vertical lines drawn through the center
of gravity and the center of buoyancy of a floating
drilling rig. The righting arm tends to right the floater.
If the center of buoyancy and center of gravity line
up in a vertical line, the floater is at rest.
right-lateral strike-slip fault a fault that moves
or has moved with predominately horizontal
displacement with the opposite side of the fault moving
toward the right as you face the fault plane
right of way 1) the legal right to pass over land
owned by someone else 2) a narrow strip of land
which is used to legally pass over land owned by
someone else. ROW or R/W
right-regular lay the winding of wireline with the
strands wound clockwise and the wires in each strand
rotating counterclockwise. Right-regular lay is most
commonly used for drilling lines. Left-regular lay and
Lang's lay are also used.
rigidity the spontaneous resistance of a substance
to elastic shear deformation
rig irons the metal used in construction of a cabletool rig
rig jack one of three or four hydraulic jacks that
are used to raise each a corner and level the drilling
rig
rig manager the person who is in direct charge of
a company's operations on an offshore drilling rig.
The rig manager is involved in planning for supplies
and services and can have assistant drilling supervisors
or on-board drilling engineers. The rig manager is
generally shore-based. The toolpusher on a land rig
is sometimes called the rig manager.
rig mechanic a crew member who is responsible
for maintaining the rig's machinery
rig move the transfer of an offshore drilling rig from
one location to another, (transit)
rig pump see mud pump
rig rel rig released
rig set-off removing the rig from a well that has
just been drilled so that the well can be complete
rig-skidding system a hydraulic system that is used
to move a drilling rig a short distance. The skidding
system includes a hydraulic power pack and cylinder,
skid beam, and locking device. A gripper locks onto
the rig load, and the hydraulic cylinder skids the load.
The gripper unlocks and the cylinder retracts. The
process is repeated until the rig is in position.
rig superintendent the person in charge of an
offshore installation. The toolpusher on a land rig is
sometimes called the rig superintendent.
rig timber a large, wooden beam that is used to
support the drilling rig or associated equipment

427

rig-time work see day rate work

rig up to assemble and prepare the drilling rig on
the drillsite
rig walker a hydraulic system with both a lift and
walk cylinder that is used to move a drilling rig a
short distance. A lift cylinder and lift pad raise the
rig load while a horizontal shift beam moves either
forward or backward. The load is then transferred
to the walk cylinder on the shift beam that is seated
on the ground. The load is then moved along the
shift beam by the walk cylinder. The walk cylinder
then retracts, and the load is shifted back to the lift
cylinder. The process is repeated until the rig is in
position.
rigwash the water that drains off a drilling rig when
it is washed down
RIH ran in hole

rim cement
rim cement a type of natural cement in limestone
rocks in which the mineral cement was deposited as
an enveloping rim around a mineral grain. Rim cement
is the same chemical composition and is a continuation
of the crystal lattice of the mineral grain.
rim syncline the depression in a salt layer
surrounding a salt plug. A rim syncline is caused by
the flowage of salt into the salt plug.
ring fence the grouping of certain oil and gas fields
for tax purposes
ring gage or gauge a ring that is used to measure
the diameter and judge the shape of a drill bit
ringing the seismic record multiple that occurs when
the seismic energy reflects between the water surface
and seabed, (reverberation)
ring-joint flange a raised rim that forms a pressure
connection between two pipes by using a metal ring
that fits into a groove on the flange
ring out the wearing of an O-shaped groove on the
face of a diamond drill bit. Ring out is caused by a
particle of hard rock such as chert.
ringy data data such as seismic data that has an
oscillatory character
R-INV radius of investigation
riparian land that fronts a river
riparian rights the rights of a land owner to waters
on or bordering the property
riser 1) any pipe with the fluid flowing upward in
it. The riser in a stock tank is a pipe that is used to
make the liquid flow out of the tank at a different
level than the liquid entered the tank. 2) a marine
riser
riser angle the angle between a marine riser and
vertical on a semisubmersible or drillship. The rise
angle is monitored by acoustical transponders.

428 riser angle indicator roarer

riser angle indicator an acoustical sensor on a
semisubmersible or drillship that measures and
displays the angle on the marine rise
riser box the female part of a coupling on a riser.
A riser box is in contrast to a riser pin.
riser damp a clamp on a leg of a steel-jacket platform
that is used to attach the marine riser
riser connector the collar on the end of a marine
riser that connects to and disconnects from a subsea
wellhead by hydraulic latches
riser joint a section of pipe that is used as a riser
and has a coupling (riser box-riser pin) at each end
riser pin the male part of a coupling on a riser. A
riser pin is in contrast to a riser box.
riser-spacer frame a frame designed to separate
risers
riser spider a device used to hold the riser string
as it is being lowered or retrieved
riser sub a short joint that attaches the top of the
marine riser string to the flowline on an offshore
platform
riser tension the tensile load in pounds on the riser
tensioner wires on a semisubmersible or drillship
riser tensioner a series of wires, sheaves, and
cylinders on a semisubmersible or drillship that is
used to maintain constant tension on the marine riser
as the rig is heaving while preventing the riser from
collapsing. A riser tensioner consists of a series of
wires that are connected on one end to pneumatic
or hydraulic cylinders on the rig floor and to the
marine riser below the telescopic joint. Usually four
to six riser tensioners are used.
riser tensioner line the cable that connects the
tensioner with the marine riser on a semisubmersible
or drillship
riser tensioning system the pneumatic or
hydraulic system on a semisubmersible or drillship
that maintains tension on the riser tensioner. The riser
tensioning system consists of a) the tensioner cylinders
and sheave assemblies, b) hydropneumatic
accumulators and air pressure tanks, c) a high-pressure
compressor, d) control panel, e) pipe manifold, and
f) standby air pressure tanks.
risk 1) the possibility of a failure of an action
expressed as a percentage. A venture can be risk
adverse, indifferent, or seeking. 2) a ratio of the
number of wells completed as producers divided by
the total number of wells drilled. Risk can be expressed
as a decimal such as 0.25, a percentage such as 25%,
or a ratio such as 1:4. Risk can be calculated from
historical data and can be estimated for future wells
to be drilled. Historical risk for drilling in the United
States averages 18% for exploratory wells and 80%
for developmental wells, (success)
risk adverse decision making in which more weight
is given to potential loss than gain. Risk adverse is
in contrast to risk indifferent and seeking.
risk capital monies that are spent on a project that
has technical or economic risks and for which there
is no guarantee of return on the capital
risk indifferent decision making in which equal
weight is given to potential loss and gain. Risk
indifferent is in contrast to risk adverse and seeking.

risk seeking decision making in which more weight

is given to potential gain rather than loss. Risk seeking
is in contrast to risk adverse and indifferent.
risk weighed an economic evaluation factor such
as return on investment multiplied by the risk
expressed as a decimal
Riss a European age of geological time that is the
third glacial stage of the Pleistocene epoch. It is the
equivalent of the Illinoian age in the United States.
riv rivet
river-dominated delta constructive delta
river frac a hydraulic frac job using a very large
volume of water
UQ ring joint
RK, Rk, or rk rock
RKB referenced to kelly bushing
rky rocky
RL random lengths
rif relief
rig railing
RLL recorded lithology logging tool)
RLN long normal resistivity
rls release
rlsd released
rly relay
R,,, drilling mud resistivity
rm ream
R,,,,. mudcake resistivity
rmd reamed
Rjnf mud filtrate resistivity
apparent mud-filtrate resistivity
equivalent mud-filtrate resistivity
RMG, Rfflg., or rmg reaming
RMLOG 1) running microlog 2) ran microlog
RMO Royalty Management Operations
RMOGA Rocky Mountain Oil and Gas Association
RMS remote maintenance system
rms root mean square
RMS velocity velocities obtained from normal move
out seismic data. RMS is a mathematical curve-fitting
method.
RMV remote maintenance vehicle
rmv removable
RN random number
rnd round
rndd rounded
RNG range
Rng. running
rng 1) running 2) range
RNNG running
RO reversed out
R,, 1) resistivity of a water-filled formation 2) vitrinite
reflectance
roarer a blowing gas well

ROB rod guides

ROB remaining on board
robber well a well on an adjacent lease that is
draining oil and/or gas from a lease
Roberts' torpedo an explosive fracturing device for
wells that was patented in 1865 by Colonel E. A.
Roberts. The torpedo was a 4-ft cylinder made of tin
and filled with gun powder. It was lowered into the
well on a wireline and detonated with an ordinary
fuse or with an iron weight lowered into the well
on another wireline. The Roberts' torpedo was used
to clean out wells clogged with paraffin and sediments.
The gunpoder was later replaced by liquid
nitroglycerine.
rock 1) an aggregate of mineral grains. The three
types of rocks are igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary. RK, Rk or rkl) a driller's term for any
hard formation
rock a well to bleed pressure from the casing or
tubing of a dead well several times until the well
flows
rock bit see roller-cone bit. RB
rock dissolving capacity the volume of rock
dissolved by an acid
rocker the counterweight on a shackle-rod line on
a pump jack. The weight of the rocker returns the
rod line back after a power stroke. The rocker is
often a box filled with rocks attached to a fulcrum.
rocker arm apparatus similar to a pitman that was
used on some pumping units
Rock Eval a licensed technique that generates a
pyrogram for evaluating source rocks. A pulverized
sample is heated in an inert atmosphere in a process
called pyrolysis. The heating distills free organic
compounds (bitmen) and then cracks pyrolytic
products from insoluble organic matter (kerogen).
A flame ionization detector is used for identification
of peaks labeled SI, S2, and S3. Rock-Eval identifies
the quantity and type of petroleum generating organic
matter and the thermal maturity of the rocks.
rock gypsum an evaporite salt mineral and rock
that is composed of CaSO4. Rock gypsum is a colorless
to white mineral with one cleavage. It has a specific
gravity of 2.2-2.4 and is very soft with a hardness of
2. Rock gypsum is used as an additive to control
alkalinity in drilling muds, (gypsum) Gyp or gyp
rock hound a professional or amateur geologist
rocking or rock a well 1) a method used to clean
a well of sediments and drilling mud. The well is
shut in for a period of time to allow gas pressure to
build up and then is opened up. Gas, followed by
oil, mud, and sediments rapidly flow out of the well
and into the pits. The process can be repeated several
times, (bleeding a well or periodic flowing) 2) to drain
pressure from the tubing and then the casing of a
well several times to start the well flowing.
rocking beam see walking beam
rocking-beam pumping unit see walking beam
pumping unit
Rocklandian a North American age of geological
time that occurred about 458 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Ordovician period.
rock pressure 1) see lithostatic pressure. RP or R.P.

429

2) a loose term that can mean reservoir pressure,

bottomhole pressure, or shut-in pressure
rock salt a common name for a sedimentary rock
composed of halite (NaCl). Halite is an evaporite
mineral that is colorless to white and tastes salty.
rock strength the maximum stress that a rock can
sustain before failure. Types of rock strength include
yield stress or strength and rupture or breaking
strength. The type of stress can also be described as
tensile, compressive, shear, and impact strength. Rock
compressive strength is about 10 times greater than
rock tensile strength. Ultimate strength is the greatest
stress that a rock can support under a given condition.
Rockwell hardness the resistance of a substance
to penetration by a small-diameter point or '/i6 in.diameter ball. Rockwell hardness is related to the
strength of the substance. Rc
ROD rich-oil demethanizer
rod 1) see sucker rod. rd 2) a pole with measured
markings on it. A rod is used as a target in surveying.
rod back-off wheel a device used to unscrew rods
when pulling the rods from a well
rod basket a steel platform with sides that is located
near the top of a mast on a well service unit. The
derrickman stands in the rod basket to place the sucker
rods in the rod fingers that are attached to the rod
basket as the rods are pulled from a well.
rod board a platform located in the mast of a wellservice unit that is used to support sucker rods
rod coupling an annealed or shot-peened steel
cylinder with female threads used to couple the ends
of two sucker rods with male threads. The rod
couplings have slightly larger diameters than the
sucker rods and are classified by the API as T, which
are corrosion resistant, and S which are for heavy
loading, (box)
rod dope thread lubricant, (gunk or thread
compound)
rod-drawn pump a downhole pump used on a beam
pumping unit. The four parts of the rod-drawn pump
are a) working barrel, b) plunger, c) standing valve
or intake, and d) traveling valve or exhaust. Three
type of rod-drawn pumps are a) tubing, b) insert,
and c) casing, (rod or sucker-rod pump)
rod elevator a device that is used to raise and lower
sucker rods in a well. One end is attached to a rod
hook which is attached to a traveling block. The other
end is placed around a rod and has a latch to keep
the rod in. Inserts can be placed in the rod elevator
to fit any diameter sucker rod.
rod fingers finger-like bars of heavy metal that
protrude from a rod basket or hanger that are used
to hang sucker rods when they are pulled from a
well by a well-service unit
rod float or fell a condition on a sucker-rod pump
when the pump is run at a faster rate that the suckerrod strink can sink in the well fluid on the downstroke.
Rod float is most common with heavy oils and will
cause a separation of the clamp and carrier bar.
rod grease a grease that is applied to core barrels
to prevent corrosion and as a lubricant
rod guides devices made of plastic, rubber, or metal

430

rod hanger ROF

that keep the sucker-rod string centered in the tubing.

Fluids flow up through slots or flutes in the guides.
Rod guides are secured to sucker rods.
rod hanger a rack with finger-like projections (rod
fingers) on a mast that is used to hang the rods when
they are pulled from a well
rod hook a device that is used to raise and lower
sucker rods in a well. The rod hook is attached below
the traveling block in a mast and has a hand-operated
latch on it to connect the rod elevator below it.
rod-insert pump a type of sucker-rod pump that
is run and pulled on a rod string and is relatively
small with the barrel on the inside of the tubing rather
than on the bottom. The rod insert pump consists
of a barrel, plunger, traveling valve, and standing valve
that is run in the well as a complete unit as compared
to the tubing pump. The pump is held in place by
seating cups, a seating housing, or hold-down anchors.
The rod-insert pump is the most common type used
and is relatively easy to service. It does not have the
volume capacity of tubing and casing sucker-rod
pumps. Types of rod insert pumps include a) a
stationary insert pump with a stationary barrel and
moving plunger with a top anchor or a bottom anchor
and b) an inverted or traveling pump with a traveling
barrel and a stationary plunger assembly with a bottom
anchor. A rod-insert pump is in contrast to a tubing
or casing pump, (insert or insert sucker-rod pump)
rod job the lifting of sucker rods out of a well by a
well-servicing unit. A rod job is done to repair or
replace the rods when they have corroded or broken
or to repair or replace the bottomhole pump, (pulling
rods)
rod line a line of jointed steel or wood rods (pull
or shackle rods) that connects the eccentric on a
central power unit to the surrounding pump jacks.
The rod line is located 1-2 ft off the ground on metal
posts with wooden guides that are greased, (shackle
rod line or pull line)
rod-line pump a downhole pump activated by a
shackle-rod line from a central power unit
rod man a person who positions and holds the stadia
rod during surveying
rod pump see sucker-rod pump. RP
rod pump control see pump-off control
rod reducing bushing or coupling a sucker rod
coupling that is used to join sucker rods of two
different sizes. The rod reducing coupling as two male
threads.
rod rotor a mechanism that is connected to the
walking beam of a pumping unit by a rod or chain
and rotates the sucker-rod string to distribute wear
rod socket a fishing tool that is designed to catch
small fish and is run on a wire line or rod string. A
rod socket is similar to an overshot in that it goes
around the fish. It has inclined rows of teeth oriented
like threads on the inside to release the fish by rotation.
A rod socket also has a shear-pin arrangement to
disengage the slips, (socket)
rod stretch the elongation of a sucker-rod string
due to cyclic stress during the pumping cycle.
Minimum and peak polished rod loads are measures
of the stress range.

rod string a length of sucker rods (steel rods that

are 25 or 30 ft long and Vi-lVfe in. in diameter) that
are screwed together and form the connection
between the walking beam on a surface pumping unit
and the downhole pump in an oil well. The polished
rod at the top of the rod string is connected with a
bridal and carrier bar to the horsehead on the walking
beam.
rod stripper a device that is screwed on the tubing
on the top of a well before the sucker rods are pulled.
The rod stripper fits around the rods. As the rods
are pulled, two rubber pieces scrape the paraffin, oil,
and water off the rods. A rod stripper also prevents
gas and fluids from blowing out of the well.
rod sub a short section of sucker rod that is attached
next to the downhole pumping unit and is used to
give the rod string the proper length in a pumping
oil well
rod tap and die a metal tool in the shape of a cross
with two different size dies and two different size
taps on each end. A rod tap and die is used to straighten
the threads on a rod pin or box.
rod tongs wrenchlike devices that are hydraulically
powered and are designed to connect and disconnect
sucker rods from a well
rod-transfer elevator a device that fits around the
end of a sucker rod and is used by the derrickman
to move the rod from the regular elevator to the
rod hangers when rods are pulled from a well. The
rod-transfer elevator hangs from a cable on the derrick
and can be moved up and down by the derrickman
with a foot pedal that activates an air cylinder.
rod wax paraffin that has solidified out of crude oil
onto a sucker-rod string

rod wrench

rod wrench a wrench with a hinged jaw that is

designed to connect and disconnect sucker rods in
a well
roentgen a unit of gamma ray exposure. One
roentgen exposure results from the generation of one
electrostatic unit of charge per 1 cm3 of dry air at
STP.
ROF rich oil fractionator

R.O.G. rollover anticline

R.O.G. rig on ground
ROI return on investment
R-OIL refined oil
roily oil an oil/water emulsion
ROL rig on location
roll the sideways rocking of a ship on the ocean
along the centerline of the ship
roll along a field method for recording a commondepth-point stack during seismic exploration. A roll
along is made by disconnecting an array of geophones
from one end of a line of geophones farthest from
the shotpoint, moving it to the end closest to the
shot point and connecting it. The next shot point is
then moved an equal distance from the shot line.
roll-along stack a seismic exploration method in
which the same subsurface reflector is recorded on
numerous seismic profiles from different offset
distances between source and detector. The traces
are corrected for statics and normal moveout and
then superimposed or stacked. The traces are summed
algebraically into a single trace. Up to 180 traces can
be used. Stacking eliminates random noise and
reinforces weak reflectors. The number of seismic
profiles stacked is identified with a number or
percentage such as 24 stack or 2,400% stack which
is called the multiplicity factor. A roll-along stack
commonly uses 12, 24, or 48 traces, (common-depthpoint or horizontal stack)
roll a tank to mix the crude oil in a storage tank
by injecting air or gas into it
roller bearing a bearing that is similar to a ball
bearing except that it is a hardened steel cylinder in
a cage. The roller bearing converts sliding friction
into rolling friction and has more contact surface area
than a ball bearing.
roller chain a metal chain formed by connecting
numerous, closely spaced (pitch) rollers connected
by roller links joined by roller links joined by pin
links through the rollers. The chain used on a bicycle
is a roller chain. Power transmissions on a drilling
rig most often use roller chains and sprockets. Roller
chains are manufactured in one to eight or more
strands and often have forced feed lubrication or use
an oil bath. Roller chains are made under standards
of the American National Standards Institute and are
rated according to horsepower capacity.
roller-cone bit a drilling bit made with three
(tricone) or sometimes two or four rotating cones.
Types of roller-cone bits include a) milled-steel teeth
or tooth bits and b) tungsten-carbide insert or button
bits. There are about 250 different models of roller
bits. The most popular bits come in 10 or more
diameters ranging 6-26 in. The three main
components are a) the rolling cones, b) the bearing
on which the cones rotate, and c) the body of the
bit. The body is composed of legs that are welded
together. The cone is mounted on bearings which
rotate on a journal on the leg. The bearings are either
antifriction or friction bearings and can be sealed or
nonsealed. The sealed bearings use a grease, whereas
the nonsealed bearings are lubricated by drilling mud.
Bearings can have a roller-ball-friction (RBF), a rollerball-roller (RBR), or a friction-ball-friction (FBF)
arrangement. As the cones rotate on bearings, case-

431

hardened teeth or tungsten-carbide insets on the cones

crush the rock to produce well cuttings. The first,
conventional roller-cone bit had a mud course in the
center of the bit. The drilling mud is now commonly
pumped through the pin bore and jets through nozzles
that are located between each cone. The cutting by
a roller-cone bit is done by a) crushing, b) scraping,
c) gouging, and d) hydraulic erosion. Roller bits are
classified by the International Association of Drilling
Contractors with a three-digit code such as 215 that
indicates type of bearings, type of gauge protection,
and the formations that it is designed to drill. The
first digit (1 through 8) is divided into mill tooth
and insert bits based on the hardness of the formations
to be drilled. The second digit (1 through 4) is the
subgroup based on the compressive strength of the
formation to be drilled. The third digit (1 through
9) is the speciality group such as standard, air, or
directional. The two-cone (bicone) bit is a milledtooth bit that is used for soft formations. The fourcone bit is a milled-tooth bit that is used for drilling
very large holes, (rolling cutter or rock bit)
roller reamer a reamer that has roller cutter on it.
A three-point reamer has three roller cutter 120 apart.
A six-point roller reamer has two rows of three roller
cutters each that are 120 apart on each row and 60
apart from each other. The teeth can be sharp or
flat or inserts can be used. A smooth cutter is used
with a reamer-stabilizer.
roller reamer effect a spiral groove that is cut on
the low side of the borehole when running a reamer
in the hole. The effect can not be compensated for
on pad-type logging tools and can be seen on a caliper
log.
roller stabilizer a stabilizer that has rollers in
contrast to blades
rolling-cutter bit see roller-cone bit
rolling the tank a method used to separate an
emulsion. The tank is circulated with a small oiltransfer pump to mix chemicals and provide a longer
retention time to separate the oil and water.
roll line a pipe with perforations on the bottom that
is used in a storage tank to prevent solids from
accumulating on the bottom of the tank. Gas is pumped
through the roll line to agitate the liquid and keep
the solids in suspension.
roll-off angle a measure of the tendency of a drill
bit to spin off the face of a whipstock. Roll-off angle
affects the azimuth but not the inclination of the
deviation and is used to correct the whipstock
orientation before the well is kicked off.
rollover a reversal of dip in sedimentary rocks along
a fault that is opposite in direction than would be
caused by drag or friction along the fault plane.
Rollover forms rollover anticlines on growth faults.
(reverse drag or turnover)
rollover anticline a broad fold formed on the basin
(ocean) side of a growth fault by movement along a
curved growth-fault plane. The rollover anticline axis
is roughly parallel to the growth fault. The anticline
is commonly cut by secondary faults, both antithetic
and synthetic. Rollover anticlines form petroleum traps
in river deltas and coastal plains.

432

rollover contract rotary bit

rollover anticline
rollover contract a natural gas sales contract that
was entered into on or after November 9, 1978, the
effective date of the Natural Gas Policy Act, for gas
that was previously subject to a prior contract that
expired at the end of a fixed term
rollover fault see growth fault
ROM read-only memory
roof the contact of a salt layer and/or plug with the
overlying rocks
roof collapse the cave-in of the upper surface of
the wellbore of a directional well. Roof collapse
commonly occurs in fractured shale.
roof rock see cap rock or seal
room and pillar a type of cavernous pore found
in reef rock. Room and pillar is formed by algal masses
that grow vertically like pillars until they reach sea
level. At sea level, the algal masses grow horizontally
to enclose the rooms.
rooster bullet an egg or dynamite charge
root the bottom or trough of a thread
rootless folding in sedimentary rock that does not
involve the basement rock below it
root-mean-square value the time-weighed root
mean square of component interval velocities for
normal moveout calculations. VRMS
ROP rate of penetration
rope 1) wire rope 2) see rope underflow 3) fiber
or synthetic fiber rope
rope choker a cable-tool driller
rope chopper see rope knife
rope discharge see rope underflow
rope drilling see cable-tool drilling
rope falls the block and tackle arrangement used
in wireline operations in a well
rope grab a pronged fishing tool that is used to fish
rope or cable from a well, (rope spear)
rope knife a cable-tool-rig fishing tool composed
of a solid bar of metal with a sharp chisel edge on
the bottom that is used to cut rope on a stuck tool
in a well (rope chopper)
rope socket a device that is designed to attach tools
to a slick line, cable, or sand line on a drilling or
workover rig. A rope socket is a hollow cylinder with
a smaller inside diameter on one end than on the
other. The cable or line is put through the smalldiameter end, and strands of wire are separated and

looped in the rope socket. Molten babbit similar to

lead is poured in the large end until it flows out a
weep hole and is then allowed to cool and solidify
to hold the cable or line in the rope socket. The
tool is then attached to the rope socket. The tool
can swivel without twisting the cable, slick line, or
sand line.
rope spear a fishing tool composed of a solid metal
bar with a barb on the bottom or with barbs along
its length that is used to fish cable, (center or wicker
spear)
rope underflow a type of flow through the
underflow of an overloaded hydrocyclone that is
characterized by a slow, rope-like stream of fluid.
(rope or rope discharge)
rope worm a cable-tool-rig fishing tool that uses a
solid metal, helical-shaped prong to retrieve broken
rope.
ROR 1) rate of return 2) rate of rise
ROS residual oil saturation
rose diagram a polar plot with the radial distance
relative to the frequency of measurements made at
that azimuth. Rose diagrams are used for dipmeter
data.
ROT rotary
rot 1) rotary 2) rotate
rotarie an early rotary drilling rig that used a steam
engine with a locomotive-type boiler
rotary beam an extra heavy steel beam with doublepinned flanges that is used near the front of a drilling
rig substructure to support the rotary table
rotary bit a drilling bit that is rotated on a driUstring
on the bottom of a well to cut the well on a rotary
drilling rig. A roller-cone or rock bit is commonly
used. The roller-cone bit has cones that rotate on
bearings that are either the milled teeth-steel tooth
or insert-button bit type. The teeth or inserts crush
the rock to produce well cuttings. The tricone bit is
the most common, but roller-cone bits are also made

rotary bottomhole assembly rotary drilling rig

433

rotary coring bit

with two or four cones. A drag bit has blades that

cut the rock. Diamond bits use industrial diamonds
impregnated on the cutting edge of the tungsten
carbide body. A polycrystalline diamond compact
(PCB) has synthetic diamonds and blanks that shear
the rocks. All bits have a system such as watercourses
and nozzles for circulating drilling fluids.
rotary bottomhole assembly a bottomhole
assembly on a drillstring that consists of stabilizers,
collars, and other downhole tools used to build, hold,
or drop angle on a deviated well. A packed-hole
assembly is used to maintain the hole angle. A
pendulum assembly is used to bring the hole back
to vertical, and a fulcrum assembly is used to build
angle.
rotary bushing the rotary bushing is either a single
piece of solid steel or two pieces that fit together.
The rotary bushing is designed to fit onto the rotary
table and transfer the rotation of the rotary table to
the kelly bushing. The kelly bushing fits on the rotary
bushing with either a) a pin drive where drive pins
on the bottom of the kelly bushing fit into holes bored
in the rotary bushing or b) a square drive where
the kelly bushing fits into a square recess in the rotary
bushing. The rotary bushing has a tapered seating
for the slips that hold the drillstring. (master bushing)
RB
rotary crank the steel arm on each end of the
crankshaft located on the speed reducer on the prime
mover of a beam pumping unit. The rotary crank
connects the crankshaft to the pitman with a crank
pin. The rotary crank rotates and has a counterbalance
on the end of it. (crank or crank arm)
rotary counterbalance the weight on the end of
a rotary crank on a crank counterbalanced beam
pumping unit. The same end of the rotary crank is
attached to the pitman which joins the walking beam.
The rotary counterbalance is used to evenly distribute
the load.
rotary drilling a common method of drilling in
which the drillstring (the pipe and bit in the hole)
is rotated to cut the well. The drillstring is usually
driven by a diesel or electric motor on the surface
but can also be driven by a positive displacement or
turbine motor on the bottom of the drillstring. Each
30 ft of drilling, a new joint of drillpipe is added in
a process called making a connection. The tricone
type of roller-cone bit is the most common bit used.
Worn drill bits are changed by tripping out (removing
the drillstring from the well), changing the bit and
tripping in (replacing the drillstring in the well).

rotary drilling (rotary table, kelly bushing and kelly)

Circulating drilling fluid is used to remove the well

cuttings, cool the bit, and stabilize the well. The drilling
mud is usually pumped by mud pumps from mud
tanks down the center of the drillstring and returns
to the surface in the annulus between the drillstring
and well walls. Rotary drilling for petroleum was first
introduced in the early 1900s and has almost entirely
replaced the older cable-tool drilling method.

dm.
rotary drilling rig 21

rotary drilling rig a drilling rig that rotates the

drillstring in the well to cut the well. The four major
systems on a rotary rig are the hoisting, rotating,
circulating systems, and prime movers. The prime
movers are diesel or diesel-electric engines that
generate 100-500 hp each. One prime mover is used
for small rigs, but two are common for most rigs.
Very large rigs can have five or more prime movers.
The hoisting system includes the steel tower called
the mast or derrick and the drawworks on the drill
floor. The drawworks contain the reel of drilling line
which is made of braided steel cable. The drilling
line goes up and through the crown block at the
top of the mast or derrick and through the traveling
block suspended in the mast or derrick. A hook below
the traveling block is used to suspend the swivel,
drillstring, and other equipment in the well. The
drillstring is composed of a kelly (a joint of pipe that
has four or six sides on it), numerous joints of drillpipe,
larger diameter drill collars, subs, and a drill bit. The
drillstring is turned by the rotary table, master bushing,
and kelly bushing which fits around the kelly. The
rotary table, master bushing, and kelly bushing are
located on the drill floor. The circulating system
consists of steel mud tanks next to the drilling rig

434

rotary helper rotary table

and pumps. The drilling mud is usually pumped down

the drillstring by mud pumps and returns up the
annulus between the drillstring and well walls. Solids
are removed from the drilling mud by the shale shaker,
desander, and desilter. Blowout preventers, a series
of closing elements arranged vertically, are mounted
to the top of the well below the drill floor and are
used to shut in the well.
rotary helper see roughneck

compressor, it is compressed until it is discharged

from the outlet port. The compressors can be either
oil flooded or dry. Rotary screw compressors are used
for air compression, vapor recovery units, and
refrigeration units. The rotary screw compressor has
no pressure pulses, needs little maintenance, and is
quiet compared to a reciprocal compressor, (helicallobe or spiral-lobe compressor)

rotary
hose
rotary shoe

rotary hose (off rotary drilling rig chart)

rotary hose a flexible, armored rubber hose that

is commonly 4 in. in diameter and transmits the drilling
mud from the standpipe to the gooseneck on the
swivel of a drilling rig. The rotary hose ranges from
35-75 ft long and is commonly 50-60 ft long. The
inner diameter is 2-3 Vi in. Some rotary hoses are
made of steel pipes with swivel joints. API grades of
rotary hoses vary by length and pressure rating, (kelly,
flexible mud, or mud hose)
rotary line see drilling line
rotary meter a type of positive displacement meter
used to measure fluid volumes. A rotary meter has
either a lobed impeller which consists of two figure8 lobes at 90 or a rotating vane that consists of a
rotating idler and rotating vanes or pistons to measure
the volume of fluid flowing by the meter.
rotary-percussion drill bit a rotary drilling bit that
also imparts a high-frequency pounding action on the
rocks. The rotary-percussion drill bit is activated by
air, liquid, or high-frequency sound waves.
rotary pump a positive-displacement pump that uses
a rotating member, such as screws or two opposite
rotating gears in a housing, to move small volumes
of high or low-pressure liquid. Types of rotary pumps
include a) external gear, b) internal gear, c) lobe,
d) sliding vane, e) single screw, and f) two screws.
Liquids containing abrasive materials will harm a rotary
pump.
rotary reamer a sub that is run on the drillstring
just above the bit and is used to maintain or enlarge
the diameter of the wellbore
rotary rig see rotary drilling rig
rotary screw compressor a type of compressor that
uses two spiral- or helical-shaped rotor blades that
rotate parallel to each other in a housing. The rounded
end of one blade fits into the rounded groove of
the other blade. When the inlet port is open, the
discharged port is closed, and the gas enters and is
trapped in the groove. As the gas passes along the

rotary shoe a fishing tool used to washover and to

mill a fish. A rotary shoe consists of a short pipe
with a/box end and a cutting surface on the other
end.
rotary slips a circular wedge-shaped device made
of steel with teeth or other gripping devices that fits
into the slip bowl of a rotary table. The rotary slips
are designed to hold the string of drillpipe in the
well when it is not suspended from the traveling block
and hook or elevators. Rotary slips are made with
three or more segments of cast iron honeycomb that
are hinged to fit around the pipe. The outer diameter
of the rotary slips has an inward angle of about
9V20. The inner surface has a set of jaws for biting
the pipe. Rotary slips have handles for the roughnecks
to move them. The gripping portion of the slips are
replaceable and are called inserts, dies, or liners.
Power slips are pneumatically or hydraulically
activated. There are also slips for drill collars, casing,
and tubing, (slips)

rotary table

rotary table a rotating steel-alloy platform that

transfers motion to the kelly through the master and
kelly bushing on a drilling rig. The rotary table sits
on ball or tapered roller bearings in an oil bath on
the drill floor and is supported by beams, posts, and
braces. The rotary table is connected by chain drive
to the compound on a mechanical rig or is driven
by a separate DC motor on an electric rig. The speed

rotary tachometer royalty interest

reduction between the pinion shaft and the rotary
table is 3-4:1- The size of the rotary table is the
diameter of the space through which the bit passes
and is commonly 27Vi in. The top of the rotary table
is a nonskid surface, (turntable) RT
rotary tachometer an instrument with a dial located
on the driller's console. The rotary tachometer shows
the revolutions per minute of the rotary table. A
common type uses an AC generator that is driven by
the rotary table.
rotary torque indicator an instrument with a dial
located on the driller's console that measures and
displays the torque on the drillstring. The rotary torque
indicator is used to prevent twist-off.
rotating blowout preventer see rotating kelly
packer and rotating head
rotating head 1) a type of rotary drive and sealing
element used on top of the bell nipple of a blowoutpreventer stack that allows more pipe movement
under lower service pressure (500-1000 psi) than an
annular blowout preventer. The rotating head can be
driven by a hydraulic motor that is directly attached
to drive a small kelly. The rotating head is used in
air and gas drilling and during other drilling
operations such as reverse circulation. A rotating head
allows the use of lighter drilling mud during
controlled-pressure drilling and may contain a gas
kick under pressure to prevent gas expansion. A
rotating head is also used for light-duty cleanout of
the well, (rotating blowout preventer) 2) see rotating
kelly packer
rotating horsehead see Chancellor rotating
horsehead
rotating hours or time the number of hours that
a rig is actually drilling the well in contrast to other
activities such as tripping in or out. (running time)
rotating kelly packer a device that packs the
annulus around the rotating kelly and diverts the air,
gas, and cuttings to the blooey line on an air or gas
drilling rig. (rotating head or blowout preventers)
rotating release a method of rotating to the right
to open the hydraulic circuit bypass and release slips
that are holding a fish. A rotating release is in contrast
to a straight pull release.
rotational gas lift a gas-lift system in which the gas
produced is compressed and injected into the gaslift well to create a continuous process without the
need for gas from another source
rotational inertia the sum of (masses times distance
from a line squared), (moment of inertia)
rotational viscometer an instrument that measures
the viscosity of drilling mud by shearing the mud at
a constant rate between an inner bob and an outer
sleeve that rotates. The rotational viscometer has six
standard speeds and a variable speed. Two speed (300
and 600 rpm) are most commonly used. The dial
reading is calibrated to read apparent Newtonian
viscosity in centipoises at the 300 rpm speed.
rotation resistant rope a wire rope designed to
resist torque. A rotation resistant rope has an inner
strand wound in one direction overlain by an outer
strand wound in the other direction.
rotation speed the revolutions per minute (rpms)
of an object such as the rotary table on a drilling rig

435

rotative gas lift a method of gas lift in which the

produced solution gas is mixed with input gas,
recompressed, and injected for further gas lift
rotor 1) a shaft with blades or impellers 2) the
revolving arms on an AC induction-type of electric
motor
rotor diameter the diameter of a circle defined by
rotating rotor blades
roughneck a junior member of a drilling crew, an
assistant to the driller, who works on the floor of a
drilling rig. The roughnecks set the slips, manipulate
the tongs, latch and unlatch the elevators, and handle
other equipment on the drill floor. Two to four
roughnecks are commomly used on each tour.
(floorman or rotary helper)
rounded biosparite a limestone that has over twothirds sparry calcite compared to limestone mud
(micrite) along with rounded and abraded allochems
or larger particles
round trip or roundtrip pulling out (tripping out)
and then putting in (tripping in) drillstring or tubing
in a well, (trip) rdtp
roustabout 1) a general laborer on producing wells
and well-service units. A head roustabout or gang
pusher is responsible for the supervision and training
of roustabout crews. 2) a general purpose drilling
contractor employee on an offshore drilling rig. The
roustabout works primarily in the drilling and marine
departments. Roustabouts unload supplies from
surface boats. 3) a general purpose laborer used with
a drilling rig to maintain the area and unload supplies
4) a pipeliner
roustabouting the activities of a roustabout
routine test a test that is often run monthly on a
well to measure the amount of oil, gas, and water
being produced, (normal test)
ROV remotely operated vehicle
ROW right of way
roxie a geologist
roy royalty
royalty a fractional share of the gross (free of costs)
production revenues from a well or lease. A royalty
takes preference over all other payments from lease
revenue. Royalty could refer to either a) a specific
money payment or b) the fraction, typically one-eighth,
one-sixth, or one-fourth, that is used to determine
the share of production monies. A royalty of \2XA%
is common for a mineral rights owner. Different types
of royalties include landowner's, nonparticipating, and
overriding royalties, (royalty interest) roy
royalty bidding a type of competitive bidding for
leases in which the highest royalty share of production
offered wins the lease
royalty bonus an overriding royalty or oil payment
for the lessor
royalty deed a legal instrument that transfers a
royalty interest from a grantor to a grantee
royalty gauger a person employed by a royalty
owner to measure the amount of oil and/or gas
produced
royalty interest see royalty. RI

436

royalty oil Rud

royalty oil oil that is owned by local, state, or federal

governments
royalty pool an area in which the royalty owners
have pooled their royalties (royalty trust) and from
which they all share production royalties
royalty trust a business arrangement in which
owners of oil and gas royalties and overriding royalty
interests transfer the royalty deeds to a trustee to form
a royalty pool in return for participation certificates
in the trust. The trustee then makes periodic payments
of collected monies to the owners of the participation
certificates.
RP 1) rock pressure 2) recommended practice
3) rod pump
R.P. rock pressure
Rp cumulative gas/oil ratio
R/P reserves-to-production
RPCP resistivity/porosity crossplot
Rpl ripple
RP1A replaced
RPM, R.P.M., or rpm revolutions per minute
r p m n repair man
RpN pulsed neutron ratio
RPS response
RPS or rps revolutions per second
RPTS reports
RR railroad
RRA reserve recognition accounting
RR&T running rods and tubing
RRC 1) (Texas) Railroad Commission 2) ratcheting
recloseable circulating
RREL rig released
Rrf- recovered-fluid resistivity
RRXP 1) running rods and pump 2) ran rods and
pump
RS rig skidded
Rg 1) resistivity of shale 2) current or producing gas/
oil ratio 3) dissolved or solution gas/oil ratio
4) amplitude ratio
rs 1) radius of well damage 2) radius of stimulation
R,b solution gas/oil ratio at bubblepoint
RSH or R-SH mercaptan
Rjh shale resistivity
R,, initial solution gas/oil ratio
RSMD resumed
RSN short normal resistivity
rsns resinous
RgP separator producing gas/oil ratio

RT 1) rotary table 2) rotary tools 3) radio telephone

R/T radio telephone
R, true formation resistivity
r(t) correlation function
RT&R ran tubing and rods
RID resistance-temperature or thermal detector
R test rotary test
RTG running tubing
rtg rating
rthy earthy
RTJ ring-type joint
RTL radioactive tracer log
RTLTM rate too low to measure
rtnr retainer
RTR running tubing and rods
RTRS radioactive tracer survey
RTST retrievable test
RTT radio teletype
RTTS retrievable test treater squeeze
RU 1) rigging up 2) rotary unit
R.U. rigging up
rub rubber
rubber rock a gas-bearing formation that causes
drilling tools to bounce off the bottom of the well

rubber sleeve stabilizer

rubber sleeve core bit a core bit that has a rubber

sleeve in the bit to receive the core to prevent
contamination by drilling mud. A better sample of
the formation fluids can be obtained by using this
method.
rubber sleeve stabilize a stabilizer with replaceable
rubble sleeves
RUCT rigging up cable tools
Rud rudist

R-S-R' sulfide
R-S-S-R' disulfide
Rgj stock-tank producing gas/oil ratio
RSTR rig safety and training representative
RSU released swab unit
R^, 1) gas solution solubility in water 2) solution gas/
water ratio

rudist

rudist run ticket

rudist a type of mollusk that was bivalve (two shells)
but the two shells were not the same shape. Rudists
usually grew attached to the sea bottom and were very
similar in appearance to corals. Rudists existed in the
Cretaceous period when they were important reef
builders. Rud
rudites sediments with a grain size greater than 2
mm. Rudites include blocks with a diameter greater
than 20 cm, pebbles 2-20 cm, and gravels 2 mm-2
cm. Rudites are in contrast to arenites and pelites.
(psephite)

rudstone a limestone that has the composition of a

packstone with greater than 10% of the allochemical
grains larger larger than 2 mm
rug rugose

rugose coral

rugose corals a type of coral that belongs to the

order Rugosa. Rugose corals were cone-shaped or
cylindrical and existed from the Ordovician period
through the Permian period, (tetracoral) rug
rugosity irregularities or roughness
rule against perpetuities a regulation that an
interest in property must vest no later than 21 years
after the life in existence during the time the interest
is created
rule of capture a legal concept that resources such
as oil and gas belongs to whoever produces it
regardless of where it originated. The concept means
that oil and gas can be drained across property lines.
The rule-of-capture concept led to drilling and lease
wars in the late 1800s and early 1900s as operators
were forced to produce as much oil and gas as rapidly
as possible before it was drained by adjacent
leaseholds. Prorationing has eliminated the wasteful
production that was encouraged by the rule of capture.
RUM rigging-up machine
run 1) the length of the temper screw on a cabletool rig 2) the vertical distance that a cable-tool rig
can drill before the tools are pulled to sharpen the
bit and sand pump the well 3) the amount of crude
oil sold and transferred to a pipeline or tank truck
4) the transfer of crude oil from the stock tanks to a
pipeline or tank truck 5) to put tools or tubulars in
a well. A run is in contrast to pulling.
runabout a platform located near the top that
encircles a derrick or mast, (run around)
run a rabbit to test tubulars for roundness
run around see runabout
run a screw to let the temper screw of a cable-tool
drilling rig all the way out

437

run a tank to deliver crude oil from a stock tank

to a pipeline
run casing 1) to lower a string of casing in a well
2) to lower a string of casing in a well, cement it,
and test the cement job
run down tank a temporary storage vessel that
receives products from processing equipment
run from water to complete or workover a well
to exclude water production
run in lowering the drillstring into the well, (tripping
in)
run line to measure the depth of a well using the
measuring line
runner the driven element in a hydraulic coupling.
running back raising the drillstring from the well.
(tripping out)
running nipple a brass pipe fitting that is screwed
onto the top of pipe or tubing as rods are being put
back in the well. A running nipple is made of brass
so it will not spark and ignite gas.
running rope a wire rope that is used with sheaves
and/or a drum
running sample a method used to sample crude
oil from a stock tank. The thief is uncorked and
lowered from the top of the oil to the bottom. The
container is then raised at a uniform rate. A running
sample is in contrast to a spot sample.
running speed the rate in which a casing string is
run in a well. The running speed should not be too
fast and cause a pressure surge that can break down
weak formations in the well.
running the tools to lower the drillstring into the
well for drilling
running time the number of hours that a rig is
actually drilling the well in contrast to other activities
such as tripping in or out. (rotating hours or time)
running tools tools that are used to lower and install
equipment in a well
run on oil to limit the flow of crude oil by using a
choke
run out of hole to reduce the diameter of a well
with depth until it is too small for practical drilling
run sheet a list of all instruments of record in
chronological order according to file date concerning
the title to land. A run sheet is made by a landman
for an examining attorney.
run statement a statement made by an oil or gas
purchaser to each interest owner specifying the
amount of oil or gas taken, the time taken, and the
distribution of payments
run the bottle to use an acid bottle inclinometer
to measure the inclination of a well
run ticket a record of the amount of oil transferred
to a pipeline or tank truck from a stock tank. The
run ticket includes the gravity, temperature, and
bottom sediment and water content of the oil along
with the time of delivery. The ticket is made in triplicate
by the gauger and witnessed by the pumper with a
copy going to the purchaser. The run ticket is the
legal instrument by which the operator is paid, (gauge
or gage ticket)

438

RUP

RYOL

RUP rigging up pump

Rupelian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 38-33 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Oligocene epoch.
rupt rupture
rupture disk a thin plug on a pressure line or vessel
that is designed to break at a specific minimum
pressure. A rupture disk is used as a safety plug. The
rupture disk on a separator is a thin concave metal
disk located at the top of the separator. The pressure
at which the disk will rupture depends on the thickness
and diameter of the disk.
rupture pressure the minimum pressure that
causes fluids to flow out of the wellbore and into
the subsurface formation during a leak-off or pressure
test. The test is made by closing the annulus of a
well and slowly pumping drilling fluid down the well.
The pressure will build up until the rupture pressure
is reached and then it will level off as the fluid flows
out into the formation, (leakoffpressure)
rupture strength the minimum stress that will break
a substance under atmospheric pressure and room
temperature (breaking strength)
RUR or R.U.R. rigging up rotary
RURT rigging up rotary tools
RUSR rigging up service rig

RUST or R.U.S.T. rigging up standard tools

RUT rigging up tools
RVF reservoir volume factor
RVP reid vapor pressure
rvs reverse
R/W right of way
R^ formation-water resistivity
r w wellbore radius
R wa 1) effective wellbore radius 2) apparent
formation-water resistivity.
R^ log a log computed from fluid resistivity and
porosity from an induction log and either a sonic or
density log. (formation-analysis log)
RHB bound-water resistivity
R^ equivalent formation-water resistivity
R ^ P free-water resistivity
rwk rework
rwkd reworked
RWP replaceable wear pad
RWTP returned well to production
R^o resistivity of flushed zone
Ry railway
RYOL rhyolite

S safety valve

s
S I ) south 2) saturation 3) shear wave 4) square 5)
sulfur content 6) surface area 7) salite
s 1) skin effect 2) skin 3) solid 4) solution 5) specific
6) segregation 7) stabilization 8) swept region 9)
surrounding formation 10) second
S. sand
S/ 1) swabbed 2) swabbing
SA south addition
Sa or sa salt
sabkha see sebkha
sa-c salt cast
Sacc or sacc saccharoidal
saccharoidal a fine-grained, granular, or crystalline
texture in sedimentary rocks that is similar in
appearance to sugar. The texture is often formed in
calcitic dolomite. Sacc or sacc
sack the container for dry cement (94 lb), bentonite
(100 lb), barite (100 lb), and other dry supplies. SX,
Sx, sx, or sk

sack room a storage room near the mud pumps

on a drilling rig that contains dry drilling mud and
additives
sacrificial anode a metal plate, usually zinc,
magnesium, or aluminum, that is used as part of a
cathodic protection system to inhibit the
electrochemical corrosion of a large offshore structure
such as an offshore platform. The sacrificial anode is
corroded instead of the structure.
saddle 1) a patch that is clamped or cemented onto
the outside of a pipe to stop a leak or provide a tap
2) a depression in sedimentary rocks between two
antiforms or convex-upward folds
saddle bearing a wide, heavy bearing upon which
the walking beam pivots on the Samson post of a
pumping unit or cable-tool rig
saddle damp a curved, metal plate that is designed
to fit over and attach to a pipe to temporarily repair
a leak in the pipe, (leak-repair clamp)
saddle reef an anticline
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
saf safety
safety belt a strong belt that is worn by a crew
member going up the derrick. A tail rope is attached
to a D-ring on the safety belt and to the railing. The
safety belt is designed to prevent the crew member
from falling off the derrick.

439

safety bolt a bolt that has a pin through it so that

it cannot become unscrewed. The bolt is made of
harder steel than usual and is called an 8-hard bolt.
A safety bolt is often used where regular adjustments
must be made in height and length and is found on
a stiff or rig-floor hinge.
safety catheads see automatic catheads
safety clamp a holding device of several designs
that prevents dropping of drill collars or pipe into
the well when making up or breaking out the
drillstring. Safety clamps are used as an extra
precaution when drill collars are being held by slips.
safety drilling the drilling of a small hole about
half way through the metal on the outside of a pipe
bend The bend is where erosion and corrosion will
be concentrated in the pipe. A small leak will warn
that the metal is eroding and/or corroding away.
safety factor the ratio of the minimum load causing
failure in a structure to the maximum permissible
working load or the ultimate stress to the allowable
stress. The safety factor is usually expressed as a
decimal. The safety factor for casing is 1.125 for
collapse strength, 1.80 for joint strength, 1.25 for plainend yield stress and 1.00 for internal yield pressure.
The safety factor of wire rope is the nominal catalogbreaking strength of the wire rope divided by the
calculated total static load on the wire rope, (design
factor) SF

safety hook a hook with a latch that prevents

accidental slippage of a load off the hook
safety joint 1) a special sub that is used on a fishing
string. The safety joint has right-handed threads that
can be disengaged by left-hand rotation to release
the fishing tools below it that are attached to a fish
that cannot be retrieved. Many fishing tools have builtin safety joints. 2) a threaded connection with coarse
threads that unscrews before other connections. A
safety joint is run above the core barrel and is attached
to the inner barrel land bearing assembly. The safety
joint allows the core and core barrel to be taken out
of the hole if the outer core barrel becomes stuck.
safety shut-off valve a full-opening, ball-type valve
that has a left-handed connection to attach to the
bottom of the swivel sub. The valve shuts off flow
on the inside of the rotating equipment and is used
only when the well is blowing out.
safety slide a device that is used by a crew member
to escape from the monkey or tubing board near
the top of the derrick on a drilling or workover rig.
The safety slide consists of a wheel that is used to
slide down a cable attached to the rod basket or tubing
board on the derrick and a stake or some other secure
fastening on the ground away from the rig. The slide
is equipped with a brake and brake handle. (Geronimo
or derrick climber)
safety valve 1) a valve that is designed to open when
the pressure on a liquid or gas reaches a preset level.

440

safety zone salt dome

The safety valve is used to prevent excessive pressure

buildup, (pop-off, pressure-release, pressure-relief, or
relief valve) 2) a valve that can be quickly attached
to a pipe to stop flow from a well 3) a surface or
subsurface valve that automatically shuts in a well in
the event of failure or damage. The tubing or wirelineretrievable, surface-controlled subsurface safety valve
(SCSSV) reacts in response to a manual or automatic
signal from a surface source. The subsurfacecontrolled, subsurface safety valve (SSCSV) is pressure
operated.
safety zone an area out to 500 m from an offshore
platform where ships without consent are not
permitted
SAFR sand-acid frac
sagging a bowing of a ship's hull with the center
of the hull being lower than the bow and stern due
to a heavy load. Sagging is in contrast to hogging.
sail angle the maximum deviation angle in a
directional well
Sakmarian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 285-275 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Permian epoch.
SAL or sal salinity
sale for resale the purchase of gas from a producer
by a pipeline, gatherer or independent marketer for
resale to a local distribution company (LDC) or
ultimate consumer. Sale for resale is in contrast to a
direct sale.
sales outlet the drain located near the base of a
stock tank that is used to remove crude oil. (oil sales
outlet or oil outlet)
sales-quality gas gas that meets the specifications
of a gas pipeline purchase contract. Sales-quality gas
is dry enough that liquid hydrocarbons will not
condense out in the pipeline and does not contain
corrosive gases or excessive moisture that can form
hydrates. Sales-quality gas also has a minimum BTU
content that is usually 900-1,050 Btu/ft3 and a high
enough pressure from the well to match pipeline
pressure, which is usually 700-1,000 psi. A typical
gas pipeline purchase contract might specify a
maximum of 4-7 lb/MMscf of water, lA grain/100 SCF
of hydrogen sulfide, 15F hydrocarbon dew point at
800 psig, 0.2 grain/100 SCF mercaptans, 1-5 grains/
100 SCF total sulfur content, 1-3 mole percent of
carbon dioxide, 0-0.4 mole percent of oxygen, a
minimum of 950 Btu/SCF, be commercially free of
solids, have a maximum delivery temperature of 120F,
and minimum delivery pressure of 700 psig. (pipeline
or pipeline-quality gas)
saline mud see salt water-base drilling mud
salinity the total weight of dissolved salts in a
solution. Salinity is often expressed in parts per
thousand (%o or ppt), parts per million (ppm), or
milligrams per liter (mg/1). Seawater has about 35
ppt salinity, and fresh water has less than 2 ppt. Sal
or sal
SALM single anchor leg mooring
SALS single anchor leg storage
salt 1) a solid compound formed with ion bonding
that is made of a cation other than H+ and an anion
other than OH"'or O"1. Salt is formed by the reaction

of a base with an acid. The hydrogen ion of the acid

is replaced by a metal or metallic radical. An example
of a salt is NaCl. 2) sodium chloride 3) an evaporative,
sedimentary rock layer composed of the mineral halite.
The salt layer is white in color, soft, and dissolves in
water. Salt has a matrix density of 2.032 gm/cc, a matrix
velocity of 15,000 ft/sec, and an interval transit time
of 66.7 jtsec/ft. Sa or sa
salt anticline a broad, elongated salt structure that
is not diapiric. A salt anticline is symmetrical in cross
section with a planar base and arched roof that is
concordant with the overlying sedimentary rocks. An
asymmetrical salt anticline is called a salt roller, (salt
ridge or wave)

SALTATION

FINE SAND

saltation

saltation the movement of sand grains by wind. The

fine sand grains hop or bounce along a surface.
Saltation is a common process of fine sand erosion
in the desert.
salt bubble a large detached mass of salt in the shape
of a teardrop that is or has been rising through
sedimentary rocks
CAP

DOME-

-FLANK

salt dome

salt dome a general term that is applied to a salt

plug or stock and the overlying and surrounding strata
that are affected by it. The salt plug, because of
differential loading of the mother salt layer and
because the salt is less dense than the surrounding
sediments, has risen upward from a deeply buried
layer of salt (mother salt) through the overlying
sediments. The salt flowage is aided by the high
temperatures of the halite. The salt is usually composed
predominately of halite, which is highly soluble. As
the halite dissolves from the top of the rising salt
dome, insolubles in the salt are concentrated to form
the cap rock on top of the salt dome. Numerous
potential petroleum traps are formed by the salt dome
structure. These traps are located in the domed
sediments over the rising salt dome, in the cap rock,
and in uplifted and pierced sediments along the flanks

442

sample mark sand content

SAMPLE

LOG

OPERATOR J.A.&miJh
FARM

GEO. a. CM.

M>. //} ^Jonos.

DATE S~~ /O-'37

SEC. 2 ?.6Ai tmnJ2__

LOC. $w SW s e COUNTY ^J/Tfi
DEPTH

friar-

STATE / ^ / ^

LITHO.

DESCRIPTION

50

100

Samson post (three beams)

50

jT.V|.ii.r.
i

200

50

iAa*s. U i + . -2/c.

11
. _**

%i

300

/ / ,

a U I
1 AI \
i i
50

-^. .

sample log

are too fine to be used for logging. A sample log

will include information such as rock type, color,
luster, fossil content, amount and type of porosity,
oil and gas shows, and other rock properties. The
sample log can cover the entire well section or only
an important section of the well, (lithologic log) SPLL
sample mark a mark put on the kelly of a drilling
rig which indicates well cuttings are to be sampled
when the kelly is drilled down to that mark
sample mud a drilling mud that has the ability to
carry well cuttings to the surface that cab be for making
a sample log
samples well cuttings, samp
sample taker a sidewall coring tool
sampling frequency the inverse of the sampling
interval. Sampling frequency is reported in Hertz (Hz).
sampling interval the time or distance between
observations. The sampling interval in the conversion
of analog to digital signals in seismic exploration is
the time interval between incoming signal
measurements. Sampling interval is reported in
milliseconds (ms). The inverse of sampling interval
is sampling frequency and one-half of the sampling
frequency is the Nyquist frequency.
Samson or Samson post 1) the steel beam assembly
on which the walking beam on a pumping well rests
and pivots. A center bearing (saddle bearing) or
Samson-post bearing assembly connects the walking
beam to the Samson post. The Samson post is made
of three or four legs of rolled steel on a conventional
pumping unit and two legs on an air-balanced or
Mark II pumping unit. (fack-V) 2) the wooden beam
on which the walking beam on a cable-tool rig rests

and pivots. Samson post is named after Samson, the

judge and strongman of the Bible.
Samson post bearing assembly the bearing
assembly that connects the two legs of the Samson
post on an air-balanced or Mark II pumping unit to
the walking beam
sand 1) a clastic particle between 2 mm and >/i6 mm
in diameter, (sand-size) S., SD, Sd, or sd 2) particle
size greater than 74 JJI 3) a driller's term for sandstone
4) a driller's term for any reservoir rock
sand arch a bridge of unconsolidated sand outside
an orifice or perforation in a well. The sand cohesion
is from the wetting phase. A sand arch can inhibit
fluid flow, (arch)
sand bailer a wireline device that is used to remove
debris from tubing or casing. Two types of sand bailers
are pump, the most common, and hydrostatic. The
sand bailer is also used as a bottomhole sampler.
sand bin the container that holds the proppants for
hydraulic fracturing
sandblasting the reconditioning of worn tools and
bits by jetting silicon carbide powder on the cutting
surfaces to abrade some of the matrix away and let
the diamond cutting edges protrude
sand bridge a plug formed by loose sand in the
casing or tubing of a well. A sand bridge obstructs
the flow of oil and gas up the well.
sand bucket a bailer used to remove well cuttings
from a cable-tool well
s and c suspended and capable
sand cleanout a method used to clear loose sand
out of the bottom of a producing well. If a macaroni
rig is used, the production tubing and packer can
be left in the hole. One-inch diameter tubing is run
and salt water is used to flush out the sand. If a
macaroni rig is not used, the production tubing and
packer are pulled from the well. The tubing is then
run back in the well, and the sand is cleared out
using reverse circulation. If the sand is solidly packed,
the tubing is cut and a washover assembly is run.
sand consolidation engineering techniques used
to cause unconsolidated or loose sand in a producing
formation to adhere to itself around the wellbore.
Resins are often injected into the sand.
sand content 1) the percent bulk volume of
insoluble abrasive solids in drilling mud that are
caught on a 200-mesh screen. Sand content is usually
reported as percent bulk volume of sand in the mud.

sand control sand pump

2) the percent by weight or pounds per sack of cement
of sand blended with dry cement
sand control methods for preventing and dealing
with loose, unconsolidated sands that drift or wash
into the bottom of the well or into the downhole
pumping equipment during petroleum production.
A gravel pack and chemical consolidation are examples
of sand control.
sand count 1) the total thickness of a permeable
layer without impermeable zones. The sand count is
often made from spontaneous potential and micrologs.
2) the total number of permeable sandstone layers
separated by impermeable zones
sand drain a hole covered with a sand pan or trough
in a horizontal three-phase separator. High-pressure
water jets flush solids out of the separator through
the sand drains when they are opened.
sanded up a well that has been clogged by loose
sand that flowed or washed into the well with the
formation fluids from the producing formation
sand-exclusion completion a type of cased-well
completion used for relatively unconsolidated
producing formations. The sand-exclusion completion
can use either a slotted or screened liner that is run
in the well on tubing and hung with a liner hanger,
or it can be a gravel-packed hole that has well-sorted
gravel pack out to 4-5 gravel diameters around a
slotted or screened liner.
S&F swab and flow
sandface the cylindrical wellbore wall at the level
of the producing reservoir
sand fill the unconsolidated sand that has built up
on the bottom of a well with a sand control problem
SandCrac hydraulic fracturing, sdfract
sand-grain volume the volume of solid mineral
matter in a rock. The sand-grain volume plus the pore
volume equals 100%. GV
sanding the flow of sand into the bottom of a well
from a relatively unconsolidated sand reservoir. A
service unit with a sand pump can remove the sand.
Gravel packing, slotted or screen liners, or resins can
be used when the well is completed to prevent
sanding.
sand jet a high-pressure pipe or nozzle on the bottom
of a vessel that is used to wash the sides and bottom
of the vessel to remove sediments, (water jet)
sand jetting a well-stimulation technique that uses
a high-velocity jet of sand suspended in a fluid to
clean the face of a formation to alleviate formation
or skin damage and to remove scale
sand line 1) a cable used on a cable-tool rig to lower
and raise the sand pump, bailer, swab, logging
equipment, and other light-weight equipment in the
well. The sand line is run through the crown block
(bailing line) 2) hoisting equipment used for light
loads on a rotary drilling rig that is separate from
the drawworks hoisting system. The sand line is wound
around the sand reel and passes through a single
sheave on the traveling block and is used for small
tools. The sand line is usually 7/i6 to Vs in. in diameter,
made of 6 x 7 plow steel cable and is thousands of
feet long. 3) a 9/i6 or 5/s in. wire rope that is several
thousand feet long and is used with a swab or bailer
on a sand line or swabbing unit (swab or swabbing

443

line) 4) a vertical line drawn on the spontaneous

potential (SP) curve on a well log where clean sands
give the maximum deflection to the left in track one.
The sand line is in contrast to the shale line.
sand line cutter a fishing tool that consists of a
cylinder that can be run inside 2-in. tubing to drop
around the sand line. A weight drop activates a small
propellant charge that causes a knife to cut the line.
Some sand line cutters have a fishing neck.
sand line unit a truck-mounted service unit that is
used to swab a well. The unit has a drawworks with
braided wire rope that ranges from %& to 5/s of an
in. in diameter. The sand line unit is used to lower
and raise a swab cup tool in a well to lift out the
fluids filling the well. Flags on the swab line are used
to record depth. The unit is used to swab out drilling
mud to bring a well in. It is also used to measure
the depth of sand fill in a well and to run a sand
bailer or impression block, (swab line unit)
S&O stain and odor
Sandoil a hydraulic frac job using oil as the frac fluid.
The oil is either low filter-loss lease crude or refined
oil with a higher viscosity with a fluid loss additive.
sandout the stoppage of the propellents during
hydraulic fracturing in a well. Sandout is caused by
proppant bridging, clogging of perforation, or a
decrease infracture width, (screen out)
s&p salt and pepper
sand pump 1) a cylinder with a plunger-and-valve
apparatus that is run on a sand line and used to remove
well cuttings from the bottom of a cable-tool well.
(shellpump or sludger) 2) a bailer that is run on a
wireline and is designed to remove fluids and sand
from a rotary rig well. A sand Dumo has a check valve
on the bottom with a piston just above the valve that
is connected to a rod going up the center of the
bailer. Lifting of the piston draws sand and fluid into
the bailer.

sand reel
sand reel (off cable tool drilling rig chart)

444

sand reel satellite well

sand reel the drum on a cable-tool rig around which

the sand line is wound to raise and lower the bailer
in the well. The sand reel is operated by friction from
the band wheel.
sand ridge 1) an elongate deposit of sand deposited
by strong currents in relatively deep water. There
are often several sand ridges oriented parallel to the
currents with wavelengths in the order of tens of feet
to miles, amplitudes in feet, and lengths in miles. 2)
a general term for any low and elongate ridge of
loose sand deposited parallel to a shoreline (either
submerged or emergent). Two examples of sand
ridges are barrier beaches and longshore bars, (sand
wave)
sands a driller's term for sandstone

SAND / SHALE MAP

sand strength analysis a computed log that predicts

the drawdown pressure that will cause sanding to
occur in a well.
sands up the process of loose sand clogging the
casing or tubing of a well by forming a sand bridge
sand-thickness map an isolith map that uses
contours to show the thickness of sandstone within
an interval such as a formation.
sand trap a small, sloping section of the first mud
tank adjacent to the shale shaker. The sand trap is
used to catch by gravity settling some of the larger
well cuttings that escaped from the shale shaker and
has dumping valves.
sand transport an over-the-road storage unit that
is truck-mounted and used to transport proppants to
the site of a hydraulic frac job on a well
S&W sediment and water
sand wave 1) a sand ridge, often with a slip face,
that is formed in relatively deep water by strong
currents. There are often several parallel sand waves
oriented transverse to the current and having
wavelengths on the order of feet to hundreds of feet,
amplitudes in feet, and lengths in miles. Sand waves
can form on larger sand ridges. 2) a general term
for any ridge of sand, from ripple to dune size,
deposited transverse to currents in water, usually in
stream beds, (sand ridge)
sand well a well that produces crude oil from a
sandstone reservoir
sandy a sedimentary rock that contains some
sandstone, (arenaceous) SDY or say

sand/shale ratio map

sand/shale ratio the ratio of the thickness of
sandstone (and conglomerate) to the thickness of shale
in a stratigraphic unit such as a formation.
sand sheet 1) a thin sheet of coarse sands and/or
larger particles that were left as a lag deposit by wind
erosion. 2) a large, flat area without dune shapes. A
sand sheet is composed of wind-blown sand deposited
marginal to a dune complex.
sand-size see sand
sand smeller a geologist
sandstone a clastic, sedimentary rock composed
primarily of sand-sized particles. Sandstone can be
good reservoir rock. The original porosity of a
sandstone depends primarily on sorting. Sandstones
are usually classified depending on their maturity,
the amount of weathering and erosion shown by the
mineral grains. Various types of sandstones include
quartz sandstone or orthoquartzite, arkose, subarkose,
subgraywacke, and graywacke. Sandstones can also
be classified as quartz arenite, subarkose,
sublitharenite, arkose, lithic arkose, feldspathic
litharenite, and litharenite. Sandstone has a matrix
density of 2.648 gm/cc, a matrix velocity of 18,00019,500 ft/sec, and an interval transit time of 55.5-51.0
(isec/ft. About one-fourth of the world's sedimentary
rocks are sandstones. 55, 5s, ss, or sd
sandstone dike or dyke a tabular body of sandstone
that cuts through a rock layer. The sandstone is injected
into an open fracture in the rock layer as liquified
sand from an underlying, overpressured sand layer.

Santonian a global age of geological time that

occurred about 85-80 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Cretaceous epoch.
sap soon as possible
SAPP sodium acid pyrophosphate
sapropel high-lipid organic material composed
usually of spores and planktonic algae. Sapropel often
forms an ooze that macerates and putrefies in an
anaerobic environment or in mud deposited on the
bottom of a lake or ocean. Sapropel can be a source
for petroleum. The word sapropel is Greek for rotten.
SARABAND a computed log using statistical
frequencies and crossplots for clean and shaly
sandstone evaluation. The log is used for determining
a) formation characteristics, b) hydrocarbon content,
c) porosity, and d) bulk volume. The log uses
resistivity, density, neutron, sonic, microresistivity,
spontaneous potential, gamma ray, and caliper logs.
SAS subsea atmospheric system
SAT 1) saturate 2) saturated 3) saturation 4) signal
attenuation tool
SAT seismic acquisition tool
Sat or sat 1) saturated 2) saturation
sat saturate
satellite well a subsea well drilled in an offshore
field by a jackup rig, semisubmersible, or drillship
and connected to a production platform by a subsea produaion platform. A satellite well is not drilled
from the platform.

satellite well production system Saybolt colorimeter

satellite well production system a subsea
production system in which produced fluids from
several wells flow through flowlines to a gathering
manifold and then up to floating facilities. SPS
saturated a solution that is not able to dissolve any
more solute. Sat or sat
saturated bond a single bond between two carbon
atoms in a molecule. Butane (C4Hi0) is an example
of a hydrocarbon with saturated bonds. An unsaturated
bond has two or more bonds.
saturated core a core sample containing crude oil
saturated gas natural gas that contains water, (wet
gas)
saturated hydrocarbon a hydrocarbon that
contains no double bonds in contrast to an unsaturated
hydrocarbon. No more hydrogen atoms can be
included in the saturated molecule. Hydrocarbon
molecules of the paraffin or normal alkane or the
naphthene or cycloparaffin series are saturated. Butane
(C4H]0) is an example of a saturated hydrocarbon.
saturated oil crude oil that has dissolved all the
natural gas that it can hold under that temperature
and pressure. The amount of gas that can be dissolved
will increase with increasing pressure and decreasing
temperature.

ffiff

saturated pool

saturated pool a petroleum trap that has a free gas

cap above the oil. The oil has dissolved all the natural
gas (solution gas) that it can hold under reservoir
temperature and pressure and is saturated. A saturated
pool is in contrast to an undersaturated pool.
saturated solution a solution that has dissolved all
the solute that it can hold at that temperature and
pressure.
saturation 1) the volume percentage of different
fluids (water, gas, and oil) in the pore space of the
rock. The various saturations add up to 100%. For
example, an oil reservoir could have a saturation of
80% oil and 20% water. The fluids can occur as a)
funicular, b) pendular, and c) insular saturation.
Saturation can be measured from a sample such as
a core by a) vacuum distillation or b) distillationextraction. In the vacuum distillation method, the
samples are heated in an evacuated chamber and the
vapors are condensed and measured. In the
distillation-extraction method, the water is distilled
from the sample and condensed, whereas the crude
oil is removed by solvent extraction. Saturation is
measured from resistivity on an electric log by using

445

sand grain

50% Water I
50% Oil

saturation

the Archie equation. SAT, Sat, sat, or S 2) the amount

of gas dissolved in a liquid 3) the amount of salts
dissolved in a liquid such as water. Saturation is usually
reported in parts per thousand or million, (ppt or
ppm).
saturation diving a deep diving technique used in
water depths below 300 ft. The diver breathes
compressed heliox (helium and oxygen) and can work
down to 1,000 ft. Decompression time is need when
the diver returns to the surface.
saturation exponent an empirical number that is
used in the Archie formula for well-log evaluation.
The saturation exponent is related to the effect of
the insulating fluid on the shape and continuity of
the conducting fluid in the pores of the rock. The
exponent is constant for a formation and ranges from
1.8 to 2.5, but is commonly 2.0. n
saturation factor the volume fraction, expressed as
a decimal, of the pore space that is occupied by oil
saturation method see volumetric method
saturation pressure the maximum pressure at
which solution-gas first bubbles from crude oil.
(bubblepoint pressure)
saturation retort equipment used to determine the
relative volume of different fluids filling the pores
of a rock. A saturation retort consists of an insulated
oven, a water-filled condenser jacket, and a container.
The sample is heated to l,200F to extract the fluids
which are then condensed and measured.
"Approximate actual" amounts of each fluid are then
read from a table.
sausage discharge the intermittent expulsion of
solid through the underflow opening of a
hydrocyclone. Sausage discharge looks like sausage
links and is caused by overloading, (rope discharge)
sausage powder a long plastic tube of low-velocity
explosives that is used for a directional charge during
seismic exploration
saving clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that will maintain the lease if production is ceased
for a certain time such as 30, 60, or 90 days
SAW submerged arc welding
sawtooth SP a pattern of spontaneous potential (SP)
deflections on an electric or induction well log that
is similar to the teeth on a saw. Sawtooth SP is caused
by very permeable saltwater sands with shaly stringers
that have been invaded by freshwater mud filtrate.
Saybolt colorimeter an instrument that is used to
determine the color of crude oil

salted well sample log

of the salt dome. Nondiapiric types of salt domes
include salt anticlines, salt rollers, and salt pillows.
Diapiric types include salt stocks or plugs, salt walls,
salt massifs, and salt glaciers. Salt domes can be
classified by their depths. The top of a piercement
dome occurs from the surface to 2,000 ft, an
intermediate dome of 2,000-6,000 ft, and a deep dome
occurs below 6,000 ft. A young salt dome is an anticline
or dome with a salt core and relatively little
deformation. A mature salt dome has a vertical-sided
stock with a cap along its sides, along with faults in
the adjacent sediments. There is often a well-defined
rim syncline along the margins of the salt dome.
salted well a nonproductive well into which crude
oil has been poured to defraud investors
salt gel attapulgite drilling mud
salt glacier an extrusive sheet of salt on the surface.
(namakier)
salting a well to put crude oil in an unproductive
well in order to defraud an investor
salt limit the maximum amount of salt in crude oil
allowed by a refinery. The salt limit is 10-20 lb/100
bblofoil.
salt massif a very large uplift complex of salt with
outward-dipping flanks and an irregular shape. The
crest of the salt massif is formed by several smaller
salt pillows or stocks.
salt mud see saltwater-base drilling mud. SM
salt pillow a broad salt structure that is circular to
moderately elliptical in aerial view and is not diapiric.
A salt pillow has a subplanar base and a roughly
symmetrical cross section. The surface of the salt is
concordant with the overlying sedimentary rocks.

BULB

STEM

ROOT

salt plug

salt plug a diapiric salt structure that is circular or

moderately elliptical in shape. A salt plug varies in
shape. The top can swell sideways to form an enlarged
bulb over the stem. The overhand is the part of the
bulb that protrudes out over the stem, (salt stock)
salt ridge or roller a broad, elongated salt structure
that is not diapiric. A salt ridge has a planar base
similar to a salt anticline but is asymmetrical in cross
section with a flat, steep side. The top of the salt is
concordant with the overlying sediments. The steep
side is associated with a normal fault in the overlying
sedimentary rocks.
salt-saturated drilling mud a drilling mud whose
the water phase is saturated with NaCl in excess of

441

315 ppt. A salt-saturated drilling mud is used in drilling

salt formations.
salt stock see salt plug
salt string a length (string) of casing that is set in a
well between the surface and production casing strings
in a well. The salt string ranges in diameter 5-11%
in. and is typically 9% in. in diameter. The casing
isolates potentially troublesome formations in the well
such as abnormal high or low-pressure zones or salt
layers, protects normal-pressure zones when drilling
deeper using heavy mud weights, and protects
production casing from corrosion, (intermediate or
protective string, or protection or intermediate casing
string)
salt wall a broad, elongate salt structure that has a
symmetrical cross section similar to a salt anticline
but is diapiric and is much larger than a salt anticline
saltwater-base drilling mud a drilling fluid using
brackish to saturated water as the continuous phase.
Saltwater-base drilling mud is normally used in
offshore drilling and drilling through salt sections
when fresh water cannot be used. Saltwater-base
drilling mud can have an electrical resistivity less than
formation water resistivity, (salt, saltwater or saline
mud)
saltwater clay attapulgite
saltwater disposal the system used to dispose of
brine produced with oil and/or gas. Saltwater disposal
can involve a gathering system, filters for removal of
solids, and a disposal well.
saltwater disposal well an injection well used to
dispose of the oilfield brine (salt water) that is often
produced with oil. If possible, the salt water is injected
back into the reservoir below the oil/water contact
of the reservoir to increase the ultimate oil production.
saltwater hauler 1) a person or service company
who contracts to pick up and haul away for disposal
oilfield brine or salt water from producing wells (water
hauler) 2) the tank truck that picks up and hauls the
oilfield brine away (water hauler)
saltwater mud see saltwater-base drilling mud
salt wave see salt anticline
Salv or salv salvage
salvage company a service company that salvages
casing and plugs wells with specialized equipment.
The top of the casing is caught with a casing spear
or stud and welded. A hydraulic jack is then used to
part the casing. An explosive charge can be used if
the casing will not break.
SALY salty
samp sample
SAMPL sample
sample bucket a bucket used to wash well-cutting
samples on a drilling rig
sample catcher a person responsible for sampling
the well cuttings from the shale shaker on a drilling
rig at regular intervals
sample log a record of the physical characteristics
of the rocks in a well. The sample log is usually made
by a geologist by examining well cuttings and cores.
The well cuttings from a diamond or turbine drill

446

Sayfoolt Universal seconds scintillation counter or meter, scintillometer

Saybolt Universal seconds the seconds that it takes

a measured quantity of fluid at a certain temperature
and pressure to flow through a tube on a Saybolt
Universal viscosimeter, used to measure viscosity.
Saybolt universal seconds is equal to
viscosity in centipoises x 4.635
relative density
Crude oil has 1,000 to 50 or less Saybolt Universal
seconds. SUS
Saybolt Universal viscometer an instrument that
is used to measure the viscosity of oil. The time that
a specific volume of oil at 100, 130, and 210F takes
to flow out of a standard size hole on the bottom of
the instrument is recorded in Saybolt Universal
seconds.
SB 1) stuffing box 2) sleeve bearing
sb 1) sub 2) solution at bubblepoint conditions
sbang subangular
SBHP static bottomhole pressure
sblit sublithic
SBM single buoy mooring
SBR 1) sulfate reducing bacteria 2) side-bed resistivity
3) shoulder-bed resistivity
sbrndd subrounded
SBS single buoy storage
SC 1) show of condensate 2) scales
sc 1) scales 2) standard conditions
scab an imperfection on the surface of metal
scab liner a section of casing that is used to repair
damaged casing in a well. The scab liner can be either
cemented or sealed with packers.
scab tie-back liner a section of casing that extends
from the top of an existing liner in a well but does
not extend all the way to the surface. The scab tieback liner is cemented in place.
SCADA supervisory control and data acquisition
scale a chemical precipitate that forms a hard,
adherent salt such as calcium carbonate or calcium
sulfate on a surface of a tubular or vessel
scale inhibitor an acid additive that is used to
prevent the formation of calcium sulfate or calcium
carbonate scale in a well when acidizing. The scale
inhibitor is a liquid organophosphate.
scaling the deposition of hard, adherent salt to a
surface. The most common scales deposited in oilfield
tubular goods are calcium carbonate and sulfate.
scalped structure see bald-headed anticline
scanning electron microscope an instrument that
measures the reflected and emitted electrons
generated from an electronically or magnetically
focused beam of electrons directed at a specimen.
The image is displayed on a cathode ray tube. SEM
scantlings the size and thickness of materials used
in offshore construction
Scaph scaphopod
scaphopod a mollusk of the class Scaphoda.
Scaphopods are benthic organisms with one long,
slender valve that have existed from the Devonian
period to the present. They are commonly called
elephant's tusk shells. Scaph

scat scattered
scavenging the removal of cuttings from the bottom
of the well by the drilling fluid
SCBA self-contained breathing apparatus
SCC 1) stress-corrosion cracking 2) sulfide-corrosion
cracking
SCE 1) perforating-ceramic DPC 2) perforatingexpendable shaped charge
SCE-CC 1) casing cutter service 2) tubing cutter
service
scenic acreage land that does not have a producing
well but looks attractive geologically because of a
well(s) being drilled adjacent to it
SCF or scf standard cubic feet
sctfbsto standard cubic feet per barrel of stock tank
oil
SCFD, sctfD, or scCd standard cubic feet per day
SCFH standard cubic feet per hour
SCFM standard cubic feet per minute
SCF/STB standard cubic feet per stock tank barrel
SCH perforating hyper-jet
Sen or sch schist
sen schedule
scheduled allowable days the number of days in
a month that oil and/or gas can be produced under
decree by a government regulatory agency, (allowable
days)
schem schematic
SCHIS schist
schist a metamorphic rock that is characterized by
well defined layers of minerals such as micas. On a
scale representing increasing metamorphism,
beginning with slate at the low end and gneiss at
the high end, schist forms between slate and gneiss.
Sch, sch, or SCHIS

Schlumberger array an electric log sonde electrode

arrangement with two closely-spaced potential
electrodes halfway between two current electrodes
Schmidt diagram a polar plot in which the azimuth
shows the drift or dip direction, and the distance from
the origin shows the degrees
Schmidt field balance a magnetometer used to
measure horizontal and vertical magnetic field
variations
Schmutz decke a layer of solids on a slow sand
filter
SCI spore coloration index
scientific rate of return a method of economically
evaluating an investment such as drilling a well. The
scientific rate of return is the return rate on the
investment that is discounted for time, (internal rate
of return, investor's rate of return, discounted cash
flow rate of return, or profitability index)
scintillation counter or meter, scintillometer an
instrument that measures gamma rays by a
photoconversion device. A sodium iodide crystal in
the meter emits light when struck by gamma rays.
The light intensity is proportional to the gamma ray
energy and is detected by an adjacent photocathode

SCIP scrubber
that emits electrons. The electrical current that is
generated is measured. A scintillometer is used in
natural gamma ray well logging.
SCIP shut in casing pressure
scissors fault a fault in which there is increasing
displacement proceeding out from a pivot point at
which there is no displacement. The direction of
displacement is reversed on either side of the pivot
point.

scleractinian

scleractinian coral a type of coral belonging to the

order Scleractinia. Scleractinian corals are both solitary
and colonial and have existed from the Triassic period
through the present. All modern corals are
scleractinians. (hexacorals)
SCM standard cubic meter
Scol scolecodont
score a scratch or gouge
scotches blocks or triangular-shaped objects that are
placed under the wheels of a truck or trailer to prevent
it from rolling, (chocks)
scour local erosion around pipelines, jackets, legs,
and other structures on the sea or river bed due to
currents and waves
scout an employee of an oil company who gathers
information in the field on leasing, exploration, and
drilling activities of other companies. Scouts can also
be independents and sell their information. Scouts
meet in scout checks or meetings. Scout tickets and
reports are made by scouts.
scout check or meeting a gathering of scouts from
different oil companies in order to coordinate efforts
and pool information they have learned and to assign
routes for each scout to check on wells being drilled
and other activities. The scout check is organized and
run by a bull scout that is elected by the other scouts.
Scout checks are scheduled as often as once a week.
scouting the gathering of information concerning
leasing, exploration, and drilling activities by other
companies
scout report a report made by an oil company scout
to the company division on wells being drilled and
other activities of interest in the district that has been
assigned to the scout. Scout reports are often made
each week after a scout check.
scout ticket a card or form containing information
gathered by an oil company scout or scouting service
on a specific well. A scout ticket usually includes the
well name, location, operator, spud and completion

447

dates, casing and cement data, production test data,

completion information, the tops of certain zones or
formations, and a chronology of the well.
SGPR surface chamber pressure
SCR silicon controlled rectifier
scr 1) screen 2) screw 3) scratcher
scraper 1) a device that uses knives to remove
paraffin or scale from tubing or flowlines. A paraffin
scraper is a wireline device used in tubing. A line
scraper is used in flowlines. A tool used either on a
drillstring or wireline to remove debris and coatings
such as cement from casing. The scraper is a short,
solid bar with hard-faced blades, scraper, or (wall
cleaner, scratcher)
scratcher a device that is attached to the outside of
the lowest joints of casing when it is lowered in the
well and scrapes or scratches the sides of the wellbore
to remove the filter or mud cake. The scratcher consists
of wires attached to the circumference of a collar.
There are both rotating and reciprocating types of
scratchers. Scratchers are used to clean the sides of
the wellbore for cementing and to clean the producing
zone to enhance production, (wall cleaner, scratcher,
or scraper) scr
scrd screwed
screen 1) the screen cloth used on a shale shaker
to separate the well cuttings from the drilling mud.
The API description of the screen includes the mesh
count in both directions, the aperture size, and
percentage of open area. 2) a perforated pipe with
wire screen wrapped around it. A screen is used for
sand control in well completions such as open hole
and gravel pack. SCRN
screen analysis the use of different size screens or
sieves to determine the relative percentage of different
sized particles, (sieve analysis)
screening the removal of particles greater than a
specific size that are suspended or floating in a fluid
bypassing the fluid through a screen or sieve
screen liner a perforated liner with a wire wrapping
to sieve out sediments from production fluids, (screen
pipe)
screen-out the stopping of the propellents during
hydraulic fracturing in a well. Screen-out is caused
by propellent bridging, clogging of perforations, or
a decrease in the fracture width, (sandout)
screen pipe see screen liner
screw-in sub a fishing tool that is designed to screw
into a fish. The screw-in sub has a small notch on
the bottom of the pin that is designed to catch the
top of the fish and spin the pin into the fish.
scribe line a reference line located on the inside
bend of a bent sub that indicates toolface orientation
scribeline fracture the small spalling on a scriber
core around the knife edge due to a dull scriber knife
scribing cutting of a groove with a tungsten cutter
on an oriented core in a core barrel
SCRN screen
scrub scrubber
scrubber 1) a vessel that is normally vertically
mounted acts as a small separator to remove small

448

scrubber or scrubbing plant sealed fracture

amounts of a liquid from a gas stream and does not

have a large liquid capacity. The vessel contains baffles,
screens, and a collection area. Scrubbers may or may
not have mist extractors and back pressure and liquid
level controls. A scrubber is often used upstream to
protect a downstream processing vessel such as a
dehydration unit from liquid hydrocarbons or water.
It is often used to remove liquid from gas used to
operate pneumatic controls and instruments. A
scrubber can also be used to remove water from
natural gas or H2S from sour gas. scrub 2) a device
that uses water and chemicals to remove air pollutants
from combustion exhausts
scrubber or scrubbing plant an instillation that
removes H2S from sour gas. A scrubbing plant uses
the alkanolamine or iron-sponge sweetening process.
Less commonly, the glycol/amine, molecular sieve,
or sulfinol process are used, scrub
scrubbing to purify natural gas of impurities such
as water (mist) and other gases. Scrubbing is done
by passing the gas through chemicals or a water wash.
An oil bath can be used to remove suspended solids.
scrubbing plant equipment used to remove
hydrogen sulfide from sour natural gas
scs scarce
SCSSV surface controlled subsurface safety valve
sctrd scattered
SCT/T scout tops
SCUBA self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus
Scythian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 250-245 m. y. ago. It is equivalent
to the Lower Triassic epoch.
SD 1) shut down 2) sand 3) strata dip 4) shirttail
damage
sd 1) sand 2) sandstone
Sd sulphides
Sd. sand
S.D. shutdown
SDA shut down to acidize
sd&sh sand and shale
SDC 1) submersible diving chamber 2) submersible
decompression chamber 3) steel drill collar
SDF shut down to frac
sdfract sandfrac
SDL 1) shut down to log 2) spectral density log
SDO 1) show of dead oil 2) shut down for orders
sdoilfract sand oil frac
SDON shut down overnight
SDPA shut down to plug and abandon
SDPL or S.D.P.L. shut down for pipeline
SDR shut down for repairs
Sd SG sand showing gas
Sd SO sand showing oil
S-D spacing source-detector spacing
SDT sonic differential time
SDTD sidetrack total depth
sdtkr sidetracked

SDW shut down for weather

sdwfract sand saltwater frac
SDWL sidewall
SDWO or S.D.W.O. shut down waiting orders
sd w/SG sand with show of gas
sd w/SO sand with show of oil
SDY or sdy sandy
sdy li sandy limestone
sdy sh sandy shale
SE 1) southeast 2) successful efforts 3) seals effective
4) specific energy
S/E screwed end
SE accounting successful efforts accounting

sea floor spreading

seafloor spreading a relatively new theory (early

1960s) in which the earth's crust (seafloor) is formed
by basaltic volcanos along the midocean ridge. The
crust is split and moving (spreading) out to either
side of the ridge. The movement may possibly be
caused by convection currents in the interior of the
earth which causes all areas on the surface of the
earth (continents and ocean bottoms) to be moving.
Places on the earth's surface where two different sea
floors from two different midocean ridges meet are
called subduction zones. Subduction zones are
expressed as ocean trenches, volcanos, and mountain
chains. The seafloor spreading theory has lead to the
plate tectonic theory, which incorporates the seafloor
spreading ideas.
seal impermeable rock that forms the impermeable
barrier on top of the reservoir rock of an oil or gas
reservoir. The seal is commonly shale or evaporites
but can also be cemented rocks, argillaceous rocks,
micrite, chalk, or permafrost. Permeabilities in seals
are mostly less than 10~4 darcies. (cap, cover, or roof
rock)
sea lawyer an oilfield trouble maker
seale a small-diameter wire that is used to fill in
the space between different diameter wires used in
the strands of a wire rope. The seales give the wire
rope greater strength and service life, (filler)
sealed bearings bearings in a roller-cone bit that
are lubricated in a grease environment by grease seals,
a grease reservoir, and a compensator plug that adjusts
the grease pressure to the fluid pressure around the
bit
sealed fracture a fracture such as a joint or fault
in a rock that was open in the past to allow fluid to
flow along it. The fracture has since been filled with
mineral grains such as calcite or quartz that prevent
fluid flow along the fracture, (healed fracture)

Seale design secondary porosity

Seale design a wire rope pattern used for drilling
line in which the inner strands contain the same
number of wires as the outer strands but the diameter
of the inner wires is smaller than the outer wires
sealed reservoir a petroleum reservoir that is
surrounded by impermeable rock
seal her up or off to finish a job as soon as possible
sealine a submarine pipeline. Sealines are used to
connect offshore wells, production platforms, and
onshore facilities.
sealing agents fine-grained material that is fibrous
and/or flaky and is added to drilling mud or cement
slurry and pumped down a well that has a lostcirculation problem. Sealing agents clog up the pores
of the subsurface rock layer that is causing the
problem. Mica chips, ground pecan hulls, sugar cane
hulls, laminated plastic, ground coal, ground
neoprene, shredded redwood and cedar, leather,
asbestos, cottonseed hulls, pig hair, cellophane, and
wood shavings are some of the many things that are
used, (lost-circulation agent, material, or control
agent)
sealing fault a fault that acts as a permeability barrier
and does not allow fluids to flow either across or
along the fault surface. The impermeability can be
due to a shale smear along the fault surface.
seal off the squeezing of cement into the annular
space between the casing and rock surface of a
wellbore. Sealing off prevents fluid such as water from
flowing along the space.
seal section the section between the electric motor
and submersible electric pump. The seal section allows
the motor shaft to turn but no fluid can enter, and
the pressure of the oil inside the motor equals the
fluid pressure outside the motor. It is a type of
protector.
seal sub a short, smooth steel tube with rubber or
synthetic seal rings that is run on a tubing string and
seated on a production packer for a pressure seal
seam a closed crack along the length of a metal
tubular that has not been metallurgically bonded or
fused
seamless pipe wrought steel tubular without a
welded seam. Seamless pipe is manufactured by hot
working the steel or by cold finishing a hot-worked
tubular. PSW
Sears and Roebuck driller a driller of unknown
ability
seat 1) the point in a well where casing is set 2)
the closing surface of a valve. The seat is where the
ball rests when a ball-and-seat valve is closed.
seating nipple a short, threaded coupling with a
reduced inside bore that is used in a tubing string
to anchor a downhole pump, to accommodate gaslift valves, or to attach a safety valve, choke, or regulator.
The seating nipple also prevents small tools from
falling through the tubing. 57V
seat wrench a hand wrench that is used to screw
or unscrew pump-valve seats in the working barrel
of a downhole pump, (barrel wrench)
sea-water drilling mud a saltwater-base drilling
mud that uses sea water

449

sea wax an old term for floating patches of bitumen

off the coast of Texas
sebkha see sabkha
SEC second
Sec section
sec 1) section 2) second 3) secondary
SE/C southeast corner
second 1) the System International (SI) unit for time.
5 2) a non-System International (SI) unit that is
allowable in SI for plane angle. One second is equal
to TT/648,000 radians.

secondary cementing any cement job on a well

after primary cementing. Secondary cementing
includes squeeze cementing in which cement is
pumped under pressure through the perforations in
the casing. Squeeze cementing is used to isolate a
producing formation, to seal off water, and to repair
leaks. Secondary cementing also includes a plug job
in which a plug of cement is placed in a well. Secondary
cementing is in contrast to primary cementing.
secondary dolomite dolomite, a mineral composed
of CaMg(CO3)2, that has replaced calcite in limestone
along natural fractures such as joints in the limestone.
The fractures were routes through which Mg-rich
waters percolated through the limestone as it was
transformed into dolomite. Secondary dolomite is in
contrast to primary, syngenetic, evaporitic, supratidal,
stratigraphic, and diagenic dolomite, (tectonic or
epigenic dolomite)

A.

secondary faults

secondary fault a minor fault that is parallel to a

major fault. A secondary fault can be a synthetic fault
with displacement in the same direction as the major
fault displacement or an antithetic fault with
displacement opposite the major fault displacement.
secondary free gas cap or secondary gas cap a
free gas cap formed by solution gas that has bubbled
out of the oil in the subsurface reservoir during
production. A secondary free gas cap is caused by
production lowering the reservoir pressure of the
oil to below the bubblepoint.
secondary migration the movement and
accumulation of oil and gas along reservoir rock into
a pool or reservoir. Secondary migration is preceded
by primary migration and can be followed by tertiary
migration.
secondary porosity spaces or voids in a
sedimentary rock formed after the rock was deposited

450

secondary-porosity index sedimentary structure

and buried in the subsurface. Solution, fracturing, and

recrystallization are secondary porosity processes.
Secondary porosity is in contrast to primary porosity.
(intermediate or induced porosity)
secondary-porosity index a calculation of
secondary porosity in rocks from a sonic log and either
a density log or a neutron log. SPI
secondary recovery an older term used for any
process used to restore oil production from a reservoir
in which the primary drive mechanism and reservoir
pressure have been depleted. Gas injection and
waterflood are examples of secondary recovery
techniques. SREC
secondary reserves the amount of reserves that is
commercially recoverable at current prices by
waterflood and/or enhanced oil recovery
secondary stratigraphic trap a stratigraphic trap
formed by an unconformity or by solution such as
karst limestone. A secondary stratigraphic trap is in
contrast to a primary stratigraphic trap.
secondary structure the deck and modules on an
offshore platform. Secondary structure is in contrast
to the jacket and piles which are the primary structure.
secondary term the period of an oil and gas lease
during which the lease is held in effect by petroleum
production. The secondary term follows the primary
term, (production term)
secondary tracer the result of the reaction between
an injected primary tracer and reservoir fluids. The
secondary tracer is then used to trace fluid flow in a
reservoir.
second crop oil crude oil produced by waterflood
and enhanced oil recovery
second curve the shallow resistivity curve on an
early electric log
seconds API the number of seconds that a sample
of drilling mud takes to flow through a Marsh funnel.
Seconds API is a measure of liquid viscosity using
American Petroleum Institute procedures.
seconds Sayboit furol a measurement of heavy oil
viscosity. A specific amount of oil at a specific
temperature is allowed to flow through an instrument
called a Sayboit viscosimeter with an orifice of a certain
size. The seconds that the oil takes to flow through
the orifice depends on the oil's viscosity. SSF or SFS
seconds Sayboit universal a measurement of light
oil viscosity. A specific amount of oil at a specific
temperature is allowed to flow through an instrument
called a Sayboit viscosimeter with an orifice of a certain
size. The seconds that the oil takes to flow through
the orifice depends on the oil's viscosity. SSU or SUS
second tier oil new oil, released oil, or stripper
oil which under the United States Energy Policy and
Conservation Act of 1975 could be sold at market
price. Second tier oil is in contrast to first tier oil
that has a fixed market price, (upper tier oil)
Sec/Qt seconds per quart
SECT section
section 1) a square of land 1 mi on a side (640
ac). A section is a unit of measurement in United
States and Canada land surveys. There are 36 sections
in a township which are numbered 1 through 36 in

the township-and-range system. In the United States,

Section 1 is in the northeast corner and Section 6 is
in the northwest corner of the township. Section 36
is located in the southeast corner. In Canada, Section
1 is in the southeast corner of the section, whereas
Section 36 is in the northeast corner. In Canada,
sections are subdivided into 16 legal subdivisions.
SECT or sec 2) a series of geological formations that
occur in a specific area 3) a vertical exposure of rock
strata 4) a plot such as a cross section or seismic
section 5) the view of a cut or slice through an objea
6) see seismic section
section gauge see caliper log
section line the boundary of a land division section.
Section lines run north-south and east-west and are
spaced 1 mi apart.
section mill a tool that is lowered down a well on
the drillstring to cut sections of the casing. Once the
section mill is in place in the well, cutting arms are
expanded mechanically or hydraulically, and the
drillstring is rotated to do the cutting. A section mill
is often used to set a whipstock.
section milling the milling or grinding away of a
section of casing in a well with a section mill rotated
on a drillstring
SED, Sed, or sed sediments
sediment solid material, either inorganic or organic,
which has been weathered from rock and then
transported and deposited out of water, air, or ice
or formed by precipitation or biological secretion.
SED, Sed, or sed

sedimentary basin a general term for any large area

of thick sedimentary rocks. A sedimentary basin is a
geological structure with a unique sequence of rocks
that are dissimilar to those outside the basin. Because
of the thick sediments that are up to 50,000 ft thick,
basins tend to have significant petroleum
accumulations. There are approximately 600
sedimentary rock basins in the world, (basin)
sedimentary oil crude oil that has naturally been
recycled by erosion from a preexisting deposit.
Sedimentary oil tends to be heavy oil.
sedimentary organic matter the organic matter
found in sedimentary rocks. Type II organic matter
can form crude oil with time and temperature in a
process called maturation. Type III organic matter is
gas prone. SOM
sedimentary quartzite an orthoquartzite formed by
sedimentation in contrast to a metaquartzite that is
formed by metamorphism
sedimentary rock a rock formed of particles or
chemicals weathered from other rocks (sediments),
transported by water, air, and/or ice and deposited
at another site (clastic); by precipitation (chemical);
or by the secretions of plants and animals (organic).
Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers or strata.
Both source and most reservoir rock are sedimentary
rocks in contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Sandstones, shales, and limestones are the most
common sedimentary rocks.
sedimentary structure a feature in a sedimentary
rock that is larger than grain-size and was formed
during deposition of the sediments (primary

sedimentation seismic pulse

sedimentary structure) or after deposition (secondary
structure). Examples of sedimentary structures include
bedding and laminations, cross-stratification, mud
cracks, load structures, striations, flutes, ripple marks,
and bioturbation. Sedimentary structures are used to
interpret the depositional environment of the
sediments.
sedimentation the settling by gravity of solid
particles out of a fluid
sediment oil tank bottoms, oil/water emulsion with
sediments, that cannot be normally sold
seducing the canine to loaf on the job
SEEPS

SEEPS

seeps

seep or seepage a natural surface leak of gas and/

or oil. The petroleum reaches the surface along
fractures, faults, unconformities, or bedding planes,
or is exposed by surface erosion into porous rock.
SE/4 southeast quarter
SEG Society of Exploration Geophysicists
segregation drive the flow of crude oil through a
reservoir toward a well by gravity drive, (gravity
drainage)
seis 1) seismic 2) seismograph 3) seismometer
seis see geophone
Seiscrop a display of 3-D seismic using horizontal
slices that are similar to a subcrop map. The slices
show where reflectors intersect with a horizontal
plane. Wave peaks are shown in black, whereas troughs
are shown in red.
seisin the ownership of land with the rights of
possession and conveyance
Source
Receivers

Receiver
Reflection
Refraction

seismic (reflection and refraction)

seismic an exploration method in which elastic wave

energy or sound is put into the earth and either the
reflected energy off subsurface rock layers is recorded
(reflection survey) or refracted energy that travels
through the rock layers is recorded (refraction survey).
Seismic includes data acquisition, processing, and
interpretation. The energy can come from a variety
of sources such as explosives, Vibroseis, and weight
drop on land or air gun in the ocean. The energy
recorded on geophones or jugs on land and
hydrophones in the ocean. The seismic data is
recorded on magnetic tape and processed by
computer. Seismic is used to map subsurface

451

geological structures, identify subsurface lithologies,

and explore for petroleum traps, seis
seismic attribute a distinctive characteristic of a
seismic wavelet. There are over 20 seismic attributes
depending on how they are denned. The most
important seismic attributes are amplitude, frequency,
and velocity.
seismic base map a map showing seismic lines, line
numbers, and shot-point numbers
seismic broker a person or company that acts as
an agent for selling or trading seismic data. The seismic
broker receives a 10%-20% commission. The party
that buys seismic from a broker signs a license. The
trade can involve either cash for seismic or seismic
for seismic. The original seismic broker was part of
a major oil company. The seismic broker that a party
uses is called the prime broker. Seismic brokers often
organize group snoots.
seismic character see seismic facies
seismic crew the personnel used in a seismic survey.
The crew can be divided into survey, pilot, drilling,
and recording crews. The crew consists of party chief,
chief computer, party manager, observer, junior
observers, source operator crew, cable crew,
topographer with assistants, permit man, supervisor,
and laborers. If explosives are used, several drilling
crews are also used. A marine seismic crew has a
party chief, observer, junior observers, and
technicians, (doodlebug or seismograph crew)
seismic cross-section a vertical slice of the
subsurface made with seismic. The vertical scale is
in two-way travel time, and the horizontal axis
designates the location of shot points.
seismic event a line of traces on a seismic record
that could be a reflection, refraction, diffraction, or
other phenomenon from the subsurface, (event)
seismic exploration see seismic
seismic facies the seismic response to a lithology.
Seismic facies are characterized by a) reflection
configurations such as parallel, divergent, sigmoid,
and oblique, b) reflection terminations at boundaries
such as baselap, toplap, and truncation, and c) external
form such as sheet, wedge, lens, and mound, (seismic
character)
seismic obligation a mandatory condition of
earning for a farmee to run seismic along with drilling
an earning well in a farmout agreement
seismic option 1) a type of farmout agreement in
which the optionee/farmee earns the farmout by
running seismic over the land and sharing the seismic.
After the seismic is run, the optionee/farmee is not
forced to enter into the farmout agreement. 2) a type
of mineral-rights acquisition in which the lessee pays
the lessor a bonus for the right to run seismic over
the land and have the option of leasing the land after
reviewing the seismic within a certain time. A seismic
option is usually taken from a large landowner. The
option has a high lease bonus and an option fee.
seismic permit payments the money paid to a
landowner to allow a seismic survey on his land
seismic profile see seismic section
seismic pulse a disturbance that can have a duration
of tens of milliseconds (explosives, weight drop, or

452

seismic pumping self-drilling well

air gun) or several seconds (vibrator). A seismic pulse

is made from a seismic source and is modified by
the rocks through which it passes. The seismic wave
most commonly used is the compressional or P-wave.
It has a velocity of 6,500-16,500 ft/sec which generally
increase with depth, a dominant frequency of 20-50
Hz which generally decreases with depth, and a
wavelength of 130-820 ft which generally increases
with depth.
seismic pumping a secondary migration method
for petroleum. Overpressured reservoir fluids open
preexisting faults that act as conduits for petroleum
migration.
IMC

Hi.

seismic section a record made by a seismograph

during a seismic survey. A seismic section is a cross
section made of traces. The trace is a vertical line
with recorded energy peaks going to the right and
energy troughs to the left. If the peaks are filled in
with black during data processing, it is called wigglevariable area traces, forming a variable area (VA)
display. The seismic section can also be variable
density with peaks represented by dark bands and
troughs going to the left as light bands. This yields a
section that is similar to a cross section with reflectors
going across the section. This is a variable density
(VD) display. Sedimentary rocks are well layered on
a seismic profile with many subparallel reflectors,
whereas basement rock is opaque. The vertical scale
is usually in Vioos of a second with lines running across
the section. Every Via of a second line is heavier, and
the second lines are heaviest. Along the top, the shot
point locations are numbered. Points where other
seismic sections tie in and velocity surveys are labeled.
On land seismic, the ground elevation, depth of
weathering, and shot-hole depths can be plotted. On
marine seismic, the ocean depth can be shown.
Compass directions are shown by arrows. A header
on the section will show the line number, area name,
data gathering information such as contractor and
client name, shooting date, type of geophones, spread
layout, and multiplicity of snooting and processing
information such as processing company, processing
date, deconvolution used, and migration, (seismogram,
seismic profile, or record section)
seismic stratigraphy see sequence analysis
seismic structure map a structure map contoured
in units of seismic time to a specific reflector
seismic time-interval map a isopach map of the
interval between two seismic reflectors
seismic tomography an image of a horizontal (time
slice) or vertical slice of the earth using seismic data.

Tomography is an inversion process and the data can

be obtained by a) surface-to-surface relections, b)
borehole-to-borehole transmission, or c) surface-toborehole transmission.
seismic velocity the velocity of a seismic wave,
usually a compressional or P-wave, through a medium.
Some types of seismic velocities include interval,
average, root mean square, migration, well survey,
and shear.
seismic velocity analysis the calculation of
moveout-derived or amplitude-derived velocity for
sedimentary rock layers from seismic data
seismic while drilling a seismic method that uses
the sound energy of the rotating bit on the bottom
of the well as a seismic source
seismic wipeout a vertical area on a seismic profile
where there are no seismic reflections in contrast to
adjacent areas. Seismic wipeout is often caused by
natural gas in the sedimentary rocks that causes
extremely low seismic velocities through the
sedimentary rocks. Seismic wipeout is common in
the sedimentary rocks below an offshore gas seep.
seismic wooble the uncertainty of seismic picks to
microseconds
seismogram an outdated term, see seismic section
seismograph an instrument that records elastic wave
energy from the subsurface. A seismograph can be
either a) the entire seismic recording unit or b) a
geophone. seis
seismograph crew see seismic crew
seismologist a person trained in the seismic
principles as they apply to petroleum exploration or
earthquake analysis
seismology the study of seismic wave propagation
seismometer see geophone. seis
seisviewer a wireline device that is lowered down
wells to transmit an image of the borehole. A
seisviewer transmits pulsed ultrasonic energy that is
reflected off the borehole and is recorded to produce
an ultrasonic image of the borehole. It is used primarily
to detect and study fractures in reservoir rocks
surrounding the wellbore. The seisviewer is also used
to inspect the casing in a well for corrosion or faulty
joints, (borehole televiewer)
seize 1) to have the parts of machinery bind because
of overheating 2) to stick together or to adhere 3)
to bind the end of a wire rope to prevent unwinding
SEL southeast line
Sel selenite
selinite the clear, colorless variety of gypsum, a
mineral composed of CaSO4 2H2O. Selinite is an
evaporite mineral. Sel
Selexol process natural gas sweetening in an
absorber using dimethyl ether or polyethylene glycol
(DMPE6)
self-contained breathing apparatus a safety
device worn by a crew member drilling in an area
of hydrogen sulfide gas. The apparatus contains a bottle
with a 5-20 minutes supply of air and a pressure
regulator. SCBA
self-drilling well a well in which flowing gas helps
deepen the well

self-elevating drilling unit or platform semisubmersible or semi-submersible

self-elevating drilling unit or platform an
offshore drilling rig that is essentially a barge with
legs. The hull is towed or steamed into position and
then jacked above the ocean surface on tubular or
derrick legs. Self-elevating drilling units have been
built with 3-14 legs but commonly have three legs.
Each leg is either vertical or tilted slightly outward
for stability. The leg is formed by vertical elements
called chords. Attached to each chord is a jack house
that contains the rack-and-pinion arrangement used
to raise and lower the deck. The legs rest on the
bottom of the ocean during drilling to provide a stable
platform. A self-elevating drilling unit can be either
an independent self-elevating rig with spud cans on
the legs for use on a firm seabed, or mat supported
for softer seabeds. A self-elevating drilling unit is very
stable, relatively easy to move, and is used in water
depths up to about 300 ft. The deck of the rig is
raised 50-60 ft above sea level. The hull can be
rectangular, triangular, shiplike, or irregular. Selfelevating drilling units can be either self-propelled,
propulsion assisted, or nonpropelled. A drilling slot
can be cut in the deck, or the derrick can be
cantilevered over the side. Gorilla rigs are jackup rigs
with legs up to 500 ft high, (jackup barge, platform,
or rig)
self-elevating platform jacking system the
mechanism that raises and lowers the deck of a jackup
rig. The rack-and-pinion method uses an electric motor
to turn pinions that are engaged in toothed racks on
the chords of the legs to raise and lower the deck.
The hydraulic jack method uses grips on the legs to
raise and lower the deck.
self-floater platform see tower
self-generating mud acid retarded hydrofluoric
acid that is used for deep formation damage in a
well
self-help gas natural gas bought on the spot market.
(best efforts, intermptible, direct purchase, and spot
gas)
self potential the measure of the natural staticelectric voltage that exists between two points. Self
potential is a common measurement made by
electrical and induction well logs. It is used for a)
detecting permeability, b) location of shale, c)
correlation, and d) true resistivity calculations. The
self potential deflection decreases as the salinity of
the mud approaches the formation water salinity.
When the mud and the formation water have the same
salinity, no self potential is generated. Self potential
is not generated in wells filled with nonconductive
oil-base muds. Response is in millivolts, typically in
the range of 15-150 mv. Self potential is recorded
in Track 1 on the well log. (spontaneous potential
or polarization) SP
self risk testing a provision in a joint operating
agreement in which a party can conduct certain tests
at their cost and risk. That party has the exclusive
right to the information.
selvage soft, unconsolidated, very fine-grained
minerals found along a fault surface. Selvage is formed
by the grinding action of the fault movements on
rocks and later mineral decomposition. It can act as
a permeability barrier making the fault a sealing fault.
(gouge, fault gouge, or clay gouge)

453

SEM scanning electron microscope

semblance the energy of a stacked trace divided by
the energy available to be stacked
semi semisubmersible drilling rig
semiclosed gas lift a type of gas lift in which the
tubing is set on a packer but no standing valve is
used. Semiclosed gas lift is in contrast to the open
and closed types.
semiconductor a substance whose electrical
conductivity at normal temperatures is intermediate
between a good conductor and a good insulator. The
electrical conductivity of the semiconductor depends
on the presence of minute impurities in a very pure
crystal such as silicon or germanium. The conductance
of the semiconductor increases rapidly with increasing
temperature. Diodes, transistors, and integrated
circuits are made from semiconductors.
Semi-Ex semiexpendable (perforating gun)
semi expendable gun a type of perforating gun that
is wire carried and is a cylindrical hollow tube with
strip jets in ceramic or glass cases. The gun leaves a
minimum amount of debris in the well but cannot
be reused, (expendable-retrievable gun)
semipermeable membrane a film that will allow
the passage of solvent molecules but will not pass
certain solute molecules. A semipermeable membrane
is partially permeable to particular solutions.

semisubmersible

semisubmersible or semi-submersible a type of

floating offshore drilling rig which has pontoons or
buoyancy chambers located on short legs below the
drilling platform. The deck is supported by larger
stabilizing columns 20-35 ft in diameter and smaller
intermediate columns from the pontoons or buoyancy
chambers. Four stabilizers and four intermediated
columns are common. Both the pontoons and columns
can be used for ballasting and storage. The deck can
be rectangular (the most common) pentagonal,
triangular, Y-shaped, or cruciform in shape. After the
semisubmersible is towed and anchored above the
drillsite, the buoyancy chambers are flooded with
seawater until they are partially submerged. A
semisubmersible has a draft of about 20 ft during
towing and about 60 ft while on station. The mooring
on a semisubmersible usually consists of eight anchors

454

semitight well separator gas/oil ratio

connected to the hull by chain or wire rope. The

anchors can be retrieved by smaller service ships.
Semisubmersibles are self-contained, housing the
crew, equipment, and supplies. Some are selfpropelled. Modern semisubmersibles have dynamic
positioning. The pontoons house the thrusters. The
semisubmersible is intermediate in stability between
a jackup rig and a drillship. Semisubmersibles are
designed to drill in water depths to 1,500 ft. 55
semitight well a well in which relatively little
information is released
semiwildcat a well that is between a wildcat and a
development well in risk. A semiwildcat is drilled at
or near the limits of a producing reservoir.
SE NA screw end American National acme thread
SE NC screw end American National coarse thread
Senecan a North American epoch of geological time
that occurred from about 385-380 m. y. ago. It is
part of the Devonian period
SE NF screw end American National fine thread
senile oil heavy crude oil that has been degraded
by bacterial action and/or water washing. The
degradation reduces the API of the original oil and
removes the lighter fractions and the porphyrins. The
result is a heavy oil that is usually sour and high in
oxygen compounds.
senior orifice fitting a type of orifice fitting that
is made of two chambers that are separated by a
lubricated slide valve. The orifice plate can be removed
without interrupting the flow. A senior orifice fitting
is commonly used for custody transfers and sales
meters where orifice plate removal is sometimes
necessary but flow bypass is illegal.
senior toolpusher an employee of the drilling
contractor who is an experienced driller and is the
supervisor of the drilling department on an offshore
drilling rig. The senior toolpusher is responsible to
the drilling superintendent for the operation of the
rig and has a junior toolpusher assisting him. The
senior toolpusher is on call 24 hours a day but usually
works the 0600 to 1800 hour shift. The senior
toolpusher is responsible for the safety and welfare
of the drilling department. On a British rig, the senior
toolpusher can be the Offshore Installation Manager.
SE NPT screw end American National taper pipe
thread
sensitivity the response of an instrument to a
standard signal
sensitize to treat clays in a formation with chemicals
such as sodium chloride brine so the clays become
more reactive to fresh water
SEP self-elevating platform
sep separator
separate property property that was acquired
before marriage or by inheritance by one spouse.
Separate property is in contrast to community
property.
separation 1) the difference between two
measurements 2) the difference in reading from two
different well-log measurements on the same rock
layer. Examples of separation would be the difference
in porosity curves measured on a neutron log and a

gamma-gamma log or the difference in resistivity

curves between shallow and deep induction on an
induction log. 3) the apparent displacement on a fault

separators
separator a vessel with a metal shell that is located
at the well site and uses gravity and centrifugal force
to separate oil, gas, and water. The shapes of separators
are cylindrical or spherical. Two types of separators
are a) vertical and b) horizontal, including both single
and double barrel. Two-phase separators are designed
to separate gas from a liquid, either oil or an emulsion,
whereas a three-phase separator is designed to
separate oil, gas, and water. A heater-treater type of
separator uses a fire tube and heat to separate
emulsions. Separators commonly have an inlet diverter
to start the initial separation at the inlet and a mist
extractor at the gas outlet. The separator commonly
contains a a) primary separation device or section,
b) secondary gravity or settling section, c) liquid
settling section, and d) gas, oil, and water outlets.
Normal operating pressure is 25-125 psi. A
backpressure valve prevents gas from flowing back
into the separator from the gas line. A dump valve
connected to a float controls the liquid volume. Stage
separators use several separators to reduce pressure
on the produced fluid in stages. Some standard
accessories on a separator are a) backpressure gas
regulator, b) oil level control valve, c) pressure gauge
assembly, d) gauge glass assembly, e) float flange
assembly, and f) safety relief valve. Filter separators
are used to remove particulates from natural gas.
Separators are sometimes called scrubbers, traps,
knockout vessels, water knockouts, liquid knockouts,
knockouts, drums, or drips. SEPR or sep
separator cone see hydrocyclone
separator gas natural gas that bubbles out of crude
oil on the surface due to the decrease in pressure
between the reservoir and the surface. The amount
of gas that bubbles out determines the producing
gas/oil ratio of the well which is expressed in standard
cubic feet of gas per 60F barrel of stock tank oil.
(casinghead gas)
separator gas/oil ratio separator gas volume
divided by separator oil volume expressed as cubic
feet per barrel

separator oil relative-volume factor service unit

separator oil relative-volume factor see separator
volume factor
separator sample a sample of gas and liquid from
the separator during controlled production. The gas
and liquid from a separator sample are mixed at the
producing ratio for a representation of the reservoir
fluid for a reservoir fluid study. A separator sample
is in contrast to a subsurface or bottomhole sample.
(surface sample)
separator test a test that is part of a reservoir fluid
study. A sample of the reservoir liquid is put in a
laboratory cell and raised to reservoir temperature
and bubblepoint pressure. The liquid is then expelled
from the cell in two stages of separation, while the
pressure is being held constant at bubblepoint
pressure by reducing the cell volume as the liquid
is removed. The separator test is used to calculate
the formation volume factor of the oil, the solution
gas/oil ratio, and the separator volume factor.
separator train a series of stage separators
separator volume factor the volume of separator
liquid measured at separator condition divided by
the volume of stock-tank oil at standard conditions.
The separator volume factor is expressed in separator
barrels/stock tank barrels (separator oil relative
volume factor)
SEPM Society of Economic Paleontologists and
Mineralogists
SEPR separator
sept septate
seq sequence
SEQAC sequestered acid
sequence a series of sedimentary rock layers that
are bounded on the top and bottom by unconformities
or their equivalents. A sequence is the fundamental
unit of seismic or sequence stratigraphy and can be
subdivided into system tracts. The rocks in a sequence
are deposited is response to eustacy, sediment supply,
and subsidence. A Type 1 sequence is bounded on
the bottom by a Type 1 sequence boundary, and a
Type 1 or 2 sequence on the top. A Type 2 sequence
is bounded on the bottom by a Type 2 sequence
boundary and on the top by a Type 1 or 2 boundary.
sequence stratigraphy a study of time-rock units
of genetically related rocks that are bounded by
surfaces of erosion or nondeposition (unconformities)
or their extensions. Sequence stratigraphy is a
technique applied to seismic interpretation. A
sequence is the fundamental unit of sequence
stratigraphy. Sequence stratigraphy has been used to
formulate an global sea-level curve for geological time
and to predict rock characteristics including source,
seal and reservoir rocks from seismic before drilling.
The original term for sequence stratigraphy was
seismic stratigraphy.
sequestering agent a chemical additive such as
ethylene diamine tetracidic acid (EDTA), sodium salts,
pyrophosphates, citrates, or polyphosphates that is
used during acidizing a well to form a stable, soluble
complete with iron to prevent the precipitation of
insoluble iron hydroxides that can reduce
permeability of a formation. The iron can come from
iron corrosion on the well's equipment or mineral
grains in the producing formation such as chlorite,

455

siderite and limonite. Sequestering means to separate,

and a sequestering agent separates the iron cation
from the anion by chelation. SQ
sequestration the formation of a stable, soluble
calcium-magnesium-iron complex by the chemical
reaction of a metallic ion such as iron with a
sequestering agent such as ethylene diamine tetracidic
acid (EDTA), sodium salts, pyrophosphates, citrates,
or polyphosphates
ser series
serial the transmission of data one bit at a time over
a single wire. Serial transmission is how computers
are linked to terminals.
series 1) a time-rock division of rocks deposited
during an epoch of geological time. A series is part
of a system and can be subdivided into stages. 2)
two electronic components that are connected so that
the electric current flows through both components.
Series is in contrast to parallel.
SERP serpentine
serpentine 1) driller's term for weathered basalt 2)
a group of minerals that are formed by the alteration
of magnesium-rich silicated minerals. Serpentine is
found in both igneous and metamorphic rocks. SERP
Serpukhovian a global epoch of geological time that
occurred about 340-330 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Carboniferous age.
Serravallian a global age of geological time that
started about 15.4 m. y. ago and ended about 10.8
m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle Miocene age.
SERV or serv service
service boat a boat designed to support offshore
drilling. A service boat is long with a wide beam and
shallow draft. The bridge is usually located well
forward. The service boat is used for towing,
anchoring, and transporting crews and supplies.
service capsule a 1-atm vessel that can contain
people and is lowered from a support ship to a subsea
well head, manifold, or production station. The service
capsule enables the personnel to gain access and do
service on the subsea equipment in a dry atmosphere.
service company a company that specializes in
some aspects of drilling, completing, or working over
wells. The service company can log the well, cement
it, or perforate it along with many other possible
services.
service tools downhole equipment supplied by
service companies for use during the drilling,
evaluation, completion, or workover of wells
service tree the blowout-preventer stack and drilling
spool that is attached to the top of a subsea well
after drilling and before production
service unit hoisting equipment including a mast
and winch that is mounted on a truck or trailer. The
service unit is designed to do maintenance work on
a producing interval in an oil or gas well and has its
own crew. Most commonly, the sucker rods are pulled
from the well to change the downhole pump or repair
the rod string. The rods are suspended in the mast.
The well service unit is also used to pull tubing by
rearranging the equipment for a heavier load. The
stands of tubing can be stacked vertically in a rack

456

service well settlings

service unit

service unit

on the mast. A service unit is never called a workover

rig that has rotary and circulating equipment and is
designed for more extensive repairs on a well, (well
service or pulling unit or pulling machine) SVCU
service well a well that does not produce gas or
oil and is used for some other purpose such as
saltwater disposal, injecting fluids for pressure
maintenance, waterflood, enhanced oil recovery,
observation, or for water supply. A service well is
used in support of production from producing wells.
service-well head the equipment that is attached
to the top of a subsea well after drilling and before
completion. A service-well head includes the service
tree with guide base and casing head along with the
chokes, valves, pipes, and hydraulic lines.
servo servomechanism
servomechanism an automatic device that uses a
small amount of energy to divert a large amount of
power, servo
sessile a bottom-dwelling organism that grows
attached to the bottom. Sessile is in contrast to a vagile
organism.
set 1) to have slips grip a tubular 2) to have cement
thicken 3) to have a packer engage the wall of a well
set settling
set back to rack stands of drillpipe or tubing in the
derrick
setback the area on the derrick floor of a drilling
rig where the stands of drillpipe or tubing rest as
they are racked
set back and pick up to set a string of drillpipe
in the finger board of a drilling rig and then remove
the pipe to stab it back into the drillstring

set casing to run or lower and cement pipe or casing

in the well. The phrase is synonymous with completing
a well.
set her on the bank to pull pipe out of a well
set in the dark to set casing in a well before the
pay zone is drilled. Setting in the dark is used when
an openhole completion is going to be made.
set pressure the inlet pressure on which a pressure
relief valve is set to open
set the slips to engage the slips, a gripping
mechanism, on the rotary table or on a fishing tool
set-through completion a well completion in
which the casing is run through the pay zone and
then perforated
setting back the kelly to break out the kelly from
the drillstring and place it in the rathole during
tripping out on a drilling rig
setting ball or plug a ball or missile that is dropped
down a well to detonate an explosive or activate a
downhole tool. The setting ball opens a valve in a
hydraulic circuit, (go-devil)
setting depth the lowest depth to which a casing
or liner string is run in a well
setting gauge to measure the dimensions of a drill
bit or tool
setting point the temperature at which a liquid
solidifies
setting ring a ring used to measure the diameter
of a bit
settled production an oilfield or well in which the
production is relatively stable and level with a slow
decline. Settled production occurs when the wells
are on the pump and occurs between flush and stripper
production.
settlement statement a form that records the
amount of gas that was transferred from wells to a
pipeline. The form varies with purchasers and includes
a) purchaser identification, b) lease identification, c)
producer identification, d) quantity of gas delivered,
e) the month of production, f) the Btu content of
the gas, g) the gross or net value due to the lease,
h) lease production taxes, i) the value due to the
producer, and j) the pressure base. A settlement
statement is similar to a run ticket used for crude
oil. (gas settlement)
settler a gravity separator for oil, gas, and water
settling the gravitational separation of heavier
substances such as solid particles from a fluid set
settling pit 1) one of a series of steel tanks called
the mud tanks on a drilling rig. The settling pit is
located between the shaker and suction tanks. The
settling pit is designed to allow some of the coarser
well cuttings to settle by gravity out of the drilling
mud. (settling tank) 2) an open pit that was used in
the first stage of separating crude oil and water from
wells (pumping or skimming pit) 3) an excavation
used to receive drilling mud circulating out of a well.
The settling pit allowed the solids to settle out of
the mud.
settlings the well cuttings that settle out of drilling
mud in the mud settling pits on a drilling rig

settling tank shackle

O

/
O

-O
\

A
\\

A
\

/
A

-O

//

A - -

regular

o
A

\
\

457

inverted
seven-spot waterfloods

settling tank 1) a vessel used to hold produced oil

and used power oil from a hydraulic pumping system.
The water and sediment will settle to the bottom of
the tank and the power oil will float to the top on
the produced oil. 2) a vessel used to treat produced
oil by gravity. The settling tank contains an internal
downcomer and an emulsion spreader. The gas goes
out the top, the oil out the middle and the water
flows over a weir on the bottom. The settling tank is
also know as a gun barrel, wash tank, or dehydration
tank.
set pressure the inlet pressure at which a relief valve
opens
set up the arrangement of geophones, cables, and
shotholes on a seismic survey
seven sisters the seven large international oil
companies that used to control the free world
petroleum production before nationalization and
OPEC. The seven sisters are Exxon, Gulf, Mobile,
Texaco, Standard of California, British Petroleum, and
Royal Dutch Shell.
seven-spot pattern or seven spot a type of
waterflood in which the producing well is located
in the center of a hexagonal pattern formed by six
injection wells at the corners
seventy-two hour continuous-efforts clause a
part of the excuse provision in a farmout that allows
the farmee to drill a substitute well if 72 hours of
continuous drilling efforts have not made significant
progress on the earning well
sever to separate
severance the separation of some rights such as
mineral rights from the other rights of property
ownership
severance tax state and municipal tax on the
producer based on a percentage of the gross value
of the crude oil, condensate, and gas produced. Each
state has its own laws and administrative procedures
concerning severance taxes, (gross production or
production tax)
severance tax adjustment the part of state
production or severance tax that is deducted when
computing the windfall profits tax. The severance tax
adjustment is computed by applying the severance
tax rate to the excess of the removal price or selling
price of a barrel of oil above adjusted base price.
severed gas gas that has left the lease
severed royalty interest an interest owned by
someone other than the mineral rights owner. A

severed royalty interest is free of the cost of production

and can exist for a specific number of years or for
life.
severe-loss zone a very permeable, highly fractured
or cavernous rock layer that takes excessive amounts
of drilling mud as it is being drilled, (lost circulation
zone)
sew the button on to finish a job as soon as possible
SF 1) sandfrac 2) surfactants 3) seals failed 4) safety
factor 5) shrinkage factor
S.F. rod service factor
SFAC surfactant treatment
sfc surface
SFL starting fluid level
SFL spherically focused log
SFLU slight fluorescence
SFO show of free oil
S/4 south quarter
SFS seconds Saybolt furol
SFT selective formation tester
sft soft
SG 1) show of gas 2) specific gravity
S.G. show of gas
SG shear strength
Sg 1) gas saturation 2) surface area of grains
SGA Southern Gas Association
SG&C show of gas and condensate
SG&D show of gas and distillate
SG&O show of gas and oil
SG&W show of gas and water
Sgc critical gas saturation
SGCM slightly gas-cut mud
SGCO slightly gas-cut oil
SGCW slightly gas-cut water
SGMA self-generating mud acid
Sg,. residue gas saturation
sgd signed
SH 1) shale 2) polarized shear wave perpendicular
to plane of profile
Sh or sh 1) shale 2) shaly
Sj, hydrocarbon saturation
shackle a U-shaped metal device with a pin or bolt
through both ends. A shackle is used to connect chains,

458

shackle rod shale shaker

cables or a linkage. Shackles can be found on the

brake and clutch linkages and on hydraulic and air
cylinders on a drilling rig. (clevis)
shackle rod a steel or wood rod with joints on each
end to connect to other shackle rods. The shackle
rods form a hackle-rod line that connects the eccentric
on a central power unit to the surrounding pumping
units. Shackle rods are about 25 ft long and VA in. or
1 in. in diameter, (pull rod)
shackle-rod line a line of jointed steel or wood
rods (pull or shackle rods) that connects the eccentric
on a central power unit to the surrounding pump
jacks. The shackle-rod line is located 1-2 ft off the
ground on metal posts with wooden guides that are
greased, (pull or rod line)
shackle work the central power plant, rod lines,
and the jack pumps that make one system
shad shadow
shadow zone an area on the surface where
subsurface reflections cannot be recorded during
seismic exploration. The shadow zone can be due
to dips and velocity contrasts in overlying beds that
prevent the ray paths from reflectors below them from
reaching the surface at the shadow zone. Diffractions
might be recorded in a shadow zone.
SHAKE shake out
shake 1) to vibrate the ground with a vibrator truck
in order to induce energy into the subsurface for a
seismic survey 1) A seismic survey using Vibroseis
is an example.
shake out to centrifuge a liquid. Shake out is used
to determine the basic sediment and water content
of oil. A sample of the oil from an oil thief is mixed
with 50% solvent, heated to 120F, and centrifuged
for three minutes to leave the basic sediment and
water at the bottom of the tube, (grind out) SHAKE

are common source rocks for petroleum. About onehalf to three-fourths of the world's sedimentary rocks
are shales. SH, Sh, or sh
shale base-line a vertical line on a spontaneous
potential (SP) curve on an electric or induction log
or on a natural gamma ray log that marks the maximum
deflection to the left in Track 1 on a well log. The
shale baseline is in contrast to the sand line.
shale-bound water volume the volume of water
that is chemically bound to mineral grains in shale
such as clay minerals
shale break a thin layer or parting of shale in
limestone or sandstone. A shale break can form a
vertical permeability barrier to fluids.
shale bulk density the natural density of the shale
with the pores filled with formation fluids. Shale bulk
density is recorded on a mud log and increases with
depth except when geopressured. Shale bulk density
is measured by a) pycnometer, b) mercury pump,
c) buoyancy, d) density comparison, or e) density
gradient.
shale density the number of shale layers per vertical
distance
shale factor a measure of the cation exchange
capacity (CEC) of shale cuttings. The shale factor is
reported in milliliters of 0.01 normal methylene blue
required to titrate 100 g of shale.
shale oil oil formed by heating oil shales
shale-out a sedimentary rock layer that grades into
shale or becomes shaly in one direction. If the rock
layer is a reservoir rock that shales-out in an upward
direction, it will decrease in porosity and permeability
in that direction and be a potential petroleum trap.

shake-out test a method used to determine the basic

sediment and water (BS&W) content of an oil sample.
The sample, usually obtained from a stock tank, is
centrifuged in a glass container. The BS&W content
of the oil is read off graduations on the glass container.
shaker see shale shaker
shaker hand a member of a drilling rig crew who
is in charge of maintaining the shale shaker
shaker pit one of a series of steel tanks called the
mud tanks on a drilling rig. The shaker pit is located
on the end of the mud tanks between the shale shaker
and the settling and suction pits.
shaker test aggitation of a surfactant and stock tank
oil mixture to test foam stability and the compatability
of the surfactant with the oil
shake table an instrument used to test geophones
used in seismic exploration
shake wave see S-tvave
shale a very common clastic sedimentary rock
composed primarily of clay-sized particles with some
or no silt-sized particles. The dominant minerals in
shale are clay minerals with varying amounts of mica,
quartz, and other minerals. Shales are characteristically
well layered and are relatively soft. Shales have a
seismic velocity of 7,000-17,000 ft/sec. Dark gray and
black shales contain about l%-3% organic matter and

shale shaker

shale shaker a series of vibrating or rotating tables

with screens next to a rotary drilling rig. The screens
are made of many different size and shape (square
or oblique) woven screen cloth. The mesh size
describes the number of openings per inch. The shale
shaker is used to separate the well cuttings from the
drilling mud after it circulates back to the surface.
The screens are vibrated with an eccentrically-loaded
rotating shaft that is driven from by a belt from an
electric motor. Coarse well cuttings are caught on
the screens, which can be as fine as 50 n- in size,
and the drilling mud and finer cuttings flow through
to the shaker pit. The well cuttings are washed off
into a reserve or dump pit. A shale shaker can be

shale slide shear strain

either single or double deck with two screens on
top of each other and tilted 10 from horizontal. On
a double deck shale shaker, the coarse cutting are
caught on the top screen and the finer cuttings on
the lower screen. The screens are mounted on a frame
which sits on coil springs or rubber blocks, (mud
screen or shaker)
shale slide a metal ramp that conducts the well
cuttings off the shale shaker screens to the reserve
or dump pit
shale stabilization the processes used in a well to
prevent formation shales from adsorbing water. Shale
stabilization is done with an invert emulsion mud
with very saline water in the emulsified phase. In
the Mondshine method, the salinity of the interstitial
water is measured or estimated. In the Chenervert
method, the equilibrium vapor pressure of the shale
is measured from cuttings. The salinity of the invert
emulsion mud is then adjusted.
shaliness the amount of shale in a rock layer
shallower pool test an exploratory well drilled to
establish production in a reservoir shallower than the
currently produced reservoir in a field
shallowing upward sequence a vertical sequence
in sediments or sedimentary rocks that was deposited
with shoaling water depth upwards. A shallowing
sequence usually coarsens upward, (shoaling upward
sequence)
shaly or shaley 1) a rock having the properties and/
or containing a significant amount of shale.
(argillaceous) SHLYor shly 2) fine bedding or laminae
that are 2-10 mm thick
Sh&L. shale and lime
shaped charge a cone-shaped explosive with a
metal-liner backing that is designed to shoot highvelocity gases in a certain direction. Shaped charges
are used to perforate a well by blowing holes in the
casing or liner, cement and producing zone. The shape
of the cone determines the diameter and depth of
the perforation, (jet charge)
shaped-charge fragmentizer a fishing tool that
uses a downward-directed shaped charge to blow up
the fish into small pieces. The shaped-charge
fragmentizer is lowered on an electric cable until on
the fish and then detonated.
shaped-charge perforator the carrier and shaped
explosive charges that are lowered into a well to
perforate the well. There are both retrievable and
expendable shaped-charge perforators. A retrievable
perforator (retrievable hollow carrier gun, RHC) can
be removed along with the explosive debris from a
well and can be reused. An expendable perforator
disintegrates and leaves the debris in the well. There
is also a semiexpendable or semiretrievable
perforator. Tubing-conveyed perforators are attached
below the tubing or drillstring. The perforators can
be fired either electronically or by dropping a
weighted bar on a firing head, (jet gun)
shape factor see porosity exponent, m
sharing agreement or arrangement a deal in
which one party contributes to the acquisition,
exploration, and/or development of a property in
exchange for an interest in the property. The

459

distribution of costs and production revenues are

established. A sharing agreement can be either a
carried interest or a free-well arrangement. A farmout
is an example of a sharing agreement. The agreement
can be entered into on a tax-free basis.
sharpshooter a worker in charge of explosives
SHC saturated hydrocarbon
Sj,,. hydrocarbon saturation
SHDN shut down
SHDP slim-hole drillpipe
SHDT stratigraphic high-resolution dipmeter tool
sheaf a protective covering
shear a strain that is the result of forces causing two
adjacent parts of a body to slide parallel but in
apparently opposite directions along their contact
plane, (shear strain) shr
shear forces forces that are directed opposite each
other but are separated by a plane called the shear
plane
shear fractures two sets of fractures in rocks that
are oriented about 60 and 120 from each other and
are caused by shear forces that are the result of
compressive forces. Shear fractures have
displacements parallel to the fracture surface and
intermediate stress axis (<r2) and are oriented about
30 to the maximum principal shear stress (crj). The
shear fractures are oriented about 60 to the minimum
shear stress (cr3).
shearometer a device used as an alternative method
to measure gel strengths instead of a viscometer
shear pin a retaining pin, screw, or bolt that is used
to hold a joint between a piece of equipment and a
shaft or to hold two shafts together. The shear pin is
designed to break when a certain force is applied to
it to prevent damage to the equipment. Shear pins
can be used to hold equipment in place until correctly
positioned in a well.
shear-pin sub a downhole device that is used to
place the whipstock on the cement plug at the bottom
of the well for blind sidetracking. The weight of the
drillstring is used to break a shear pin, and a rat
hole is drilled. When the drillstring is raised, the shearpin sub retrieves the whipstock.
shear ram a type of closing element used in a
blowout preventer. The shear ram consists of
hydraulically activated blades that are designed to cut
any drillpipe in the blowout preventer and seal the
well. The rams often require 3,000 psi pressure to
close. Shear rams are often used on subsea blowoutpreventer stacks.
shear relief valve a relief valve on the high-pressure
line from the mud pump of a drilling rig that prevents
excessive pressure buildup if the bit becomes clogged
shear resistance a tangential stress that is caused
by fluid viscosity. Shear resistance occurs along the
boundary of flow in the tangential flow direction.
shear strain a strain that is the result offerees causing
two adjacent parts of a body to slide parallel but in
apparently opposite directions along their contact
plane, (shear)

460

shear strength shoaling upward sequence

shear strength the minimum shearing stress that

will permanently deform a substance. When measured
for drilling mud, shear strength is called gel strength.
shear stress the stress component that acts tangential
to a plane through a point on a body. The shear stress
components are cr^, a^, and crzx. 5S
shear surface a surface along which there has been
shear movement with one side moving relative to
the other side
shear thinning the reduction in viscosity of a
particular fluid under increasing rate of shear
shear thinning fluid a fluid that has a decreased
viscosity at high flow rates. Bipolymers such as xanthan
gums are shear thinning fluids.
shear wave a body wave in which the motion of
particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. Two types of shear waves are SV- and
SH-waves. The SV-wave has particle motion in the
vertical plane of the geophone system, whereas the
SW-wave has particle motion perpendicular to the
vertical plane of the geophone system. A shear wave
travels about one-half as fast as a compressional wave.
A shear-wave survey is used to obtain information
on the physical properties of subsurface formations
and is measured in amplitude, cement bond, and
fracture logs. (S-wave or transverse wave) S
shear wave splitting the polarized detection of
seismic shear waves into vertical and horizontal waves.
The horizontal shear waves are altenuated by fractures.
shear zone a zone in rocks that has been crushed
and brecciated due to shear strain
sheath a protective covering or casing
sheave a grooved wheel or pulley on a shaft in an
assembly called a block. Cable or wire rope goes
around the sheave. A sheave is designed for a certain
size line and has a diameter that is at least 30 times
the diameter of the line. The groove is slightly larger
than the wire rope and will contact about 150 of
the rope circumference. The sheaves used in the crown
and traveling blocks of a drilling rig are made of
high-quality steel and rotate on large-diameter
antifriction bearings around a shaft.
sheephearder anticline an anticline or fold in the
rocks that sticks up in the air
sheet pore a pore in a sedimentary rock
characterized by planar rather than concave walls.
Sheet pores can occur in dolomite.
sheet sand an extensive sandstone layer of relatively
uniform thickness
shelf 1) the relatively shallow margins of a basin
where thin sediments are deposited 2) the continental
shelf
shelf break or margin the line along the margin
of a basin delineating the thin sediments deposited
on the shelf and the thicker sediments leading down
into the basin. The shelf break or margin in the ocean
delineates the continental shelf from the continental
margin or slope, (hinge line)
shell 1) a tank or vessel body 2) a torpedo used
for explosive fracturing of well 3) a nitroglycerin
container 4) a thin, hard rock layer. Shi
shell pump a cylinder with a plunger and valve
apparatus that is run on a sand line to remove well

cuttings from the bottom of a cable-tool rig well, (sand

pump or sludger)
shelltest a high-pressure test designed by the
American Petroleum Institute to evaluate pressure
equipment such as blowout preventers and wellheads.
Body-test pressure, which is higher than the rated
pressure for the equipment, is used, (body test)
shelter pore a void or pore in limestone formed
by the sheltering effect of large sedimentary particles
that prevent the filling of the shelter pore between
them with finer grained material, shltpor
sheriff's deed a conveyance of an interest under
the terms of a bankruptcy proceeding
Shermanian a North American age of geological
time that ended about 455 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Ordovician period.
SHF super high frequency

shield areas of the world

shield a low-lying, stable area of Precambrian rocks

on the surface of the earth. Shields cover large areas,
and every continent has at least one shield. Because
this basement rock crops out on the surface, there
is little or no petroleum potential for a shield.
shielded electrode see guarded electrode
shift 1) the time of a tour on a drilling rig 2) the
crew that works during a tour
shim a thin sheet of metal that is used to raise or
adjust the level of equipment or the distance between
equipment
shine an oil show
shirtail or shirt tail the lower outer section of the
bit body or leg on a roller-cone bit that comes in
contact with the formation being drilled. The shirttail
is often protected by hard facing.
shirttail packer a canvas that is lowered down to
the bottom of a well to make a watertight seal
Shi shell
shld shoulder
SHLS or shls shells
shit por shelter porosity
SHLY or shly shaly
SHM simple harmonic motion
shoaling upward sequence a vertical sequence in
sediments or sedimentary rocks that was deposited

shock absorber short

with shallowing water depth upwards. A shoaling
sequence usually coarsens upward, (shallowing
upward sequence)
shock absorber see shock sub
shock hose see vibrator hose
shocking the stimulation of a well by a sudden
backsurge that reduces the pressure in the open hole
or perforations. The rapid pulse of high pressure
differential between the formation and the well causes
the formation fluids to flow into the well.
shock load a sudden stress applied over a short time
interval. Shock stress will occur on only one part of
a pipe at any instant.
shock loading to suddenly apply weight. Shock
loading can be caused by setting slips on a moving
drillpipe.
shock sub a tool that is run in the drillstring between
at bit and drill collar and uses steel or rubber springs
to absorb shocks when the bit bounces and vibrates
off a hard formation. Sometimes the shock subs are
located 30 or 60 ft above the bit. (shock absorber or
vibration dampener)
shoe 1) a short, hollow steel cylinder with a rounded
bottom that is screwed into the bottom of a fishing
or casing string before it is lowered into a well. The
shoe guides the tubular goods around any
irregularities in the borehole as the string is lowered
in the well and has an orifice in the end to allow
fluids to flow through it. A guide shoe does not have
any values on the orifice. A casing shoe is used on
the end of a casing string. A float shoe has a check
valve that prevents slurry backfill during a cement
job. There is also a differential or automatic fillup
type of shoe. Rotary, milling, and washover shoes are
used for fishing. 2) a protective plate
shoe packer a solid or inflatable rubber device that
is attached to the outside of the casing below a stage
or port collar and used during stage cementing. The
shoe packer prevents the upper-stage cement from
descending into the drilling mud below it.

shoestring sandstone

shoestring sand or sandstone a driller's term for

a long, narrow, lens-shaped sandstone usually encased
in a shale layer. A shoestring sandstone is usually

461

deposited either as a shoreline, river channel, or delta

sand.
shoot 1) a seismic survey 2) to run a seismic survey
3) to detonate an explosive 4) to pass a short pulse
of a large electric current through a conductor
shoot a well to enlarge the wellbore and fracture
a reservoir rock to stimulate production from a well
by explosive fracturing. Nitroglycerin in a torpedo is
lowered and exploded in the well. The technique is
called shooting or explosive fracturing. Shooting a
well was first introduced in 1860 using gun powder
and was common until it was replaced by hydraulic
fracturing in the 1950s.
shooter 1) a person who uses explosives to fracture
a well, (well shooter) 2) a person on a seismic survey
who detonates the explosives
shooting a technique that uses a solidified or gelatintype explosive such as nitroglycerine in a torpedo
which is detonated in the well to increase the size
of the wellbore and fracture the reservoir rock. The
fractures increase the permeability of the reservoir
and production from the well. The casing above the
shot is often protected with a temporary plug of
cement, plastic, and/or gravel. Sand and gravel are
often packed around the nitroglycerin shell to contain
the explosion. The explosive is detonated with a time
bomb. After the explosion, the debris is cleared. Casing
cannot be set and an openhole completion must be
used. Shooting has been in use almost since the first
oil well was drilled. The process is called giving the
well a shot, (explosive fracturing or nitro shooting)
shooting lease an agreement between a landowner
and a company that allows the company to run seismic
on the land
shooting nipple assembly a pipe with wireline
blowout preventers and packoff that is attached to
the top of casing in a well and is used during wireline
operations such as logging or perforating
shooting option a type of exploration contract in
which the company runs the seismic and then has
the option to lease some acreage on the land that
was shot. The option is defined in the acreage selection
clause of the contract.
shooting rights the permission for access to a
property to shoot seismic. Shooting rights can be
coupled with an option to lease.
shooting through the cable a method used in
common-depth-point shooting when a shot point is
not accessible. The detector is moved one notch but
the shot point stays the same.
shoot on paper to think through by calculation the
expected results and anticipate the problems of a
program or survey before starting it
shoot pipe to perforate pipe
shore lead the open water area that forms between
the beach and pack ice during the summer in the
Artie
shore reef a reef that grows parallel to the shoreline
and is either attached to the shoreline or is separated
from the shoreline by a narrow, shallow lagoon. A
barrier reef is separated from the shoreline by a wider
and deeper lagoon than a shore reef, (fringing reef)
short a shorter than normal joint of casing

462

shortage shot instant or moment

shortage the difference between the amount of oil

or gas that was produced and the amount that could
have been produced under an allowable during a
certain period of time
short hook up a downhole assembly that is used
to build angle after a deviated well is kicked off. A
short hook up consists of a gauge bit, a near-bit gauge
stabilizer, and drill collars.
short normal resistivity log a shallow-investigation
type of wireline electric log that measures resistivity
of rocks and their fluids with electrodes spaced 16
in. apart. Short normal resistivity is usually plotted
in Track 2 on the well log.
short oil payment an oil payment, the share of oil
produced from a leasehold that is free of the costs
of production, with a short time to be paid. A short
oil payment is in contrast to a long oil payment.
short radius horizontal well a horizontal well with
a very high-curvature build angle between 100-300
per 100 ft and a radius of 20-60 ft
short section a land division section of land that
has less than 640 ac
short shot a small charge or the detonation of a
small charge to determine the characteristics of the
low-velocity zone or weathering on the surface for
seismic refraction, (poop or weathering shot)
short signal a seismic source that gives a pulse with
a duration of a few tens of milliseconds!1 Short signal
sources are explosive, weight drop, air gun, water
gun, steam gun, and imploders. The conventional
frequency spectrum is 10-100 Hz and is 20-200 Hz
in high resolution seismic.
short string the tubing string serving the shallower
producing reservoir in a dual completion well
short tank a stock tank that is not full of oil, even
though the operator wants the gauger to make a run
short ton a unit of weight in the United States and
Canada. A short ton weights 2,000 pounds. The long
ton used by Great Britain weighs 2,240 pounds. A
short ton is equal to 0.907 metric tons or 0.893 long
tons. (U.S. ton)
short trip to raise and pull a few strands of drillpipe
off the drillstring in a well and then return it to the
bottom of the well. A short trip is used a) to clean
and open the well, b) to see if it is safe to pull out
of the hole, and c) to prevent the drillstring from
becoming stuck by caving or sloughing.
shot 1) an explosion or explosive used to put sound
energy into the subsurface for seismic exploration.
It is commonly a 5-lb explosive charge that is packed
in a one-piece plastic tube that is threaded on both
ends. The shot is 2Vi ft long with an electric blasting
cap inserted in a hole on one end and the cap wire
is wound around the tube. The shot is lowered by
wire or loading poles in the shot hole. 2) a seismic
energy impulse. 3) an explosive used to artificially
fracture reservoir rocks in a well 4) a surveying
measurement 5) a short pulse of electric current
shot bounce seismic record noise caused by
recording truck vibrations
shot break the time indication on a seismic record
of the detonation of a shot or explosive used in seismic
exploration, (shot instant or moment-of-time break)

shot datum any convenient reference surface used

in calculations for the preparation of time-depth charts
in seismic exploration
shot depth or elevation the distance from the
surface to the depth of the explosion in a shot hole
used in seismic exploration. For a large charge, the
shot depth is measured at both the top and bottom
of the charge, (effective shot depth)
shot density the number of perforations per foot.
Four shots per foot used to be standard shot density
shot drill a drill with steel shot set in the cutting
edge that was used for drilling hard formations.
(adamantine drill)
shotgun or shot gun tank a tall, narrow separator
used on low-production wells. A shotgun tank is
designed to separate water and sediment from the
crude oil by gravity, (gun-barrel)

shot hole

shothole or shot hole a small-diameter hole in

which explosives are detonated to impart seismic
energy into the subsurface. The shothole is drilled
by a truck-mounted rotary rig, air drill, auger drill,
air-hammer drill, or pumper drill through the soil
which does not transmit seismic energy well and into
the rock below. A shothole is 20-200 ft deep (60100 ft is most common) and 4-7 in. in diameter.
shothole or shot-hole anchor a device with
upward-facing springy prongs that holds a charge in
a shot hole if there is water in the hole
shothole or shot-hole bridge an obstacle,
intentional or accidental, in a shothole used for seismic
exploration. The shot cannot be placed below the
bridge.
shothole or shot-hole drill a small-diameter drill
used for drilling a seismic exploration shothole. The
shothole drill is often mounted on a truck.
shothole or shot-hole elevation the elevation, in
feet above sea level, at the top of the shothole
shothole or shot-hole fatigue an effect caused by
the delay in time between the detonation of an
explosive in a shothole for seismic exploration and
the initiation of seismic waves through the
surrounding rocks. Shothole fatigue is often caused
by a cavity in the shothole caused by a previous
explosion.
shothole or shot-hole rig a light, portable rig that
is used to drill the shot holes on a seismic survey
shot instant or moment the time indication on a
seismic record of the detonation of the shot or

shot-in-the-dark shut-in or shutin drillpipe pressure

explosives used in seismic exploration, (shot or time
break)
shot-in-the-dark a wildcat well
shot noise noise recorded during seismic
exploration caused by gases generated by the
explosion and loose material in the shothole
shot peening a method used to create a hard surface
on metal by shooting small steel pellets onto the
surface. Shot peening is used on sucker rods.
shotpoint or shot point 1) the location of a seismic
exploration shot. A shotpoint could be generated by
explosives, vibrator, air gun, or any other seismic
source. 2) the area surrounding the shothole. SP
shotpoint or shot-point map a map showing the
location of seismic lines. Each line is identified with
a number and/or name and each 10th, 50th, or 100th
shotpoint is labeled with a symbol.
shotpoint or shot-point seismometer see uphole
jug
shoulder a protuberance that forms a ledge in a
well either where a pipe becomes larger in outer
diameter or where a wellbore becomes smaller in
diameter, shld
shoulder-bed effect the effect of different rock
layers located above and below on the well-log
response of a rock layer. The shoulder-bed effect is
amplified with thin beds in deep investigation logs.
A focused log is engineered to minimize this effect.
(adjacent-bed effect)
SHOW show of hydrocarbons
show 1) the appearance of oil and/or gas in drilling
mud, cuttings or a core, shw 2) a small amount, usually
not enough to be commercial, of gas and/or oil in a
well, shw 3) the presence of hydrocarbons above
background level in a sample, shw
show-evaluation log see mud log
show report a mud logging report on all the
information concerning a potential petroleum zone.
The show report can include depth, lithology, type
and amount of visible petroleum, porosity, type and
amount of fluorescence, gas cut reading before and
during drilling the zone, drilling conditions, mud
properties, bit condition, change in drilling rates,
weight on bit, chloride changes, differential pressures,
and mud gains or losses. The mud logger might also
write the logger's evaluation on the potential zone.
show well 1) a well used as an example for
production for a proposed well to be drilled near it
2) a well that is not a producer but has good oil
and gas shows
shp shaft horsepower
shpg shipping
shpt shipment
Si,, residual hydrocarbon saturation
shr shear
shrinkage the decrease in liquid volume due to
solution gas bubbling out of the liquid and/or
temperature and pressure changes. Oil shrinkage is
reported as a) percentage of stock-tank oil or b)
percentage of original oil volume

463

shrinkage factor the remaining fraction or percent

of one barrel of reservoir oil that has been pumped
to surface and the natural gas has bubbled out under
surface conditions. The shrinkage factor generally
varies between 0.9 and 0.6 and depends on how much
natural gas is dissolved in the subsurface oil (formation
gas/oil ratio). Generally, the deeper the reservoir, the
more gas is dissolved in it, and the more it will shrink
on the surface. SF
shrink fit a very tight union formed by placing a
heated part around a cooler part. The contraction of
the heated part as it cools forms the shrink fit. Shrink
fit is in contrast to an expansion fit.
shrink-on tool joint a tool joint in which the outer
part is expanded by heating it to fit on the inner
part. A shrink-on tool joint is then cooled to contract
around the inner part.
shroud a projection on a jet nozzle that is designed
to reduce the effect of erosion on the drill bit
shunt a conductor joining two parts of an electrical
circuit to form a parallel or alternate path for a portion
of the current
shut-down to temporarily suspend drilling a well;
for example, when the well is waiting on cement.
SHDN, S.D., or SD

shut-down days the days in a month during which

production is prohibited by a government regulatory
agency
shut-down time the time during the drilling of a
well in which drilling has been suspended at the
operator's request
shut-down valve an automatic valve that is used to
isolate a component in a system
ORIGINAL PRESSURE
FLOWING PRESSURE

SHUT IN PRESSURE

TIME

shutin pressure

shut in 1) to close the valves and cease production

on a well 2) a well with the wellhead valves closed
and there is no fluid flow at the surface. SI or S.I.
shut-in bottomhole pressure the pressure on a
fluid measured by an instrument at or near the
producing formation in a well after the well has been
shut in (closed) for a period of time, usually 24 hours
or longer. Shut-in bottomhole pressure is in contrast
to flowing bottomhole pressure, (closed or closed-in
bottomhole pressure) SIBHP
shut-in or shutin casing pressure the pressure
on the fluid in the casing after the well has been
closed or shut in. SCIP
shut-in or shutin drillpipe pressure the pressure
on the fluid in the drillstring after the mud pumps
have been turned off and the well is closed or shut
in. SIDPP

464

shut-in or shutin gas side-scan sonar

shut-in or shutin gas gas that is not being produced

because of a government regulatory agency or because
there is not buyer at an acceptable price. Shut-in is
in contrast to curtailment.
shut-in or shutin payments 1) shut-in royalty
made to royalty owners 2) shut-in rental made to
the lessor
shut-in or shutin pressure the pressure on the
fluid at the wellhead after the well has been closed
(shut in) for a period of time, usually 24 hours or
longer, and the maximum pressure has built up.
(closed or dosed-in pressure) SIP or S.I.P.
shut-in or shutin rental payments made for a gas
well that is capable of producing but has been closed
(shut in) for a reason such as lack of a market for
the gas or a blowout. Shut-in payments can be made
only for a certain number of years beyond the primary
term in the lease as denned in the lease. Shut-in rental
is paid to the lessor in contrast to shut-in royalty.
shut-in or shutin royalty payments made for a gas
well that is capable of producing but has been closed
(shut in) for a reason such as lack of a market for
the gas or a blowout. If there is a shut-in clause in
the lease and the payments are not made, the lease
could terminate. The shut-in royalty is paid to the
royalty owners in contrast to shut-in rental, (cappediri royally)
shut-in or shutin royalty clause an oil and gas
provision in a lease that allows the lessee to maintain
the lease with payments called shut-in royalties during
periods when there is no production
shut-in or shutin time the time since the fluid in
a well has been flowing
shut-in or shutin valve a valve in a drillstem test
tool that is closed by rotation. The valve is located
above the main tester valve and is used so that the
shut-in pressure at the end of the test can be recorded.
shut-in or shutin well a producing well that is
temporarily turned off. The well could be shut-in for
a workover, lack of gas market, or other reasons.
shut off to isolate a water-producing zone in a well
with cementing or mudding up
shut the well in to stop production on a well by
closing the valves on the wellhead. Shutting the well
in is in contrast to killing a well by circulating heavy
fluid.
shuttle imaging radar a radar image of the earth's
surface taken from the Space Shuttle. Shuttle imaging
radar uses the L-band (23-5 cm wavelength) and has
a 50 km swath. SIR
SHT straight-hole test
shthg sheathing
shw show
SI 1) shut in or shutin 2) System International d'Unites
S.I. shut in or shutin
Si source interval
S| sampled initial signal
SIBHP shut-in bottomhole pressure
SICP shut-in casing pressure
Sid or sid siderite
side bed an adjacent sedimentary rock layer

side-door back-off sub a fishing tool run when a

tubular is both stuck and plugged in a well. The sub
has an opening on the side and is run on a free
string into the well and screwed into the fish. A
conductor line and string shot are run inside the string
to the side-door back-off sub and guided out into
the annulus down to the stuck pipe to be detonated.
side-door elevators a clamp-like device that is
attached to the traveling block on a drilling rig and
is used to raise and lower the drillstring, casing, and
tubing in a well. The side-door elevators have a hinge
on one side so that they can open up and then close
to fit around the pipe or tubing for hoisting or
lowering.
side-door junk basket a sub that is placed between
the bit and drill collar on the drillstring. Circulating
drilling mud through and out the junk basket suspends
any metal debris which then falls into an opening
on the side of the sub and is trapped in the basket.
side-door mandrel a container for a gas-lift valve
in the tubing. The side-door mandrel requires that
the tubing string be pulled by a service unit to repair
or replace the gas-lift valve. The side-door mandrel
is in contrast to a side-pocket mandrel that enables
the gas-lift valve to be replaced by wireline.
side-door overshot an overshot fishing tool that is
cable-guided and has a gate or door in the side to
pass the cable
side-door overshot method a fishing technique
used for conductor cable or sand line. An overshot
with a gate or door in the side allows the line to be
fed into the tool. The overshot is run on a drill or
tubing string until the fishing neck or body of the
fish is engaged.
sidehill an underreaming bit
side-looking airborne radar a device that uses
ultrahigh frequency radio waves and a long, narrow
stabilized antenna that is parallel to the flight path
to produce an image similar to an aerial photograph.
The frequency bands used are Ka-, X-, and L-bands.
The X-band and a wavelength of 3 cm is most common.
It sweeps the earth's surface on either side of the
aircraft with a radar beam and records its reflections.
The resolution is 30-60 ft. The advantage of sidelooking airborne radar is that it is not affected by
clouds, it has high resolution, and it can be run at
night. SLAR
side-pocket mandrel a container for a gas-lift valve
in the tubing. The side-pocket mandrel enables the
gas-lift valve to be repaired or replaced by wireline
in contrast to a side-door mandrel.
siderite a common, yellowish-brown, brownish-red,
brownish-black, white, or gray mineral that is
composed of FeCO3. Siderite is found as beds or
nodules in shale. Siderite is readily soluble in HC1
but contains iron. A sequestering agent is needed when
acidizing a formation containing siderite. Sid or sid
side-scan sonar a device or method used to image
the seafloor. Side-scan sonar uses bursts of highfrequency sound (30-100 kHz) emitted from a towed
fish behind a boat. The energy spreads out 10-40
from vertical to reflect off the seafloor and objects
in a strip about 500 ft to each side and is recorded
on a towed streamer. Side-scan sonar is especially

sideswipe Siegenian

465

useful in examining the seafloor for mudflows and

slumps before emplacing an offshore platform. Gas
bubbles from seepages show on side-scan sonar.
sideswipe 1) in seismic exploration using the
reflection method, sideswipe is the crossing of two
reflectors on a seismic profile or record. Sideswipe
is due to the almost simultaneous arrival of seismic
energy from two steeply dipping reflectors such as
the limbs of a syncline or two fault scarps. 2) in seismic
exploration using the refraction method, the lateral
deflection of the minimum time path caused by the
proximity of a steeply dipping, high-velocity boundary,
such as that caused by a salt plug
side track a directional well drilled out from the
course of a well at a location above the bottom of
that well. SITk or ST

sidewall coring tool

sidetracking

sidetracking or side tracking deviation drilling

operations that deflect the trajectory of a well around
junk or a cement plug in a well. S/T or STg
sidetracking bit a drilling bit that is designed to
kick off a sidetracking drilling operation. A sidetracking
bit has a cutting edge in the shape of a disk that is
concave in the center and has industrial diamonds
impregnated on it.
sidetracking pocket an enlargement of a wellbore
by jetting to accommodate sidetracking in the well
sidewall acoustic log a high-resolution acoustic
log that uses a contact pad to press the acoustic
transducers against the wellbore wall. The acoustic
receivers are 6 in. apart. SWA
sidewall cock see sidewall tap
sidewall core a small core (about 3% in. long and
13
/i6 in. in diameter) taken from the sidewall of a well
by a sidewall coring tool or gun after the well has
been drilled. The cores are used to verify the lithology
of formations seen on electronic logs and to sample
the fluids present in the formation. Grain shattering
is common in the sample. The fracturing of tight rocks
tends to increase their porosity and permeability,
whereas the compaction of soft rock tends to decrease
their porosity and permeability. Sidewall cores are
relatively inexpensive and used primarily in
exploration wells. SWC or S.W.C.
sidewall coring a method used to take small samples
from the side of a well after it has been drilled. The
sidewall core gun has up to 30 steel-jacket bullets
with explosive charges behind them. The gun is
lowered in a well to an elevation determined by an
spontaneous potential or gamma ray log and the
explosives detonated electronically. The bullets are

fired in sequence. Various bullet designs are used

for different formation hardnesses. Steel cables attach
the bullets to the gun. Sidewall coring was first done
in 1934. (sidewall sampling) SWC
sidewall epithermal neutron log or sidewall
neutron log a radioactive type of wireline well log
that determines formation porosity. A radioactive
source exposes the rocks adjacent to the wellbore
with high-velocity neutrons and records epithermal
neutrons to measure hydrogen density and neutronderived porosity in the rocks. A skid and wall contact
pad presses the tool against the side of the well and
cuts into the mud cake to minimize borehole effects.
The log can be used only in uncased holes that are
either filled or empty and has a poor response for
vuggy or fracture porosity. SNP, SNL, or SWN
sidewall neutron porosity log a neutron porosity
log with the source and detector mounted in a pad
on a skid that is pressed against the wall of the
wellbore. The sidewall neutron porosity log is usually
run in air-drilled wells. SNPm
sidewall pad a wireline well log device that is
mounted on an arm attached to a sonde and is pressed
against the sides of the well to measure properties
of the rocks and their fluids. The pad can be an
insulated, rubber pillow filled with a fluid that has
electrodes mounted in it. If the pad has no electrodes
in it, it is called a backup pad. The sidewall pad is
used in microresistivity, density and radioactive logs.
sidewall packer a packer that is run on the outside
of casing and located just above the producing zone
to prevent cement slurry from flowing down to the
producing zone
sidewall sampling see sidewall coring
sidewall tap see sidewall cock
sidewinder a seismic reflection off the side of a steep
structure such as a reef or fault plane
SBDP or SIDPP shut-in drillpipe pressure
Siegenian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 400-395 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Devonian epoch.

466

sieve analysis silica-lime cement

sieve analysis the use of different sized screens or

sieves to determine the relative percentages of
different sized particle, (screen analysis)
sieves screens, usually made of metal wire, with
accurately sized openings. Various sized sieves are
used to determine the size of sediment particles. The
American Society of Testing and Materials sieve scale
is commonly used.
A.S.T.M. Sieve Scale
Mesh
Opening in mm
5
4.00
6
3.36
7
2.83
8
2.38
10
2.00
12
1.68
14
1.41
16
1.19
18
1.00
20
0.84
25
0.71
30
0.59
35
0.50
40
0.42
45
0.35
50
0.297
60
0.250
70
0.210
80
0.177
100
0.149
120
0.125
140
0.105
170
0.088
200
0.074
230
0.062
270
0.053
325
0.044
sieve tray a screen-covered tray that is used in a
contact tower absorber, or adsorper to hold solid
materials. The gas passes downward through the
sieves.
sieving determining the size of sediment particles
by passing them through a set of screens (sieves)
with different sized openings. Sieving can also be used
to eliminate or concentrate particles of a certain size
range.
sight a bearing or angle measured during surveying
sight derrick to erect a derrick
sight draft a draft for monies that is due immediately.
The payment must be picked up on the day that the
sight draft arrives at the drawer's bank.
sight glass a vertical glass tube that is connected to
the shell of a tank and is used to determine the height
of liquid in the tank by the height of liquid in the
tube. Several sight glasses can be used on the same
tank to record various liquid heights.
2 thermal-neutron capture cross section per unit
volume of formation
a 1) standard deviation 2) electrical conductivity 3)
wavenumber 4) surface tension 5) interfacial tension
6) stress 7) sigmalog parameter
<ra axial stress
^corr corrected capture cross section

Xf fluid capture cross section

2 h c hydrocarbon capture cross section
Siog capture cross section read on log
sigma log see Thermal Multigate Decay Log
Sma rock-matrix capture cross section
ax maximum stress vector
Sr 1) reflected stress 2) radial stress
XA shale capture cross section
a, 1) transmitted stress 2) tangential stress
<T3 minimum stress vector
w2 intermediate stress vector
sigma unit a unit of macroscopic cross section used
in well logging that is equal to 10 - 3 cm - 1 . capture
cross section s.u.
crv overburden stress
2W formation-water capture cross section
signal 1) energy that contains information. Seismic
energy is a signal. Signal is in contrast to noise.
signal-to-noise ratio a ratio of desired energy
carrying information (signal) to undesired energy
(noise). S/N or STNR
signature 1) the original seismic pulse. The signature
is often recorded by a geophone or hydrophone next
to the source. A distorted signature forms a wavelet.
2) the combination of characteristics that allow an
object to be recognized on a remote sensing image
signature deconvolution see wavelet processing
signature log an acoustic wave train displayed in
an amplitude-time mode
significant gas field a gas field that has between
150 and 600 Bcf of recoverable gas. Greater than 600
Bcf of recoverable gas is a giant gas field.
SIGW shut-in gas well
Sil Silurian
Sil or sil 1) silicon 2) siliceous 3) silica
silent chain a type of drilling rig power transmission
that uses gear teeth-type sprockets and semiarticulating mesh action. The silent chain drive is
quieter and can run at higher speeds than an normal
chain drive but requires a closer alignment than
normal chain drives.
SILIC 1) siliceous 2) silica
silic silica
silica flour quartz sand ground to a size between
0.074 and 0.044 mm. Silica flour is used as a cement
additive to retain cement strength at high
temperatures.
silica gel a dehydrating agent used in air and gas
drilling to control water
silica-lime cement a type of cement used in primary
cementing wells with temperatures above 14OF. Silicalime cement is a mixture of siliceous material that is
either natural such as volcanic particles or artificial
such as fly ash, hydrated lime, a small amount of
calcium chloride and water. The siliceous material
increases the strength and lowers the permeability
of the cement. Silica-lime cement is light in weight,
economical, and easily retarded, (pozzolan-lime or

pozzolanic cement)

silica sand single entry

silica sand quartz sand with sizes between about
0.210 to 0.088 mm. Silica sand is used as a cement
additive to retain cement strength at high
temperatures.
silicate-control agent an additive used in acidizing
that prevents silicates such as clays from adsorbing
water from spent acid and swelling. The agent buffers
the pH of the spent acid and can cause silicates to
shrink.
silicate mud a drilling mud that has a pickling effect
on shales and prevents heaving shales. Silicate mud
is made from sodium silicate saturated seawater and
has a density of about 12 lb/gal.
siliceous ooze a pelagic (deep ocean) deposit
containing at least 30% siliceous skeletal particles with
the rest being clay minerals. Siliceous ooze is often
named after the organism that produced the skeletal
particles such as radiolarian or diatom ooze.
siliciclastic clastic or transported sediments or
sedimentary rodes that contain silicon. Sandstones and
shales are siliciclastic sedimentary rocks in contrast
to carbonates.
silicoilagellate a single-celled marine animal that
has a very small skeleton (0.05-0.1 mm) composed
of siliceous rings and spines that can be preserved
as microfossils. Silicoflagellates have existed from the
Upper Jurassic epoch to the present.
silicon-controlled rectifier a rectifier that blocks
power in one direction but transmits power in the
other direction and efficiently converts alternating
current to direct current. Silicon-controlled rectifiers
are used on drawworks, mud pumps, rotary table
drives, and electric drilling rigs. Almost all mobile
offshore rigs use silicon-controlled rectifiers. SCR

sill

sill 1) an igneous intrusion injected as a layer along

a sedimentary rock bedding plane 2) a narrow, shallow
ledge that restricts the flow of water into a waterfilled basin
silt a sedimentary particle between Vi6 and V256 mm
in diameter. Sit or sit
silt siltstone
siltstone a clastic sedimentary rock composed
predominately of silt-sized particles, silt, SLTS, or Sltst
silty containing silt. SLTY, Slty, or slty
Silurian a period of time about 425-405 m. y. ago.
It was during the Silurian period of the Paleozoic
era that land plants and animals first evolved. The
Silurian is subdivided into Upper Silurian and Lower
Silurian global epochs. It contains the North American
epochs of the Alexandrian, Niagarian, and Cayugan.
Sil

467

sim similar
simple harmonic motion uniform, periodic
motion. SHM
simple multiple a seismic reflection that has been
reflected back down from the earth's surface or the
base of weathering and then reflected back up to
the surface off the same subsurface discontinuity that
formed the original reflection
simple tangent build curve a deviated well with
a build curve that consists of two build intervals that
are separated by a straight tangent interval. A simple
tangent build curve is in contrast to a single-radius
build curve.
simplex orifice fitting a type of orifice fitting made
with one chamber. The orifice plate can be removed
by depressuring the fitting by loosening the top set
screws, sliding the clamping bar out, and lifting the
sealing bar carrier and orifice plate out. The simplex
orifice fitting is unlike the senior orifice fitting in
which the orifice plate can be removed without
interrupting the flow.
simplex two-cone bit a bicone roller-cone bit that
was introduced by Hughes Tool Company in the late
1910s. The bit has a long, split body with side reamers
and lubricated, journal-type bearings. The bit was
dressed on the job.
simultaneous drilling a farmout provision in which
the farmee must start to drill all the earning wells at
the same time
simultaneous lease the method used to lease
United States onshore federal lands upon which there
has already been an expired or returned lease. The
Bureau of Land Management publishes a list bimonthly
of all qualified tracts. Applications must be received
within 15 working days of publication, and the lease
is granted based on a random or lottery selection of
applicants. The lease grants the lessee the right to
search, drill, and produce oil and gas from that tract.
Simultaneous leases have a $75 filing fee and a 10year primary term. There is a f 1 per acre annual
rental for the first 5 years and $3 per acre for the
last 5 years. The lease has a 12V2% royalty.
Simultaneous leases are in contrast to competitive
leases and over-the-counter applications.
Simultaneous leases are not issued on producing
known geological structures, (noncompetitive lease)
sin sine.
Sinemurian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 195-190 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Jurassic epoch.
SING single competition
single one joint of pipe, tubing, casing, or sucker
rod
single-buoy mooring system a deep-water
platform against which tankers can moor as they load
and unload oil through a submarine pipeline. SBM
single-ended spread or single-ender a straight
line of geophones with a seismic source at one end
single entry a frac job in a well through a single
notch cut in the casing. A single entry is in contrast
to a limited entry frac job.

468

single knock skeletal

single knock a single occurrence that will activate

a detector such as a fire alarm. A single knock is in
contrast to a continuous event.
single phase reservoir see gas condensate reservoir
single-pole rig a well-servicing unit that has only
one steel tube for a mast
single-radius build curve a deviated well with a
single continuous build interval from the kickoff point
to the end of curve. Single-radius build curve is in
contrast to a simple tangent build curve.
single-shot survey a downhole orientation made
by an instrument that measures the azimuth and/or
inclination at only one point. The single-shot survey
uses a compass and camera to record the orientation.
A photograph activated by a timing mechanism is taken
of an angle indicator on a compass card. A multishot
survey will do the same at several locations in the
well.
single-stage cementing cementing casing, usually
conductor or surface, with one batch of cement. Singlestage cementing is in contrast to multistage cementing
that is used for long strings.
single wall packer test an openhole drillstem test
using only one packer. The test formation is located
below the packer.
single well oil-production system a tanker that
is connected to a subsea well with a riser. SWOPS
single well tracer a method used to determine
residual oil saturation in a reservoir. An ester is injected
into the reservoir where it hydrolyzes. Some of the
injected solution is produced back and analyzed.
sinistral counter-clockwise rotation. Sinistral is the
opposite of dextral.
sinistral fault a left-lateral fault
sink 1) to drill a well 2) the pressure gradient
surrounding a producing wellbore

sinker bar

sinker bar a heavy steel rod with a connector that

is used on the end of a wireline or is attached to a

sand line by a rope socket. A sinker bar gives weight

to the end of the sand line so that it will properly
spool off the sand-line drum. A tool such as a bumper
jar with a paraffin knife or a swab cup mandrel is
attached to the lower end of the sinker bar on a sand
line. The sinker bar gives negative buoyancy to any
tool on the end of a wireline or sand line so that it
can be properly lowered through a liquid such as
drilling mud filling the well. A sinker bar can be simply
a steel tube filled with lead.
sinker bar guide four bars of iron that were fitted
to the auger stem of a cable-tool rig to form a heavy
steel shaft that prevents deviation of the well. The
bit jars are screwed into the sinker bar guide, (auger
stem)
sinker weight a weight or series of weights that is
used to give a well logging sonde or tool negative
buoyancy in a well
sinkhole a funnel-shaped, circular depression in
karst linestone. A sinkhole is formed by the collapsed
roof of underground drainage, doline
sinter to bind metal power into a solid mass by
heating
sintered carbides iron, chromium, or tungsten
carbides bonded together with nickel or cobalt
SIOW shut-in oil well
SIP shut-in pressure
S.I.P. 1) shut-in pressure 2) shut-in prorated
siphon line a hose or pipe used to remove liquid
from the bottom of a tank by siphoning. The outlet
end of the siphon line has to be lower than the end
in the tank.
siphon string a string of gas well tubing that
produces salt water along with the gas
SIR 1) salinity indicator ratio 2) shuttle imaging radar
SIRA stable isotope ratio analysis
SI system the System International d'Unites used for
measurements in France and West Germany. The
system uses kilogram for mass, meter for length, and
second for time.
site survey see wellsite survey
SITP shut-in tubing pressure
sitting on a well a person, usually a geologist, who
stays at the drillsite 24 hours a day to supervise or
conduct geological operations. The geological
operations could include collecting and examining
the well cuttings at regular intervals and
recommending and supervising coring and well
logging.
SIWHP shut-in wellhead pressure
SIWOP shut in waiting on potential
sixty-day clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that allows the lease at the end of the primary term
to be extended as long as there is no more than 60
days between drilling operations on that lease
Sg compressive strength
sk sack
skel skeletal
skeletal remains of plants and animals with
carbonate or siliceous parts, skel

skeletal sands
skeletal sands grains of sand formed by broken and
abraded biological shells composed of calcium
carbonate. A coquina is a skeletal sand.
skew 1) the angular difference between a well and
the dip of a formation 2) a shearing caused by the
offset of a cone from the geometric center of the
roller-cone bit 3) the misalignment of recorded bit
rows on magnetic tape. Skew makes reading of a
seismic tape difficult and is often caused by field
problems.
skew angle the angular offset of the axis cone from
the geometric center of a roller-cone bit. Skewing
causes shearing of the rocks, and the skew angle can
be up to 2% for medium-hard rocks.
skid 1) to move a drilling rig or heavy equipment.
Drilling rigs are skidded by a) pulling with bulldozers,
b) towing with crawler trucks, c) using a rig skidding
system, or d) using a rig walker. 2) a projection on
a wireline well log sonde that contains detectors and
is pressed against the sides of the wellbore. The skid
is used to minimize borehole effects and can cut into
the mudcake. A skid is sometimes called a pad. 3) a
platform and/or metal runners upon which heavy
equipment can be placed and can be used as a sled
to move the equipment
skidboard boards that used as tracks for skidding a
rig with a bulldozer and roller. The skidboards are
picked up from behind and moved in front of the
load as it is skidded. Skidboards are commonly 1015 ft long and 3 x 12s.
skid fig a drilling rig mounted on rollers for moving
skidded shots seismic shotpoints that, because of
access problems, have been moved from their normal
positions
skidding rails the steel beams along which a
cantilevered-type jackup rig derrick or mast moves
skidding unit the hydraulically operated rams that
move a cantilevered-type jackup rig derrick or mast
into position along skidding beams
skid-mounted equipment that is mounted on
runners or skids so that it can easily be moved rather
than fixed to a foundation
skim skimmer
skimmer, skim tank, or skim vessel a watertreating vessel designed to remove oil from the surface
of produced water. The skimmer tank can be either
horizontal or vertical. The vertical tank uses spreaders.
skim
skimming the removal of oil floating on the surface
of water
skimming pit an open pit that was used in the first
stage of separating crude oil and water from producing
wells, (pumping or settling pit)
skim oil oil that is recovered from salt water before
the water is injected or disposed
skim pile a disposal pile, a large-diameter, openended pipe used on an offshore platform to discharge
treated, produced water. The skim pile has baffle plates
to coalesce oil droplets.
skim pit a lined, excavated pit containing oil and
water. The crude oil is skimmed off the top of the
water with a series of baffles.

slack-off test

469

skin the zone in the formation around the wellbore

that has reduced permeability and has been flushed
with mud filtrate
skin damage the formation damage and low
permeability caused primarily by mud filtrate in the
shallow zone extending back from a wellbore. The
skin damage occurs during drilling, completion,
stimulation, workover, or production from the well.
Skin damage is caused by clay swelling, migration of
fines, mud particle invasion, chemical precipitation,
formation of emulsions, bacterial growth, increases
in connate water, and deposition of paraffins or
asphalts. The skin damage causes an excess pressure
drop that occurs around the wellbore and reduces
the formation fluid flow into the wellbore. The
pressure drop is expressed as a dimensionless number
and is normally in the range of +1 to +10 for a
new well, (skin effect or wellbore damage) s
skin depth the depth to which the magnetic field
of an induction logging tool penetrates a formation
skin effect 1) see skin damage 2) the reduction in
an induction log conductivity measurement in a very
conductive formation. A thick bed or residual
correction is made, (propagation effect)
skin factor a dimensionless number that accounts
for formation damage or well stimulation of the
formation adjacent to the wellbore. The number is
positive for formation damage and negative for
effective well stimulation.
skirted mill a junk mill with a short sleeve around
the lower edge of the mill that is designed to slide
the mill onto the fish
skt socket
skunk gasoline condensate with a high sulfur
content. Skunk gasoline has a pungent odor when
burned in an engine.
skunk oil sour crude oil
sky hooker a derrickman
sky-top mast a well-servicing unit mast with a split
traveling and crown block
SL 1) section line 2) south line 3) sonic log
SI or si 1) slate 2) salty
SI sillimanite
St liquid saturation
S/L south line
si 1) slight 2) sleeve
SLA Submerged Lands Act
slab one-half of a core that has been cut along its
long axis
slabbing to cut a core along its long axis
slabby a sedimentary rock texture that is
characterized by very coarse-grained crystals of uneven
grain size, sib
slack off to ease up on a line. Slacking up during
drilling puts more weight on the bit in contrast to
pulling up.
slack-off test a test used to determine the optimum
weight on bit during drilling. The distance that the
kelly moves in feet per unit time is plotted against
the weight on the bit in thousands of pounds. The

470

slant drilling or slant hole drilling sliding-vane compressor

slope of the line is the drillstring slack-off or pickup constant (K)slant drilling or slant hole drilling purposefully
drilling a well (slant hole) that starts out at an angle
from vertical on the surface with a slant rig. Slant
drilling is usually done for a shallow deviated well
where there is not enough depth to build angle.
slant hole 1) a well drilled purposely at an angle
from vertical from the surface by a slant-hole rig.
Wireline well logs are run with coiled tubing on a
slant hole, (slant well) 2) any deviated well.
(directional or deviated well) 3) a crooked hole is a
well that is not vertical due to drilling through dipping,
hard rock layers
Slant-hole Express a method for running logs
through drillpipe in slant, deviated, or bad holes. The
sonde is lowered or pumped out of the drillpipe using
a side-door sub.
slant leg jack-up rig a jackup rig with legs angling
slightly outwards for stability
slant rig or slant-hole rig a drilling rig that is
designed to start drilling either at a fixed angle or at
a variable angle from vertical to 45. The slant rig is
similar to a normal rig but is smaller and the traveling
block rides on a track carrier. Special pipe-handling
equipment is employed on a slant rig. A slant rig is
used to drill holes for piles on a steel jacket platform.
(tilted rig)
slant-type directional hole 1) see slant bole 2) a
deviated well that has a vertical section followed by
an angle-build section, followed by a straight but
angled section to total depth
slant well see slant hole
SLAR side-looking airborne radar
slate a fine-grained metamorphic rock formed by
relatively light metaphoric pressure and heat on shale.
Shale grades into slate, which is harder than shale
and breaks into thin sheets. Schist is the rock formed
by the next highest stage of metamorphism. SL or si
slaty a rock that has the property of slate, is hard,
and breaks into thin sheets
sib slabby
sld sealed
sleeve 1) a removable cylinder that fits around the
piston in reciprocating pumps such as mud pumps
and some internal combustion, (liner) 2) a thick rubber
bag that is used to contain propane or butane gas
for a sleeve exploder used on marine seismic surveys
3) a rubber cylinder that fits around and seals a sample.
A sleeve is used on the plug in a permeameter and
in a rubber-sleeve core barrel used for coring soft
or fractured formations. 4) a short length of pipe that
is used to connect pipe or to cover a joint. 5/
sleeve blowout preventer see annular blowout
preventer
sleeve exploder a type of energy source used in
marine seismic surveys. Propane or butane gas is
exploded in a thick rubber bag (sleeve). The waste
gases are vented into the air to prevent the bubble
effect in water.
sleeve fitting a collar that is placed around and then
welded to a pipe to repair a leak

sleeve stabilizer a stabilizer with replaceable

sleeves around the stabilizer body
SLI or sli slightly
Slick or slick slickenside
slick bottomhole assembly a bottomhole assembly
with no stabilizers. A slick bottomhole assembly is
seldom used except in mild crooked-hole formations
and kicking off a deviated well. A slick bottomhole
assembly is in contrast to a pendulum or packed
bottomhole assembly.
slickenside a polished or smooth surface formed
by friction along a fault plane or surface. Fault grooves
or striations can occur on the slickenside. SUK, Slick,
or slick
slick line a single strand of smooth, high strength
steel wire used for some wireline processes in a well.
Slick line is similar to piano wire and is usually 0.0660.092 in. in diameter, (solid wireline)
slick-line operation a type of light wireline
operation in a well using a slick line. A slick-line
operation can be to take depth measurements, to run
temperature and pressure instruments, an impression
block, mechanical caliper logs, tubing pinchers, jet
cutters, or subsurface valves, to take fluid samples,
or to sample and bail out sand or scale.
slick-line unit equipment used for lowering and
raising a slick line in a well. A slick-line unit consists
of a motor, transmission, drum and brake, level
winder, depth meter, sheave, and lubricator system.
slick motor a bent-housing motor that is used to
drill a deviated hole with or without a bent sub and
without stabilizers
slick water water containing chemicals in it such
as surfactants to reduce surface tension. Slick water
can be used to condition a well for production or
in enhanced oil recovery such as a chemical flood.
sliding scale nonoperating interest a royalty
interest, either overriding royalty interest or oil
payment, that varies with the amount of production
or some other factor
sliding scale royalty a payment for production
(royalty) that varies with the amount of production.
Sliding scale royalty is in contrast to a step scale royalty
that decreases in levels with increasing amounts of
production, (variable royalty)
sliding sleeve or sliding-sleeve nipple a device
on a tubing string that is manipulated by a wireline
tool to open or close ports between the tubing and
annulus. The sliding sleeve protrudes out from the
tubing while the tubing still has a full inner diameter.
The sliding sleeve can be used to turn on and off
production from several levels in a well, (circulating
sleeve)
sliding-vane compressor a type of compressor that
uses an eccentrically mounted rotor with longitudinal
slots along its circumference with fitted sliding vanes.
The rotor is mounted in a housing. When the rotor
revolves, gas is trapped between the sliding vanes
and is compressed between the inlet and discharge
port. Sliding-vane compressors produce low pressures
and volumes of gas and can be used only with clean
gas. Sliding vane compressors are used for air
compressor or vacuum service.

SLIK slip velocity

471

SLIK slickenside
SLIKN slickensided
slily slightly
slim hole a small-diameter (6%-43/4 in.) well drilled
for exploration. A slim hole is usually made by a
portable truck or trailer-mounted rig and is less
expensive than a normal well to drill but is too small
for normal production techniques. A slim hole uses
small bits and pipe. A slim hole is used for seismic
shot holes and structural and stratigraphic wells.
slim-tube testing a laboratory procedure that uses
a long, small-diameter stainless steel tube packed with
oil-saturated sand to determine minimum miscibility
pressure
sling a strap, chain, or other device used to connect
a load to lifting apparatus
slip 1) the fall of well cuttings due to gravity settling
through the circulating drilling fluid as it flows up
the annulus of a well 2) the leakage of fluid around
pump valves. Slip is the amount of fluid that leaks
from the discharge side to the inlet side of a pump.
3) the difference between unloaded motor speed and
loaded motor speed 4) to move a drilling line to
prevent uneven wear
slip-and-cut a system used on drilling rigs to
periodically move the drilling line to distribute wear
and prevent reoccurring stress on the critical points
that could lead to failure. After a certain number of
ton-miles of usage that is recommended by the
American Petroleum Institute, the deadline anchor
is loosened and a length of new line is reeled off
the storage or reserve reel. The line is reeled off
the drawworks drum and a section is cut off the end.
The deadline anchor clamps are then tightened. Slipand-cut can be alternated with slipping the line.

slippage the downward flow of produced fluids in

a well during artificial lift, (fall back)
slippage velocity the difference in light and heavy
fluid flow velocity up a two-phase well
slipped block a block of hard rock from a dipping,
fractured formation that has slipped into the wellbore
slipping the line a method used on a drilling rig
to distribute wear and prevent reoccurring stress on
the critical points that could lead to failure of the
drilling line. The deadline anchor is loosened and
50-75 ft of drilling line is spooled off the the reserve
reel and reeled onto the drawworks drum. The
deadline anchor clamps are then secured. Slipping
the line can be alternated with slip-and-cut.
slip recess the shoulder on the joint of a pipe that
the slip grabs to support the pipe

slip elevator a casing elevator that uses segmented

slips with gripping teeth to hold the casing. The slip
elevator is used for heavy casing strings.

slips 1) a circular wedge-shaped device made of steel

with teeth or other gripping devices that fits into the
slip bowl of a rotary table. The slips are designed to
hold the string of drillpipe in the well when it is
not suspended from the traveling block. Slips are made
with three or more segments of cast iron honeycomb
that are hinged to fit around the pipe. The outer
diameter of the slips has an inward angle of about
91/2. The inner surface has a set of jaws for biting
the pipe. Slips have handles for the roughnecks to
lift and move them. The gripping portion of the slips
are replaceable and are called inserts, dies, or liners.
Power slips are pneumatically or hydraulically
activated. There are slips for drill collars, casing, and
tubing, (doughnuts or rotary sips) 2) the gripping
elements on a packer that anchor the packer by
gripping the packer to the casing when the packer
is expanded. The slips in a packer or fishing tool
work the same way as the rotary-table slips. Slips have
serrated teeth and are hydraulically pressed outward.

slip face the steep lee side of a sand dune. The slip
face is at or near the angle of repose (36) for sand.
Avalanching sand down the slip face is deposited in
layers that form crossbeds and foreset bedding.
slip joint a joint on a marine riser that is designed
to compensate for vertical movement of a drillship
or semisubmersible rig due to waves and to allow
the rig to disconnect during bad weather. The slip
joint consists of an inner barrel that slides in an outer
barrel. Resilient seals or packing is located between
the inner and outer barrels for a pressure seal. The
slip joint is located on the top of the marine-riser
system, and the riser tensioners are attached to a
tensioner ring on the bottom of the joint. The slip
joint contains fittings for the choke and kill line hoses
and a connection for the bell nipple or diverter.
(telescopic joint)
slip-joint safety valve a valve located in a downhole
tool or test tree that is used when the drillpipe is
pulled from a subsea well. The slip-joint safety valve
closes when the drillpipe is pushed down or when
it is separated from the drillstring.
slip load the weight of the string of drillpipe, casing,
or tubing that is suspended in the well when held
by the slips

DRILL PIPE
ROTARY SLIPS

ROTARY TABLE

slips

slip socket a type of old fishing tool. A slip socket

uses slips that were spread by a small strip of wood.
When the tool was lowered over the fish, the strip
of wood was displaced and the slips would grip the
fish.
slip stick artist an engineer
slip the drilling line see sipping the line
slip velocity the difference in velocity between two
adjacent phases. Skip velocity can be the difference

472

sli So slug the pipe

between the fluid velocity in the annulus of a well

and the velocity at which the well cuttings come up
the annulus or between two produced fluids
sli So slight show of oil
slky silky
SLM or S.L.M. steel line measurement
sind solenoid
slope fen a deposit of turbidite and debris-flow
sediments on the middle or base of the slope
environment in a basin. A slope fan is part of a lowstand
system tract defined in seismic or sequence
stratigraphy.
slope test a test that determines how much a well
is inclined from vertical
slot 1) the flat area at the base of a derrick where
drilling operations occur. An offshore platform can
often have 24 or 32 slots where the derrick is moved
about to drill different wells from the single platform.
The slots are usually in a grid pattern with space
between the spots for Christmas trees. 2) a specific
time period
slotted long, narrow openings that have been milled
into casing or liner to act as screens to exclude
formation solids
slotted pipe screen a screen with square slots that
were cut. Slotted pipe screen is used for sand control
in a well.
sloughing the collapse of relatively unconsolidated
sediments along the wellbore into the well
sloughing shale soft clay or shale with a pore
pressure higher than the hydrostatic head in the well
at that level. The clay and shale squeeze into the well,
falling to the bottom of the well in large balls that
are not easily removed by the circulating drilling mud.
The severity of the sloughing shale is related to the
percentage of montmorillonite and the age of the
shale, (heaving shale)
slowness the reciprocal of velocity
slow pump rate a mud pump rate that is one-third
to two-thirds normal pumping rate. A slow pump rate
is taken once or twice during each drilling tour. The
pumps are slowed and the flow rate is stabilized for
about 30 seconds. The pressure and strokes per minute
are recorded on the daily tour report.
slow sand filter a very large sand-filtering unit that
uses a slow filtering rate in comparison to a rapid
sand filter
slow-set cement cement with a thickening time that
has been extended by either a) adding a chemical
retarder or b) removing the cement's rapid-hydrating
components
SLR side-looking radar
Sit or sit silt
SLTS siltstone
Sltst siltstone
SLTY silty
Slty or slty 1) salty 2) silty
sludge 1) the asphaltenes, resin, paraffin, and other
high molecular-weight hydrocarbons that are the
result of the reaction of acid with certain sour crudes

during an acid job. An antisludge agent can be used

to prevent the formation of sludge. 2) well cuttings
sludger a cylinder with a plunger and valve apparatus
that is run on sand line to remove well cuttings from
the bottom of a cable-tool well, (sand or shell pump)
stuffing collapse of the well walls into the hole.
(caving)
slug 1) a batch of water and/or chemicals that is
injected into a well and flows as a unit through the
reservoir rock during an enhanced oil-recovery
process 2) the radioactive substance used in a
radioactive tracer survey 3) the metal debris from a
shaped explosive charge used in perforating 4) a unit
of mass in the British engineering system. A slug is
the mass of a body whose acceleration is 1 ft/sec2
when a force of 1 lb is applied. A slug is equal to
32.2 lb or 14.6 kg.
slug catcher a long pipe that causes a pressure drop
in a gas pipeline to allow slugs of condensate to
accumulate
slug flow the rising flow of gas bubbles and liquid
with entrained gas bubbles. The bubbles can aggregate
and reach the size of the diameter of the pipe.
slugging 1) pumping a small batch of acid into a
well for a mild acid job as part of a well workover
2) the accumulation of liquid in a low point in a
low-pressure gas flowline
slugging compound a demulsifier used to separate
and determine the amount of sediment and water in
an emulsion sample, (knockout drops)
slugging flow a type of fluid flow characterized by
alternating slugs of gas and liquid over short intervals.
Slugging flow can damage well equipment. Alternating
slugs of gas and liquid over longer periods is called
heading flow.
slug pit a small mud tank where a batch of heavy
drilling mud that is used for a slug is stored on a
drilling rig
slug tank a small compartment adjacent to the
suction compartment of the mud tanks. The slug tank
is used to prepare fluids such as a barite slug, (kill

tank)
slug the pipe a procedure used when tripping out
of a well with the drillstring. A small quantity or slug
of heavy drilling mud is placed into the top section
of the drillstring. This displaces the normal drilling
mud and depresses the level of the drilling mud in
the drillstring. When joints are broken out
(unscrewed), the connections are dry and the mud
will not squirt out onto the drill floor.

slump

slump snake out

slump a mass movement of a relatively coherent
block of sediments characterized by shearing along
a plane and backward rotation of the block.
Subaqueous slumps are very common in front of river
deltas.
slur slurry
slurry any mixture of solids and water. Wet cement
used in a cement job is a slurry, slur
slurry density the weight of wet cement. Slurry
density is measured in pounds per gallon (ppg). (slurry
weight)
slurry viscosity the consistency of a cement slurry
reported in poises
slurry volume the volume of wet cement. Slurry
volume is measured in cubic feet per sack of dry
cement (ft3/sk).
slurry weight see slurry density
slurry yield the volume of cement slurry that one
sack of cement, water, and additives will produce
slushing oil oil that is used to coat metal to prevent
corrosion
slush pit or pond an excavation near a rotary drilling
rig that is used to hold drilling mud and to trap well
cuttings, (mud or slump hole)
slush-pit bang a seismic source such as an air gun
used in a mud tank. A slush-pit bang is used for a
velocity survey or check shoot.
slush-pit launder a sluice box made of wood or
metal where the bailer from a cable-tool rig is dumped,
the coarser well cuttings retained, and the fluids flow
down to the slush pit
slush pump 1) a reciprocating pump that is used
to circulate the drilling mud on a rotary drilling rig.
The larger end of the slush pump is the power end
where the drive engine connects to the pump
crankshaft. The smaller end is the fluid end that pumps
the fluid. The pumps are classified by maximum
horsepower and pressure and strokes per minute.
Slush pumps often have two (duplex) or, more
commonly, three (triplex) cylinders with replaceable
liners. A duplex pump forces the mud into the
discharge line on both the forward and backward
strokes of the piston and is called a double-acting
pump. A triplex pump is single-acting, forcing the
drilling mud into the discharge line only on the
forward stroke of the piston. The slush pumps on
an offshore rig typically have 1,600 hp. (mud hog or
pump) 2) an auxiliary pump used with the mud pump
to control a kick
SLY southerly
SM surface measurement
sm smooth
sm or sml small
S/m Siemens per meter
small hole the portion of a well below the casing
small slam a well log calculation of the resistivity
of the invaded zone, the true resistivity, the diameter
of invasion and water saturation. A small slam is made
with a dual-induction, laterolog, and porosity log.
small volume prover an instrument used to test
and calibrate liquid flowmeters. A small volume prover

473

is similar to a mechanical displacement prover but

uses a small volume of liquid and compares flow
rates rather than volume. The flow from the main
line is diverted through the small volume prover that
contains a sphere or piston displacer. Line pressure
forces the displacer through the prover and its
movement is monitored by detectors in the pipe wall.
(ballistic prover)
smear to mix data from different sources such as
seismic data from different geophones
smearing the numerical dispersion of a saturation
front across several cells used in reservoir modeling
smear slide a glass slide with a dried smear of
unconsolidated sediments or ground sedimentary
rocks that were wetted with water on the surface of
the slide. A smear slide is used to identify microfossils
and, less commonly, minerals under the microscope.
smectite a group of clay minerals formed by three
layers, two tetrahedral silica layers with an octahedral
alumina layer in between. Exchangeable cations are
located between each group of three layers. Smectite
has a very high cation-exchange capacity, is sensitive
to fresh water, and swells. Smectite is often called
the swelling clay, and some smectites can swell to
over 600% of their original volume. The swelling
causes the smectite to disperse into plates. These plates
can clog or bridge pore throats and decrease the
permeability of a rock. This occurs when drilling mud
filtrate is injected into the rock adjacent to the wellbore
and is called formation damage. Calcium ions tend
to flocculate smectite, whereas sodium ions
deflocculate smectite. Use of KC1, NH4Cl, or oil-base
fluids reduce swelling tendencies. HC1/HF acid will
remove damage caused by smectite. Smectite is
commonly used in drilling mud to increase its viscosity
and build an impermeable filter cake. Under a
scanning electron microscope, smectite has a
honeycomb structure. High microporosity is another
characteristic of smectite. Montmorillonite is an old
term for the smectite group; it now refers to a specific
species of the smectite group. The smectite clay
mineral family includes the species a)
montmorillonite, b) beidellite, c) nontronite, d)
saponite, e) hectorite, f) illite/smectite mixed layer,
g) vermiculite, and h) corrensite.
smeller 1) a geologist. 2) a sour gas well
smls seamless
smother a well to drown a well
SMPL samples
smth smooth
sm3 standard cubic meter
S-MUD salt mud
smwt somewhat
SMYS specified minimum yield strength
SN 1) seating nipple 2) short normal
S/N signal-to-noise ratio
S-NA status indeterminate
snake a device that is used to temporarily connect
two wire ropes. A snake holds under tension and
releases when the tension is relaxed, (swivel-type
stringing grip or swivel-connector grip)
snake out to pull out

474

snap action soap tank

snap action a valve control that is either wide open

or off in contrast to a proportional control
snap job an easy task
snapper a loafing worker

snatch block

snatch block a temporary, small metal assembly with

a grooved wheel or sheave in it and a hook below
it. A rope or wire runs through an eye on the top of
it to suspend the snatch block. It is used to lift light
equipment or change the direction of pull from a
line. A snatch block is used when a wireline is run
down a well from a logging truck.
snatching the raising of supplies to an offshore
platform from a supply ship standing off the platform
sneezing bar a walking beam
Snell's law of refraction the sine of the angle of
incidence divided by the sine at the angle of refraction,
is equal to a constant known as is the relative index
of refraction. Snell's law is named after Willebrord
Snell, a Dutch astronomer (1591-1626).
SNG 1) synthetic natural gas 2) solidified
nitroglycerine
sniffer a hose towed behind a boat that is used to
sample ocean water. The water is sent through a
separator and gas chromatograph to detect traces of
hydrocarbons.
snipe a length of pipe that is put on the handle of
a wrench to increase its length and improve leverage.
(cheater)
snitch a device that records a drilling log
SNL sidewall neutron log
snorkel a hollow cylinder that is used as a fluidsample intake in the center of a wireline formationtester pad
snowbank drilling drilling through shale and shells
SNP 1) sidewall neutron log
SNP sidewall neutron porosity log
SNP-GR sidewall neutron, gamma ray logging
SNT Society for Non-Destructive Testing
snub 1) to fix a line with a couple of turns around
a post or tubular 2) to secure equipment 3) to force
a tubulars such as a tubing string through the blowout
preventers or stripper head on a well under pressure
in it
snubbing see snubbing in
snubbers a series of lines and blocks on a drilling
rig that is used to push joints of drillpipe through

the blowout preventers when there is very high

pressure in the well
snubbing in the running or pulling of tubulars from
a well under high pressure with a snubbing unit and
the well shut in. Snubbing is in contrast to stripping
in which well pressures are lower and the pipe can
be run under into own weight, (snubbing)
snubbing unit a workover unit that is designed to
work on very high-pressure wells. Snubbing units use
unidirectional slips to grip and force tubulars into a
well or to pull the tubulars while one of the two
preventers are alternately engaged or while using solid
rubber stripper heads. Either mechanical power using
blocks and wire ropes or hydraulic power (hydraulic
unit) is used for snubbing the tubular. The snubbing
unit can also be either long or short stroke depending
on the snubbing stroke. A snubbing unit can be either
a stand-alone unit with a self-contained hydraulic
system or a rig-assisted unit that used the rig's
drawworks. Pipe rotation is made by either power
tongs or a power swivel. The snubbing unit usually
has a crew of four to five.
snub in to attach a line to another line, manifold,
or tank
snub line 1) the wire that connects the manual tong
arm on a drill floor to secure the arm 2) a rope
used to hold the drill collars and pipe to prevent
then from swinging when tripping in and out
SO 1) show of oil 2) south offset
S.O. show of oil
So oil saturation
soak 1) a period during the steam-injection process
on a heavy oil well. Soak occurs between the steam
injection and the pumping of the heated heavy oil.
During the soak, the heat is spread through the
subsurface heavy oil reservoir. 2) to allow an
instrument to come into equilibrium with its
surroundings
soak period the time between steam injection and
pumping of heated heavy oil
soak solution or soaking fluid an unweighed or
semiweighed organic solution (commonly oil mud,
invert emulsion mud, field crude oil, or diesel oil)
that is spotted in a well with stuck pipe due to a
differential pressure-filter cake buildup. A soak
solution is used to reduce the differential pressure
in the well at the stuck-point interval, (releasingfluid)
SO&G show of oil and gas
SO&GCM show of oil and gas-cut mud
SO&W show of oil and water
soap the sodium or potassium salt of a highmolecular weight fatty acid. Soap is used in drilling
mud to improve defoaming, lubrication, and
emulsification. Soaps made of metals other than
sodium or potassium are called metallic soaps.
soap stick an 18 in. x \Yi in. bar of soap that is
dropped down a gas well to create foam and lower
the entrainment velocity to promote unloading of
liquids from the well. Soap sticks can be either
hydrocarbon or water soluble.
soap tank a 10-20 bbl tank that holds a dilute soap
and water mixture used for foam drilling

socket solids-control tank

socket any fishing tool that is designed to grip the
outside of a fish in a well, skt
SOCM slightly oil-cut mud
SOCW slightly oil-cut water
soda ash sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
sodium bicarbonate a salt (NaHCO3) used for
treating calcium contamination in cement slurry and
drilling mud
sodium carbonate a salt (Na2CO3) used for treating
calcium contamination in cement slurry and drilling
mud. (soda ash)
sodium carboxymethyl cellulose a
nonfermenting organic chemical used in drilling mud
to control filtration, combat anhydrite contamination,
suspend weighting material, and increase viscosity.
CMC
sodium chloride the most common salt (NaCl) in
seawater and formation waters. Sodium chloride is
used as an accelerator or retarder, depending on
concentration, in cement slurries, and for making
saltwater or salt mud.
sodium chromate a corrosion inhibitor composed
of Na2CrO4
sodium dichromate a corrosion inhibitor
composed of Na2Cr2O7
sodium hydroxide NaOH. (caustic soda)
sodium nitrite a corrosion inhibitor composed of
NaNO2
sodium polyacrylate a synthetic polymer that is
used for filtrate control in drilling mud
sodium silicate mud An inhibited drilling mud
made of sodium silicate, saltwater, and clay.
SOE screwed on one end
SOF or SOFR sand oil frac
soft coal see bituminous coal
soft crossover pattern a spooling pattern used on
drawworks drums. The soft crossover pattern is a twostep grooving pattern with a flat area for crossovers
to avoid stress.
soft formation a loose or unconsolidated sequence
of sand and shale
soft lining a heavy-duty twine that has been wrapped
around a bad tubular joint to identify the joint
soft sand a sand-sized sedimentary particle made of
carbonate mud or micrite
soft scale a salt composed of calcium carbonate that
can build up in equipment such as tubular goods or
vessels. Calcium carbonate can precipitate out of brine
as CO2 bubbles out of the brine due to a decrease
in pressure. Soft rock is in contrast to hard scale.
soft rock sedimentary rocks. Soft rocks are in contrast
to hard rocks which are igneous and metamorphic.
soft rope a fiber rope in contrast to a wire rope
Sog initial oil saturation in gas cap
S.O.G.&W. show of oil, gas, and water
soil the surface layer of weathered rock particles
soil analysis map a map showing the concentration
of hydrocarbons in the surface soil of an area

475

soil gas biogenic gas (methane) formed at very

shallow depths
soil-gas analysis an analysis of soil for the effects
of methane gas. The analysis is made by either a)
heating the soil to 600 C to detect CO2 given off by
carbonate salts formed by methane or b) detecting
bacteria that live on hydrocarbons in the soil.
Sol or sol 1) solution 2) soluble
sol 1) solenoid 2) solids 3) solitary
sol a colloidal dispersion
sole 1) the part of a curved fault plane that is lowest
in elevation. The sole is the area on a listric fault
where it becomes a bedding-plane fault. 2) the lowest
thrust fault in an area of overthrusting 3) the bottom
surface of a rock layer
sole cast the filling of a sole mark. A sole cast is a
positive feature on the bottom of a sedimentary rock
surface. The sole cast was formed by coarser sediments
filling a primary sedimentary structure depression in
the surface of underlying finer-grained sediments.
Flute and ripple casts are examples of sole casts.
sole fault a large, low-angle fault that is parallel to
the bedding planes in sedimentary rocks. Thrust and
growth faults with curved fault surfaces often become
sole faults, (detachment fault)
sole mark or marking a marking on the bottom
of a sandstone bed. The sole mark was formed by
sand filling in depressions and tool marks in the
underlying shale bed. Most sole marks are sole casts.
Tool marks are an examples of sole marks.
solenoid an electrical device that reacts to an
electrical impulse by opening or closing a valve or
switch or causing a reaction, slnd or sol
sole plate a pad that is usually set in concrete upon
which a compressor is mounted
solids paniculate matter in a liquid suspension.
Solids are reported as the percent volume or weight
of paniculate matter in a liquid such as drilling mud.
50/

solids concentration or content the percent

volume of solids, both dissolved and undissolved, in
a liquid. The solids content in drilling mud is measured
by distillation.
solids control the removal of well cuttings from
drilling mud on a drilling rig

DESANDER

DESIlTER

solids control equipment

solids-control equipment the devices used on a

drilling rig to remove well cuttings from drilling mud
after it returns up the well. Solids-control equipment
includes the shale shaker, desander, desilter, and the
settling or solids-control tank
solids-control tank the first steel tank on the mud
tanks of a rotary drilling rig. The solids-control tank
is divided into three compartments. Drilling mud from

476

solid wireline sonic log

the shale shaker tank flows into Compartment 1. The

desander processes the mud, and it flows into
Compartment 2. The desilter processes the mud, and
it flows into Compartment 3 where a centrifuge can
occur. The mud then flows to the settling tank and
then to the suction tank.
solid wireline a single strand of smooth, highstrength steel wire used for some wireline processes
in a well. Solid wireline is similar to piano wire and
is usually 0.066-0.092 in. in diameter, (slick line)
soln solution
solubility the amount of a substance (solute) which
will dissolve in another substance called the solvent
under specific temperature and pressure conditions
solute a substance, usually a solid, which is dissolved
in another substance, usually a liquid (solvent)
solution a mixture of two or more components into
a homogeneous phase, soln, Sol, sol, or s
solution breccia a sedimentary rock composed of
unsorted, angular rock fragments formed by the
collapse of overlying rocks into voids caused by the
solution of evaporties or limestone
solution gas natural gas that is dissolved in oil in
the subsurface reservoir and bubbles out of the oil
on the surface as it is produced and the pressure is
released. Solution gas is in contrast to nonassociated
and associated gas. (dissolved gas)
solution-gas expansion drive a type of reservoir
drive mechanism in which the expanding gas bubbles
forming from gas dissolved in the subsurface oil force
the oil through the reservoir and into the well. A
solution-gas expansion drive tends to be relatively
inefficient and produces only 2096-30% of the oil in
place, (depletion-gas, dissolved-gas, or internal-gas
expansion drive)
solution gas/oil ratio the amount of gas dissolved
in crude oil in the subsurface reservoir divided by
the amount of oil. The gas is the amount of gas that
evolves from the oil on the surface per unit oil. The
solution gas/oil ratio is usually measured in standard
cubic feet per stock tank barrel (SCF/STNB) at reservoir
conditions. The ratio is pressure dependent. In
general, the deeper the reservoir, the greater the
pressure and the higher the ratio. sm^/STm3 (dissolved
gas/oil ratio)
solution-gas expansion pool an oil field with a
solution-gas drive supplying the energy to cause the
oil to flow through the reservoir rock into wells.
(depletion-gas, dissolved-gas, or internal-gas pool)
solution point the area in a well that is examined
with a system analysis used to optimize flow. Two
solution points are often used in a well, at the top
and bottom of the well, (node)
solv solvent
solvation adsorption of a liquid. Adsorption of water
is called hydration.
solvent a liquid that can dissolve another substance
such as a gas, solid, or another liquid, solv
solvent gas a gaseous fluid that is injected into a
reservoir and becomes miscible with oil in the
reservoir, improving the oil displacement
SOM 1) sedimentary organic matter 2) soluble
organic matter

sonar caliper a logging tool that uses a rotating,

focused acoustic signal and detector to measure
cavernous pores

ELECTRODES

COMPTON
^SCATTERING
INTERACTIONS

sondes

sonde any metal instrument package containing both

transmitting and receiving equipment that attaches
to and is lowered down a well to make a wireline
well log. The sonde remotely senses the electric,
acoustic, and/or radioactive properties of the rocks
and their fluids. One type of sonde is brought up
the well with little or no contact on the sides of the
well, and it measures the properties of up to 3 m3
of the formation. The other type of sonde has a pad(s)
or arms that slide along the sides of the well and
measures the formation properties along a few
decimeters. Several sondes can be run in a well at
the same time. The sonde can transmit data to the
surface through a survey cable. The word is derived
from the French word for sinker, (logging tool)
SI the first peak measured by Rock-Eval. SI is the
milligrams of hydrocarbons that can be thermally
distilled from 1 gm of rock
sonic sound wave transmission
sonic inspection a method used to inspect tool
joints. A light lubricant is first spread on the tool joint.
High-frequency sound waves are transmitted through
the joint. The transmitter and receiver are slowly
moved across the face of the tool joint shoulder. A
crack or pit will reflect the sound waves. The results
are displayed on a cathode-ray tube or digital readout.
sonic log a wireline well log that records sound
velocity through rock layers in a well. The velocity
is recorded in units of microseconds per foot (n,sec/
ft) and called interval transit time t or At. The sonic
tool has a transmitter and two receivers, one 3 ft from
the transmitter and the other 5 ft. The compensated
sonic log has two sound transmitters on the sonde.
Their values are averaged to reduce errors due to

SONL Soxhlet extractor

sonde tilt or borehole size changes. The velocities
are used to determine the lithologies and compute
the porosity of the rocks. Shale strongly affects the
porosity of a formation determined by a sonic log,
and shaly formations must be corrected for this effect.
Gas will decrease the sound velocity and increase
the apparent velocity. Porosity measured by the sonic
log does not record vugular and fracture pores. The
sonic log is also used to a) correlate with other logs,
b) locate bed boundaries, and c) locate oil/gas
interfaces, (acoustic-velocity or velocity log) SONL or
SL
SONL sonic log
sonobuoy a floating buoy or float that contains one
or more hydrophones, recorder, battery, and radio
transmitter used in a marine seismic-refraction survey.
The sonobouy is a plastic tube about 3 ft long that
floats upright. A sonobuoy is thrown off a ship with
a marine seismic source such as an air gun. As the
ship sails away from the sonobuoy firing its source,
the data is radioed from the sonobuoy back to the
ship. The ship often sails up to 25 mi away and leaves
behind the expendable sonobuoy that is designed
to sink in a couple of hours.
SOP standard operating procedure
Sm residual oil saturation
sorption adsorption and absorption
SORT or sort sorting
sorted blosparite a limestone composed of greater
than two-thirds sparry calcite compared to limestone
mud (micrite) and well-sorted allochems of larger
particles
poorly-sorted

well-sorted

477

source productivity index the amount of

petroleum that can be generated by a column of source
rocks under 1 m2 of surface area. Source productivity
index is often expressed in metric tons per meter
squared. SPI
source rock a sedimentary rock rich in organic
matter which can or has been transformed under
geological conditions such as heat and time in a
process called maturation into gas and/or oil. Source
rocks must have a minimum of 0.5% and preferably
more than 1.5% organic matter by weight. Type II
organic matter generates crude oil. Type III organic
matter is gas prone. The hydrogen content of the
organic matter should be greater than 7% by weight
for oil generation. Dark gray or black shales and reef
limestone are the most common source rocks.
sour corrosion corrosion of metal in the form of
hydrogen embrittlement caused by contact with
hydrogen sulfide
sour crude or sour crude oil see sour oil
sour dirt soil containing sulfates. Sour dirt is often
found over salt domes.
sour environment the presence of H2S. Sour
environment is defined by the National Association
of Corrosion Engineers as having at least 0.05 psia
H2S partial pressure in the gas phase. It causes weight
loss corrosion or sulfide stress cracking of carbon
and low-alloy steels and enhances chloride stress
corrossion of stainless steels and other high-alloy
steels.
SOURG sour gas
sour gas natural gas that contains hydrogen sulfide
in greater concentration than allowed in gas sales
specifications which are usually about 0.25 gr/100 ft3or
4 ppm. The sulfur is primarily in the form of H2S.
The gas has a very pungent odor of rotting eggs and
is very corrosive (acid gas). Sour gas can cause damage
to drilling and production equipment. The sulfur must
be removed, usually by alkanolamine or iron-sponge
sweetening, before the gas can be used or transported.
SOURG

sorting

sorting a measure of the range of different size

particles in a clastic rock. Well-sorted rocks have about
the same size particles, whereas poorly sorted rocks
have a wide range of particle sizes. SORT, SRT, sort,
orsrtg
SOS same old stuff, no change
soundness the percent expansion or contraction of
a cured cement in an autoclave under steam saturation
at a pressure of 295 psig for 3 hours
soup nitroglycerine used in shooting or explosive
fracturing of a well. Soup is usually put in a tin torpedo
and lowered into the well.
sour gas or oil with a high sulfur content
source a device that emits energy
source operator crew the people on a seismic crew
that operate the seismic source which can be three
or four vibrator trucks. If explosives are used, two
or three shooters are employed.

souring fermenting
sour oil oil that contains a significant amount of
sulfur. The minimum amount of sulfur in sour oil
varies between refineries and government agencies
but is generally greater than 1% sulfur by weight.
Heavy oils tend to be sour. The price for sour oil is
less than that of sweet crude because the sulfur must
be removed during refining, (sour crude or sour crude
oil)
sour service the suitability of equipment for use
with sour gas
sour-service trim oilfield fittings and equipment
that have been treated and finished to resist corrosion
by hydrogen sulfide
sow socket weld
Soxhlet extractor a series of glass containers that
automatically reflux a solvent that is used to remove
fluids from rock or sediment samples. The solvent,
often toluene, is heated and vaporized to be condensed
in another container. A siphon passes the solvent in
batches though the sample to remove fluids. A Soxhlet
extractor is used to prepare samples for porosity and

478

SP spearhead

permeability measurements and to extract bitumen

or organic matter from rock or sediment samples.
SP 1) set plug 2) surface pressure 3) straddle packer
4) shot point 5) slightly porous
Sp serpentine
Sp. spare
SP, sP, or sp spontaneous or self potential or
polarization
sp 1) spare 2) spore 3) self-propelled
SPa apparent spontaneous potential
spacer a fluid that is used to separate two other fluids
and avoid contamination. The spacer on a cement
job is 10-15 bbls of water or chemicals that is pumped
down the casing behind the drilling mud and before
the bottom plug. The spacer acts as a flushing agent
and also helps remove the mudcake. spcr
spacers and washers fluids that are circulated down
the well before a cement job. Spacers are high-viscosity
and high-density fluids designed to displace the
drilling mud in the well. Washers are lighter fluids
designed to clean the sides of the wellbore to provide
a better bond for the cement.
spacer spool a large, spool-shaped metal pipe that
is used between the preventer elements on a blowout
preventer stack to attach choke and kill lines. The
choke and kill lines can attach to one spool or two
spools with a blowout preventer in between. The
spools can be studded, flanged, or clamp-on
connected. The spool has an internal diameter equal
to the wellbore of the blowout preventers, (cross or
drilling spool or spool)

spacing

spacing the distance separating electrodes or sensors

on a sonde used for wireline well logs. Spacing is
the distance from the source to the detector on
radioactive logs.
spacing or spacing unit the government regulated
area of land in a field on which one well is allowed.
Generally, spacing varies from 5-640 ac and depends
upon whether gas or oil is produced, the depth,
producing formation, and other factors. Common oilfield spacing is 40 ac, whereas typical gas-field spacing
is 640 ac.
spacing clamp a clamp that holds the sucker-rod
string when a well is being put back on a pump
spaghetti 1) sucker rods 2) tubulars with small
diameters
spalling the fracturing and heaving of a rock at or
near its surface by a compressional or shock wave.

Shale that spalls into a well can be identified by the

longer, thinner, and more splintery shale fragments
in contrast to sloughing shale.
span the distance between two detectors used for
the same measurement on a wireline sonde or tool
spanners see tongs
spar a transparent or translucent mineral crystal
spar cement limestone cement composed of sparry
calcite
sparite clear, transparent, or translucent crystals of
calcite or aragonite that occur between grains
(allochems) in limestone. The sparite crystals are
larger than 10 p. in size and are in contrast to micrite
that is another interstitial component of some
limestones.
spark plug rig an early 1930s drilling rig with an
internal combustion engine as a prime mover and
friction clutches on the drawworks
sparse biomicrlte a limestone composed of greater
than two-thirds limestone mud (micrite) compared
to sparry calcite, and 10%-50% allochems of large
transported particles
sparker a marine seismic source that uses an
electrical discharge of 3-10 kV in seawater. A battery
of capacitors is charged by a generator on the boat
while an electrical array is towed in the water. A spark
is used for the pulse. A sparker does not have the
bubble effect of air guns but lacks the source energy
of air guns. Sparkers are used for shallow surveys.
sparry calcite clean, coarse-grained calcite that is
common as a type of limestone cement. The sparry
calcite crystal faces will reflect light back as the rock
is rotated. Sparry calcite is in contrast to limestone
mud (micrite) that is very dull.
SP bbl separator barrel
SPBM single point buoy mooring
spcl special
spcr spacer
SPD 1) shallower pool discovery 2) supplementary
petroleum duty
spd spudded
Spd. or Spdg. Spudding.
spdl Spindle.
SP-DST Straddle packer drillstem test.
SPE 1) shallower pool extension 2) Society of
Petroleum Engineers (AIME)
spear A fishing tool that latches inside a hollow fish
in a well. A spear is run into the well on a fishing
string and has a pressure-sealing device to permit
fluid circulation through a pipe fish. The casing or
pipe spear uses an inside catch. It often has a cage
that is held with a J-slot that holds the recessed slips.
The spear is run inside the fish where the slips are
released and the fish retrieved. The spear can be
released from the fish with right-hand torque and a
downward bump. A spear must be the right size to
enter the tubular.
spearhead 1) A slug of carrying fluid without
proppants that is pumped into the formation before
the carrying fluid with proppants during a hydraulic
fracturing job. The spearhead sometimes contains acid.

spearpoint spherically-focused log

479

The specific heat of a drilling mud is an indication

of the mud's ability to cool the bit. #> ht

specific productivity or specific productivity

n
spear

(pad) 2) The water spacer pumped ahead of the

cement during squeeze cementing. The spearhead
is in contrast to the tail-in fluid.
spearpoint The projection with teeth on the apex
of a cone on a roller-cone bit. The spearpoint is
designed to drill the center of the well. The cone
with the spearpoint is designated Cone # 1 .
spec Specification.
special allocation An agreement in which the
working interest and the net revenue interests are
not proportional. A special allocation can have
unfavorable tax consequences, (disproportionate or
special sharing)
special sharing see special allocation
special warranty The terms of limitation of a
warranty of title.
specific activity The radioactivity, in curies per
gram, of an isotope.
specific energy The energy necessary to remove a
unit volume of rock. SE or E
specific gravity The ratio between the weight of a
substance and the weight of an equal volume of water.
Specific gravity is a dimensionless number. Generally,
rocks have specific gravities of 2.5-3.0, natural gas
of 0.00073-000093, crude oil of 0.7-1.0, and formation
waters of 1.0-1.2.
Crude Oil
"API gravity
specific gravity
10"
fOOO"
20
0.934
30
0.876
40
0.825
50
0.780
60
0.739
The specific gravity of gas is also defined as the density
of the gas at standard conditions divided by the density
of an equal volume of dry air at standard conditions.
The density of air at 60 F and 14.7 psia is 0.0764 lb/
ft3. The specific gravity of a gas is equal to the molecular
weight of the gas divided by 29. Specific gravity is
often used interchangeably with density which is mass
per unit volume. SG, SPG, or sp gr
specific heat the number of calories thatis required
to raise 1 g of a substance 1 Celsius or centigrade.

index the productivity index divided by the

productive thickness. SPI
specific surface the surface area of solid particles
1 cm3 of sedimentary rock. S
speck speckled
spectral gamma ray log a type of gamma ray log
that records and distinguishes the gamma rays from
potassium 40, the uranium family, and the thorium
family. A computer is used to calculate the actual
amounts of the isotopes present. A spectral gamma
ray log is used primarily for a) evaluation and
identification of clay content in formations and b)
source-rock evaluation.
spectral log a spectral gamma ray log
SPEE Society of Petroleum Evaluation Engineers
speed kit a traveling block arrangement with two
speeds. The elevator can pick up stands of tubulars
being run out of a well and broken out as the traveling
block is moving.
speed reducer the gear set that reduces the speed
of a prime-mover drive. The speed reducer on a sucker
rod pumping unit converts high-speed, low-torque
energy to low-speed, high-torque energy with a
reduction ratio of about 30.1. The input of 300-600
rpm is reduced to 10-20 rpm. Herringbone and helical
gearing is commonly used. Some speed reducers use
spur gearing and chain drive.
spending time the time that an acid is in contact
and reacts with the carbonate rock during acidizing,
expending 85%-90% of its initial strength
spent a chemical that has been used up

Sper or sper spherule

SPF 1) shots per foot 2) surface pressure flowing
spf shots per foot
Spfool or spfool superficial oolite
SPG specific gravity
Spg or spg sponge
spg spring
sp gr specific gravity
SPH perforating, hyperscallop
Sph sphene
sph spherules
Sphaer sphaerocodium
Sphal or sphal sphalerite
sphalerite a yellowish-brown mineral composed of
ZnS. Sphalerite is an important ore of zinc. Sphal or
sphal

Spher or spher spherule

spherical blowout preventer see annular blowout
preventer
spherically-focused log a type of focused electrical
resistivity log. The sonde has nine electrodes and is
used to make true resistivity measurements in all
formations. The investigated zone is spherical and
has a shorter radius than short normal resistivity. The

480

spherical separator spiral or spiral-grooved drill collar

spherically focused log is used with an induction-sonic

combination. SFL1"
spherical separator a round metal tank that is used
to separate water, gas, and oil. Most separators are
vertical or horizontal.
spherical wave a wave that has been generated at
a point and propagates outward as a spherical front
in an homogeneous medium. A spherical wave is in
contrast to a plane wave.
sp ht specific heat
SPI 1) specific productivity index 2) secondary
porosity index 3) source productivity index
Spic or spic spicule
spicule 1) a calcareous or siliceous needle that is
or was part of a sponge endoskeleton. Spic or spic
2) a siliceous diatom shell
spider deck the deck below the main deck on a
semisubmersible. The spider deck is used to service
the equipment below the rotary table such as the
marine riser.
spiders 1) a manual or air-activated device on the
elevators of a drilling or workover rig or service unit
that grips drillpipe, casing, or tubing for hoisting.
Spiders have three or four sets of slips with teeth.
spigot a pipe with a male connection or pin end
spike 1) an energy impulse 2) a clean wave (very
sharp, symmetrical) emitted from a seismic source
3) an extraneous event on a well log curve

making a connection before or after using the tongs.

(pipe spinner)
spinner survey a record made by a downhole
instrument with a propeller that detects vertical fluid
flow in the well. A spinner survey can be used to
locate production, lost-circulation zones, and casing
leaks in a well. SPINS
spinning cathead a hub attached to the shaft on
the drawworks of a drilling rig that is used as a winch
to assemble (screw or tighten) drillpipe and tubing.
The spinning cathead usually is located on the driller's
side of the drawworks. (makeup cathead)
spinning chain the chain used by the drilling crew
on the floor of a drilling rig to wrap around four
or five tool joints of pipe or tubing to apply
torque during making up or breaking out the joints.
One end of the spinning chain is fastened to the
pulling line connected to the end of the tong
handle.

SPINNING
WRENCH

TONG

spinning wrench

spill point

spill point the highest elevation along the rim of a

petroleum trap such as a dome or anticline. If the
structure is completely filled with gas and/or oil down
to the spill point, the trap cannot hold any more and
the excess will spill out at this point.
SPIN sticking pipe indicator log
spine-and-rib plot a cross plot of detector rates
from a two-detector density log. The spine is a line
that represent no mudcake effects and the ribs extend
out from the spine proportional to the mudcake
thickness.
spinner 1) a device that is suspended by a line above
the drill floor and is used to screw together and
unscrew drillpipe. The frame contains a motor, gears,
and a pipe-gripping device. 2) a downhole instrument
used to measure fluid flow in a well. The turns of a
propeller are recorded electrically as the fluid flows
through the spinner. Four types of spinners are a)
continuous, b) full bore, c) petal basket, and d)
inflatable diverter.
spinner hawk an air motor that drives a silent chain
on rollers to hand tighten or untighten drillpipe when

spinning wrench an air or hydraulic operated

wrench that is used by the crew on the floor of a
drilling rig to tighten and untighten joints of pipe or
tubing. It has no backup but does require a snubbing
line. The tubular is held in the stationary rotary table.
The spinning wrench is suspended above the drill
floor by a wireline from the derrick or mast. The
spinning wrench is used instead of a spinning chain
and has the advantage of tightening all joints equally.
SPINS spinner survey
Sp Inst Ser Special Instrument Service
spin test a test used to determine if there has been
an increase in friction in a turbine meter. The turbine
rotor is spun by hand or with an air jet and timed
unit it stops. The time is called spin time.
spin-up to use a spinning chain to make up joints
of drillpipe or tubing together. Pipe tongs are then
used to finish the tightening.
spiral groove .a helical-shaped groove that is cut into
the outside surface of drill collars. A spiral groove
reduces the area of contact between the drill collar
and the well walls to reduce the possibility of wall
sticking. The grooves reduce contact area by 40965096 while reducing pipe weight only 796-1096.
spiral or spiral-grooved drill collar a drill collar
with helical grooves that have been machined on the
outside of the drill collar. Three spiral grooves spaced
at 120 apart are used. Spiral-grooved drill collars

spiraled wellbore sponge

spiral grooving

are run between the bit and the rest of the drillstring
to prevent the drillstring from sticking.
spiraled wellbore a wellbore that follows a helical
configuration as it descends
spiral-lobe compressor a type of compressor that
uses two spiral- or helical-shaped rotor blades that
rotate parallel to each other in a housing. The rounded
end of one blade fits into the rounded groove of
the other. When the inlet port is open, the discharged
port is closed and the gas enters and is trapped in
the groove. As the gas passes along the compressor,
it is compressed until it is discharged from the outlet
port. Spiral-lobe compressors can be either oil-flooded
or dry. Spiral-lobe compressors are used for air
compression, vapor recovery units, and refrigeration
units, (rotary screw or helical-lobe compressor)
spiral wall casing casing with spiral grooves cut
on the outer surface. Spiral wall casing is used in
deviated wells where there is a possibility of wall
sticking as the casing string is being run.

spirifer

spirifer a type of brachiopod fossil that is bivalved

(two shells) with a characteristic spiral shape on the
shells. Spirifers range in age from the Middle
Ordovician epoch to the Jurassic peroid and are
important guide fossils, sprf

spit

spit a beach of sand separated from the mainland

by a lagoon, but attached to land on one side
spit oil to flow by heads or intermittently
Spk speck

481

spkld speckled
spkt sprocket
Spl or spl sample
splash box a metal cylinder that is hinged to fit
around a joint of drillpipe as it is being broken out
(unscrewed) when tripping out of the well. The splash
box prevents mud from being lost by squirting out
onto the surrounding area. The drilling mud is
emptied with a drain plug onto the shale shaker, (mud
box or saver, Mother Hubbard, or wet box)
splash zone the highly corrosive zone located
immediately above the waterline on an offshore
structure where waves occasionally splash
splice to interweave individual wire strands on the
ends of two wirelines to join them together
Splin splintery
split bushings two halves of solid metal master
bushings that fit in a rotary table
split connection the hookup of a gas well to two
different pipelines. A split connection is caused by
two working-interest owners in a gas well signing
gas-purchase contracts with different pipelines.
split-dip shooting a type of spread arrangement of
geophones used in seismic exploration with the
geophones in a line and the shotpoint in the middle
of the geophone line
split-level drilling rig a land drilling rig with two
floors. The lower floor, near ground level, has the
engines, gears, and drawworks. The upper floor has
the rotary table.
split running nipple a pipe fitting that is split into
two parts that are hinged together. The split running
nipple is threaded on the top of pipe or tubing when
the rods are being put back in a well. It is split so
that it can be put on the tubing or pipe around rods
that are already hanging from the derrick into the
pipe or tubing. The split running nipple is made of
brass or aluminum so that it will not spark or ignite
gas.
split spread a type of geophone spread arrangement
used in seismic exploration with the geophones in a
line and the shotpoint either a) in the middle of the
geophone line (split-dip) or b) offset perpendicular
from the middle of the geophone line (offset splitdip)
split-stream gas well a gas well from which several
parties receive the gas
split-stream test a test used to measure the distillate
content of gas
SPLL sample log
SPL-T sample time
SPLPR sampling pressure
sply supply
SPM 1) strokes per minute 2) single-point mooring
3) six-point mooring
spm strokes per minute
Spo spore
spoiling to throw away
sponge an aquatic animal that has an internal
skeleton (endoskeleton) composed of calcareous,

482

sponge-barrel coring spread mooring

siliceous, or organic spicules. Sponges range from

Precambrian to present in age. Spg or spg
sponge-barrel coring a coring method used to
make more accurate reservoir saturation
measurements. The inner core barrel contains six 5ft aluminum pipe sections with polyurethane sponge
that absorbs oil bleeding from the core and protects
the core from drilling mud.
spontaneous potential or polarization a measure
of the natural static-electric voltage that exists between
two points. Spontaneous potential is a common
measurement made by electrical and induction well
logs. It is used for a) detecting permeability, b) location
of shale, c) correlation, and d) true resistivity
calculations. The spontaneous potential deflection
decreases as the salinity of the mud approaches the
formation water salinity. When the mud and the
formation water have the same salinity, no
spontaneous potential is generated. Spontaneous
potential is not generated in wells filled with
nonconductive oil-base muds. Response is in mV,
typically in the range of 15-150 millivolts. Spontaneous
potential is recorded on Track 1 of the well log. (self
potential) SP
spontaneous potential or polarization log a well
log that measures the natural voltage that is created
by the contact of conductive drilling mud with a
formation. The combination of drilling mud, formation
invasion by mud filtrate adjacent to the wellbore, and
formation waters, along with sand and shale, causes
an electrochemical action that creates the spontaneous
potential voltage. Shales are impermeable, but because
of the negative charges on the clay mineral layers in
shale, sodium ions (Na+) but not chlorine ions (Cl~)
can move through the shale. Sodium ions are usually
common in the formation waters of sandstones. If a
sandstone is in contact with a shale layer and the
drilling mud and formation waters have different
sodium concentrations, and electric current will flow
with the migration of the sodium ions. The formation
water usually has a greater concentration of sodium
ions than drilling mud, and the current will flow from
the formation water resistivity (/?,). This current is
used to calculate !*,. Spontaneous potential is plotted
in Track 1 on the well log with + on the left and
on the right. The units are in millivolts. A shale will
kick to the right in Track 1 and a permeable sandstone
to the left. A vertical line drawn along the maximum
deflection of the shale is called the shale line and
along the sandstone is called the sand line. Limestones
and dolomites complicate the spontaneous-potential
interpretation. SP
spool 1) to wind on a reel 2) see crossover and
drilling spool
spooling winding rope or cable onto a reel
spoon a bailer
spore dust-sized reproductive cells from mosses,
ferns, and other related plants. Spores are carried
great distances by wind and can be excellent
microfossils in sedimentary rocks used to determine
the age and climate during the deposition of
sediments. Spores have existed from the Silurian
period to the present. Specialists who study and
identify fossil spores are called palynologists. Spo or

spore-coloration index a scale that describes the

color of spores, a part of organic matter in potential
petroleum source rocks. With increasing temperature
or maturation, the color of the spore in transmitted
light will range from colorless to yellow and brown
to black. SCI
SPOT an unmanned French orbiting remote-sensing
satellite (Systeme Probatoire d'Observation de la
Terra) that was launched in 1986. SPOT orbits the
earth at a height of 517 mi in a sun-synchronous orbit
that covers the earth in 26 days. The satellite has a
high-resolution visible (HRV) imaging system. SPOT
has better resolution than Landsat TM and can be
acquired in stereo pairs but lacks the TM spectral
range.
spot 1) to position 2) to locate equipment such as
a workover rig over a well
SPOTD spotted
spot gas natural gas bought on the spot market, (best
efforts, interruptible, direct purchase, and self-help gas)
spot market a market to sell and buy oil and gas
on very short term without a long term contract. The
spot market is very sensitive to supply and demand.
Prices on the spot market are constantly fluctuating.
spot sample a sample of the stock tank liquid taken
by a thief at a specific level in the stock tank in contrast
to a running sample
spotting fluid a fluid that is placed or spotted in a
certain spot in a well to loosen stuck pipe. The spotting
fluid reduces the differential sticking force and
lubricates and erodes the mud cake. The most
common spotting fluid is surfactant mixed with diesel
oil. Oil muds, diesel oil, emulsifiers, and lubricants
are also used.
spouter 1) a gas well 2) a gusher 3) a well that
flows under its own pressure
SPP standpipe pressure
SP pack a crooked pipe used in a skimmer or plate
coalescer for produced water treatment. The turbulent
flow of produced water through the tortuous pipe
causes oil drops to coalesce.
Spr or spr 1) spar 2) sparry
spread 1) the arrangement of geophone groups used
in seismic exploration. The spread often used in
reflection seismic has 24 groups at intervals of 50400 ft between group centers and spread out V-h mi2 mi. Some spread types, described by geometry, are
end-on, in-line, broadside, offset, cross, fan, L-spread,
T-spread, and split. Interlocking spreads have a
geophone group and shotpoint location for one profile
that is a shotpoint and geophone group location for
another profile. Reversed spreads have shotpoints inline on both sides of a linear geophone array. A
microspread has very short intervals of 2-15 ft. 2)
the difference between the opening and closing
pressures of a pressure valve
spreader a circular plate or disk that is used to spread
a liquid flowing down in a tank. The spreader is used
to mix and aerate liquids. It is located near the bottom
of a settling tank and is also called a distributing rack.
spread mooring the system of anchors and lines
that is used to distribute wave, wind and current loads
on a floating vessel such as a semisubmersible and

SP reduction factor squeeze a well

keep the vessel on station. The mooring lines are
continuously being pretensioned in anticipation of
the stresses. Some common spread mooring systems
used are a) symmetric six-line, b) symmetric eightline, c) symmetric nine-line, d) symmetric ten-line,
e) symmetric twelve-line, f) 45-90 eight-line, g)
30-60 eight-line, and h) 45-90 ten-line.
SP reduction factor psuedostatic spontaneous
potential divided by static spontaneous potential
sprf spirifer
SPRG spring gauge
spring 1) to bend pipe 2) a slight bend in a pipe
spring collet a spring-extended metal band that is
used to enlarge a liner patch for casing repairs
spring-loaded valve a type of gas-lift valve that uses
a spring to close the valve
spring swivel a swivel used on a drilling rig that
has a plunger spring attached to the hook to absorb
shock. A swivel pin is used for opening and closing
the hook. The hook is connected to the elevators
during moving and tripping and to the swivel bail
during drilling.
sprocket 1) a wheel with teeth along its
circumference to engage a chain 2) the teeth on the
wheel that fit into the chain, spkt
SPS 1) subsea production system 2) submerged
production system 3) satellite well production system
4) shot point seismometer
sps sparse
SPSI surface pressure shutin
spsly sparsely
Sp/T sample tops
SPT 1) shallower-pool test 2) straddle-packer test
sptd spotted
spty or sptty spotty
SPUD or spud spudded
spud 1) a type of cable-tool fishing tool in the shape
of a gouge up to 60 ft long that was used to clear
debris from around a stuck drilling tool 2) to raise
and drop a sonde to lower the sonde around an
obstruction in a well 3) to raise and drop a drillstring
to pass an obstruction in a well
spud a well to start to drill a well. The definition
of the exact starting point of drilling a well varies
and can range from staking the location to the actual
start of drilling by the rig capable of drilling to total
depth. The term comes from starting to drill a well
with a cable-tool rig when the drillstring was
suspended from the derrick to provide enough room
to start the well with a spudding machine, (spud in)
spud bar a wide, flat bar used to remove sediments
from the bottom of a storage tank
spud bit a bit used to kick off a directional well
spud can a circular, square, or polygonal platform
or container at the base of the leg on a jackup rig
designed to prevent the leg from sinking too far into
the bottom and to give the rig more stability. A mat
is used instead of cans in areas of soft seabed. The
spud can is filled with seawater.
spud conference an informal or semiformal
meeting before the drilling of a well with the people

483

involved in drilling and servicing the well to review

the plans and coordinate the drilling of the well. The
operator, drilling contractor, supply, and service
companies and regulatory agencies are usually
represented.
spudder 1) a cable-tool rig 2) a small drilling rig
spudder truck a truck with a large auger mounted
on it. The spudder truck is used to auger a largediameter hole (conductor hole) down through the
soil (20-100 ft) that is then lined with conductor casing
before the drilling rig is brought on the drill site.
spudding the raising and free fall of a bit on a
drillstring in a well to shake the shale accumulation
off the bit
spudding bit a large-diameter bit that is used to
drill the first few hundred feet of hole
spudding line a rope used on a cable-tool drilling
rig to operate the spudding tools. The spudding line
is run over the band wheel and a pulley on the drilling
line, (jerk line or rope)
spud in see spud a well
spud mud drilling fluid used to drill the conductor
pipe hole. Spud muds are viscous slurries of bentonite
or attapulgite and lime slurry used to clean out the
large-diameter hole. Spud mud can come from a)
surplus mud from another well being drilled, b) mud
from the last well drilled by the rig, or c) prepared
mud. The mud is usually disposed of after drilling
the conductor pipe because of contamination.
spurt loss the rapid flow of filtrate into a formation
before a filter cake has formed on the well just after
the formation has been drilled, (surge loss)
sp. vol. specific volume
SPWIA Society of Professional Well Log Analysts
SQ 1) sequestrants 2) square 3) seals questionable
4) squeeze 5) squeezing 6) squeezing
sq 1) square 2) squeezed
sq cm square centimeter
sq ft square feet
sq in square inch
sq km square kilometer
sq m square meter
sq mm square millimeter
sq pkr squeeze packer
squ squeeze
square drill collar a drill collar with four flat areas
along its length. A square drill collar is run just above
the bit along with reamers and stabilizers in crooked
hole country. During circulation, the square drill collar
acts as a long stabilizer and reduces any rapid well
deviation.
square joint a kelly
square metre a derived unit in System International
(SI) for area, m2
squeeze the slow movement of an anhydrite, a
sodium or potassium salt layer, or shale into a wellbore
by pressure or chemical reaction, (heave or swell)
squ
squeeze a well to squeeze cement a well to repair
casing where gas or water is leaking into the well.

484

squeeze cementing s(t)

Cement is pumped under pressure down the center

of the casing and into the space called a holiday
between the casing and the rock walls of the well.
C E M E N T FORCED
BETWEEN PACKERS

PACKER
H O U I D A Y (CAVITY)

POOR CEMENT JOB SHOWN

BY CEMENT BOND LOO

PACKER

PERFORATIONS

CEMENT

squeeze cement job

squeeze cementing a cement job in a well in which

cement slurry is pumped under pressure down a well
and through perforations in the casing into a specific
place in the well behind the casing. Squeeze cementing
is used to isolate producing formations, to seal off
water zones, to repair leaks, to fill channels or holidays,
to temporarily seal off producing zones, and to
abandon zones that are not producing. High-pressure
squeeze cementing forces the slurry with a final
pressure equal to or greater than formation
breakdown pressure. Low-pressure squeeze
cementing uses a pressure on the slurry that is less
than formation fracture pressure. Squeeze cementing
can be done by the a) bradenhead, b) packer squeeze,
or c) hesitation methods, (squeeze job)
squeeze cementing temperature the temperature
of a cement slurry at maximum cementing depth in
a well during a squeeze cementing job
squeeze job see squeeze cementing
squeeze pressure the pressure, measured at the
surface, on the cement slurry pumped down a well
during a cement squeeze job
squeezing off water a method used to limit water
production when a gas/water or oil/water contact is
present in a well. The casing or liner is perforated
in the water zone and the zone is squeeze cemented.
squib a small explosive charge
squib job a small shot of nitroglycerine set off in a
well for a frac job as part of a well workover
squnch joint a type of connection used on offshore
conductor pipe that has no threads and locks when
weight is applied to the joint
sq yd square yard
sqz squeeze
SQZD 1) squeeze 2) squeezed 3) squeezing
SR short radius

S.R. straight reaming

Sr shear rate
sr steradian
SRB sulfate-reducing bacteria
SRD surface reference datum
SREC secondary recovery
SRL single random lengths
SRO a surface read-out system
Sro residual oil saturation
SRS seismic reference service
SRSL seismic reference survey log
SRT 1) sorted 2) sorting
sit 1) sort 2) sorted
srtg sorting
SS 1) stainless steel 2) single shot 3) slow set 4) subsea
5) subsurface 6) small show 7) string shot 8) diamond
core slicer 9) suspended solids 10) semisubmersible
SS or ss sandstone
Ss specific surface area
Ss shear stress
SSB single side-band
SSCSV subsurface-controlled subsurface safety valve
SSF seconds Saybolt furol
SSG slight show of gas

S-shaped well

S-shaped well a well that has a vertical section

followed by a deviated portion followed by a vertical
section to total depth. (S-type or S well)
SSO slight show of oil
SSP 1) static spontaneous polarization 2) static
spontaneous potential
ssp. subspecies
S/SR sliding scale royalty
SSSV 1) subsurface safety valve 2) semisubmersible
support vessel
Sst sandstone
SSTT subsea test tree
SSU seconds Saybolt universal
SSULW slightly sulfur water
SSV 1) surface safety valve 2) standby safety valve 3)
subsurface safety valve
ST 1) sidetrack 2) short thread 3) state 4) sat 5) seismic
tomography
s(t) seismic pulse


S-r tensile strength
S/T 1) sample tops 2) suction temperature 3) side
track 4) sidetracking
sta station
stab stabilizer
stab to insert one piece of equipment such as a pipe
or pin into another. Drillpipe is stabbed on the floor
of a drilling rig to make a connection. Joints of casing
and tubing are stabbed to make a string.
stabber a person on a drilling rig that directs the
end of a pipe into a tool joint or coupling (stabbing)
during making a connection on a drilling rig
stabbing a valve to orient and screw a valve onto
a pipe
stabbing board a temporary platform located 20 ft40 ft above the drill floor on the derrick of a drilling
rig when running casing. The derrick man stands on
the stabbing board to direct the casing joint end into
the collar of other joints (stabbing) being held by
the slips in the rotary table.
stabbing cone or guide the flared end of a piece
of equipment where a pin is inserted.
stabbing jack a board with a handle and metal strap
that is used to hold the end of a pipe as another
pipe is screwed in it. (jack or lazy board)
stabbing protector a funnel-shaped, protective
rubber sleeve that fits over the box of a pipe to serve
as a guide for stabbing pipe
stability meter an instrument that measures the
breakdown voltage of an invert emulsion
stability range the maximum angle that a ship can
be tilted and still right itself
stabilized condition the condition in a well in
which the hydrostatic head generated by the drilling
mud column is slightly greater than the formation
pressure
stabilized crude oil crude oil after the dissolved
gas has been separated out. Stabilized crude oil will
have a Reid vapor pressure of about 5 lbs.
stabilized flow the flow state from a well when the
flowing bottomhole pressure reaches equilibrium and
remains constant for a certain choke size or production
rate. Stabilized flow is seen on the surface by a
relatively constant static pressure.
stabilized platform a table that is designed to stay
level and is used for mounting sensitive instruments
such as a gravity meter. A stabilized platform is held
on gimbals and kept oriented by a gyroscope system.
stabilized pressure a constant or nearly constant
pressure
stabilized sleeve a bushing that is used on the
drillstring to maintain a vertical well when drilling.
The stabilized sleeve is the size of the wellbore and
has protruding fixed or rotating lugs that contact the
side of the wellbore.
stabilized well 1) a flowing well in which the flow
rate through a given sized choke remains constant
2) a pumping well in which the fluid column height
in the well remains constant
stabilizer 1) a sub used on a downhole assembly
a) to keep the drill collars in the center of the well,

stab-in cementing

485

stabilizer

b) to prevent differential sticking and wear of the

drill collars, c) to ream the wellbore, and d) to control
hole deviation. The most common types of stabilizers
are rotating (integral blade, sleeve, and welded blade)
and nonrotating-blade stabilizers and reamers. A
rotating-blade stabilizer has narrow blades that extend
outward from the stabilizer body. The blades are either
machined out of or welded onto the body. A
nonrotating-blade stabilizer has rubber stabilizer ribs.
A spiral-grooved stabilizer has sets of helical grooves
machined along the stabilizer body. A round-fluted
stabilizer has flutes and grooves milled and machined
on its outer surface. The welded stabilizer has blades
welded to the body, whereas the sleeve stabilizer has
blades fitted as a sleeve, and an integral blade stabilizer
has the blades machined out of the body. A four-rib
stabilizer allows maximum drilling-fluid circulation,
whereas a six-rib stabilizer allows maximum wall
contact. A larger contact area is preferred for softer
formations; whereas a smaller contact area is preferred
for harder formations. Stabilizer can be either nearbit or string (located anywhere in the bottomhole
assembly), stab 2) a fractionating vessel used to
separate gas from a liquid (stabilizer or stabilizing
column)
stabilizer or stabilizing column the largediameter tubes (20-35 ft in diameter) that connect
the pontoons or buoyancy chambers to the deck on
a semisubmersible. There are often three, four, five,
or six stabilizers, and they can be separated by smaller
diameter intermediate columns. The stabilizer
columns are used for strength and can often be
ballasted.
stabilizer jamming angle the angle between the
center line of a stabilizer that has been tilted enough
to have the stabilizer blades contacting both the top
and bottom sides of a deviated well and the center
line of the well
stabilizer train a series of stabilizers on a downhole
assembly that is used to drill a straight hole
stabilizing tool see stabilizer
stab-in cementing a type of cement job in which
the cement slurry is pumped down the drillpipe in
the well rather than in the casing. The drillpipe is
locked onto a casing shoe on the bottom of the casing
and the cement flows up the annular space between
the casing and the rock walls of the wellbore. A
displacement fluid, usually drilling mud, is pumped
down the drillpipe to displace the cement slurry before
it sets in the drillpipe.

486

stab-in safety valve stage collar

stab-in safety valve a ball valve used on a workover.

The valve can be stabbed into the work string or
tubing if the well must be shut in with pipe in the
well. (Trw valve)
stable emulsion an emulsion in which the
components will not separate with time
stable foam a type of workover fluid made by a
mixture of detergent, freshwater, and compressed gas
stable isotope ratio analysis aquantitative chemical
analysis of isotopes of an element that are not
radioactive such as C12 and C14. A stable isotope ratio
analysis is used with radiometric age dating to
determine if there has been any biological or chemical
fractionation that could affect the radioactive age
dating. Elements analyzed include carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulfur, and hydrogen. SIRA
stack 1) an assembly of equipment on a drilling or
producing well 2) to store an idle drilling rig. 3)
the result of stacking, a computer process that
enhances seismic records by mixing seismic traces
from different records. The common-depth-point stack
combines seismic data from different shotpoints and
geophones which share the same midpoint between
shotpoint and geophone after normal moveout
corrections. The number of profiles that is stacked
is stated; for example, a 12-fold or 1,200% stack. There
is also a vertical and uphole stack. 4) to connect several
wireline well-log tools such as density and neutron
sondes so they can be run together. 5) the vertical
exhaust pipe on the end of a firetube in a heatertreater.
stacked log section a correlated cross section of
selected intervals of interest drawn between well logs
of the same type and scale
stacking 1) a process used for reinforcing subsurface
seismic signals and reducing noise on seismic records.
The most common stacking technique is commondepth-point stacking. It sums the traces of several
seismic profiles over the same subsurface reflection
points that were obtained at different offset distances.
The traces are first corrected for statics and normal
moveout and then superimposed. A 12-fold or 1,200%
stack shows that 12 seismic signals were superimposed
to create the stack. Stacking is also used as a test of
normal moveout corrections, to determine velocities,
and to combine traces to reduce processing. 2) the
connecting of logging tools to be used on the same
logging run in a well 3) the storing of equipment
such as a drilling rig
stacking a drilling rig to store a rig that has been
taken out of operation. Cold stacking is where the
rig is mothballed for an indefinite time, whereas
during warm stacking, the rig is maintained by a small
crew.
stacking chart a graph that plots geophone locations
along the horizontal axis and source locations along
the vertical axis
stacking the tools to pull the drillpipe from the
well and lay it horizontally next to the well in order
to skid or remove the derrick
stacking velocity the velocity that makes seismic
data stack best. Stacking velocity is empirically
determined and is very close to the root mean square

velocity (VmJ. Stacking velocity is used to make

normal moveout corrections.
stadia a surveying instrument (theodolite or
telescopic alidade) that is used to measure distances.
A stadia consists of a telescope with parallel horizontal
crosshairs. The stadia is sighted on a stadia rod, a
vertical pole with measured marks on it. The number
of marks on the rod between the crosshairs in the
stadia is used to measure the distance from the stadia
to the rod.
stadia or stadia rod a vertical rod with graduated
measured marks that is used in surveying to determine
distances with a theodolite or telescopic alidade
staff a polished rod on a pumping unit
stage a time-rock subdivision of rock deposited
during an age of geological time. Stage is part of a
series.
stage acidizing a well treatment method used for
dense and tight limestone reservoir rocks. The acid
is pumped in several low-pressure stages rather than
one high-pressure stage. The spent acid is swabbed
out of the well between each stage.
stage cementer a cementing tool that is used for
long casing strings to prevent weak formations from
being exposed to high pressures. The tool contains
two sleeves, an upper and lower, that are held by
shear pins inside a collar with ports. The stage
cementer is opened by a bomb. (D.V. tool)
stage cementing cementing of a casing string in a
well in several (usually two) stages or steps. The lower
portion of the casing string is cemented with a
conventional placement followed by cementing of the
upper portion of the casing string through ports in
a stage or port collar.
stage collar a short steel cylinder that couples joints
of casing and has ports in it. A stage collar contains
ports with a sliding sleeve that can open or close
the ports when activated by a special bomb or tripping
plug. A stage collar is used in multiple-stage cementing
in a well and is similar to a port collar.

two-stage separation

three-stage separation

four-stage separation
stage separation

stage separation or trapping standard tools

stage separation or trapping the separation of
natural gas from crude oil on a lease by passing the
oil through several separators at successively lower
pressures. The purpose is to reduce the pressure in
steps to obtain a more stable stock-tank liquid and
increase the liquid recovery. Two-, three-, and fourstage separators can be used. The number of separators
is added to one (for the stock tank) to obtain the
number of stages. Stage separation is in contrast to
flash separation.
stage-tool opening plug a teardrop-shaped plug
that is used in two-stage cementing. The is dropped
in the casing and falls to the stage tool. The casing
is then pressurized to force the stage-tool opening
plug downward to open the ports in the stage tool.
staggered-line drive a type of waterflood pattern
in which the injector and producing wells are offset
and are located on separate straight lines oriented
north-south and east-west. A staggered-line drive is
in contrast to a direct-line drive in which the injector
and producing wells are on the same straight lines
oriented north-south and east-west.
stainless steel steel that is alloyed with chromium
and is corrosion and rust resistant. Stainless steel can
be either a) a nonmagnetic (austenitic) alloy with 16%
chromium, over 7% nickel, manganese, and iron or
b) magnetic (ferritic) alloy with over 11% chromium
andjjjpn.
stake 1) to accurately survey a location such as a
drillsite 2) a survey marker used by field parties 3)
an electrode used as an electric ground
stal stalactitic
stalk a stand of tubulars

used to report the volume of gas in SCF or SCM.

Standard conditions vary with contracts and states in
the United States. Standard pressure in various states
includes 14.65,14.73,14.85, and 15025 psi. One state
defines standard temperature as 70F. One mole of
ideal gas will occupy 379.4 ft3 under standard
conditions of 14.7 psia and 60F. STP sc
standard cubic foot a measure of the volume of
gas at a certain pressure and temperature that is
defined by law or contract. The pressure varies by
contract or law and is usually about 14.65 psi (1 atm)
and the temperature is 60F. SCF or scf
standard cubic meter a measure of the volume of
gas at 15C and 1 atm (101.325 kPa). sra3
standard derrick a derrick on a drilling rig which
is assembled in pieces and bolted together. The derrick
can be dismantled into pin-jointed sections and
trucked to another location. A standard derrick is used
in drilling offshore wells when the derrick is kept
stationary as several wells are drilled. A standard
derrick is in contrast to a portable derrick, unitized
derrick, or mast which pivots into position as a unit
and is more commonly used on land.
mean
standard
deviation

standard deviation

standard deviation a measure of variation. A

standard deviation is equal to the square root of the
'sum (Xt - where
;
1
n is the number of observations
standard gas-measurement law a state law that
defines the temperature and pressure that defines a
standard cubic foot of gas. The temperature and
pressure bases vary from state to state.
standard mandrel a short tubing joint (pup) with
a lug for fixing a conventional gas lift valve, (tubing
retrievable or conventional mandrel)
standard pressure one atmosphere, 760 mm of
mercury, or 14.65 psia. The states of Alaska, Arkansas,
Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, New York, Ohio,
Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Texas define standard
pressure as 14.65 psia. The states of California,
Michigan, North Dakota, and South Dakota define it
as 14.73 psia. The states of Colorado, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, Utah,
and Wyoming define it as 15.025 Psia. The state of
West Virginia defines it as 14.85 psia. PSt
standard section a diagram that shows the sequence
by age and vertical position of rock layers in an area
standard temperature 60F (English units) or 15C
(metric units). Gas and liquid volumes are corrected
to this temperature. One state defines standard
temperature as 70F.
standard tools the equipment used to drill a cabletool well, (cable tools)

- ^ stands

2
stands

stand 1) several connected lengths of tubulars such

as drill pipe or casing that are raised, stored, and/or
lowered as a unit. Doubles contain two joints, thribbles
have three joints, and fourbles have four joints. 2)
to set a tubular such as tubing on end
standard atmosphere a non-System International
(SI) unit for pressure. One standard atmosphere is
equal to 101.325 kPa. atm
standard barrels of net clean oil the volume of
crude oil measured at a standard temperature and
pressure minus sediment and water content
standard conditions standard conditions are 60F
and and 1 atm pressure for English units and 15C
and 1 atm pressure for metric and SI units. Standard
conditions are essentially surface conditions and are

487

488

standard tool drilling-in outlift starch

standard tool drilling-in outfit a drilling rig that

uses rotary equipment to drill to the pay zone and
cable-tool equipment to drill in the pay zone, (dual
system)
standard volume the space occupied by a gas at
standard conditions of temperature and pressure
which are defined by law or contract. Standard volume
is measured in standard cubic feet (SCF) or standard
cubic meter (sm3).
standard well an imaginary well with an open hole
that completely penetrates the producing zone and
has no skin or formation damage
st&b sides, top, and bottom
standback capacity the weight of pipe in thousands
of pounds that can be stacked in the pipe rack, either
horizontally or vertically, on a drilling rig
stand by to wait, usually for another operation to
finish or for orders, stnlby
standby costs the amount charged by a drilling
contractor for a rig during the time the rig is idle,
such as between testing and when the decision is
made to either complete the well or plug and abandon
standby rig time the time in which the drilling rig
is temporarily not drilling as requested by the
operator. This is usually for an operation such as well
logging, (sbut-down time)
standby vessel a ship that remains near an offshore
platform to give aid during a crisis or, in the case of
a semisubmersible, to assist in anchor handling
ST&C short threads and coupling
stand capacity the number of stacks of joints that
a derrick can accommodate
standing fluid level the static height of liquid in a
well
standing machine a machine that makes wire rope
by braiding wires into strands and strands into rope.
(closing machine)
DOWN HOLE PUMP

'UP

' DOWN

standing valve

standing valve a ball and seat or valve and seat valve

that remains fixed in position and allows fluid to flow
in only one direction. The ball and seat is enclosed
in a cage as a unit. A standing valve is located in the
mud anchor at the lower end of the barrel on a

downhole sucker-rod pump in an oil well. The

standing valve is in contrast to the traveling valve that
moves with the sucker rod. A standing valve is also
used in an intermittant gas-lift well to hold the fluids
in the tubing during the injection cycle. A standing
valve is sometimes dropped into a tubing string to
land at a seating nipple and test for leaks. Liquid is
then pumped down the tubing and the pressure is
monitored. The standing valve is then removed with
a fishing tool. SV
stand it on the boards see stand on the boards
standoff or stand off 1) the distance from a wireline
well log sonde to the side of the wellbore 2) a device
such as an arm with a pad used on a wireline well
log sonde to keep the sonde off the sides of the
wellbore 3) the distance between the perforating
bullets or jets and the casing or liner
standoff band a large metal collar with spring-like
projections on it that are designed to keep tubular
goods in the center of the well. Screw taps on the
bands are used to attach the standoff band to the
pipe.
stand on the boards to rack stands of pipe in the
derrick of a drilling rig
stand pipe a drive pipe that is used to prevent water
from flowing into the well during spudding
standpipe 1) part of the circulating system on a rotary
drilling rig. The standpipe is a vertical, seamless, steel
pipe about 50 ft long and attached to a leg of the
derrick or mast. Drilling mud is pumped from the
mud pumps, through the discharge line, to the bottom
of the standpipe. Drilling mud flows up through the
standpipe to die rotary hose and swivel. The standpipe
has a 4-6 in. outer diameter except on small rigs
where 3V2 in. diameter standpipes are used. 2) see
conductor pipe
standpipe manifold pipes and valve that allow the
pumping of drilling mud into the annulus through
the fillup line on trips and through the kill line with
the blowout preventers closed
standpipe pressure gauge a sensor located in the
standpipe on a drilling rig that measures pump
pressure. A standpipe pressure gauge is sometimes
called the Cameron gauge after its manufacturer.
standup drilling-and-spacing unit a rectangularshaped drilling and spacing unit with its long
dimension running north-south. A standup drillingand-spacing unit is in contrast to a laydown unit in
which the long dimension runs east-west.
stand-up option or stand-up title opinion a title
opinion made by an attorney from his personal
examination of the courthouse or parish records. A
stand-up opinion is made from a run sheet in the
absence of a title abstract and is in contrast to an
abstract-based title opinion.
Stanton chart a plot of the friction factor versus
Reynolds number on log-log paper
star bit a bit with blades on the bottom that is rotated
to cut debris and drill into a workover interval in a
well
starboard the right side of a ship in contrast to port
starch a group of plant carbohydrates that is
processed by pregelatinization for use to reduce

StarJet std
filtrate rate and increase the vicosity of drilling mud.
Starches can ferment.
StarJet four subarrays of up to four tunable
Vaporchoc guns used as a seismic source
starter a new producing well
starting head a heavy steel adaptor or flanged fitting
that is bolted or welded to the top of the surface
casing and is part of the wellhead. The startinghead
consists of a body, retaining element, a hanger-packer
mechanism, valves, and bleeders. The hanger-packer
is fixed to the end of a casing string or another casing
head and seals the annular space between the casing
strings while suspending the smaller diameter casing
string in the well. The startinghead is used to attach
the casinghead spool and blowout preventers. Only
one startinghead is used with surface and production
casing. Two startingheads are used if there is an
intermediate casing string. The startinghead valves and
bleeders are used to relieve gas pressure, (casinghead
or casing head)
starting mill a downhole tool that is used to kick
off deviation drilling. A whipstock directs the starting
mill against the casing where a cutting edge cuts a
two-ft hole in the casing. A window mill is often used
next to enlarge the hole.
starved a pump with no fluid to pump, (dry)
starved basin a basin that lacks sediments.
Subsidence in a starved basin is more rapid than
sedimentation.
STAT status
stat stationary
state-line fault a fault that ends at a state line on a
geological map due to differences in interpretation
by geologists in the two states
statewide rules a set of general rules pertaining to
production that is applied to all fields or reservoirs
in a state by the state regulatory agency
static noise
static bottomhole or static formation
pressure the pressure on the fluid at the bottom
of the well after the well has been shut in for a period
of time, usually 24 hours, and the maximum pressure
has built up. Static bottomhole pressure is in contrast
to flowing bottomhole pressure, (shut-in or closedin bottomhole or formation pressure) SBHP
static equilibrium the condition in a well when
there is no more pressure buildup in a shut-in well
static fluid level the height to which a liquid rises
in a well under its own pressure after the well is
shut in and has come to equilibrium. Static fluid level
is in contrast to working fluid level.
static gauge pressure gas pressure measured either
upstream or downstream from an orifice. Static gauge
pressure is usually measured by a Bourdon tube or
spring in pounds per square inch (lb/in.2).
static head 1) the pressure due to the weight of a
column of fluid above a datum 2) the depth of a
liquid in a well when the well is not pumping
static mud pressure the pressure exerted by a
column of drilling mud at rest at a point in the well
static pressure the force exerted by a fluid at rest

489

statics the corrections used in seismic exploration

to compensate for weathering or low-velocity layer
near the earth's surface. The objective is to correct
seismic data as if it were shot on a flat surface without
a low-velocity layer. Statics can be made by direct
measurements of the low-velocity layer in uphole
shooting, refraction first breaks, or data smoothing.
static spontaneous potential the maximum
spontaneous potential measurement that can be made
with a shale-porous sandstone contact. The maximum
deflection to the left in Track 1 of the well log defines
the sand line. The static spontaneous potential is
dependent on the difference in resistivities between
the formation water and drilling mud, the bed
thickness, and hydrocarbon saturation. It can be
calculated by -K x log(#m//?K,) in which K is 60 +
(0.133 x formation temperature), Rmj is mud-filtrate
resistivity at reservoir temperature, and./?K, is formation
water resistivity at formation temperature. SSP
static submergence the vertical distance in feet
between the static fluid level in a gas-lift well and
the bottom of the tubing. Static submergence is in
contrast to working submergence.
static temperature the temperature at a specific
depth in a well after the well has been shut in for a
period of time, usually 24 hours
static water level the height in a well to which the
water will rise
static well conditions the conditions in a well after
the well has been shut in
station the location of an observation made by a
geophysical instrument, sta
stationary-barrel insert pump a type of suckerrod pump that is used on an oil well and is run and
pulled on a rod string. The pump has a stationary
barrel and a standing valve that does not move. A
traveling barrel and traveling valve inside the stationary
barrel rise and fall with the sucker-rod string to pump
the oil up into the tubing. A standing-barrel insert
pump is in contrast to a traveling-barrel insert pump,
tubing pump, and casing pump.
stationary valve a valve in a downhole oil pump
that allows fluid to flow in only one direction (upward).
The stationary valve remains fixed in position in
contrast to a traveling valve.
station keeping or stationkeeping the
maintenance of a drillship or semisubmersible in
acceptable limits on location at the drillsite. Station
keeping is done by a mooring system or a dynamic
positioning system with thrusters.
stator 1) vanes that direct fluid flow. The stators in
a turbine house the rotors and direct the fluid flow
toward the rotors. 2) an iron ring with induction coils
mounted on the inside in an AC induction-type of
electric motor
STB or stb stock-tank barrel
STB/d, STB/D, or STBD stock-tank barrels per day
STBO stock tank barrels oil
STC slowness time coherence
stcky sticky
STD salinity-temperature-depth
std standard

490

stdg. steel

Stdg. 1) standing 2) standardizing

STDS or stds stands
stdy steady
steady state a flow regime in a producing well during
which a constant pressure at the wellbore and at the
boundaries of the reservoir can be maintained. The
pressure drop will be independent of time.
steal hole to report more footage drilled than is
actually drilled
steal oil to transfer crude oil between leases to get
around prorationing
steam drive 1) a steam and foam injection method
for heavy oil production 2) see steam flood
steamer unit apparatus used in the field to reduce
the volume of produced water from wells. The steamer
unit uses a fire tube to form steam and concentrate
the salts into a brine with a liquid volume reduction
of about 90%. (evaporative unit)

steam injection

PSOOUCINO WELL
INJECTION V H U

INJECTION

wai

-L

L.

steam injection well

steam flood

steam flood or flooding an enhanced oil-recovery

technique used for shallow heavy-oil deposits. Hightemperature steam is pumped down injection wells
to heat up the formation and the heavy oil in it. Heating
causes the heavy oil to become less viscous. The steam
cools into hot water which is pushed by the steam
being injected behind it, driving the heated heavy
oil toward producing wells. The heating of the oil
also causes the oil to swell, increasing its recovery.
Some of the lighter fractions of the oil vaporize to
form a solvent or miscible bank which aids in the
sweep efficiency. Steam flooding is the most
commonly used enhanced oil-recovery process.
(steam drive)
steam gun a marine seismic source that injects a
slug of superheated steam into the water from valves.
The steam condenses by hydrostatic pressure emitting
a short, powerful pulse. The steam is generated by
boilers on the ship.
steaming unit a type of treating plant that is used
to separate oil and water. Steam pipes are run in
the separator tank to help separate the oil and water.
The water flows by gravity to the bottom of the tank.
steam injection an enhanced oil recovery technique
used in shallow heavy-oil deposits. Steam is pumped
down a well for a period of time (injection or huff
phase) from days to weeks. The well is then shut in
for a period of days (shut-in phase) as the heat from
the steam dissipates into the reservoir. The heat causes
the heavy oil to become less viscous. The same well
is then used to pump the heated, fluid heavy oil for

a period of time (production or puff phase) from

weeks to months. The process is repeated until it
becomes uneconomical, (cyclic steam stimulation or

buff h'puff)
steam piano a mud hog
steam rig a drilling rig that uses a steam boiler as
a prime mover
stearate the salt of stearate acid, a saturated 18-carbon
fatty acid. Aluminum, calcium, and zinc stearates are
drilling-mid additives used as lubricants and
defoamers and for water control in air drilling.
steel an alloy of iron and carbon, stl

steel template jacket platform

steel-jacket or steel-template jacket platform stick cross section or diagram

steel-jacket or steel-template jacket platform a
common type of offshore platform that uses legs
anchored to the sea bottom by piles to support the
drilling and production platform above the surface
of the sea. Two legs are often equipped with flotation
chambers so that the platform can be towed
horizontally to the site. The platform is then flooded
with water and lands on the sea bottom. The topside
equipment such as modules are then installed on the
platform. Almost all offshore platforms constructed
between 1947 and the mid-1970s are of this type. A
steel-jacket platform is in contrast to a pileless platform.
(piled-steel platform)
steel-toed boots boots with a steel cap built into
the toes and nonskid soles. Steel-toed boots are
designed to prevent the feet from being crushed by
a dropped object and are worn as a safety precaution
on rigs.
steel-tooth bit see milled-tooth bit
steerable motor a single or multibend positivedisplacement motor run behind the drill bit that can
be used in either an oriented mode to deflect a well
or a rotary mode to drill straight ahead. The curvature
rate of the well drilled by a steerable motor generally
ranges from 2-4 per 100 ft.
steerable propeller a marine propeller that is
mounted in a pod and can rotate 360 to keep a
drillship or semisubmersible on station
steerable system a downhole assembly consisting
of a measurement-while-drilling (MWD) tool above
a steerable motor. A steerable system is used to drill
a directional well that can be manipulated and drilled
from the surface in a process called navigational
drilling without tripping out to survey the hole.
steering drilling using a steerable motor
steering tool a survey instrument used with a mud
motor that continuously measures the azimuth and
inclination of the tool face. A conductor line connects
the tool with a display on the rig floor. The steering
tool has been replaced by measurement while
drilling.
stellite a cobalt-based alloy that is very hard and very
resistant to hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide

BULB

STEM

ROOT

stem on a salt plug

stem 1) the long neck of a diapir such as a salt plug

that connects the bulb with the root 2) a drillstem
3) the rod or shaft that is used to open or close a
valve
stemming the placement of sand or gravel that is
placed above the nitroglycerine during explosive
fracturing to contain the explosion

491

step bore a gradual decrease in box threaded

coupling bore diameter. The step bore and the
corresponding increase in pin diameter is designed
to increase pin strength.
step down to decrease the outer diameter of pipe
on a drillstring in contrast to step up
step fault 1) one of several closely-spaced parallel
faults with similar displacements 2) one of several,
low-angle thrust faults that step down and across the
rock layers
Stephanian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 310-290 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Carboniferous period.
stepout the difference in arrival times of seismic
energy at different geophones. (moveout)
step-out well a well drilled in the expected extent
of a reservoir that is being developed but at a significant
distance, usually two or more drilling and spacing
units, from the nearest producer in that reservoir. A
step-out well is sometimes called an out-step well.
(delineation well, extension test or well or outpost
well)
stepping out drilling to the sides of a discovery well
to determine the limits of a subsurface reservoir.
delineation drilling)
step profile a theoretical profile back in a formation
from a wellbore with an abrupt instead of gradational
transition from the flushed to the uninvaded zone.
Step profile is in contrast to transition profile.
step scale royalty a payment made on production
(royalty) in which the rate increases by levels as the
average production from the well increases. In
contrast, a sliding scale royalty is based on the total
average production.
step test a well test in which increasing injection
pressure into a formation is plotted against intake
rate of injected fluids. A step test is used to determine
the fracture pressure of the reservoir. A sharp increase
of intake indicates formation fracturing.
step up to increase the outer diameter of pipe on
a drillstring in contrast to step down
stereoscope An optical instrument which uses two
lenses to view tax overlapping aerial photographs,
yielding a three-dimensional image of the surface
stereoscopic pair two overlapping aerial
photographs used with a stereoscope to give a threedimensional image of the surface
STg sidetracking
stg stage
stging straightening
STGS stages
STH sidetracked hole
S3 the third peak measured by Rock-Eval, S3 is the
milligrams of CO2 generated from 1 gm of rock by
temperatures up to 390C
stick a solid corrosion inhibitor that is dropped down
a well
stick cross section or diagram a cross section, a
vertical view or panel of the subsurface made by
correlating rock layers or horizons between wells,
with the wells being represented by vertical or nearly
vertical lines or sticks

492

stick diagram stock tank

stick diagram a subsurface diagram with wells being

represented by vertical or nearly vertical lines or sticks
sticking pipe indicator log a log that predicts
where pipe will stick based on measured downhole
conditions. SPIN
stick of macaroni a joint of pipe

stick plot

stick plot a diagram used to show the results of a

dipmeter in a well. The well is shown as a line along
the vertical axis of the stick plot. Each dip measurement
is shown as a short line or stick intersecting the well.
The sticks are located at the depth in the well where
they were measured and are dipping at the angle
that was measured by the dipmeter.
stiff arm a steel bar that is attached to equipment
on one end and secured on the other end to prevent
the equipment such as tubing tongs from rotating
and swinging
No 100<-

CI 100

Ca 10 "

i HCO310

Mg10 -

-1SO 4 10
-ICO3 10

Fe 10 -

Scale (Meq/liter)

Sea Water
Stiff diagram

Stiff diagram a method of representing the chemical

composition of oilfield waters. The concentration of
Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cl, HCO3, SO4, and CO3 in
milliequivalents per liter are shown as horizontal lines
coming out of a central vertical line. The different
water types can be easily recognized with a Stiff
diagram.
stiff bottomhole assembly a downhole assembly
on a drillstring that is stiff and is stabilized to full
gauge for the well. One to eight stabilizers are used
immediately above the bit with the normal being three
or four stabilizers. The stiff drilling assembly is used
to maintain angle on a deviated hole and can be divided
into mild, medium, and severe as determined by the
number of stabilizers and their position in relation
to the bit. A stiff bottomhole-assembly is in contrast

to a pendulum, fulcrum, or slick bottomhole assembly.

(packed-hole bottomhole assembly)
stiff foam an air drilling fluid made with air, water,
a foaming agent, a viscosifier, and a strengthening
agent. Stiff foam is used to maintain circulation when
downhole water is present
stiff hookup a rigid bottomhole assembly used to
maintain the inclination of a wellbore. Stiff hookup
is in contrast to a limber hookup.
Stiles method a method for approximating oil
recovery by a waterflood. The Stiles method assumes
separate, stratified layers of permeability.
stimulate a well to use an engineering process such
as acidizing, fracing, or workover to increase
production from a well
stimulation an engineering process by the operator
of a well to increase the production from a producing
formation in a well such as acidizing or hydraulic
fracturing
stinger 1) an extension of the bottom of a downhole
tool that is used to guide the tool. The stinger on a
pilot mill guides the pilot mill into a tubular fish. A
stinger on a reamer keeps the tool concentric in the
hole, (pilot) 2) a boom mounted on a truck
stinging in to seat a tool with a stinger
stipulation a demand or condition
stirrer see agitator
stk 1) stuck 2) stake 3) stock
STK or Stk. streak
STK-C stuck casing
STK-P stuck drillpipe
stl steel
STM steel-tape measurement
stm steam
stmg streaming
STN stain
Stn or stn 1) stain 2) stained 3) staining
stng staining
stn/by stand by
STNR signal-to-noise ratio
star strainer
stock tank a cylindrical crude-oil storage tank on a
lease that holds oil under atmospheric pressure until
sold to a purchaser. Two types of stock tanks are a)
bolted steel and b) welded steel. The bolted-steel
stock tank is assembled on location and can have
either an internal lining or a galvanized finish. The
bolted-steel stock tank comes in sizes of 500 bbls or
larger. The welded-steel stock tank is welded in a
shop and transported onto location. The welded-steel
stock tank is internally coated against corrosion and
comes in sizes of 90 bbls or larger. Stock tanks can
have either flat or cone-shaped bottoms for sediment
collection. An oil sales outlet is located about 1 ft
above the bottom of the tank to transfer the oil, and
a thief hatch is located on the top for gauging. There
are usually at least two stock tanks in a tank battery
located on a pad or raised surface for each lease, so
one can be drained as the other is being filled. The
stock tanks can have a tank dike of raised earth

stock-tank or stocktank barrel

Stormer viscometer

493

stock tanks
wellbore. Stoneley pseudopermeability is often
plotted against porosity from logs to separate
intergranular from fracture permeability.
Stoneley wave a type of surface guided wave that
is propagated along an interface. A Stoneley wave can
be generated when a seismic impulse meets the
wellbore-wellbore fluid interface and is propagated
along that interface.
stop a valve plug
stopcock a valve
stopcocking the periodic shutting in of a well to
permit the gas pressure to build up
stock tanks

surrounding the tanks in case of a spill, (field, flow,

lease, or production tank)
stock-tank or stocktank barrel one barrel of oil
at surface conditions after the solution gas has bubbled
out of it. Because the gas bubbles out of the oil when
it is pumped to the surface and pressure is relieved,
the surface volume of oil (stock-tank barrels) is less
than in the subsurface reservoir which is called oil
in place. STB or stb
stock-tank or stocktank conditions conditions of
60F and 1 atm. Under stock-tank conditions, one
barrel of oil is equal to 5615 ft3 and 0.159 m3.
stock-tank or stocktank emulsion
breakers chemicals that are oil wetting agents and
are used to separate oil and water emulsions in a
separator in the field
stock-tank or stocktank gas/oil ratio the cubic
feet of separator gas per barrel of stock-tank oil
stock-tank or stocktank oil stabilized oil existing
under surface conditions of temperature and pressure
(60F and 1 atm). Stabilized oil exists after the oil
has been processed through a separator to remove
solution gas and water, (atmospheric-pressure oil or
lease crude) STOIL
STOIIP stock-tank oil initially in place
STOIL stock-tank oil
stolp stock-tank oil in place
stoke the cgs unit of absolute or kinematic viscosity
Stoneley pseudopermeabiUty an approximation
of formation permeability in a well based on the
attenuation and dispersion of Stoneley waves in the

stop ring

stop collar or ring a hinged metal ring that is

designed to fit around tubular goods such as casing.
The stop ring contains threaded holes or a lug to
hold it in position. The stop ring is used to position
equipment such as a centralizer or scratcher on the
outside of the tubular.
stop sub a short length of pipe with a collar that is
used on a fishing string to prevent the fishing tool
from penetrating too far into the fish
stor storage
store lease a mineral-rights lease that has been
printed with only the blanks needing to be filled in
storeman a crew member who maintains stocks and
distributes equipment and parts on an offshore
platform
storm choke a direct-controlled safety valve that
is used to shut in a well in the subsurface. A coiled
spring is used to hold a valve off a seat until a certain
flow rate through the tubing is reached, at which time
the valve closes.
Stormer viscometer a rotational shear instrument
used to measure viscosity and gel strengths of drilling
muds. The Stormer viscometer consists of an inner
cup that rotates and an outer cup that is stationary.
The drilling mud is contained between the inner and

494

story pole strandline pools

outer cups. The viscosity is measure by the grams

weight required to drive the rotating cup at 600 rpms
and is calibrated in centipoises. The viscometer is
calibrated with water and glycerine solutions of known
viscosities.
story pole a pole, with or without marks, used by
a roustabout to estimate the amount of crude oil in
a tank
stove pipe a short string (20-100 ft) of large diameter
pipe or casing 26-42 in. outside diameter that is often
formed of several joints welded together. Stove pipe
is pounded into the ground with a diesel hammer
or pile driver until driven to refusal. Stove pipe is
used to start a well only in areas of vegetation and
very soft ground. It prevents a washout and provides
a conduit for drilling mud circulating back into the
mud tanks. No wellhead equipment is mounted on
the stove pipe, (drive pipe or casing)
STP standard temperature and pressure
stp stopper
stpd stopped
STPKR straddle packer
Str structural
S-T-R section-township-range
straddle packer one of two expandable elastomer
sealing devices that is used to isolate a section in a
well. One straddle packer is seated above and the
other seated below the section to be tested (straddle
test) or treated. SP or STPKR
straddle plant equipment, located on a pipeline, that
is used to remove ethane, propane, butane, and
condensate from natural gas. (fieldplant)
straddle test or straddle-packer test a drillstem
test made on a section of the well that is not on the
bottom of the well by seating straddle packers above
and below the section in order to isolate it. (double
wall packer test) SPT
straightening vanes a bundle of small-diameter
tubes that is fitted into a flowline to streamline the
fluid flow and reduce eddies. Straightening vanes are
often used upstream from a meter.
straight hole a well drilled vertically into the
subsurface. There is usually some tolerance allowed
in the drilling contract, for example, no more than
3 from vertical for any 100 ft of depth in the well.
(straight well or wellbore, or vertical hole or well)
straight-hole downhole motor or turbodrill a
downhole motor that is longer, larger, and more
powerful than a directional downhole motor. A
straight-hole downhole motor is designed to drill
straight ahead.
straighthole survey a deviation survey in a well
straight-in directional hole a deviated well with
a build and then a straight locked-in section drilled
without a drop-off section
straight kick a type of deviated well in which the
well builds angle and then drills straight to the target.
A straight kick is in contrast to an S-type kick.
straight-line method of depreciation an
accounting method that uses equal deductions from
income (depreciation) each year for the life of the
equipment. The straight-line method of depreciation

straight-in directional hole

is in contrast to accelerated depreciation which allows

for a faster tax write-off.
straight pull release a practice of releasing a
downhole tool by pulling the string up to break a
shear pin and open a hydraulic circuit bypass valve
to release the slips. A straight pull release is in contrast
to rotation release.
straight well or wellbore see straight hole

in

yield
point

faulting

STRAIN
stress-strain relationship

strain a change in the shape or volume of an object

caused by stress or force. It can be permanent strain,
such as brittle or ductile, or temporary strain that is
elastic. Strain is often measured as a ratio of the length
of the original object minus the length of the deformed
object to the length of the original object or by using
a similar dimensional ratio.
strain ellipsoid a method of showing strain or
deformation. A strain ellipsoid uses an ellipse to show
the resulting shape of a circle had it been deformed
by the same stress.
strain gauge an instrument that measures the
deformation of a structure or object
strain-limit design casing casing with the joints
significantly stronger than the pipe body to prevent
joint failure
strand a group of wires twisted together. Strands
are used to make wire rope, (wire strand)
stranding machine a machine that makes wire rope
by braiding wires into strands and strands into rope.
(closing machine)
strandline pools stratigraphic types of petroleum
traps that were formed by reservoir rocks deposited
along a shoreline. Beach sandstones are an example
of strandline pools.

strand plain stratigraphic test well or hole

strand plain a prograded shoreline formed by the
deposition of sediments
strap or strapping 1) measuring the height and
volume of a tank in order to prepare a tank table
that is used by a gauger to measure the volume of
oil in the tank from the height of oil in the tank 2)
to measure the depth of a well
strap in to measure pipe being run in a well
strap out of the hole the measurement of well depth
by measuring the lengths of pipe stands hanging under
tension in the elevators
STRAT stratigraphic test
STRAT or strat stratigraphic
Strat 1) strata 2) stratified

495

thickness is shown. The individual rock layers are

often drawn in profile as they would weather in a
cliff of rocks. Resistant rocks such as sandstones
protrude out, whereas weak rocks such as shales are
weathered back, (columnar section or geologic
column or section)

i
m

aa
i

!
I

stratigraphic cross section

strata

strata layers of sedimentary rock. Strata is the plural

of stratum. Strat
Stratafrac hydraulic fracturing
Stratalog a type of wellsite computer processed
log
stratapax bit a shear type of drilling bit that uses
synthetic diamonds. The cutting is done with rows
of small cylinders called drill blanks or compacts that
are composed of a layer of man-made polycrystalline
diamonds cemented to a tungsten carbide stud. The
bit body is either a heat-treated alloy steel or tungsten
carbide matrix with at least three jet nozzles and the
bit profile is either a double cone or a shallow cone.
The advantages of the bit is that there are no moving
parts; it drills by shearing, requiring less effort, and
the bit is well suited for turbine drilling. Stratapax
bits are self-sharpening and need less weight on the
bit than a conventional drill bit. The bit does not
work well with water-base drilling muds and is more
expensive than conventional bits but has a longer
life than other types of bits, (polycrystalline diamond,
polycrystalline diamond compact, or PDC bit)
stratification the natural layering of sedimentary
rocks. Stratification is caused by variations in the
erosional processes that deposited the sediments. A
layer in sedimentary rock represents a period of
nondeposition or slight erosion.
stratified layered. Strat
stratigraphic column a column that shows the
vertical succession of rock layers, usually formations,
in a specific area. The rock layers are arranged with
the oldest at the bottom and become progressively
younger toward the top. The geological ages of the
rock layers are often identified and their range of

stratigraphic cross section a vertical panel (cross

section) made by correlating well logs that have been
hung or arranged along a level reference surface that
is a marker bed or horizon. A stratigraphic cross
section shows the sedimentary rock layers as they
were originally deposited and how they relate to each
other. Subsequent deformation such as folding and
faulting has been removed. A stratigraphic cross
section is in contrast to a structural cross section.
stratigraphic dolomite dolomite, a mineral and
rock composed of CaMg(CO3)2, that has replaced
calcite in limestone along natural fractures such as
joints in the limestone. The fractures were routes
through which Mg-rich waters perculated through the
limestone when it was transformed into dolomite.
Stratigraphic dolomite is in contrast to primary,
syngenetic, evaporitic, supratidal, and diagenic
dolomite, (epigenic, secondary, or tectonic dolomite)
stratigraphic equivalent rocks that are the same
by either a) having been deposited at the same time
(time stratigraphic) or b) as a continuous rock layer
(rock stratigraphic)
stratigraphic high-density dipmeter'" a wireline
well log that is made by a sonde with four arms or
pads with two button electrodes on each of the four
pads. The dipmeter gives four microresistivity curves
that are used for correlation and computation of
structural and stratigraphic dips.
stratigraphic high-resolution dipmeter a
dipmeter that measures microresistivity from 27
button electrodes on each of two pads that are located
at right angles. The tool is abbreviated SHDT and is
also called a dual dipmeter tool
stratigraphic section see columnar or geological
section
stratigraphic separation the shortest distance along
a fault surface that joins two points that were previously
connected before the fault moved
stratigraphic test well or hole a well drilled
primarily to obtain subsurface geological information

496

stratigraphic trap strike line

such as the character and vertical sequence of

subsurface rocks in the area without being completed
as a producer. A stratigraphic test well can be drilling
along a seismic line in order to identify the reflectors
on seismic profiles. If a seismic line is run (tied in)
through or near an existing well, that well can become
a stratigraphic test well. A stratigraphic test hole is
often drilled with a small-diameter wellbore called a
slim hole. A stratigraphic test well can be either a)
an exploratory type that is drilled in an area that has
not been proven or b) a development type that is
drilled in a proven area, (strat test) STRAT
stratigraphic trap a petroleum trap formed by the
deposition (depositional trap) and diagenesis of the
reservoir rock such as a limestone reef, river channel
sandstone, an updip pinchout of a sandstone wedge
in a shale layer or an oolite shoal (primary stratigraphic
or lithologic trap). The stratigraphic trap can also be
formed by later erosion of the reservoir rock
(secondary stratigraphic trap), such as an angular
unconformity. Stratigraphic trap is in contrast to
structural and combination traps.
stratigraphy the study of the composition,
occurrence, and history of layered (sedimentary) rocks
strat test see stratigraphic test well or hole
stratum a tabular body of rock with a distinctive top
and bottom surface that are parallel or approximately
parallel. The plural of stratum is strata, (bed or layer)
stray sand 1) a sandstone that the driller did not
expect to encounter 2) an oil-producing sandstone
that is not present in nearby wells
strd straddle
streak the color of powder of a mineral made by
rubbing the mineral on an unglazed piece of porcelain.
The streak can be different than the color of the
mineral. Stk., Strk, or strk
stream 1) a fluid flow such as a produced gas stream
2) the volume in standard cubic feet per day of gas
that can be delivered from a well or leasehold
stream day the number of days per year a plant is
operating and not down
streamer a flexible, clear plastic tube commonly
containing 96 or up to 240 evenly spaced hydrophone
groups of 20-50 hydrophones in each group for a
marine seismic survey. The streamer is towed behind
a boat at a depth of about 20-50 ft which is controlled
by vanes. Pressure-sensitive hydrofoils or birds are
evenly spaced along the streamer to control depth.
A water-break detector is located at the end of the
streamer nearest the boat and is used to measure
the offset distance between the hydrophone array and
the source array. The streamer contains a depth
indicator and magnetic compass and is commonly
1.5-3 mi long, 2-3 in. in diameter, and filled with
oil to have neutral buoyancy. It contains color-coded
wires and a steel cable in the center. The streamer
comes in sections for replacement. Some have builtin distributive units to transmit data in digital form.
(hydrophone streamer)
streaming cut the flash of oil under fluorescent light
as it dissolves into a solvent such as carbon
tetrachloride when oil-bearing well cuttings are put
into the solvent

streaming potential the portion of a spontaneous

potential (SP) response on an electric log that is
influenced by the mudcake on the wellbore and the
filtrate in the formation adjacent to the wellbore
streamline a line drawn through a moving fluid that
is tangent to the velocity vector of the fluid at any
given time
streamline flow a type of fluid flow in which the
direction of flow remains constant at each point in
the flow with time. Streamline flow is characteristic
of fluid flow through permeable rocks and is in
contrast to turbulent flow, (laminar flow)
streamtube a closed area in a moving fluid that is
bounded by streamlines. A cross section of the stream
tube is a closed curve.
stream tube model a computer model for fluid flow
through a reservoir using individual flow paths or
tubes
strength the ability of an acid to react as measured
by the ionization constant
strength retrogression the decline of cement
strength with age. Strength retrogression can be
related to temperature.
stress the force per unit area acting on a solid. The
stress components are oriented perpendicular to each
other and are identified as a1 (maximum), CT2
(intermediate), and cr3 (minimum). Strain is the
resulting deformation of a solid by stress.
stress-and-strain department an engineering
department
stress concentrator an imperfection or gouge on
a pipe that focuses stress causing a break, (stress riser)
stress corrosion cracking the formation of a
fracture in a substance due to a combination of
corrosion and stress at a point of maximum stress.
Hydrogen sulfide is the most common cause of
corrosion in metals used in drilling and production.
Stress corrosion cracking can cause metal fatigue. SCC
stress relief the heating of a substance to a specific
temperature to relieve any residual stress
stress reversal the change of stress on a substance
from compression to tension or tension to
compression
stress riser see stress concentrator
Stretfbrd process a licensed sour gas sweetening
process that uses a solution of vanaduim salts and
anthraquinone disulfonic acid (ADA)
STRG strong
strg 1) strong 2) stringer 3) storage
STRGR or strgr stringer
Stri or stri striations
striations a scratch caused by a geological process
on a rock surface. Stri or stri
strike 1) the horizontal direction of a plane such
as a bedding or fault plane. Strike is usually expressed
as a compass direction. Dip is measured perpendicular
to strike. 2) to drill and discover oil
strike line a cross section or seismic section that
is parallel to the strike or horizontal direction of the
subsurface beds. A strike line is in contrast to a dip

strike plate stripper plant

strike and dip symbol

line, which is oriented perpendicular to the strike

line.
strike plate the heavy metal plate that is attached
to the bottom of a crude oil storage tank below the
thief hatch. The strike plate is used as zero on the
tank gauge table and protects the bottom of the tank
from the gauging weight or bob. (dp plate)
strikes trending in a horizontal direction
strike section a cross section that is parallel to the
depositional shoreline. A strike section is in contrast
and perpendicular to the dip section.
strike separation the fault displacement measured
along the strike of the fault surface

IEFT LATERAL

strike slip faults

strike-slip fault a natural fracture in the rocks along

which there has been predominately horizontal
movement. The two types of strike-slip faults are right
lateral and left lateral. Wrench, tear, and transcurrent
faults are also strike-dip faults.
string 1) a length of tubulars such as drillpipe, casing,
or tubing composed of many individual sections that
have been screwed or fastened together 2) several
geophones that are permanently connected and have
a connector on one end
stringer 1) a thin or discontinuous high-velocity rock
layer located in a thicker, low-velocity formation 2)
a thin, sedimentary rock layer 3) a support used under
the middle of horizontally racked drillpipe to prevent
sagging, strg, STRGR, or strgr

stringing up to thread the drilling line through the

sheaves on the crown block and traveling block and
fasten it to the deadline anchor on the derrick
string over to measure the depth of a well
string reamer any reamer run on a downhole
assembly. The string reamer is a conventional reamer

497

with tapered ends and is often run on the drillstring

several hundred feet above the top of the drill collars
to eliminate keyseats.
string shot a length of Primacord explosive that is
hung in a well and detonated. A string shot can be
used in a fishing operation for stuck pipe. The string
shot is used one joint above the free point. The pipe
is turned or backed-off during the explosion to
unscrew the connection. A string shot is also used
for well stimulation to remove paraffin, mudcake, or
gypsum from the wellbore face, (backoff shot) SS
string shot back-off tool a tool that uses a quantity
of explosive detonating cord detonated by an electrical
blasting cap to produce a shock wave to loosen a
pipe joint connection in a well. Left-handed torque
is applied to the pipe from the surface during the
explosion.
string stabilizer any stabilizer sub run on the
downhole assembly just above the bit to produce a
full gauge hole and to stabilize the bit. A three-point
bit reamer has three roller-reamers at 120. A sixpoint bit reamer has two sets of three roller reamers
and is used in crooked hole areas.
string up to run the drilling line through the crown
and traveling blocks
strip to produce oil or gas from a reservoir at a rate
that is barely economical
strip a well to pull rods and tubing from a well.
The tubing is stripped over the rods one joint at a
time. Stripping a well is usually done to remove wax
build up.
strip chart a long strip of paper that is mounted
on rollers on both ends. A strip chart is used to record
a parameter such as gas flow and is in contrast to a
circular chart.
strip log 1) a recorded well log of some type on a
long strip of paper 2) core or well cutting samples
mounted on a long strip of paper
strip out to pull the rods and tubing from a well at
the same time
stripped gas natural gas with the liquids removed
stripper 1) an elastomer packing element that can
be used under low or moderate pressure to seal the
annulus during running or pulling tubing in a well
2) equipment that is used to remove something from
a liquid with a gas. Strippers include packed and
bubble-cap tray towers and are similar to absorbers.
3) a rubber device that is used to wipe drilling mud
from a survey cable as it is pulled from a well
stripper or stripper well a marginally profitable
well. Profitability will depend on the production,
depth, location, and market for the oil or gas. A stripper
well qualifies for special tax considerations. It is usually
denned for tax purposes as a well that produces less
than 10 bbls of oil or 60 Mcf of gas per day.
stripper field a hand wheel that is used to unscrew
a rod from a string of sucker rods
stripper head a circular template used for multiple
completions with several tubing strings on subsea
completions
stripper plant a field installation that removes
condensate or natural gasoline from wet gas. Stripping
is done by refrigeration or absorption with absorption

498

stripper preventers structural relief

oil. A cryogenic plant uses very low-temperature

refrigeration, (stripping plant)
stripper preventers packing material that is set by
pressure from below and is used to remove pipe
under pressure from a well, (pack-off preventers)
stripper production the last stage, after settled
production, in the life of the well. Stripper production
is characterized by a low production rate that is
economically marginal.
stripper rubber a rubber disk that is used to clean
the drillpipe as it is pulled from the well
stripper well field an oil field in which the
production averages ten barrels of oil per day per
well or less over the period of a year
stripping 1) the running (stripping in) or pulling
(stripping out) tubulars from a well under pressure.
Stripping is done with the annular blowout preventers
closed or through a resilient sealing element 2)
intermittent production on an oil well 3) removing
dissolved gas from a liquid 4) to remove something
from a liquid stream with a gas
stripping in the hole see stripping
stripping job raising and taking apart the sucker
rods in order for the downhole pump in a well to
be repaired
stripping over a logging tool fishing technique in
which the logging line is cut and run through a special
overshot and fishing string. The overshot and fishing
string are run in the well and the logging line is
pulled tight to guide the overshot onto the logging
tool fish. Stripping over is used when the tool is lying
in a washed-out section of the well or under a keyseat
and is difficult to catch.
stripping plant see stripper plant
strip pipe to pull the drillstring from a well with
the blowout preventers closed
Strk or strk streak
STRKS or strks streaks
stroke one complete revolution. It is the piston
strokes in an engine, pump, or compressor between
two intake strokes. One, two, and four strokes are
common in an engine, (cycle)
stroke counter a mechanical counter that records
strokes on reciprocating mud pumps
stroke jar a type of jarring tool used in cable-tool
rigs. The stroke jar has two components linked
together with chain.
Strom or strom stromaporoids

stromataporida

stromaporoids extinct invertebrates that existed

from the Cambrian period to the Cretaceous period
and are thought to have been coelenterates.

Stromaporoids secreted calcareous colonial structures

and were important reef builders during the Silurian
and Devonian periods. Strom or strom
stromatolite a domal, laminated calcareous
structure deposited by blue-green algae in the high
intertidal and low supratidal zones. Stromatolites
consist of both fine-grained sediments trapped by the
algae and calcium carbonate secreted by the algae.
Stromlt or stromlt
Stromlt or stromlt stromatolite
strong well a well with a large production flow
strt straight
STRUC structure
struc structural
structural casing a string of casing that is
occasionally used between the drive pipe and the
surface casing to counter lost circulation or shallow
abnormal high pressure gas zones. Structural casing
ranges from 600-1,000 ft deep.
structural closure the vertical distance from the top
of the reservoir rock in the trap to the spill point.
Structural closure is generally smaller than the
structural relief of the trap.
structural contour map see structural map

structural cross section

structural cross section a vertical panel made by

correlating between wells by using well logs that have
been hung (arranged along a level, reference surface
that is sea level). A structural cross section shows
the present position of the rock layers and
deformational structures, such as faults and folds, and
is used to show potential petroleum traps. A structural
cross section is in contrast to a stratigraphic cross
section.
structural map a contoured subsurface map
showing the elevation of the top of a rock layer. A
structural map shows folds, anticlines, domes, and
dip-slip faults, (structure contour map)
structural mast a portable mast used on a wellservicing unit that is made of angular steel in contrast
to the tubular steel members of a pole mast
structural nose a plunging anticline without closure.
(anticlinal nose or nose)
structural relief the vertical distance from the top
of a reservoir rock in a fold to the regional height

structural shale

structure map

of that reservoir rock adjacent to the fold. Structural

relief is generally larger than the structural closure
of the fold.
structural shale shale that occurs as large grains
in a clastic sedimentary rock such as a conglomerate
structural steel pipe a tubular with uniform wall
thickness that was formed from a steel plate with
longitudinal and circumferential butt-welded seams
structural style the type of deformation prevalent
in an area such as extensional or compressional and
high or low amplitude features, the direction of stress
and the type of predominate deformation such as
thrust faulting. Two types of structural styles are a)
basement involved and b) basement detached.
Basement-involved structural styles include pull-apart
zones, compressive faults, basement thrusts, wrenchfault assemblages and basement warps. Basementdetached structural styles include thrust assemblages,
normal fault assemblages, growth faults, salt structures,
shale flows, drape structures, volcanic plugs, and
sedimentary structures.
structural terrace a zone of relatively gentle or
horizontal sedimentary rock dips in a area of more
steeply dipping rocks
structural trap a petroleum trap formed by the
deformation of the reservoir rock such as a fold
(anticline or dome) or a fault. A structural cross trap
is in contrast to a stratigraphic or combination trap.
structure 1) the geometry of the subsurface rocks
2) a particular area of interest for drilling 3) a
subsurface area defined by a fold or faulting 4) a
subsurface high area defined by seismic exploration
5) the visible characteristics of a rock. STRUC
structure contour map a contoured, subsurface
map showing the elevation of the top of a rock layer.
A structure contour map shows folds, anticlines,
domes, and dip-slip faults, (structural map)
structure test hole a well drilled without being
completed as a producer to determine the subsurface
elevation of a rock layer or zone and to determine
the subsurface structure. A structure test hole is often
a slim hole and can be relatively shallow, without
drilling down to the potential reservoir rocks. A

stuffing box

499

stratigraphic test is drilled to determine characteristics

of the rocks.
ST SPEED string speed
STTD sidetracked total depth
Stu staurolite
stub liner a string of casing used to extend a liner
up the well but not all the way to the surface. A stub
liner is used to repair the top of a leaking liner and
is in contrast to a tieback liner.
stuck pipe a condition in which the drillstring,
casing, tubing, or any tool attached to them cannot
be retrieved or moved in the well. Stuck pipe could
be caused by a) wall sticking, b) keyseating, c) caving,
sluffing, d) junk, or e) fish wedged against the pipe
or by heaving shales.
stuck-pipe log a well log that measures the severity
and length of stuck pipe in a well. The pipe sticking
is measured as a percent of signal attenuation when
the pipe is vibrated. The stuck-pipe log is calibrated
with free pipe.
stuck point the location at the top of a section of
stuck pipe in a well. The stuck point is just below
the free point.
stuck-point indicator tool a tool that is used to
locate the free-point on stuck pipe in a well. One
type of stuck-point indicator tool consists of two
electromagnets on a telescopic joint. When upward
pull and rotary torque are applied to the pipe from
the surface, the tension is not transmitted to the stuck
portion of the pipe. The free section is identified by
the tension and torque. Another type of stuck-point
indicator tool senses torque and movement. The tool
is slowly raised on a wireline in the drillstring as
the drillstring is being rotated from the surface. The
point where torque first appears is just above the
stuck pipe and is the free point, (free-point detector
or indicator)
stuck rods sucker rods in a well that will not move
due to wax buildup
stud a supervisor
stud horse the tool pusher on a drilling rig

stuffing box

stuffing box

stuffing box a pressure-control cylinder that

contains compressed packing around a moving shaft
to prevent gas or liquid leakage around the shaft as
the shaft moves. On a pumping unit, the stuffing box
is the cylinder that fits around the polished rod and
provides a seal between the tubing and the atmosphere

500

stuffing-box casing head SUBD or subd

as the polished rod rises and falls. Guide bearings

above and below the packing provide protection from
any misalignment of the polished rod. Three types
of stuffing boxes are single packing, double packing,
and lubricating, (packing gland) SB
stuffing-box casing head a steel cap screwed onto
the top of the casing of a well. The stuffing-box casing
head is used to confine gas between the tubing and
casing, (bradenhead)
stump test a pressure test run on a blowoutpreventer stack mounted on the test stump located
on the cellar deck of a semisubmersible
S2 the second peak measured by Rock-Eval. S2 is
the milligrams of hydrocarbon generated by pyrolytic
degradation of kerogen in 1 gm of rock.
S/2 south half
STY salty
STYL, Styl, or styl 1) styolite 2) styolitic
stylus a pointed marking device
styo styolite

styolite

styolite an irregular surface of teeth-like projections

that occurs in limestone and is parallel to the bedding
planes. A styolite is formed by pressure solution on
bedding planes in limestone and often has a surface
film of insolubles such as clay or iron oxides. Styolites
can show oil stains indicating they have been paths
for petroleum migration through the limestone. STYL,
Styl, styl, or styo
S-type kick or well a type of deviated well in which
the well builds angle, drills straight, drops angle and
then drills straight to the target. An S-type kick is in
contrast to a straight kick. (S-shaped or S well)
SU standard unit
Su or su 1) sulfur 2) sulfurous
sub 1) substitute 2) subassembly 3) substructure
sub 1) a short length of drillpipe that is threaded
on both ends. A crossover sub is used to join sections
of the drillstring that are not compatible due to
diameter or thread design differences. A sub can also
have a specialized function such as a stabilizer, hole
opener, or shock absorber. A bit sub has a box
connection on both ends to accommodate the bit pin
that points upward. 2) a short length of tubing
containing a downhole tool 3) any tubular shorter
than standard length, sb
subaerial above sea level
subaqueous delta plain the part of the delta front
located between low tide and the basin floor. The
subaqueous delta plain is characterized by a seaward
fining of sediments and is an active area for
subaqueous mass movements such as mud flows and
slumps.

subarkose a type of sandstone that is derived from

the weathering of a granitic source. A subarkose
contains less than 30% feldspars and less than 90%
quartz. A subarkose is between an arkose and
orthoquartzite in composition and texture.
subcrop an area in which a formation occurs directly
below an unconformity

subcrop map

subcrop map a geological map showing the aerial

distribution of formations cropping out on a
subsurface unconformity. A subcrop map is a type
of paleogeologic map and is in contrast to a
subgeologic or worm's eye map that shows the aerial
distribution of formations above a subsurface
unconformity.
subcrystalline a fine-grained texture in sedimentary
rocks that is characterized as glassy or resinous. Pure
dolomite can have a subcrystalline texture.
SUBD or subd subdivision

VOLCANO:

CONTINENT,
MOUNTAIN

subduction zones

subduction zone
subduction zone an area, as defined by the seafloor
spreading theory, where two moving crusts from
different spreading centers collide. Subduction zones
tend to be long and are seen as mountain ranges,
ocean trenches, and volcanos. Earthquakes are
common in active subduction zones.
subfeldsarenite a type of sandstone that has a
feldspar grain-to-rock fragment ratio of between
infinity and 3:1 and contains between 75%-95% quartz
subgeologic map a geological map showing the
aerial distribution of formations that occur directly
above a subsurface unconformity. A subgeologic map
is in contrast to a paleogeologic or subcrop map that
show the aerial distribution of formations that occur
directly below a subsurface unconformity, (worm's
eye map)
subgraywacke a sandstone that has less than 75%
quartz, less than 15% detrital clay matrix, and at least
25% unstable grains (feldspars and rock fragments)
with more rock fragments than feldspars. A
subgraywacke is between a graywacke and an
orthoquartzite in composition and texture and is
lighter in color, better sorted, and has less matrix
than a graywacke.
sublease 1) an assignment of an interest in a lease
for a lesser time than the period on the lease. For
example, the assignment of the next 5 years on a
lease that has a 10-year term. The seller or transferor
usually receives cash and/or an override. A sublease
has unfavorable tax consequences. 2) an assignment
with the retention of an overriding royalty interest
3) a transaction that involves selling with a retained
overriding interest
sublessee the party that has been granted a sublease
sublessor the party that has granted a sublease
sublitharenite a sandstone that has a rock fragmentto-feldspar ratio of between infinity and 3.1 and
contains between 75%-95% quartz
submarine barge platform a barge with a drilling
rig mounted on it that is used in very shallow water.
The barge is flooded with water over the drillsite
and sinks to the bottom to provide a firm drilling
foundation. The water is shallow enough so that the
drilling rig is still above the water.
submarine canyon 1) a valley that was eroded into
the continental shelf and slope of the ocean bottom.
Submarine canyons are straight to sinuous and have
steep-to-vertical walls with a V- or U-shaped cross
section. Most modern submarine canyons are located
off subaerial river mouths and terminate with
submarine fans. Submarine canyons are thought to
have been eroded by turbidity currents. 2) a general
term for any valley on the sea bottom
submarine delta, cone, or fan a large fan-shaped
deposit of sediments located at the base of a submarine
canyon on the ocean bottom. Submarine fans are
deposited by turbidity currents, sand flows, and other
processes that transport sediments down the
submarine canyons. The fans often have distributary
channels, called fan valleys. Submarine fans can switch
similar to delta switching on land. An area of active
submarine-fan deposition at any one specific period
of time is called a suprafan. Because of switching,
the submarine fan is formed by numerous,
superimposed suprafans.

subordination of lien

501

submarine fan

submarine gun a centrifugal pump with a pipe that

is designed to jet drilling mud into the mud tanks
in order to mix in additives or agitate the drilling
mud (mud or surface gun)
submerged weight the weight of an object
submerged in a liquid such as drilling mud.
Submerged weight is in contrast to weight in air.
(effective weight)
submergence 1) the relocation of a position to
below sea level. Submergence is in contrast to
emergence. 2) the vertical depth that a gas-lift line
used in gas-lift pumping is submerged in oil and water
submersible 1) a submersible drilling rig 2) an
electric submersible pump
submersible barge a barge that contains drilling
and completion equipment and supplies for a well
in shallow, protected waters such as marshes, bays,
lagoons, lakes, and canals. The barge is towed to the
drillsite and then submerged to sit on the bottom to
form a stable drilling platform. The first submersible
barge was constructed in 1933 for a steam rig. Modern
submersible barges have several decks and quarters
for the crew. The water depth for most barges to
drill in is 10-14 ft. The barge can drill in deeper
water if shell fill is used to decrease the water depth.
submersible drilling rig a drilling rig that is
mounted on pontoons that can be flooded to rest
on the shallow seafloor. submersible
submersible pump see electric submersible
centrifugal pump
subnormal pressure see abnormal low pressure
subordinate to make a claim or right inferior or
subject to another claim or right
subordinated something that is not effective until
a certain condition is fulfilled
subordinated working interest a working interest
in a well that shares either the working-interest costs
or production up to a specific point in the well. In a
farmout, it is an interest in the earning well in which
the party shares neither the cost nor the revenues
from production-unit payout until the farmee has
recovered all of his costs of drilling, completion, and
production from the production revenues.
(reversionary working interest)
subordination of lien a printed form that is
prepared by a landman, executed by a bank or
mortgage company, and used in a title opinion. A
subordination of lien is used when a mortgage on
land is recorded before a lease is executed to prevent

502

suboxic substitute natural gas

the lease from becoming invalid if the land is

foreclosed.
suboxic water that is between aerobic and anaerobic
in oxygen content. Suboxic water has between 0.1
and 0.2 ml/1 dissolved oxygen, (dysaerobic)
subrogation the substitution of one party for another
in a claim or debt
subsea accumulators the tanks used to contain the
hydraulic fluid under pressure to operate the blowoutpreventer stack on a subsea wellhead and for use in
annular blowout-preventer stripping operations. The
subsea accumulators are part of the lower riser
package.
subsea atmopherlc system a subsea manifold in
a 1-atm chamber that directs produced fluids up a
production riser to a production storage vessel. SAS
subsea blowout preventer blowout preventers,
typically an annular and two ram preventers, that are
mounted on the well head after the conductor pipe
has been run into the seafloor. The subsea blowout
preventer is connected to the drilling spool by a
wellhead connector and to the marine riser with a
riser connector and ball joint. A subsea accumulator
stores the hydraulic fluid used to activate the
preventers under pressure. The blowout preventers
are controlled from the surface through a subsea
control pad that directs hydraulic fluid through the
manifold to the preventers.
subsea completion system the equipment on a
seafloor wellhead that regulates gas and/or oil
production. The subsea completion system includes
the guide structures, wellhead housing, casing
hangers, tree, and flowline connector.
subsea control pod the manifold that is used to
direct hydraulic fluid used to operate the blowoutpreventer stack on a subsea wellhead. Two subsea
control pads are used for redundancy. The emergency
system is controlled by an acoustic signal. Two types
of subsea control pods are a) all hydraulic and b)
electro-hydraulic. The subsea control pod is part of
the lower marine riser.
subsea diverter a piping manifold on a subsea well
that is being drilled. The subsea diverter is designed
to divert formation gas during a blowout away from
the semisubmersible rig or drillship. Gas bubbles in
the water could cause the rig or ship to lose buoyancy
and sink.
subsea engineer a hydraulic and control-system
engineer who supervises the installation, maintenance,
and testing of the subsea blowout preventers and
controls on a semisubmersible or drillship
subsea manifold a pipe system on a subsea template
that directs production to the production riser(s)
subsea production system the subsea production
equipment. Two types of subsea production systems
are the diver-assisted, both wet tree and dry tree,
and diverless. The wet tree system has the subsea
Christmas tree connected by flowline to a manifold
and then by marine riser to a production platform.
It is serviced by swimming divers. The dry-tree system
has a 1-atm chamber surrounding the wellhead cellars
and manifolds. It is serviced by a support ship and
service capsule with a diver inside. The diverless
system usually uses a remotely operating vehicle that

is brought down to a track on the system by a line

attached to a recall buoy. The remote operating vehicle
operates along the track using television and end
effectors to replace and repair the equipment. SPS
subsea safety valve a fail-safe gate valve that is
installed on a subsea blowout preventer stack or in
a production tree. The subsea safety valve can be
activated either remotely or automatically to shut in
the well or flowline. SSSV
subsea test tree the safety valves in a subsea blowout
preventer stack that allow the well to be shut in as
the drillstring and marine riser are withdrawn while
the well is still being drilled
subsea tree a Christmas tree, either dry or wet
depending on whether it is exposed to ocean water,
on a flowing subsea well

subsea wellhead
subsea well template a subsea frame that positions
and anchors subsea wellheads, risers, and guidance
systems
subsequent run a wireline well logging operation
made after a previous run

subsidence

subsidence the gradual lowering of the land surface

over a relatively large area. One cause of subsidence
could be the removal of subsurface fluids due to oil
field operations. As the pressure on the remaining
fluids in the pores of the subsurface rocks decreases,
the rocks compact causing the surface to subside. This
subsidence can be arrested by reinjecting fluids into
the reservoir.
substa substation
substitute see sub
substitute natural gas methane that is made from
synthesis gas (CO-H2) that is methanated. (high-BTU
gas) SNG

substitute well a well drilled by a farmee in a

farmout agreement if the original earning well in the

substitute well sucker rod

farmout cannot be drilled to the required depth. A
substitute well is permitted under an excuse provision
in a farmout agreement. The substitute well can be
drilled after drilling the original earning well becomes
impossible or impractical.
substrate the sediments or rocks upon which benthic
or bottom-dwelling organisms live

substructure

substructure 1) the steel platform and its supports

on a drilling rig on which the derrick or mast,
drawworks, drill floor, dog house, and rotary table
sit. The substructure serves to support the equipment
and to elevate the equipment to provide space for
more equipment below the rig floor. The height of
the substructure depends on the size and pressure
ratings of the wellhead and blowout-preventer
equipment. Two substructures are used and are
oriented parallel to each other with a 10-20 ft spacing
connected by cross braces and beams. H-beams, angle
iron, and metal plate are used in construction. The
front end is heavily reinforced for the greatest load.
The top is covered with steel plate to form the drill
floor. The substructure is generally 10 ft wide, 10 ft
high, and 30 ft long. Pony substructures can be used
to raise the substructures and the drill floor, sub 2)
the deck located under the main deck of a
semisubmersible, drillship, or production platform
subsurface a method of exploration using data from
wells that have already been drilled in the area of
investigation. If seismic data is used, the exploration
technique is called seismic.
subsurface data information collected on the nature
and structure of subsurface rocks by wellbore and
geophysical investigations
subsurface buoy a buoy that is attached to the
seafloor and can be released by a sonic signal, (popup or recall buoy or call-back marker)
subsurface controlled subsurface safety valve a
valve located in a well below the wellhead that is
designed to prevent uncontrolled flow up the well
when it is activated by a specific pressure in the well.
SSCSV

subsurface coverage the area explored in a seismic

survey
subsurface pressure the pressure at location in a
fluid column that is either static or flowing
subsurface probe a wireline device used to locate
the stuck point on a drittstring in a well. Tension is
applied to the drillstring and an oscillator induces a
high frequency current in the drillstring. A receiver

503

is used to detect frequency changes in the signal along

the drillstring to locate the stuck point.
subsurface safety valve a device that is used to
shut in a well at some point below the surface to
prevent oil or gas from reaching the surface when
the surface safety controls are not working due to
fire, explosion, or mechanical failure. Two types of
subsurface safety valves are a) direct controlled, or
storm choke, and b) surface controlled. The directcontrolled type reacts to changes in downhole flow
conditions and is called a subsurface controlled
subsurface safety valve (SSCSV). The surfacecontrolled type is operated by hydraulic lines down
the annulus of the well and is called the surface
controlled subsurface safety valve (SCSSV). Subsurface
safety valves can also be either the tubing retrievable
type or the wireline/pump down retrievable type.
Subsurface safety valves are required by law in most
offshore wells. 555V or SSV
subsurface sample a sample of produced fluids
taken by a sampler from the bottom of a shut-in well.
A subsurface sample is used for a reservoir fluid study
and is in contrast to a separator or surface sample.
(bottomhole sample)
subsurface trespass the bottoming out of a well
out under another lease without the lease owner's
consent. The well was drilled as a crooked or deviated
well on a lease other than the one under which it
bottoms out. Subsurface trespass can also involve the
passage of a well under a lease without the lease
owner's consent.
subtidal the shallow environment located below low
tide in the ocean
subweathering velocity the seismic velocity of the
rocks below the near-surface weathering or lowvelocity layer
subzone a subdivision of a biostratigraphic zone in
rocks. A subzone is defined on the basis of fossils
and can contain several zonules.
sue sucrosic
success or success rate a ratio of the number of
wells completed as producers divided by the total
number of wells drilled. Success can be expressed
as a decimal such as 0.25, a percentage such as 25%,
or a ratio such as 1:4. Success can be calculated from
historical data and can be estimated for future wells
to be drilled. Historical success for drilling in the
United States averages 18% for exploratory wells and
80% for developmental wells, (risk)
successful-efforts accounting an accounting
method in which a direct relationship is required
between reserves acquired and costs. Only the
successful costs are capitalized. This includes a)
mineral interests, b) geological and geophysical
studies, c) wells and equipment, d) production
equipment and facilities, and e) uncompleted well
equipment and facilities. The unsuccessful costs are
expensed. Successful-efforts accounting is in contrast
to full-cost accounting. SE accounting
sucker pole an early type of sucker rod made of
wood with metal ends
sucker rod a steel rod that is usually 25-30 ft long
with a diameter of Vz, Vs, %, %, 1, or lVs in. Most
sucker rods are solid, although some are hollow. The

504

sucker-rod elevator sucrose or sucrosic

DOWN HOLE PUMP

WRENCH RAT

W UP

DOWN

SUCKER ROD
COUPLING

ifl OEX

SUCKER ROD

sucker rod coupling

sucker-rod string is used to connect the surface

pumping unit with a downhole pump in an oil well
and is run inside the producing tubing string. Sucker
rods having a threaded pin on each end are doublepin sucker rods. Sucker rods having a threaded pin
on one end and a threaded box on the other end
for use in coupling are called box-and-pin type sucker
rods. The American Petroleum Institute has set sucker
rod standards for alloys, dimension, strengths, method
of handling and calculations for proper sizes. The
most commonly used sucker rods are Grade C or
carbon-manganese rods. Grade D rods or high tensile
rods are made of nickel-chrome-molybdenum and
used for deep wells or heavy loads. Grade K or nickelmolybdenum rods are used for corrosive
environments and are expensive. Sucker rods less
than 25 ft in length are known as pony rods or rod
subs. Some fiberglass sucker rods (375 ft) which are
lighter and more elastic are used. Hollow sucker rods
can be used in slim-hole pumping where they also
serve the function of a tubing string, (rod)
sucker-rod elevator a device that hangs from the
rod hook and latches on to sucker rods to pull or
run the sucker rods in a well. The sucker-rod elevator
can handle a range of rod sizes.
sucker-rod guides washer-like devices that attach
to the sucker rods to keep them centered in the tubing
sucker-rod power tongs a wrench-like device used
on a drilling rig to grip and assemble or disassemble
sucker-rod strings
sucker-rod pump a downhole oil pump located on
the bottom of the tubing on a beam well. The suckerrod pump is activated by the sucker-rod string rising
and falling in the tubing. The pump is composed of
five main parts which are the a) working barrel, b)
plunger, c) traveling or exhaust valve, d) standing
or inlet valve, and e) holddown. The working barrel
is divided into two parts by a traveling plunger. The
plunger rises and falls in the cylinder with the action
of the sucker rod. Two ball and seat valves allow
the fluids to flow into the lower part (standing valve),
through the plunger (traveling valve), and up the
tubing to the surface. Two types of sucker-rod pumps
are a) rod-insert pump and b) tubing pump. The rodinsert pump is attached to the sucker-rod string and
anchored to the tubing string so the plunger can move

sucker rod pump

in the barrel. The stationary barrel insert pump has

a plunger and traveling valve that rise and fall in the
barrel to pump the oil. The traveling barrel insert
pump has a traveling barrel with a traveling valve
that rises and falls outside the stationary barrel to
pump the oil. The rod-insert pump is retrieved by
pulling the sucker rods. The tubing pump is run as
pan of the tubing string. The standing valve is set in
a seating nipple. The plunger and traveling valve are
run on the sucker-rod string. The tubing string must
be pulled to retrieve the tubing pump. The pump
barrels are either thin or thick walled. Plungers are
either plain or grooved. A casing pump is a large
version of a rod-insert pump that is used without a
tubing string. The American Petroleum Institute
classifies sucker-rod pumps according to their size
and type. Sucker-rod pumps are the most common
type of artificial lift, (rod pump)
sucker-rod pumping a very common method of
artificial lift for oil wells that involves a walking beam
pumping unit driven by a prime mover that causes
a long metal or fiberglass sucker-rod string to rise
and fall in the well. The sucker-rod oscillation activates
a downhole pump to lift the oil up through the tubing
to the surface. Three types of downhole pumps are
the rod insert, tubing, and casing pumps.
sucker-rod scrapers disks with a hole in the center
that are attached to the sucker rods to scrape the
wax off the inside of tubing to prevent it from
restricting production
sucker-rod spear an old type of fishing tool that
was used to retrieve broken rod pumps from a well
SUCR sucrosic
sucrose or sucrosic a fine-grained granular or
crystalline texture in sedimentary rocks that is similar

suet supercrop map

in appearance to sugar. Sucrose texture is often formed
in calcitic dolomite, (saccharoidal) sue or SUCR
suet suction
suction line or hose the pipe or hose that is used
to draw drilling mud out of the mud tanks and into
the mud pumps or hogs. The drilling mud is often
pumped through the suction line by a centrifugal
pump in a process called supercharging.
suction pit or tank one of the steel mud-pit tanks
that hold the drilling mud next to a rotary drilling
rig. The suction pit is located on one end and is where
the mud pumps or supercharging centrifugal pumps
suck the mud out of the tanks to start the mud
circulating. The suction pit is used to mix, condition,
treat, and store the mud. (activepit, mud suction tank,
or sump pit)
suction stabilizer a roughly spherical metal
chamber with a bladder charged by nitrogen gas. The
suction stabilizer is used to reduce pressure pulses
on the suction side of a pump.
sudation the effect of gravity and capillary forces
that replace oil in rock matrix with water or gas from
fractures in the rock
sug sugary
suitcase parade an oilfield worker layoff
suitcase rock a subsurface formation that makes
further drilling impractical
suitcase sand an unproductive sandstone
SUL or sul sulfur
sulfamic acid a crystalline acid (NH2SO3) that is used
for acidizing a well
sulfide stress cracking a type of corrosion on steel
that is similar to hydrogen embrittlement. The
presence of hydrogen sulfide and water causes
hydrogen ions to form on the wet metal surface. Some
of the hydrogen ions enter the steel and reduce the
steel ductility, resulting in cracks.
sulfinol process a gas-sweetening method
developed by Shell. The sulfinol process uses the
solvents sulfonate, disopropanolamine (DIPA), and
water to remove carbonyl sulfide, carbon disulfide,
and mercaptans from natural gas. The sulfonate acts
as a physical solvent, whereas the DIPA acts as a
chemical solvent.
sulfonate a type of surfactant used in enhanced oil
recovery. Sulfonate is composed of a hydrocarbon
with one or more SO3 functional groups
sulfur the third most abundant atomic constituent
of crude oil, averaging 0.65% by weight. S
sulfur dioxide a gas (SO2) that is formed by the
flaring of hydrogen sulfide. Sulfur dioxide is heavier
than air and can cause death by suffocation.
SULG sulfur gas
SULOD sulfur odor
sulph sulphated
SULSW sulfur salt water
SUIW sulfur water
sul wtr sulfur water
sum summary

$05

summation of fluids a method used to determine

the porosity of a rock sample such as a core. Two
samples are used. A retort is used to drive off and
recover the fluids from one sample to measure the
void volume. The bulk volume is measured from a
pulverized sample by mercury displacement and
injection.
sum-of-the-years an accounting practice that is used
to calculate an accelerated depreciation on equipment.
The cost is multiplied each year by a fraction that is
calculated by dividing the sum of the digits in the
total life of the equipment into the remaining life of
the equipment.
sump 1) a 12-36-in. diameter cylinder used on the
bottom of a stock tank to allow solids to accumulate
on the bottom but still be able to pump liquids out
a suction line in the sump 2) a small excavation near
a drilling rig that is used to hold drilling mud 3) an
earthen reservoir that was used to collect crude oil
produced from wells 4) a low area used to collect
settlings in a storage tank
sump hole an excavation near a drilling rig that is
used to hold drilling mud and to trap well cuttings.
(mud hole or slush pit or pond)
sump pit see suction pit or tank
sump tub a tank that hold cement slurry from a jet
mixer and hopper before the slurry in pumped down
a well during a cement job
sunk capital costs the monies spent before
evaluation
sunk cost a cost that once spent cannot be recovered.
(fixed cost)
sun pressure the increase in pressure due to heating
and expansion of gas caused by the sun shining on
a vessel or pipeline
supercharge the buildup of high pressure around
the wellbore due to the hydrostatic head of the mud
filtrate that has not dissipated after drilling with a
high overbalance into a low-to-medium permeability
reservoir
supercharging the use of large centrifugal pumps
between the suction tank and the mud pump intake
on the circulating system of a drilling rig.
Supercharging is used to fill the pump liners during
intake and increase the efficiency of the mud pumps.
supercompressibility factor a dimensionless
number used in high-pressure gas calculations to
compensate for the deviation of a gas from the ideal
gas law. The supercompressibility factor for an ideal
gas is 1.00. The supercompressibility factor for a real
gas varies from about 0.7 to 1.2 and is equal to the
actual volume of n moles of a real gas at a specific
temperature and pressure divided by the volume of
n moles of ideal gas at the same temperature and
pressure, (compressibility or gas deviation factor) z
orFPV
super computer a computer that is significantly
faster than a normal mainframe computer
supercrop the rocks directly overlying an
unconformity
supercrop map a geological map showing the
distribution of rocks directly overlying an
unconformity

506

Superfrac

surface contours

Superfrac hydraulic fracturing with simultaneous

injection of water and highly viscous oil. The water
adds good pumping characteristics to the frac fluid,
whereas the viscous oil has a high proppant capacity.
supermature a sedimentary rock that contains only
mineral grains that are the result of intense weathering
and erosion. An orthoquartzite, a sandstone composed
of well-sorted and rounded sand grains of quartz, is
a supermature sedimentary rock.
super-normal pressure see abnormal high pressure

superposition

superposition 1) the occurrence of younger rock

over older rock in a sequence of undisturbed
sedimentary rocks 2) the observation that total
pressure drawdown at a point in a reservoir is the
linear sum of the drawdowns due to each well in
the reservoir
supersaturation 1) a solution with a higher
concentration of solid solute than the normal
maximum at that temperature and pressure. A
supersaturated solution is unstable, and a precipitate
should form. 2) a liquid with a higher content of
dissolved gas than the normal maximum at that
temperature and pressure. Gas will bubble out of
solution with agitation.
superstructure 1) the part of an offshore platform
located on the jacket 2) or the part of a
semisubmersible located on the stabilizer columns
supervisor 1) the person with the authority to direct
one or more employees 2) the person in charge of
several geophysical parties 3) the liaison between the
seismic crew and the company that csntracts for the
seismic Supv or suprv
supervisory control and data acquisition an oil
and gas production system that is driven by a computer.
The system includes a) status and alarm reporting,
b) production reporting, c) well testing, and d) well
control. SCADA
supl supply
supp supplement
supplemental abstract a title opinion that is added
onto another title opinion to bring the opinion up
to date
supplier an organization that provides materials,
finished products, and/or services
support a contribution, usually in cash or acreage,
that is given to another company to encourage
exploration activities such as drilling a well, suppt

support agreement see contribution agreement

support contribution payment, usually money,
made to the drilling party upon completion of the
earning conditions of a dry hole or bottomhole
support letter
supporting party the parry that enters into an
agreement to make a contribution in a dry hole or
bottomhole support letter
suppt support Supv supervisor
SUPRA submersible underwater pipeline repair
apparatus
suprafan an area of deposition during a specific
interval of time on a submarine fan. Suprafans switch
on submarine fans similar to delta switching on land.
A submarine fan is composed of numerous suprafans
superimposed on each other, only one of which is
active at any one period of time.
supratidal the area along a shoreline located above
high tide. The supratidal area is only occasionally
inundated by storm waters.
supratidal dolomite dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], a
mineral and rock, that forms by the alteration of
limestone in the supratidal zone above high tide in
a humid tropical climate. An occasional storm pushes
seawater up into the supratidal zone. There the water
evaporates, precipitating CaCO3, and enriches the
remaining water in Mg. The Mg-enriched waters
percolate down through the recently deposited
limestone mud or micrite and alters it to supratidal
dolomite. The supratidal dolomite is often deposited
in beds alternating with evaporites. This forms
stratigraphic traps as they pinchout updip along basin
margins. Supratidal dolomite is in contrast to primary,
syngenetic, evaporative, epigenic, and secondary
dolomite.
suprv supervisor
supsd superseded
supt superintendent
Supv supervisor
sur survey
SURF, Surf, or surf surface
surface-active agent or material see surfactant
surface blowout an uncontrolled flow of fluids out
of a well around the outside of the casing. A surface
blowout can cause a crater around the wellhead.
surface casing large-diameter pipe or casing
(ranging 7-20 in. and typically 13% in.) that is run
from the surface of a well down to a relatively shallow
depth (200-5,000 ft) as required by a government
regulatory agency. Surface casing is cemented in
position in competent rock before the rest of the
well is drilled. It a) serves as a base for the attachment
of the blowout preventers, b) supports the weight
of other tubular goods deeper in the well, c) protects
shallow, freshwater aquifers from pollution by drilling
mud and other fluids, and d) prevents the sides of
the well from caving or sluffing. Surface casing is the
shallowest casing string and is not conductor casing
or pipe, (surface pipe or string)
surface contours lines of equal elevation on a
topographic map. Surface contours show the exact

surface control system

elevation of the land surface at that location and are
labeled in feet above sea level.
surface control system the power source,
manifold, and sensors on the surface that regulate a
surface controlled subsurface safety valve
surface control head assembly a control head with
conductor pipe that flows to a slush pit or a storage
tank. The surface control head assembly is used during
a drillstem test to control pressure. The flowline is
connected to the head and the kelly can be connected
to the head to circulate down the drillstem. The
assembly sometimes has a small outlet and rubber
hose used to bubble air or gas through a pail of water
for light blows.
surface controlled subsurface safety valve a valve
located in a well below the wellhead that, when it is
activated, is designed to prevent uncontrolled flow
up the well. The valve can be activated by electric,
mechanical, or hydraulic means. SCSSV
surface damage clause a provision in an oil and
gas lease that requires the lessee to pay damages to
the lessor for damage to the surface by drilling and
operating activities
surface foam bubble on the surface of a liquid.
Surface foam can be caused by mechanical agitation
of the liquid or by a change in pressure or temperature
that causes dissolved gas to come out of solution.
An emulsifying or surface-active agent can be used
to prevent the gas bubbles from escaping the liquid
surface. Surface foam is in contrast to body foam.
surface gun a centrifugal pump with a pipe that is
designed to jet drilling mud into the mud tanks in
order to mix in additives or agitate the drilling mud.
(mud or submarine gun)
surface interest see surface rights
surface jar a jar that delivers a heavy downward blow
to free a drillstring stuck near the surface by a key
seat or on the bottom of surface casing. The surface
jar is made up in the drillstring at the surface and
has friction slips to adjust the impact. The drillstring
is raised to apply tension to the string until a preset
trip tonnage is reached and the surface jar delivers
the blow.
surface-motion compensator a type of shock
absorber on a drillship that uses counterweights or
hydraulics to maintain a constant weight on the
drillstring as the drillship rises and falls with the waves.
The surface-motion compensator is located between
the traveling block and the hook or power swivel.
The stroke on the surface-motion compensator is
about 18 ft. (heave compensator)
surface mud volume the volume of mud in the
mud tanks, (surface volume)
surface pipe see surface string
surface pit a surface excavation near an oil well that
is used to evaporate oilfield brine
surface pressure the static pressure at the top of
the casing in a well after the well has been shut in
and the maximum pressure has built up. The surface
pressure is equal to the reservoir pressure minus the
weight of a column of fluid in the well, (casing
pressure)

surfactant

507

surface readout an electric device that shows the

azimuth and inclination of a downhole bit on the
surface during deviation drilling
surface rights the legal ownership to the surface
of a parcel of land
surface safety valve an automatic Christmas tree
valve that prevents uncontrolled flow up the well if
power is lost. SSV
surface sample a sample of gas and liquid from
the separator during controlled production. The gas
and liquid from a surface sample are mixed at the
producing ratio for a representation of the reservoir
fluid for a reservoir fluid study. A surface sample is
in contrast to a subsurface or bottomhole sample.
(separator sample)
surface string see surface casing
surface-supplied air diving a shallow-diving
technique in which air is supplied to a diver through
an umbilical or dive hose from an electrical or dieseldriven compressor. The compressor delivers a
certified breathable output and is operated by a rack
operator who is in radio contact with the diver. Below
about 130 ft, heliox (helium and oxygen) is pumped
to the diver to prevent narcosis.
surface tension the force acting at the boundary
of a) two immiscible fluids or b) a liquid with either
its vapor or air. Surface tension acts to keep the
interfacial area at a minimum. Surface tension is usually
measured in dynes per centimeter. Surface tension
can be measured under reservoir conditions using
either the pendant drop or skimming drop apparatus.
Both methods are optical using the image of bubbles
of one fluid suspended in another. The term surface
tension is usually applied to an air-liquid interface
and interfacial tension to other interfaces, a
surface-tension additive or reducer see
surfactant
sur&ce trees a series of valves on production risers
that divert flow and control pressure
surface volume see surface mud volume
surface weight the weight of the kelly, swivel,
traveling block and the drilling lines on a drilling
rig
surfactant chemicals made of oil-soluble and watersoluble groups that are used as additives to fluids a)
to reduce the surface tension of a liquid, b) to reduce
the contact angle of the interface between a liquid
and solid, and c) to lower the interfacial tension
between two immiscible liquids. The surfactant
absorbs at the interface between two immiscible fluids
causing a reduction in surface tension. The surfactant
molecule has a water-soluble end (hydrophilic) and
a nonwater-soluble end (hydrophobic) causing the
surfactant molecules to be concentrated at waternonwater interfaces. The surfactant reduces interfacial
resistance to mixing between oil and water or changes
the degree to which the water wets the rock surface
of the formation. Types of surfactants include a)
anionic, b) catonic, c) nonionic, and d) amphoteric.
Surfactants are used in drilling muds to control
emulsification, aggregation, dispersion, interfacial
tension, foaming, defoaming, and wetting. A micellar
fluid is called a surfactant. The word micellar is derived
from micelle which is a submicroscopic aggregate

508

surfactant flood swap or swabbing

of surfactant molecules and associated fluids, (surfaceactive agent or material, wetting agent, or surface
tension additive or reducer) SF
surfactant flood a type of water flood in which
surfactants are used in the injection water to reduce
the surface tension of the oil remaining in the pores
of the reservoir
surfactant mud a drilling mud that contains a
surfactant to control emulsification, aggregation,
dispersion, interfacial tension, foaming, defoaming,
and/or wetting
surge 1) a sudden and rapid flow of a relatively large
volume of liquid 2) the forward and backward motion
of a ship on the ocean
surge chamber see surge tank
surge effect the downhole increased-pressure pulse
created by rapid lowering of the drillstring or by a
rapid increase in mud-pump speed, (surging)
surge loss the rapid flow of filtrate into a formation
before a filter cake has formed on the wellbore just
after the formation has been drilled, (spurt loss)
surge pressure the downhole increase in pressure
due to tripping in or lowering equipment into a well.
Surge pressure is in contrast to swab pressure.
surge tank a chamber or vessel that is attached to
a flowline and is designed to inhibit surges or pulses
of fluids flowing through the line (surge chamber or
arrestor)
surging see surge effect
surp surplus
surrender clause a common oil and gas lease
provision that allows the lessee to release his rights
to all or part of the acreage at any time
SURV survey
survey 1) the act of measuring the characteristics
of an area such as a land, topographical, geological,
or seismic survey 2) the results of measuring the
characteristics of an area 3) system of measuring a
track of land. SURV
survey cable the well-logging hoist cable that is
constructed of steel wire armour wrapped around
one or more insulated electrical conductor wires
survey instrument a downhole instrument used to
determine the azimuth and inclination of a wellbore.
A drift indicator or inclinometer measures only the
inclination of the well. A magnetic or gyro multishot
survey measures both the azimuth and inclination at
various points in the well. A single-shot survey
measures the azimuth and inclination at one location
in the well. The data are recorded on a survey data
sheet or calculation sheet.
survival capsule an enclosed, saucer-shaped life
saving device that is designed to hold up to 50 crew
members from an offshore drilling unit. The survival
capsule is made of orange-painted fiberglass and is
fitted on the deck of the unit and can be easily and
rapidly launched. There are often three or four survival
capsules on each unit. Some are self-propelled.
SUS seconds Saybolt universal
susp suspended
suspended and capable a well that is shut in but
is still able to produce petroleum

suspended discovery an oil or gas field that has

been located by a discovery well but has not been
delineated by step-out wells
suspended S&W sediment and water suspended in
crude oil that will not separate by normal gravity
settling
suspended solids solid particles suspended by
turbidity in a liquid. SS
suspense file a file for unresolved or unfinished
business
suspension the dispersion of a solid or insoluble
liquid (emulsion) in another liquid in which it is not
soluble
suspension flow a density current with suspended
sediments. A turbidity current is an example of
suspension flow, (turbidflow)
suspensoid finely-divided colloidal particles
suspended by Brownian movement (molecular
motion) and electrostatic charges in a liquid. A
suspensoid does not absorb much liquid and will
remain in suspension.
SUT Society for Underwater Technology
SV 1) solid volume 2) shear wave polarized in the
vertical plane of profile 3) standing valve
Sy vapor saturation
svc service
SVCS services
SCVU service unit
SVS sonic volumetric scanning tool
SW 1) salt water 2) southwest 3) salt wash 4) spiral
weld 5) socket weld
S.W. saltwater
Sw saturation of water
sw solution in water
SWA sidewall acoustic log

OMPLETKDN
FlU
(DIESEL OIL)

swabbing

swab to pull up on a wireline swab, a tool that fits

tightly in the casing or, more commonly, in the tubing
of a well. Swabbing a) removes the fluid in the casing

swabbed show S-wave

or tubing in a process called unloading the well, b)
lowers the hydrostatic pressure in the well, and c)
is used to clean out and start the well flowing.
There is a swabbing effect in a well if a drillstring
or tools are rapidly raised from the well, stub, stub.,

509

equipment is installed and then opened to allow

wireline work.

or swbg

swabbed show formation fluid that flowed into a

well as the drillstring was raised
swabbing line see swab line
swabbing the well in to swab a well to start
producing formation fluids flowing into the well.
Swabbing removes some of the standing liquid in
the well to reduce the hydrostatic pressure on the
producing formation.
swab cup a rubber cup that has almost the same
diameter as the inside diameter of tubing in a well.
A swab cup is used to swab a well. Swab cups are
attached to a swab-cup mandrel on a swabbing tool
and run on a wireline or swab line into the well
through the tubing. As they are lowered, the swab
cups allow fluid in the tubing to flow past them. When
the swab cups are raised, they seal against the tubing
and force the overlying fluid up the tubing.
swab-cup mandrel a downhole tool that holds swab
cups used in swabbing a well. Several swab-cup
mandrels attached to knuckle joints are often run into
the tubing. The last swab-cup mandrel on the bottom
is called a rabbit and is different because it has a no
go, a metal cylinder just slightly smaller in diameter
than the tubing.
swab in to start a well flowing by swabbing
swab line a 9A&- or 5/s-in. wire rope that is several
thousand feet long and is used with a swab or bailer
on a sand-line unit, (sand line or swabbing unit)
swab-line unit a truck-mounted service unit that is
used to swab a well. The unit has a drawworks with
braided wire rope that ranges from %6 to 5/s in. in
diameter. The swab-line unit is used to lower and
raise a swab-cup tool in a well to lift the fluids filling
the well out of the well. Flags on the swab line are
used to record depth. The unit is used to swab out
drilling mud to bring a well in. It is also used to
measure the depth of sand fill in a well and to run
a sand bailer or impression block, (sand line unit)
swab pressure the downhole pressure reduction in
a well caused by tripping out or pulling equipment
out of a well. Swab pressure is in contrast to surge
pressure.
swab test a well test in which fluids are lifted by a
swabbing tool in the tubing of a well to indicate the
well's potential production
swab or swabbing tool a hollow steel rod with
rubber suction cups or seals that fits tightly in the
tubing or, less commonly, the casing of a well. The
swabbing tool has a check valve on it to allow fluids
to flow through it as it is lowered into the well. The
swab is then is pulled up the tubing on a wireline
or swab line to remove liquid from the tubing and
to clean the tubing.
swab valve the uppermost valve located vertically
above the well on a Christmas tree. The swab value
provides access to the tubing string on the top of a
Christmas tree. The valve is closed as wireline

swage

swage a tool with a cylindrical body that tapers inward

toward the bottom that is used to straighten and reopen
casing or tubing to its original inside diameter. The
swage is run on a drill-collar assembly below jars
and a bumper sub or on a wireline. It has ports and
channels for mud circulation. The operation can be
repeated using swages of increasing diameter. There
are both casing and tubing swages, swg
swaged hole a hole that decreases slightly in
diameter on the bottom. A swaged hole is caused by
an undergauge bit at the end of the bit run. When
the new bit is run, it can be damaged or wedged in
the undergauge hole, (tapered hole)
swage nipple a short adapter pipe with external
threads. A swage nipple has a larger diameter on one
end than on the other. It is used to connect pipes of
different sizes.
SWAL shear-wave acoustic log
swale low-lying, marshy area. Swales can be located
between beach ridges.
swallowing the catching of a fish by lowering a
fishing tool over the fish and enclosing it
swamp barge a shallow raft or flat-bottomed boat
with a drilling rig mounted on it. A swamp barge is
used to move and operate in canals dug in coastal
marshes and swamps.
swamper a worker on a truck
swamp gas methane (CH4) produced by bacteria
(fermenters) from organic matter in the absence of
oxygen and sulfates at shallow depths from a few
feet below the surface to about 1,000 ft. Swamp gas
is dry gas that is normally about 99.9% methane and
has a distinctive, very light carbon isotope
composition. It usually escapes into the atmosphere
but has been trapped in large deposits below the
permafrost in Siberia. Urengoy is the largest gas field
in the world with 285 Tcf of recoverable swamp gas.
Natural gas can also be thermogenic gas (biogenic
or marsh gas)
swarm to have pipes tangled
swath shooting seismic shooting with several
closely-spaced rows of detector cables for 3-D seismic
S-wave a body wave in which the motion of the
particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. Two types of S-waves or shear waves
are SV- and SH-waves. The SV-wave has particle motion
in the vertical plane of the geophone system, whereas

510

sway swgr

the j>itwav_e has particle motion perpendicular to the

vertical plane of the geophone system. A shear-wave
survey is used to obtain information on the physical
properties of subsurface formations and is measured
in amplitude, cement bond, and fracture logs, (shear
or transverse wave)
sway the lateral movement of an entire ship on the
ocean
sway braces the diagonal beams that steady the legs
of a drilling rig
SWB 1) swab 2) swabbing 3) swabbed
S^ bound-water saturation
swb 1) swab 2) swabbing
swbd swabbed
swbg swabbing
SWC 1) sidewall coring 2) sidewall cores
S.W.C. sidewall core
SW/c southwest corner
S^. critical water saturation
SWCM saltwater-cut mud
Swco cutoff water saturation
SWD 1) saltwater disposal 2) saltwater disposal well
swd swaged
SWDS saltwater disposal system
SWDW saltwater disposal well
sweep 1) the horizontal (horizontal sweep) or
vertical (vertical sweep) movement of a slug of injected
fluid through a reservoir during a waterflood or
enhanced oil recovery 2) the continuously varied
frequency of a Vibroseis source at a shot point that
is used for seismic exploration. The most common
sweep is an upsweep in which the frequency increases
from low to high with time. An upsweep is in contrast
to a downsweep. 3) a method used to improve seismic
records by varying a parameter
sweep efficiency the ratio of pore volume of
reservoir rock contacted by injected fluids during
water flood or enhanced oil recovery to the total
volume of reservoir rock in the project. Sweep
efficiency can be broken down into areal and vertical
sweep efficiency.
sweep-frequency explosion a string of small
explosions that are detonated as a seismic source
sweep method a method used to take a gas sample
for analysis. The gas flows through a cylinder to
displace air from the cylinder.
sweep-out pattern the aerial distribution of injected
fluids that have spread out from injection wells during
an improved recovery operation
sweep period the time period from the start to finish
of a Vibroseis shotpoint in seismic exploration. The
sweep period is commonly 7-12 seconds and can
be up to 35 seconds.
sweet 1) oil or gas that has a relatively low amount
of sulfur. Sweet oil or gas does not have a pungent
smell and will not react negatively to a doctor test.
2) a fluid that has a good odor
sweet corrosion metal deterioration caused by acids

sweet crude oil oil that contains no or significantly

little sulfur, usually less than 1%. The amount of sulfur
that divides sweet crude from sour varies between
governmental agencies and refineries. In general, light
oils with high "API are sweet. The price for sweet
crude is higher than sour crude because the sulfur
does not have to be removed during refining
sweetening the removal of sulfurous gases from
natural gas. The hydrogen sulfide content for pipeline
or sales-quality gas is almost always below 0.25 gr/
100 scf or 4 ppm. The most widely used sweetening
process is the alkanolamine process. It is a continuous
process in which the sour gas is bubbled through
monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), or
triethanolamine (TEA) in an amine/gas absorber tower
to remove both H2S and CO2. The acid gases can be
stripped from the absorber solution by heat, and the
regenerated amine solution used again. Iron-sponge
sweetening is a batch process. The sour gas is passed
through an absorber tower to remove H2S. The iron
sponge can be regenerated with oxygen or air. Some
other sweetening processes are a) glycol/amine, b)
sulfinol, and c) molecular sieves.
sweet gas natural gas that contains no significant
amount of H2S. Sweet gas lacks gases that dissolve
in water to form acids. Two to three percent carbon
dioxide with no sulfurous gases is acceptable for many
contracts. The maximum hydrogen sulfide allowed
in pipelines is about 0.25 gr/100 scf or about 4 ppm.
SWTG

sweetheart gas natural gas that the working interest

owner of a well can require the operator of a well
to market or to be a part of the market share that
other working interest owners are receiving for their
gas. Sweetheart gas is defined under Oklahoma Law
H.B. 1221 or the Sweetheart Gas Act.
sweet spot a portion of the petroleum reservoir that
will produce at a relatively fast rate due to exceptionally
good porosity and permeability or reservoir thickness
swell the slow movement of an anhydrite, a sodium
or a potassium salt layer, or shale into a wellbore
by pressure or chemical reaction, (heave or squeeze)
S wellbore see S-shaped well
swelled box a box connection that is bulging due
to too much torque on the tool connection
swelling an increase in volume
swelling shale a shale that contains clays such as
bentonite that will adsorb water and swell in volume.
Swelling shales are drilled with a) low fluid-loss muds,
b) invert emulsion mud, c) inhibited mud or d)
polymer mud.
swept zone the volume of reservoir rock that is
effectively contacted by injected fluids during a
waterflood or enhanced oil recovery
SWF sand-water frac
S^f water saturation of fractures
SWFLO saltwater flow
SW/4 Southwest quarter
SWFR saltwater frac
S^ initial water saturation in gas cap
swg swage
swgr switchgear

SWI synchronous
SWI saltwater injection
SWKIK saltwater kick
swing the percentage, both above and below the daily
take, that a gas purchaser can take from a gas well
or lease under a gas purchase contract
swing check see swing valve
swing diameter the diameter of a circle denned
by opposite tips of a rotating centrifuge
swinging gauge a method used to measure the
amount of crude oil in a tank by subtracting the outage
gauge from the reference point
swinging square a square drill collar located
between two round drill collars
swing line a suction line that can be raised and
lowered in a crude oil storage tank to keep it above
the level of water and sediment on the bottom. The
swing line is used to pump oil from the tank.
swing valve a type of valve that allows fluid flow
in only one direction. Swing valves are usually opened
by pressure on a spring behind the gate, (check valve,
one-way, nonreturn, or swing check)
(Sw)irr irreducible water saturation
switchboard a pannel that controls electrical circuits.
The switchboard for an electrical submersible
centrifugal pump is located in a rectangular,
weatherproof housing that is insulated from the
wellhead by a junction box. The switchboard can be
either simple or complex, can have underload or
pump off protection with an auto restart and can
handle from 440 to 4,800 V. Solid state switchboards
are available along with electromechanical types.
switcher a person who supervises the filling of lease
tanks by flowing oil wells

swivel-connector grip a device that is used to

temporarily connect two wire ropes. The swivelconnector grip holds under tension and releases when
the tension is relaxed, (snake or swivel-type stringing
grip)
swivel joint a high-pressure connection that is used
to put a bend in a piping system. Internal threads
with ball bearings allow the swivel joint to turn. The
swivel joint is often used for cementing or acidizing
jobs, (chicksan)
swivel neck a person who works on a rotary rig
swivel sub a short section of pipe that contains a
swivel joint
swivel-type stringing grip see swivel-connector
grip
SWL southwest line
SWN sidewall neutron log
SWN-G sidewall neutron, gamma ray log
SWN GR sidewall neutron, gamma ray log
SWOPS 1) single-well oil production system 2) singlewell offshore production system
SWP steam working pressure
S., residual water saturation
SWS sidewall samples
(SW)TDT water saturation given by TDT (thermal decay
time)
SWTG sweet gas
SWTR salt water
SWTS salt water to surface
SWU swabbing unit
SX south extension
SX or sx sacks
Sxa apparent mud-filtrate saturation
SXL screen and liner
S^ mud-filtrate saturation
SYD sum-of-the-years digits
sym symbol
symmetric fold a fold in rocks such as an anticline
in which both limbs or sides are the same. The axial
surface or the center of the fold is vertical. A symmetric
fold is in contrast to an asymmetric fold.
syn 1) synchronous 2) synthetic 3) syntaxial
synchronous occurring at the same time syn

swivel

swivel a device on a drilling rig located just above

the drillstring that is hung from the rotary hook on
the traveling block by a bail. The swivel allows the
drillstring to rotate below it while being suspended
from the derrick. The swivel consists of a heavy steel
casting with a ball in it. The mud line attaches to
the swivel through the gooseneck. Drilling mud from
the kelly hose flows through the swivel and into the
kelly. The swivel stem or body washpipe on the bottom
of the swivel is connected to a swivel sub that connects
to the kelly. Swivels are rated by either a) size of
the stem, b) depth limitation, or c) dead weight
tonnage.

511

syncline

512

syncline sz

syncline a long fold of rocks that is bent downward.

Synclines in sedimentary rocks are often caused by
compression oriented perpendicular to the axis of
the syncline. Syncline is in contrast to an anticline.
syncrude crude oil made from tar sands or oil shale
syneresis the separation of a liquid and a gel by
contraction
Synergetic a log analysis computed at the
computer center
synergism an effect in which two or more efforts
are used simultaneously in cooperation to obtain a
total result that is greater than the sum of the
results had each independent effort been done
separately.
synergistic two or more processes working together
to form a result greater than the sum of all the
individual processes
synform a fold of rocks has dwonward closure in
contrast to an antiform or neutralform
syngenetic dolomite dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], a
mineral and rock that forms penecontemporaneously
with the deposition of sediments. Syngenetic dolomite
is rare.
synsedimentary a geological process that occurs as
the sediments are being deposited
syntaxial overgrowth a type of natural cement in
sandstones. The overgrowth forms around a
preexisting quartz or feldspar grain that forms the
nucleus. The cement is the same composition as the
grain and grows with optical continuity outward from
the original grain surface.
synthesis gas a carbon monoxide-hydrogen mixture
synthetic a driller

synthetic faults

synthetic fault a relatively minor fault that is parallel

to and has the same displacement as a major fault.
Synthetic faults are in contrast to antithetic faults and
are a type of secondary fault.
synthetic natural gas gas that is primarily methane
and is formed as petroleum feedback or from coal
and steam with high temperatures and pressures and
Ni-Al catalysts
synthetic seismogram a computed seismic trace
that is anticipated from a specific series of rock layers.

A synthetic seismogram uses reflection coefficients

from velocity and density data for each rock layer.
The input includes a velocity log, density log, and
the seismic pulse shape. Synthetic seismograms are
often computed to be compared with real seismic
records. They are used to determine the theoretical
effects of changes in thickness and lithology in rock
layers and to predict the ability of real seismic to
detect stratigraphic traps, (theoretical seismogram)
Syring syringopora
sys system
system a time-rock division of rock deposited during
a period of geological time. A system can be subdivided
into series, sys
System International d'Unites a system of units
adopted by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in I960 to modify the metric system. They
are:
Quantity
Base unit
length
meter
mass
kilogram
time
second
electric current
ampere
temperature
Kelvin
quantity of mass
mole
luminous intensity
candela
Supplementary units
Quantity
Base unit
plane angle
radian
solid angle
steradian
Derived units
Quantity
Base unit
frequency
hertz
force
Newton
work
Joule
pressure
pascal
Prefixes
10"18
giga 10+9
atto
15
femto 10~
tera 10+12
12
peta 10+15
pico 10~
9
nano 10~
exa 10+18

Symbol
m
kg
s

K
mol
cd

Symbol
ra3
sr

Symbol
Hz
N

Pa

systems analysis the detailed study of the

components of a well or wells such as well capacity,
tubing size, flowline size, and separator pressure in
conjunction with the entire system. A systems analysis
is used to optimize the production of individual wells
or a group of wells in a continuous flow system. The
analysis is done at a node or solution point in the
well which is often the top or bottom of the well.
system tract an assemblage of contemporaneous
depositional systems that are either a) lowstand, b)
transgressive, and c) highstand, or a) shelf-margin,
b) transgressive, and c) highstand. A system tract is
a subdivision of a sequence and is defined by its
position in the sequence. A system tract is defined
in seismic or sequence stratigraphy.
system volume the volume of drilling fluids in a
well
sz size

T tailgate

T 1) temperature log 2) ton 3) township 4)

temperature 5) period 6) torque 7) trillion 8) time
9) absolute temperature 10) tensile strength 11)
tension 12) tesla 13) top of 14) interfacial tension
15) terat 1) time 2) true 3) total 4) gross 5) trillion 6) ton
7) tonne 8) sonic interval transit time
t the velocity of a sonic wave, usually compressional,
through a subsurface rock layer usually measured in
microseconds/foot (fisec/ft). t is measured on a sonic
log, a continuous velocity log, a borehole compensated
sonic log or Acoustilog. Some common interval transit
times are:
substance
t (microseconds/ft)
shale
167.0-62.5
sandstone
55.5-51.3
limestone
47.6-43.5
dolomite
43.5-38.5
200
water
706
natural gas
(interval transit time At)
T/ top of
TA 1) temporarily abandoned 2) transmitted
amplitude
TA. temporarily abandoned
Ta talc
Ta 1) absolute ambient temperature 2) absolute
surface temperature
tab tabular
tabasco sauce acid
table reef a relatively small, isolated reef that has a
flat top and does not enclose a lagoon
tabular 1) a slab-like geometry. A tabular object is
bounded by two planar surfaces and has a relatively
small thickness 2) a sedimentary rock body that has
a width to thickness of between 50 to 1 and 1,000 to
1 3) a grain with length between 1.5 to 3 times its
thickness, tab
tabular-planar crossbeds layers in sandstone that
were deposited in dunes at an angle up to 36 from
vertical. Tabular-planar crossbeds are bounded on top
and bottom by flat and parallel surfaces. Tabular-planar
crossbeds are in contrast to trough or festoon
crossbeds.
tabulate coral a group of extinct colonial corals that
belong to the subclass Tabulata of the phylum
Coelenterata. The name tabulate comes from the
presence of an interior platform, diaphragm, or tabula,

513

and by the poor development or complete absence

of radial walls called septa that are characteristic of
other corals. Tabulate corals existed from the Lower
Ordovician epoch through the Jurassic period and
are good guide fossils.
tach tachometer
tachometer an instrument that measures speed of
rotation, tach
tack to weld a spot
tackle a rope through sheaves in a block that is used
for pulling or lifting

tadpole plot

tadpole plot a method used to present dipmeter

results. Depth in the well is plotted on the vertical
axis and dip angle on the horizontal axis, with zero
degrees usually along the left side. A small circle on
the diagram gives the depth and dip of each dipmeter
measurement in a well. A small line, like a tadpole
tail, comes out of each circle and is oriented in the
compass direction of that dip measurement, with north
being up.
tag to touch something downhole with the drillstring
tag bottom to touch the drill bit on the bottom of
the well
TAI thermal alteration index
tail a short form on a well log with information on
either well and curve scales (log tail) or calibration
(calibration tail)
tail buoy a catamaran raft of plastic floats that is
drug behind a hydrophone streamer by rope. The
buoy is a bright color and has a radar reflector on it
to determine the direction of the streamer.
tail chain a short chain with a hook used on the
end of a winch line
tail gas the gas that is left after natural gas liquids
have been removed from natural gas. Tail gas is any
gas that comes from gas processing and can be sold
as commercial natural gas. (residue gas)
tailgate the point where the tail gas comes out of
the processing plant after removal of liquid
hydrocarbons

514

tail-in flud tank

tail-in fluid the water spacer behind the cement

slurry on a squeeze cement job. The tail-in fluid is
in contrast to the spearhead fluid.
tailing in the final stage in hydraulic fracturing when
the proppants are injected
tailing-out rods unscrewing and horizontally
stacking rods next to the derrick
tail line a rope that is used to prevent a fall by a
worker on a derrick. The tail line is attached to a
safety belt, harness, or belly buster on the worker
and to a climbing device or a part of the. derrick on
the other end. (tail rope)
tail out rods to pull the lower end of a sucker rod
out away from the well when laying down the rods
tail pipe a weight that is added to the bottom of a
downhole pump to prevent buckling in the tubing
tail plug the plug on the end of a gas-lift valve. A
tail plug is the final seal on the dome
tail post the post that supports the sand reel on a
cable-tool rig
tail rope see tail line
take the volume of natural gas per day that a
purchaser is required to take from a gas reservoir
as stated in a gas contract. Take has a specific price
for the gas that is related to the Btu content of the
gas. (daily contract quantity)
take a kick an uncontrolled fluid flow into a well
during drilling
take-and-pay clause a provision in a gas contract
that requires the purchaser to receive and pay for a
specific amount of gas. If the purchaser does not take
and pay for the gas, the seller can seek damages from
the purchaser as outlined in the contract.
take a strain on to start to pull a load
take off a list of instruments pertaining to a given
tract of land that is compiled by an abstract company.
The take off usually gives a brief summary or
description of the documents, is similar to a landman's
run sheet and is less expensive than an abstract of
title.
take-or-pay clause a provision in a gas purchase
and sales agreement under which the buyer agrees
with the seller to either a) purchase and accept delivery
of a given quantity of natural gas or b) to pay for
such a quantity of natural gas if delivery is not accepted
at that time, subject to the right to make up or required
delivery of the gas paid for but not taken within a
specific period of time.
take-or-release a gas contract clause that requires
the purchaser to notify the producer each month what
gas volumes will be taken and releases the producer
to sell the excess gas
takeout a pair of polarized leads that are used to
connect geophones to the cable
take-over right a provision in a support agreement
or farmout in which the supporting party (farmee)
can conduct its own tests on the earning well (testing
take-over right) or complete the earning well
(completion take-over right) if the drilling party
(farmor) elects not to complete the earning well.
tally 1) a count of a repetitive event such as the
number of joints of drillpipes used in a drillstring

2) to measure and record the length of tubulars such

as casing or pipe. A tally is usually measured in Viooth
of a foot.
tally pipe to measure the length of pipe with a tape
tally sheet a form that is used to record the length
of pipe or tubing run in a well
tally tape a steel tape marked in Viooths of a foot.
Tally tape is used to measure the length of pipe or
tubing that is going to be run in a well. The
measurement is made from the end of the collar on
one end to the first good thread on the other end.
talus rock fragments of various sizes and shapes lying
at the base of a cliff or steep slope
tamp to pack the mud or earth above an explosive
in a seismic shothole
tan tangent
T&B top and bottom
T&BC top and bottom chokes
T&C threaded and coupled
T and C oilfield pump an artificial lift system that
is similar to a chamber gas lift installation except that
the opening and closing is controlled from the surface.
The power gas is injected into a pump chamber
containing the well fluid. Intermittent injection of the
power gas is controlled by movement of the inner
string of tubing which operates a slide valve located
on top of the pump chamber. The inner string is
moved by a hydraulic cylinder on the surface that is
driven by hydraulic power oil.
tandem squares two or more adjacent square drill
collars on a downhole assembly
tandem stabilizers two or more adjacent stabilizers
on a downhole assembly
T&G tongue and groove
T&R tubing and rods
tangency point the location on an elastic drillstring
where the bent drillstring touches the wellbore
tangible drilling costs expenses for equipment that
can be salvaged after drilling and completing a well.
Tangible drilling costs average about 30% of the total
well cost.
tankage 1) crude oil storage in a tank 2) the capacity
of a tank 3) the tank storage charge, tkg
tank battery two or preferably three tanks on a lease
that can hold three to seven days production of
merchantable oil from a single well or group of wells
for truck or pipeline delivery to a refinery. The term
tank battery can also include separation and treating
equipment, (battery or tank farm) TB
tank bottoms a mixture of oil emulsified with water
and sediment that collects at the bottom of stock and
oil storage tanks. Periodically, tank bottoms have to
be removed, (tank settlings)
tank calibration 1) a measurement of the tank
volume below the dip point which designates zero
on the tank gauge table 2) the quantity of crude oil
located below the dip point on a tank
tank dike an earthen mound that surrounds an oil
tank to contain a spill in case of fire or leak
tank farm see tank battery

tank gauge tape unit

515

tapered array a seismic geophone or source

arrangement in which either the source is varied
unequally (tapered source array) or the geophone
or hydrophone arrays are varied (tapered geophone
arrays)
tapered hole a hole that decreases slightly in
diameter on the bottom. A tapered hole is caused
by an undergauged bit at the end of the bit run. When
the new bit is run, it can be damaged or wedged in
the undergauge hole, (swaged hole)

tank gauge

tank gauge a tape, marked in Vio in., that is used

to measure the height of oil in a stock tank. The tank
gauge has a plumb bob on one end.
tank mixer a propeller in an oil storage tank that
is used to keep the basic sediment and water mixed
with the oil in the tank. The propeller is turned by
a motor outside the tank.
tank-mounted reciprocating compressor a
compressor that uses pistons or plungers in cylinders
to compress the gas. The compressor is mounted on
a tank used to store the gas and to smooth pressure
surges as the compressor is working.
tanks see mud tanks
tank settlings see tank bottoms
tank shell the walls of a tank
tank strapper a person who measures the height
and volume of a crude-oil storage tank to prepare a
tank table for that tank. The tank table is used by a
gauger to determine the volume of crude oil from
the height of oil contained in the tank.
tank table a chart that is used to determine the
amount of oil that is filling a specific tank. A tank
table is made by a tank strapper by strapping
(measuring) the volume and height of the tank. A
tank table is usually calibrated to one-quarter or oneeighth of an inch in height, (gage or gauge table)
tannic acid the active ingredient (C14H10O9) of
quebracho
tap 1) a notched tool used to cut female threads 2)
a threaded hole in a pipe or tank. A gauge or valve
can be installed in the tap.
tap and die collar a fishing tool made of casehardened steel that is used to cut threads on the upper
end of a fish in a well. A die cuts threads on the
outer surface of a pipe, whereas a tap cuts threads
on the inner surface. The tap and die collar cannot
be used with a fish that can turn and will not release
from the fish after the threads have been cut.
tape see magnectic tape
tape drive a computer device that converts data
stored on magnetic tape into signals
taper 1) the change in diameter per unit distance
along a thread. Taper is often expressed in inches
per foot. 2) the uneven spacing of geophones in a
geophone group. The geophones are closer near the
center and furthest on the ends to cancel noise.

tapered mill

tapered mill a mill with a point on the bottom that

expands upward to full gauge. A tapered mill has
vertical or spiral blades with tungsten carbide cutting
edges and channels between the blades. The tapered
mill is rotated on a fishing string and is used in tight
spots, collapsed casing, casing shoes, kick-off windows,
and liner tops and to mill through irregular-shaped
fish, (taper mill or tapermill)
tapered royalty a type of payment (royalty) made
for production in which the rate declines each year
by a specific amount or percentage
tapered tubing string a tubing string in a well that
decreases in diameter down the well. A tapered tubing
string is most often used to accommodate a smaller
diameter liner on the bottom of a well with a larger
diameter casing string near the top of the well.
tapered wire rope two or more sections of wire
rope of uniform diameter that are separated by a
tapered diameter section of wire rope
taper mill or tapermill see tapered mill
taper mill or tapermill reamer-deburrer a
downhole tool that grinds or mills out collapsed casing
and removes the rough metal edges (deburrs) on
whipstock windows used in directional drilling
taper tap an inside catch type of fishing tool. A taper
tap has a tapered body with male threads. The taper
is run down the well on a fishing string and rotated
to cut threads into the bore of the fish. A taper tap
does not have a releasing mechanism. A taper tap is
the male counterpart of a die collar.
tape storage unit a tape storage or oil company
facility that stores magnetic tapes with seismic data.
The tapes are cleaned and tension wound and stored
under optimum temperature and humidity in vertical
racks for future reprocessing.
tape unit the equipment used in seismic exploration
to record the data on magnetic tape

516

taphrogenic Tcfortcf

taphrogenic a type of large-scale struaural

deformation of rocks involving vertical forces and
block faulting with rift formation
tapped connection a connection that is threaded
on the inside (female) and receives a connection
threaded on the outside (male). A tapped connection
is in contrast to a flanged connection which has a
screw or weld flange.
tapping the hitting of a downhole pump plunger
on the top and bottom stops to jar the pump and
cause the balls to jump off their seats. Tapping can
be done on purpose to prevent gas lock and to wash
the sand out of a valve but can also damage the pump.
TAPS Trans-Alaska pipeline system
tap sample a sample obtained from taps located
equidistant up the tank
tap test a method used to test the connection of a
geophone used in seismic exploration by lightly
tapping on it. A tap test confirms that the geophone
is alive.
tar 1) naturally occurring, viscous, low API
petroleum 2) a viscous, dark liquid made by distilling
organic matter such as coal or wood
tar belt a residual heavy oil deposit on the margins
of a basin. A tar belt is formed by oil seeps that have
undergone crude oil degradation by bacteria and water
washing, (tar mat)
target 1) a blind flange or bull plug that is used on
the end of a tee to absorb the impact of fluid changing
flow direction 2) the subsurface horizon to which a
well is planned to be drilled
target area the area at a specific depth through which
the wellbore is planned to pass
target bearing the azimuth of a straight line from
a reference point on a drilling rig to the subsurface
drilling target
target depth the depth in a well at which the
producing formation is expected to be encountered
target location the exact geographical position
where the drill bit is planned to intersect the target
or potential reservoir during drilling of a well
target oil oil remaining in the reservoir after
conventional recovery and before a waterflood or
enhanced oil recovery process
target point the exact point at a specific depth at
which the wellbore is planned to be located
tariff the schedule of rates by a common carrier or
utility such as a pipeline
tar mat see tar belt
tarp tarpaulin
tar sands sand or sandstone with pores filled with
viscous high-gravity oil that cannot be produced by
conventional methods. The hydrocarbons have a gasfree viscosity of greater than 10,000 mPa at reservoir
temperature. Thermal-enhanced oil recovery methods
can be used to produce the oil from tar sands.
Tatarian a global age of geological time that occurred
about 255-250 m. y. ago; It is part of the Upper Permian
epoch.
tattle tale or tattletale 1) an instrument on a drilling
rig that records depth of drill bit and rate of

penetration (Geolograph or Log-O-Graph) 2) an

instrument that shows the cause of a shutdown or
alarm 3) a mark that is made on the far left side of
a well log at each 1-minute interval during logging
to show the logging speed, (minute mark)
T 1) tortuosity 2) neutron relaxation time
taut-line inclinometer an instrument that
measures the angle on a line and is used for passive
positioning with a drillship. The inclinometer
measures inclination of the wire in two directions
and detects when the ship drifts off station.
taut-line position-reference system a type of
passive positioning in which a cable from the seafloor
is attached to a floating drilling rig such as a
semisubmersible or drillship. Several lines are
suspended between the drillship and anchored to the
seabed in a radial pattern. The inclination of the cables
in two axes is continuously monitored by a taut-line
inclinometer to maintain the rig's position on a subsea
wellhead. The system is simple and economic and
can be used as a backup to dynamic positioning.
tax certificate a certificate issued by the tax assessorcollector of a county concerning the payment of taxes
on a tract of land. The tax certificate states what taxes
have been paid, when, and by whom.
tax partnership a relationship between two or more
parties under the Internal Revenue code for tax
purposes. A tax partnership is a joint venture rather
than a partnership in the business meaning. The taxes
and deductions are at the individual party level rather
than partnership level. A reporting party fills out the
information to the government for the tax returns
and assigns the allocations.
Taylor bubbles large bullet-shaped bubbles that
have formed from coalesced, smaller bubbles rising
in a liquid
TB 1) tank battery 2) thin bedded 3) time break
TB temperature at normal boiling point
Tb absolute temperature at reference or base
condition
tb tube
t.b. thin bedded
TBE threaded both ends
TBG, Tbg., or tbg tubing
tbg ch tubing choke
tbg chk tubing choke
tbg press tubing pressure
T^ bottomhole temperature
TBP tethered buoy platform
tbp or t.b.p. true boiling point
TC 1) tubing choke 2) tool closed 3) top choke 4)
temperature controller 5) temperature coefficient 6)
time constant
Tc critical temperature
tc contact time
TCC thermal catalytic combustion
TCD thermal conductivity detector
tee tons coal equivalent
Tcf or tcf trillion cubic feet

Tctfd or TcfD telescopic leg

Tctfd or Ted) trillion cubic feet per day
TCFGD trillion cubic feet of gas per day
TCG time controlled gain
TCK 1) top choke 2) tubing choke
TCOOR total coordinates
TCP total core penetration
TCV temperature control valve
TD or td total depth
T-D time-depth curve
TDC top dead center
TDH total dynamic head
TDI temperature differential indicator
TDL temperature difference log
TDL thermal decay log
TDML teleclinometer dipmeter log
TDR temperature differential recorder
TDS total dissolved solids
TDT thermal decay time
TDT Dual-Spacing Thermal Decay Time log
TEA 1) triethanolamine 2) thermal evolution analysis
tea cup

tea cup

tea cup a landing platform for manned submersibles

on top of an atmospheric chamber on a dry subsea
wellhead
tear down to dismantle a rig after the well has been
drilled and prepare it to be moved off the site, (rigging
down)
tear fault a very steep to horizontal strike-slip fault
that occurs in the hanging wall of a low-angle thrust
fault. The tear fault has a strike that is perpendicular
to the strike of the underlying thrust fault.
teaser a well with not enough production to
complete
tech technician
tectonic 1) the forces that deform the earth's crust
and produce mountains 2) the structures or features
that are the result of the forces. The word tectonic
is derived from the Greek word tektonikos for builder.
tectonic dolomite dolomite, a mineral and rock
composed of CaMg(CO3)2, that has replaced calcite
in limestone along natural fractures such as joints in
the limestone. The fractures were routes through
which Mg-rich waters perculated through the
limestone when it was transformed into dolomite.

517

Tectonic dolomite is in contrast to primary, syngenetic,

evaporite, supratidal stratigraphic, and diagenic
dolomite, (secondary or epigenic dolomite)
tectonic map a large-scale map illustrating the major
structural features, including mountain ranges, uplifts
and basins, of an area
tectonic type the mode of large-scale, structural
deformation of rocks. Tectonic types are orogenic,
epeirogenic, taphrogenic, and lineagenic.
tee or tee piece a pressure fitting with three
openings, two on a line and one at 90 to the others.
The ends can be threaded, flanged, or studded flange.
A tee is used on a Christmas tree where the wing is
connected and is also called a flow cross. The polished
rod passes through the tee and stuffing box that are
bolted or screwed to the top of the tubing hanger
on a pumping wellhead.
teeth the plural of tooth, see tooth
TEF tubing effect factor
TEFC totally enclosed fan-cooled
teflon standoff a metallic sleeve with teflon fins that
is used around a tool in a deviated well. The teflon
standoff helps run the tool through curves up to 60
from vertical.
TEG triethylene glycol
TEG unit a vertical contact or absorber tower that
uses triethylene glycol (TEG) to dry gas as it bubbles
through the glycol. The reconcentrated or lean glycol
enters the top of the absorber where it flows down
from bubble tray to bubble tray to absorb water from
the rising gas. The rich or wet glycol then exits the
bottom of the contractor and flows through a stripping
column and reboiler to remove the water so the glycol
can be reused. The dry gas flows out the top of the
unit.
tel 1) telephone 2) telegraph
telechirics the operation of an unmanned
submersible from the surface by a cable
telegraph an arrangement used to control the speed
of a steam engine on a cable-tool rig. A telegraph
consists of a wire that runs from the driller's stand
to the steam valve on the engine.
telemetry the transmission of data by electronics
with line or radio from the point of origin to a receiver
telescopic joint a joint on a marine riser that is
designed to compensate for vertical movement of a
drillship or semisubmersible rig due to waves and
to allow the rig to disconnect during bad weather.
The telescopic joint consists of a inner barrel that
slides in an outer barrel. Resilient seals or packing
is located between the inner and outer barrels for a
pressure seal. The telescopic joint is located on the
top of the marine riser system and the riser tensioners
are attached to a tensioner ring on the bottom of
the joint. The telescopic joint contains fittings for the
choke and kill-line hoses and a connection for the
bell nipple or diverter. (slip joint)
telescopic leg a leg on a mat-supported jackup
drilling rig that is designed to be extended to increase
the length of the leg. Telescopic legs are used to
keep the legs short during towing but to allow the
legs to be extended and raise the deck above sea
level during emplacement at the drillsite.

518

telescoping derrick tender platform

telescoping derrick a type of portable derrick on

a drilling rig in which the upper part of the derrick
is located inside the lower section and can be extruded
to its full length by a wireline or hydraulic piston
system
telex a communication system that is similar to a
telephone except that it prints out the message on a
teletype machine
telltail a scale on the outside of a tank that shows
the volume of fluid in the tank
tell-tale screen a screen that is located near the
bottom of a tubing string that is used to indicate the
level of gravel during gravel packing by the pressure
on the screen
telluric current a natural electrical current that is
either static or alternating at a very low frequency
through the ground. Telluric currents extend over
large areas and are caused by variations in the earth's
magnetic field, (earth current)
telogenetic porosity porosity in sedimentary rocks
caused by uplift and exposure. Telogenetic porosity
is in contrast to eogenetic and mesogenetic porosity.
TEM transmission electron microscopy
TEML temperature max reading log
TEMP or temp temperature
temp temporarily
temperature bomb a device that is run on a wireline
in a well to measure subsurface temperatures. The
enclosed instrument includes a stylus that records
temperature variations on a chart that is driven by a
clock. Time and depth in the well are then correlated.
Usually, the well is shut in for about 24 hours to
stop the fluids from circulating in the well before
the temperatures are measured.
temperature gradient the rate of temperature
change with distance. The rate of temperature gradient
with depth in the earth is called the geothermal
gradient. The geothermal gradient varies
geographically from 5 to 0.5F per 100 ft depth.
temperature log or survey a measurement of
temperatures with depth in a shut-in well. A
temperature log can be made either with a) a selfcontained unit (temperature bond) on a solid wireline,
b) a resistance thermometer (thermistor) unit on an
electric wireline, or c) a unit on an electric wireline
that records on the surface. The temperature survey
or log is used to determine a) cement tops by the
heat the setting cement gives off, b) where gas is
entering the well by the cooling it produces, c) lost
circulation, d) casing leaks, e) fracture treatment
evaluation, and f) channeling in water injection wells.
A differential temperature log is used to accurately
determine the difference in temperatures between
two thermometers that are about 6 ft apart. TL
tempered water system a closed freshwater system
that is used for cooling crude oil and/or gas in a
process train on an offshore platform. The fresh water
is cooled by a saltwater heat exchanger.
temper screw a turnbuckle-type of device on the
drilling line of a cable-tool rig that is used to adjust
tension on the drilling line and to let out more line.
The temper screw is attached to the walking beam.

template 1) a metal plate with a design pattern with

guides for equipment and structures. A template is
part of the guide base on a subsea well. A template
is used to align development wells as they are being
drilled. Two types of templates are spacer and modular
templates. An eight-slot template is common.
guide base has guide lines that extend up to the
semisubmersible or drillship and are used to guide
equipment such as the marine riser and the blowout
preventer stack into position. The template can also
be located in the legs of a jacketed platform. 2) a
large tubular structure used to conduct subsea
equipment to the seabed, align the equipment, and
connect wells and flowlines to a manifold
template platform an offshore production platform
that consists of a jacket of welded steel tubulars that
forms a frame that is pinned to the seafloor by pilings.
The template for drilling the wells is on the seafloor
and each well has its own conductor pipe. A template
platform is the most common type of offshore
production platform in contrast to towers, caissons,
and tension-leg platforms.
temporarily abandoned a well that has been shut
in but has not been plugged
temporary allowable the amount of gas and/or oil
that is permitted to be produced by a government
regulatory agency (allowable) and is given in a newly
discovered field before the final allowable is issued
for the entire field
temporary guide base a flat steel frame that is
located on the seafloor to serve a) as a drilling guide
for the 36-in. diameter conductor hole, b) as a
foundation for other subsea equipment, and c) to
anchor the guideline cables for a subsea well. The
temporary base guide is circular, octagonal, or square
in shape and is about 100 ft2 in area. Four 18-in. spikes
on the bottom of the base anchor it to the seabed.
Four guideline wires (two for the marine riser and
two for the hydraulic hoses to the blowout preventer)
and two smaller TV and locating-device guide lines
lead up to the surface. The center has a circular hole
with a funnel shape where the permanent guide base
is fitted and the drillstring goes into the well. 71GB
tenancy by the entirety a husband and wife that
own property. They cannot dispose of the property
separately but there is the right of survivorship.
Tenancy by the entirety is in contrast to tenants in
common.
tenants in common two or more people who
concurrently own the same property. Their interests
can be different and can be sold. Tenants in common
does not carry the right of survivorship.
tender 1) a supply or support ship for offshore rigs.
The tender can contain living quarters and storage
for supplies and equipment. 2) a permit by a
governmental regulatory agency to transport
petroleum
tender platform a fixed offshore production
platform that is smaller in size than a self contained
platform. The tender platform supports the derrick,
substructure, prime movers, mud tanks, and mud
pumps. The crew quarters, supplies, and other
equipment are located on a moored tender ship that
is connected to the tender platform by a walkway.

tenders Tertiary
tenders a quantity of crude oil delivered to a pipeline
tendon a steel tube, about 1 ft in diameter, that is
used to tether a tension leg platform to a tendon
foundation template on the seafloor
ten-minute gel strength the shear stress that is
required to permanently deform a colloidal
suspension such as drilling mud after it has been at
rest for 10 minutes. Ten-minute gel strength is
measured with a direct-reading viscosimeter, is
reported in lb/100 ft2, and is similar to the initial gel
strength which is also usually measured.
ten percenter a party that rents expensive oilfield
tools

tensile force or stress pull-apart forces. Tensile

forces are in contrast to compressive forces.
tensile fracture a fracture that has been pulled apart
perpendicular to the fracture plane. A tensile fracture
is oriented parallel to the maximum and intermediate
principle stress directions and perpendicular to the
minimum principle stress direction.
tensile strength the maximum pull-apart forces that
a body can resist before failure. Tensile strength is
usually measured in pounds. Sp TS, or T
tensiometer an instrument used to measure the
tension on a cable or wire rope
tension a state of stress in an object due to tensile
or pull-apart forces. Tor tns

519

the wellhead on the sea bottom. The tensioner system

compensates for wind, waves, and tides and prevents
the marine riser from collapsing under its own weight.
Two types of tensioner systems are the deadweight
and the pneumatic systems. Both types have tensioned
lines that connect the floater to the tensioner ring
on the telescopic or slip joint outer barrel of the
marine riser. A tensioner system is also used to
maintain tension on the tendons anchoring a tension
leg platform.
tension packer a packer with slips and upward
pointing teeth above the packing element.
Manipulation of a J-slot allows the slips to engage
the casing and an upward pull on the tubing causes
the packer to expand and seal, (upside down packer)
Tent tentaculites
tent tentative
TEOR thermal enhanced oil recovery
Ter tertiary
ter terrigenous y
tera the metric prefix for 1012. 7*
term terminal
thermal decomposition the breakdown of a
substance into simpler substances by high temperature
term clause an oil and gas lease provision that
defines the length (term) of the lease. The primary
term is the number of years that the lease is in effect
as the lessee explores the acreage. If commercial
petroleum production is established on the acreage,
the secondary term is the indefinite time that the lease
is in effect as the oil and/or gas is being produced
in paying quantities, (babendum clause)
terminal an input and/or output facility or device.
term
term royalty payment for a mineral interest that
expires after a certain time
ternary diagram an equilateral triangle that shows
the compositional phases of a three-component
mixture
SHALE
CALCAREOUS SHALE
(LIMEY)

tension leg platform

tensional leg platform or tension leg well

platform a type of floating platform that is used for
drilling and production in relatively deep water. The
platform is held in place by tendons that are high
tensile strength steel tubes attached at each of the
four corners of the platform and connected to tendon
foundation templates on the seabed. The tendons are
tensioned by a computer to pull the buoyant hull
down to minimize motion but some lateral movement
is allowed. Drilling is through a template on the
seafloor. A tension leg well platform does not have
the treating facilities of a tension leg platform, (tethered
leg platform) TLP or TLWP

tensioner ring a ring around the lower portion of

a telescopic or slip joint on a marine riser. The riser
tensioners are attached to the tensioner ring.
tensioner system equipment on a semisubmersible
or drillship that is used to maintain a constant tension
on the marine riser system that connects the rig with

SHALEY LIMESTONE

SHALEY SANDSTONE

LIMESTONE

SANDSTONE
CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE
( LIMEY)

SANDY LIMESTONE

ternary diagram

terrain correction the correction applied to gravity

meter data to compensate for the elevation differences
between stations
terrigenous derived from land, ter
Tertiary an epoch of geological time about 67-2 m.
y. ago. It is part of the Cenozoic era and is subdivided
into the Paleogene and Neogene. Ter

520

tertiary migration theodolite

tertiary migration the movement of petroleum

from the trap to the surface
tertiary recovery an engineering process applied
to a depleted oil reservoir after secondary recovery
processes have been applied. Tertiary recovery is
divided into thermal, miscible and chemical methods.
Tertiary recovery includes inert gas injection, flooding
the subsurface reservoir with chemicals in a micellar
or chemical flood, setting the subsurface oil on fire
in a fire flood or in-situ combustion and steam flood
and injection.
tesla a derived unit in Systems International (SI) for
magnetic flux density. Tesla is named after Nikola
Tesla (1856-1943), an American inventor and
electrician. Tesla is calculated by Wb/m2 where Wb
is a weber and m is meters. A nanotesla (nT) equals
1 gamma. T
testamentary grant the transfer of land title with
the death of the maker of a will to his or her beneficiary
test block or tester the equipment, including gas
lift receivers, gauges, and valves that measure the
nitrogen gas pressure on the bellows of a gas lift
valve that is necessary to open the valve
tester a service company employee who supervises
drillstem test operations. TSTR or tstr
tester valve a valve used on a drillstem test tool
that controls the flow of formation fluids into the
anchor pipe and up the drillpipe. The tester valve is
normally closed. It is opened by applying weight and
closed by pulling up.
testing take-over right a provision in a support
agreement such as a farmout in which the supporting
party (farmee) can conduct its own tests on the earning
well
test loop a ring of electrcally conductive material
that is placed over the measure point of a tool to
calibrate an induction log
test pill a gamma ray calibration source
test separator a small separator similar to a
production separator that has an orifice meter to
measure gas volume and an orifice or turbine meter
to measure liquid volume. The test separator is used
to determine the production rate of individual wells
or a group of wells. A test separator can be required
by law.
test stump a short post that is located on the cellar
deck of a semisubmersible and is used to mount the
blowout preventer stack to make a stump or pressure
test
test tank a container used to temporarily store and
measure liquid produced during a well test
test well an exploratory well
tethered leg platform see tension leg platform. TLP
tetracoral an important type of extinct coral
belonging to the order Rugosa. Tetracorals have radial
partitions or septa in quadrants giving the coral a
bilateral symmetry. Tetracorals existed from the
Ordovician period through the Permian period and
are good guide fossils, (rugose coral)
tetrahedral pore a pore in dolomite formed by
dolomite rhombs with planar surfaces

tetrajoule a metric unit of energy equal to 1012 joules.

A tetrajoule is equal to about 1018 Btu. One cubic
meter of average crude oil or 103 m3 of natural gas
is about equal to 0.038 tetrajoules. Tf or Q
Tex or tex texture
Texas deck the upper main deck of a mobile offshore
drilling rig that has two or more decks
Texas turkey a pump unit with a walking beam in
West Texas
Texas-type corer an early type of corer used in
rotary drilling. The Texas-type corer was a pipe with
teeth cut into the lower end. After the core was cut,
the teeth were bent inward to trap the core by
increasing the rotation speed and decreasing the
circulation, (poor boy corer)
TEXT texture
texture 1) the arrangement of particles or parts of
a substance. The texture of a rock includes the size,
shape, and distribution of mineral grains, cements,
and pores. Tex, tex, or TEXT 2) the frequency in which
a tone changes in a remote sensing image
TF torque factor
Tf ortf tuff
tf flowing tubing pressure
TF formation temperature
Tf 1) formation temperature 2) absolute temperature
of flowing fluid
tf acoustic traveltime in fluid
TFL or tfl through flowline
T.F.L. tool in flowline
Tfl flowline temperature
TG trip gas
TGA true gelled acid
TGB temporary guide base
tgh tough
TGLR total gas/liquid ratio
TGR trip gas recycle
T GR or T-GR temperature, gamma ray log
T GRN temperature, gamma ray, neutron log
TH 1) tight hole 2) thence 3) total hardness
thalweg a line marking the lowest or deepest part
of a river channel
thanatocoenose the environment of death.
Thanatocoenose is used to describe fossil assemblages
in sedimentary rocks and is in contrast to biocoenose.
Thanetian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 62-55 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Paleocene era.
thd 1) thread 2) threaded
T-head a man-made island with several deviated
wells
theodolite a surveyor's instrument that has a
telescope mounted on a rotating base. A theodolite
is used to accurately measure horizontal and vertical
angles. A stadia rod that has markings at regular
intervals and is held up by a surveyor's assistant can
be used to determine the distance between the
theodolite and rod. A theodolite is more accurate than
a transit.

theoretical seismogram thermomagnetic remanent magnetism

theoretical seismogram a computed seismic trace
that is anticipated from a specific series of rock layers.
A theoretical seismogram uses reflection coefficients
from velocity and density data for each rock layer.
The input includes a velocity log, density log, and
the seismic pulse shape. Theoretic seismograms are
often computed to be compared with real seismic
records. The seismograms are used to determine the
theoretical effects of changes in thickness and lithology
changes in rock layers and to predict the ability of
real seismic to detect stratigraphic traps, (synthetic
seismogram)
thereafter clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
that extends the life of the lease after the primary
term if certain conditions occur, such as drilling or
production in paying quantities
therm the practical or nonmetric unit of heat. A
therm is equal to 105 Btu or about 25 x 106 cal
thermal alteration index a series of numbers from
one to five that describe the amount of thermal
maturation or alteration by heat that has occurred in
organic matter in sedimentary rocks. The color of
the organic matter in transmitted light goes from
transparent through yellow and brown to black with
more heat exposure. One represents no change from
the original pale yellow color of the organic matter.
Five is black and represents metamorphism. Thermal
maturation of organic matter generates hydrocarbons.
Oil generation occurs at about two to three, and
thermal gas at about three to four on the scale. TAI
thermal capacity the ratio of heat absorbed or
radiated on a surface to the rise and fall of temperature.
Thermal capacity is expressed in calories per gram
per degrees centigrade (cal/gm/C). (heat capacity)
thermal catalytic combustion a common method
used to detect gas-cut mud during mud logging. The
mud is continuously sampled from a collector or trap
on the mud return line. An agitator in the mud trap
or steam causes the gas to separate from the mud
and collect in a vacuum system. The gas passes over
a hot wire called the detector filament that is part of
a Wheatstone bridge used to measure resistivity. The
resistance of the detector filament varies with die
temperature of the filament that is affected by catalytic
oxidation or burning of any flammable gases, (hot
wire analyzer or detector) TCC
thermal conductivity the amount of heat in calories
that is transmitted per second through a substance
in the shape of a plate that is 1 cm thick with an
area of 1 cm2 having a difference in temperature of
1CC from top to bottom. The thermal conductivity
for rocks ranges from about 3-15 mcal/cm/sec/C. The
thermal conductivities in sedimentary rocks are
greatest in evaporites and lowest in shales, (heat
conductivity) kh
thermal decay time a quantity recorded on a
neutron-lifetime log. Thermal decay time is the time
in microseconds that it takes the neutron population
to fall to 1/e or 37% of its original population. TDT
Thermal Decay Time Log a neutron-lifetime log.
A neutron generator emits short bursts of 14 MeV
neutrons. The Thermal Decay Time Log measures the
capture rate of thermal neutrons and emitted gamma
rays. The log is used to measure the chlorine content
and salinity of formation waters to calculate

521

hydrocarbon saturations. The log can be run in casing

and tubing. TDLm
thermal expansion the increase in volume of a fluid
or length of a solid as the result of a change in
temperature
thermal expansion factor a factor that corrects for
the expansion or contraction of an orifice opening
under a temperature that is different than normal
operating temperature for the orifice. Fa
thermal imaging remote sensing using infrared
radiation
thermal-infrared remote sensing a method of
mapping an area in which an infrared beam from a
transmitter on an airplane is transmitted to either side
of the plane's path and the reflected energy is recorded
to produce a picture similar to an aerial photograph
Thermal Multigate Decay Log a log that is used
to measure the chlorine content and salinity of
formation waters to calculate hydrocarbon saturation.
A neutron generator emits short bursts of 14 MeV
neutrons. The resulting gamma radiation is measured
by two detectors at six time intervals or gates. The
log can be run in casing and tubing. TMD
thermal neutron an atomic particle with energy that
corresponds to the temperature and has a kinetic
energy of about 0.025 eV. Thermal neutrons are in
contrast to epithermal neutrons with higher energies.
Either thermal or epithermal can be recorded during
neutron logging.
thermal neutron density the number of thermal
neutrons per unit formation volume
thermal neutron population the number of
thermal neutrons around a pulsed neutron tool at a
specfic time
thermal recovery enhanced oil recovery processes,
usually for heavy oils, that use heat. Thermal recovery
includes cyclic steam injection, steamflooding, and
in-situ combustion.
thermistor a temperature sensitive resistor. A
thermistor is the most sensitive of all temperature
sensing instruments and most are composed of
semiconductor material whose resistance decreases
with increasing temperature. A thermistor has a
nonlinear response.
thermocouple a device used to measure
temperature. A thermocouple consists of two wires
of dissimilar metals joined at both ends. A change in
temperature increases or decreases the voltage across
the wire by the Seebeck effect.
thermogenic gas natural gas formed by high
temperatures (generally greater than 300F) by the
breakdown of crude oil or generation from organic
matter in sedimentary rocks and coal. Thermogenic
gas is often wet gas and is relatively heavy isotopically
compared to biogenic gas. Thermogenic gas often
contains inerts such as water vapor and nitrogen along
with carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
thermomagnetic remanent magnetism the
magnetic moment in an igneous rock formed by the
alignment of ferromagnetic minerals, primarily
magnetite. The mineral crystals, primarily magnetite,
align themselves with the earth's magnetic field as
the molten rock cools to a temperature less than the

522

thermometric hydrometer thin well

Curie point, which is less than 600 C. Thermomagnetic

remanent magnetism is in contrast to chemical and
detrital remanent magnetism. TRM
thermometric hydrometer an instrument that
measures both density (hydrometer) and temperature
of a liquid
thermostat a device that regulates temperature.
therst

thermowell a protective device that is used to install

temperature sensors on a pipe or vessel wall. A
thermowell consists of a solid, cylindrical metal block
with a hole drilled for the temperature sensor. It is
easily screwed in perpendicular to the wall.
therst thermostat
0 1) angle 2) critical angle 3) contact angle 4) acoustic
transit time per unit length 5) crank position in degrees
0j 1) incident angle 2) reflection angle 3) transmission
angle
THF tubinghead flange
THFP top hole flowing pressure
thk 1) thick 2) thickness
thickened water water mixed with a polymer for
increased viscosity
thickener a drilling mud additive that is either lime
or polymers used to increase the viscosity of the mud.
Lime increases the viscosity by causing clay
flocculation. Polymers are large molecules. Three
types of polymers are a) extenders, b) colloidal, and
c) long chain. The extender causes flocculation of
bentonite. Colloidal polymers include sodium carboxy
methyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose and starch;
long chain polymers include xantham gum. A
thickener is in contrast to a thinner.
thickening time the length of time that a particular
cement slurry remains fluid during and after being
pumped down a well. Thickening time is measured
in a laboratory from the initial application of pressure
and temperature in a consistometer to the cement
slurry reaching a consistency of 100 Bearden units.
(pumping time or pumpability time)
thick well a well drilled into a relatively thick portion
of the producing zone
thief a brass, aluminum, or glass cylinder that is
lowered on a line into an oil storage tank to take a
sample of oil at a specific depth in the tank or the
sediment on the bottom. A spring-activated device
closes the thief when the line is jerked. The thief
houses the thermal-hydrometer that measures the
quality, gravity, and temperature of the oil. (oil thief)
thief formation a very permeable subsurface rock
layer that takes excessive drilling mud during drilling.
The problem is called lost circulation and can be
remedied by pumping lost circulation material down
the well.
thiefing to sample the oil and sediment at various
levels in an oil storage tank
thief hatch a hinged opening on the top of an oil
stock tank or storage tank that is used to lower a
thief to gauge or measure the level of oil and to take
an oil sample. A thief hatch is fitted with a lid. (gage
or gauge batch or hole, gaging or gauging hatch,
hole, or dp; or main hatch)

thief hole a gauge hole on the top of a storage tank

thief rod a long rod that is used to thief samples
from a storage tank
thief sand a sandstone that causes a lost-circulation
problem in a well
thief test a test made on the oil in a storage tank
to determine the amount of basic sediment and water
content. A cylinder, called a thief, is lowered through
an opening on top of the stock tank, called a thief
hatch, to take samples at the top, middle, and bottom
of the tank.
thief zone in enhanced oil recovery, a thief zone
is a) a relatively high-permeability zone in a reservoir
rock through which excessive amounts of injected
fluids flow, bypassing oil in other parts of the reservoir,
or b) a zone that was not intended to receive injected
fluids
thigmotactic bacteria bacteria that have a greater
affinity for solid surfaces than crude oil. The bacteria
can displace the crude oil from surfaces.

thimble

thimble a grooved piece of metal in the shape of a

U with the top closed. A thimble is used to hold the
end of a wire or cable to make an eye for a connection
and prevent the wire or cable from becoming worn
and pinched.
thin to dilute a liquid
thin bed a rock bed requiring a bed-thickness
correction on a well log
thin down to reduce the density of circulating
drilling mud
thinner an additive used to reduce the viscosity and/
or thixotropic properties of drilling mud by breaking
the clay platelet attachments. Some types of thinners
are a) phosphates, b) chrome lignosulfonate, and c)
surfactants or surface tension-reducing agents.
Chrome lignosulfonate is the most common thinner
used. Phosphates include sodium tetraphosphate and
sodium acid pyrophosphate. A thinner is in contrast
to a thickener.
thin section a slice of rock that has been cut,
mounted on a glass slide, and ground to paper thin.
Under a microscope, the thin section of the rock can
be examined to identify the minerals and determine
their textures and to interpret the history of the rock.
T.S.
thin well a well drilled into a relatively thin portion
of the producing zone

third crop production three-phase separator

third crop production oil produced by enhanced
oil recovery methods
third curve the medium resistivity curve on an early
electric log
third for a quarter a common type of drilling deal.
The investor puts up a third of the funds in return
for a quarter of the net production revenues.
thirty day-sixty day clause a provision in an unlesstype of oil and gas lease that provides for an extension
of the life of the lease if a dry hole is drilled or
production is shut in during the primary term of the
lease. The lease will not expire if the lessee spuds
another well or commences reworking operations
within 60 days or pays any delay rentals that are due.
If, at the expiration of the primary term, the lessee
is drilling a well on the lease or the producing well
holding the lease is in workover, the lease is extended
as long as there is no period greater than 30 days in
which drilling or workover operations are ceased.
36 a pipe wrench with a 36-in. handle
thixotropic or thixotropy the property of some
colloidal substances to change from a gel to weak
sol when shaken and then to gain strength when left
undisturbed. The substance goes from a rigid to semirigid gel when undisturbed to a fluid when agitated.
Quick clays are thixotropic and become very weak
during earthquakes and cause landslides. When certain
cement slurries (thixotropic cement) are pumped
down a well they set rapidly when the pumping ceases.
thixotropic cement a type of cement used in wells
which has a low viscosity when pumped but rapidly
gels when pumping stops. The gel breaks down when
the pumping is resumed.
thk thick
THKLD theoretical hook load
thn thin
THOL tight hole
THRDS threads
thread a metal ridge in a helical pattern on either
the outside or inside surface of a pipe or fitting. A
thread is used to join another pipe or fitting with a
corresponding thread. The protrusion of the thread
is called the crest, whereas the groove is called the
root. Threads are described by their height, lead, taper,
and form such as squared or V-shaped. The American
Petroleum Institute has a numerical system to
distinguish oilfield threads. The most common thread
form used on a drillpipe has a 60 taper of the API
Internal Flush joint, thd or THRD
thread compound thread lubricator, (gunk or rod
dope)
threaded and coupled weight the weight of a
tubular joint with threads at both ends and a coupling
on one end. The threaded and coupled weight is
expressed in pound meter per foot (lb/ft) or kilogram
per meter (kg/m) and is in contrast to plain end weight.
thread form the description of a threaded
connection that includes a) width of thread crest, b)
radius of thread root, c) angle between flanks of
adjacent threads, and d) number of threads per inch.
Thread forms that have been standardized by the
American Petroleum Institute are called API threads.

523

thread off the casing length without the male threads.

The length of the male threads is called makeup.
thread on the casing length including the male
threads. Thread on is how casing is sold and is in
contrast to thread off. Makeup is the length of the
male threads.
thread profile gauge an instrument used to
measure the amount of thread wear on a tubular
thread protector a plastic or steel cap that is screwed
onto the threaded ends of pipe, casing, or tubing
for thread protection. Thread protectors are removed
when the tubulars are screwed together to make a
string.
thread up to screw a pipe or nut
three-cone bit see tricone bit
3-D log a type of wireline well log that displays
the seismic or acoustic wave train that was received
a short distance from the sonic wave transmitter
3-D seismic seismic that is run, acquired, and
processed to yield a three dimensional picture of the
subsurface. Three-D seismic is run on land with the
source lines perpendicular to the detector lines in a
cross or T-spread. Several parallel lines of detectors
are used at the same time to obtain CDP coverage
over a rectangular area (swath shooting). At sea,
parallel profiles that are 300-600 ft apart are run from
a single ship with two sets of air guns or twin streamers.
A time or horizontal slice can be taken to show the
intersection of reflectors with that time plane. ThreeD seismic is in contrast to two-dimensional seismic.
Three-D seismic is relatively expensive because it takes
considerable computer time to process the enormous
amount of data.
3-D vertical seismic profiling three-D vertical
seismic profiling is similar to vertical seismic profiling,
except it uses a mobile source shooting at many surface
positions with borehole geophones. Often, three shot
lines at 60 orientation are run through the well. An
air gun array, weight drop, or Vibroseis are
commonly used as a source. The horizontal coverage
is effective to about one-third of the reservoir depth.
3-D VSP

3-D VSP 3-D vertical seismic profiling

three-party top lease a lease (top lease) that is taken
by a person who is not the current lessee of the
acreage. If the current lease (bottom lease) expires,
then the top lease becomes effective. A three-party
top lease is in contrast to a two-party lease.
three-phase an electrical system with three
alternating electromotive forces separated by 120,
each having the same frequency and wave form. A
three-phase generator uses three circuits in the stator
windings. The three-phase system is used to power
large offshore alternating-current motors with 440 V
between phases. A three-phase system is in contrast
to a two-phase system.
three-phase separator a horizontal or vertical tank
that is used to separate oil, gas, and water. An inlet
diverter makes the initial separation on the produced
fluid. In a vertical separator, the water exits at the
bottom, the oil near the middle, and the gas at the
top after flowing through a mist extractor. In a
horizontal separator, the oil floating on the water flows
over a weir and through the oil outlet on the bottom

524

three-piece sucker rod through the tanks

of the separator. The oil level is controlled by a level

controller that operates an oil dump valve. In a bucket
and weir design, both oil and water flow over the
weir and the water then flows over a water weir.
The water flows out the water outlet which is also
on the bottom. The gas flows through the mist extractor
and out the gas outlet on the top. The three-phase
separator is in contrast to a two-phase separator used
to separate liquid and solution gas.
three-piece sucker rod a sucker rod with body
and pin or box ends joined with threaded connections
three-point method a surveying method for
locating a point by backsighting on three known
locations or by the intersection of three bearing lines
from known locations
three-point test a multipoint test on a gas well using
three flow rates to determine the open-flow potential

three-spot waterflood

3 spot a type of waterflood pattern used in pilot

studies. A producing well is in the center of a circle
formed by two injection wells on opposite sides of
the circle circumference.
three-stage compressor a compressor that uses
three chambers to progressively raise the pressure
of a gas in three steps

three-stage separation

three-stage separation a system that uses two

separators connected to a stock tank on a lease to
separate natural gas from crude oil. The first separator
is a high-pressure separator, and the second separator
is a low-pressure separator. Three-stage separation
is used for intermediate gravity oils, for intermediate
to high gas/oil ratios, and/or for intermediate wellhead
flowing pressures.
three-tube pump a pump that uses liquid seals with
metal valves to lift liquids containing solids. The threetube pump is not easily damaged by sand and is used
for cleanup of stimulated wells.
3-way bit a drag bit with three blades
threshold the lowest limit that will cause something
to happen
threshold force the minimum force at which
fracturing begins under the teeth of a rolling cutter
bit

threshold pressure the lowest differential pressure

necessary for moving a wetted phase fluid through a
pore in a rock
thribble a stand of three joints of pipe or tubing.
Thribbles are in contrast to doubles and fourbles.
(triple or treble)
thribble board a platform, commonly called the
monkeyboard, near the top of the derrick where the
derrickman stands to stack thribbles (three joints of
pipe) when tripping out of a well
thrling throttling
thrm thermal
throat the nozzle size on a roller-cone bit
throated mill a long mill similar to a mill shoe that
has a tunnel along the mill axis. The cutting material
is on the bottom of the mill and inside the throat. A
throated mill is used to cut a fishing neck on a fish.
throttling the regulation of fluid flow with a valve.
thrling
throttling effect the cooling of a gas when it is
expanded. The throttling effect used to remove
hydrates from natural gas. (Joule-Thomson effect)
through-casing evaluation logs well logs that are
run in a wellbore that has already been cased. The
through-casing evaluation logs include compensated
neutron, pulsed neutron, gamma-ray, and carbon/
oxygen logs and are used to evaluate potential
reservoirs.
through-drillpipe logging a logging technique
used where swelling shales, ledges, lost circulation
zones, or other downhole problems might prevent
normal wireline well logging. The drillstring without
a bit is lowered into the well until below the problem
area. A small-diameter sonde is then run on a wireline
through the drillstring. Through-drillpipe logging can
include induction, density, compensated neutron,
sonic, temperature, gamma ray, and thermal decay
logs.
through-flowline a method of servicing a well by
using a surface pump to circulate pump-down and
wireline equipment through the flowline which is
either the casing-tubing annulus or tubing. Throughflowline can be used to run, service, and pull gas
lifts and jet pumps along with flow and pressure
control devices. Through-flowline can cut paraffin,
wash sand, break sand bridges, shift sleeves, measure
bottomhole conditions, and treat the producing
formation. Through-flowline is used for servicing
subsea wells, (pumpdowri) TFL
through flowline loop a wellhead attachment of
curved pipe that connects the flowlines to the tubing
in a through-flowline system. TFL loop
through flie casing production in a well with
enough reservoir pressure so that the oil flows without
production tubing
through the casing point see to the casing point
through the tanks the time at which a participant
(carried interest) such as a promoter is free from
responsibility for drilling and completion costs on a
well. Through the tanks time continues up to the time
of stock tank installation. The costs are borne by the
other participants such as investors. Another method
is to the casing point.

through-tubing production logging

tidal effect

525

through-tubing production logging well logs

that are run through the tubing after the well is on
production. Through-tubing production logging
includes a) high-resolution thermometer, b) inflatable
packer flowmeter, c) continuous flowmeter, d) full
bore flowmeter, e) gradiomanometer, 0 radioactive
tracers, g) noise log, h) pulsed neutron or thermal
decay log, i) gamma ray-neutron log, j) Carbon/Oxygen
ratio log, k) bottomhole pressure gauge and 1) caliper
log.
thrust fault

FAUT

throw

throw 1) the vertical component of displacement on

a fault 2) a term sometimes used synonymously with
stroke
throw a cob in the wheel to stop an engine
throw a double to work two consecutive shifts
throwing the chain to connect joints of pipe with
a spinning chain wrapped several times around one
of the pipes. The other end of the chain is pulled
from the cathead.
throw off the rope to disconnect the bull wheel
on a cable-tool rig
throw on the rope to connect the bull wheel on
a cable-tool rig to pull the tools from the well
throw the chain wrapping the spinning chain
around pipe or tubing on the floor of a drilling rig
as the pipe or tubing is being raised or lowered into
the well. The spinning chain is used to screw (making
up) and unscrew (breaking out) joints of pipe or
tubing. The chain is connected to the cathead.
thruster an auxiliary propulsion unit used on a
drillship or semisubmersible to maintain station.
Thrusters consist of propellers that are electrically
driven and are either fixed or controlled pitch. The
cyclonic paddle wheel type is the most common. Water
jets tend to have low efficiencies. The thrusters are
mounted either in tunnels or pods (rudder propellers)
and can be on the bow, stern, or sides. The thruster
itself can be either fixed or azimuthing (turning).
thrust fault a reverse fault with a dip of less than
45 on the fault plane. The hanging wall on a thrust
fault is thrust over the foot wall. The thrust fault surface
can go through flats in which the fault surface is
subparallel to incompetent beds and ramps in which
the fault surface rapidly climbs though more
competent beds. Drag folds can form on thrust faults.
thrust sheet an allochthonous sheet that is formed
by the hanging wall of a thrust fault(s)

thru 1) through 2) throughout

thumb buster a pipe elevator
Thumper a seismic source that drops a weight.
The weight is usually 2-3 tons and is dropped from
a height of ten feet.
THV threshold limit value
Thyssen gravimeter or gravity meter an unstable
type of gravity meter that uses a mass suspended from
a rigid bar supported by a fulcrum and spring to
measure gravity. Variations in gravity cause the bar
to tilt which is amplified by an auxiliary weight above
the fulcrum. The Thyssen gravimeter sensitivity is 0.3
milligals.
TI temperature indicator
ti tight
t| transmission coefficient across interface
TIC temperature indicator control
Ca+Mg

CO3+HCO3
Sea Water
SO 4

Tickell diagram

Tickel diagram a method of showing the chemical

composition of oilfield waters. The reaction values
in percent of a) Na and K, b) Ca and Mg, c) CO3
and HCO3, and d) SO4 and Cl are shown as lines
radiating out from a central point. The Tickel diagram
has the disadvantage of not showing the actual
concentrations.
TICKT ticket
tic-mark a mark on a well log used to scale equal
values of some quantity such as travel time
tidal correction the correction applied to gravity
data to compensate for the attraction of the sun and
moon
tidal delta a subaqueous delta of sediments, usually
sand, that can be located on both the seaward (ebb
tide delta) or lagoonal (flood tide delta) side of a
tidal inlet or channel through a barrier island. The
sediments are deposited by the reversing tides that
flow through the tidal inlet or channel.
tidal effect the influence of the position of the sun
and moon on gravimeter readings. The tidal effect
depends on the time of day, latitude, and phase of
the moon.

526

tidelands time-dependent fluid

tidelands the offshore portion of the continental

shelf claimed by the states. The tidelands are located
from the shoreline to 3 naut mi offshore. The states
of Florida and Texas own the area from the shore
to 3 lge (9 naut mi) offshore.
tie 1) a survey measurement that connects a known
point with another point 2) a survey measurement
that closes a survey by returning to a known point
tie a can on her tail to start an engine
tie-back casing string casing that extends from a
liner to the surface of a well. Tie-back casing string
is used to protect damaged or worn casing and may
or may not be cemented.
tie-back stub liner a liner that extends from the
top of a liner to a point uphole in a well but not to
the surface. A tie-back stub liner is used to protect
damaged or worn casing above an existing liner in
the well.
tie down an anchor for a guy wire, cable, or brace
tie in 1) to relate a new geophysical station to a
known station 2) to run seismic through a stratigraphic
test well
tie line a surveyed line that connects a point to a
survey
tie point the location to which a survey tie is made
to close the survey either on itself or on another
survey
tier 1) a classification of crude oil production under
the windfall profit tax in the United States. Tier 1 is
old oil discovered before 1979 and is not from stripper
wells. It is taxed the highest. Tier 2 is stripper-well
oil. Tier 3 is oil discovered since 1979. 2) a series of
contiguous, east-west townships or contiguous, northsouth sections in the United States and Canada land
survey system
tight 1) data that is confidential 2) very low
permeability, ti or TITE
tight emulsion an emulsion with small, closetogether droplets of the dispersed phase. A tight
emulsion is in contrast to a loose emulsion.
tightening up the mechanical or chemical
emulsification of free oil back into the drilling mud
from which it has broken out and risen
tighten up to re-emulsify oil in a drilling mud
tight formation a low-permeability rock layer. A
tight formation can produce oil or gas, but at a low
rate. The low permeability can be due to cementation,
compaction, poor sorting, or the fine-grained nature
of the rock.
tight gas natural gas produced from a formation with
low permeability
tight hole or well 1) a well that is being drilled
or just has been drilled in which the operator is
keeping secret as much information about the well
as as possible. TH or THOL 2) an undergauge well
where logging tools can become stuck
tightness of an emulsion the resistance of an
emulsion such as water-in-oil to breaking down into
separate fluids
tight sands a sandstone with little or no permeability
(0.001-1 md). A tight sand generally has less than 5
md permeability and a high irreducible water

saturation (50%-70%). Tight sand is designated by

the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission to qualify
for a higher gas market price.
tight spot an area in a tight hole or well where the
well is undergauge
tight streak a thin layer in a sedimentary rock that
has extremely low or no permeability. A tight streak
is commonly a shale layer or a well-cemented layer.
TEH trip in hole
T1HG threshhold of intense hydrocarbon generation

tilted fault block

tilted fault block a fault block that has been rotated.

Tilted fault blocks can form petroleum traps.
tilted rig see slant rig
tilting stick a walking beam on a pumping unit
tiltmeter survey a method for monitoring
subsurface reservoir processes by elevation changes
on the ground. Bubble level indicators are used in
shallow wells.
tilt-up jack-up an offshore platform that is towed
to the site and tilted into position. The deck is jacked
up above sea level and the platform is then anchored
by piles in the seafloor.
time after bit the time after a formation was drilled
and another event such as logging.
time at shot point the time required for the seismic
impulse generated by a seismic exploration explosion
to travel the distance from the explosive charge up
to the surface in the shot hole, (uphole time)
time branch one of several seismic reflectors off
the same curved reflector
time break the indication on a seismic record of
the instant the shot or charge was detonated, (shot
break or instant) TB
time constant 1) the time in seconds for a logging
tool to change its response by 63% when it moves
from one bed to another. TC 2) the time over which
a nuclear detector averages it counts
time controller see percentage timer
time delay the delay in travel time of a seismic
impulse from the normal travel time between source
to detector due to a) an abnormally low-velocity layer
during seismic refraction or b) shothole fatigue, phase
shifts during filtering, or other reasons, (time lag)
time-dependent fluid a fluid with an apparent
viscosity at a fixed shear rate and temperature that
changes viscosity with time. A time-dependent fluid

time-depth chart or curve title company

can be either a) a thixotropic fluid with decreasing
viscosity with time, such as a polymer, or b) a
rheopectic fluid with increasing viscosity with time,
such as a gypsum and bentonite solution.
time-depth chart or curve a plot of seismic
reflection time versus reflector depth for vertical
seismic energy. A time-depth chart allows the
conversion of time to depth on seismic records.
time-distance curve or graph a plot of the time
required for seismic energy to travel from source or
detonation of shot to the geophone (arrival time)
versus distance from the shotpoint to the geophone.
A time-distance curve is used in noise analysis and
identification of refracted waves.
time domain the expression of a variable as a
function of time. A normal seismic trace is in time
domain in contrast to frequency domain.
time-domain electromagnetism the transmission
of either single or repetitive impulses of
electromagnetic energy, usually in the form of a square
waveform. The electromagnetic energy is then
recorded as a function of time after the transmission
has been turned off. Time-domain electromagnetism
is used in the electromagnetic method of exploration
in which the currents are induced either by a primary
alternating magnetic field called the inductive
electromagnetic method or with electrodes in the
ground called the electromagnetic method.
time gate a time interval
time gradient the rate of traveltime change with
depth in seismic exploration
time interval map an isopach or thickness map
contoured in units of seismic time between two
reflectors. A time interval map is made from
unmigrated data to correct for dip. It is synonymous
with isochron map in America.
time lag see time delay
time-lapse logging the repeated use of wireline
well logs in the same well over a period of time to
quantify changes in reservoir properties
time lead a method used in seismic exploration of
salt domes. Arrival times are plotted against shot-todetector distances to show the high-velocity section
of the travel path.

time-lines on prograding delta

time line a line on a geological cross section

representing rocks that were all deposited at the same
time. Volcanic ash layers, often altered to bentonite
layers, are often used as time lines. Thin limestones,
evaporites, and fossil zones can also be used.
time marks the marks or lines on a seismic record
that record the time elapsed. Time marks are in
fractions of a second (usually 0.01 or 0.005 seconds)
and are used to determine the travel time for seismic
energy, (timing lines)

527

time-of-flight ultrasonic flowmeter a type of

flowmeter that uses two piezoelectric sensors located
180 apart. Voltage impulses expand and contract a
sensor to generate an ultrasonic energy pulse that is
recorded on the other sensor. The flow velocity of a
fluid between the sensors is proportional to difference
in transit times between the upstream and downstream
velocities. (TOF ultrasonic flowmeter)
time sag a delay on seismic due to low velocities
time series a series of data that was collected at
regular time intervals
time since circulation the time between the end
of conditioning a well and when the sonde or tool
reached the bottom of the well

3-D seismic

time slices

time slice a horizontal cross section of a 3-D seismic

record. A time slice shows the intersection of reflectors
with a specific reflection time in milliseconds. The
format can be either VD or VA and the peaks and
troughs can be displayed in different colors. A flattened
time slice is one in which a computer has been used
to remove structural dip. A time slice is an example
of seismic tomography, (horizontal section)
time-temperature index a chart used to analyze
the formation of oil and gas from source rocks. A
time-temperature index has depth of burial on one
axis, time on the other axis, and a temperature grid
overlain on the chart. 777
time transgressive a rock unit such as a formation
or a surface that was deposited or formed at different
times in different areas. A time transgressive rock cuts
across time lines.
time varient filter two or more different filters with
fairly wide band widths that are applied to different
zones of refelection times on a seismic section. TVF
timing lines see time marks
tin hat a well or hole plug
tin hat hole cover a metal plug used in a shot hole
and covered with dirt before the shot
tintometer an old instrument that was used to
determine the color of oil
TIP Tertiary Incentive Program
tip extension an extension to a boom used for lifting.
(jib)
TIPRO Texas Independent Producers and Royalty
Owners Association
TITE tight
Tithonian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 145-140 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Upper Jurassic epoch.
title company a commercial firm that insures
property titles. A title company usually is not involved

528

tide in fee simple tongs

in oil and gas properties as an abstract company is

except in California.
title in fee simple the mineral rights for a lease
held by one owner
title opinion a statement made by an attorney setting
forth who the parties are that own various interests
in a lease. An original title opinion or a supplemental
title opinion is often made before a lease is acquired.
A complimentary title opinion is made to fill in gaps
on a title opinion. A stand-up title opinion is made
from a landman's run sheet in contrast to an abstractbased title opinion. Some types of title opinions such
as bonus, delay rental, drillsite, and division order
title opinions can be made before payments are made.
titration a method in which a standard solution is
slowly added to another solution to cause a chemical
reaction to determine the amount of a substance in
that solution. The formation of a precipitate or an
indicator that changes color can be used to determine
a specific point in the reaction. The volume of the
standard solution that has been added up to that point
is measured.
TIW valve a ball valve used on a workover. The
TIW valve can be stabbed into the work string or
tubing if the well must be shut in with pipe in the
well, (stab-in safety valve)
TJ tetrajoule
tk tank
tkg tankage
TL 1) temperature log 2) tracer log
tl tools
TLC 1) temperature log continuous 2) thin-layer
chromatography
TLE thread large end
TLP 1) tension leg platform 2) tethered leg platform
TLV threshold limit value
TLWP tension leg well platform
TM tracer material
maa apparent matrix transit time
T-max a source rock maturity indicator that increases
with source rock maturity and is obtained from a
Rock-Eval. T-max is the yield of pyrolysate and is used
where vitrinite is absent.
Tmax maximum temperature
TMD Thermal Multigate Decay Log
TMP tax matters partner
TN Temperature, neutron log
tn tan
TNL tracer, neutron log
TNS tight, no show
tns tension
TO tool open
Toarcian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 185-180 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Jurassic epoch.
TOBE threaded on both ends
TOC 1) top of cement 2) total organic carbon
TOCP top of cement plug

TOE threaded one end

toe tons oil equivalent
toe board the low panel or enclosure around a
platform that is designed to prevent tools or equipment
from being kicked off the platform
toe row the inner row of teeth on a cone of a rollercone bit. The heel row is the outer row of teeth,
and the middle row is located between the toe and
heel row. (nose row)
TOF top of fish

TOF ultrasonic flowmeter see time of flight

ultrasonic flowmeter
TOH trip out of hole
TOL top of liner
tol tolerance
tolerance the range of permitted variance from a
specific value, tol
TOM total organic matter
tomography a section. Tomography is derived from
the Greek tomos for section, see seismic tomography
ton a unit of weight. A ton is 2,000 pounds (short
ton) in the United States and Canada and 2,240 pounds
(English long ton) in Great Britain. The metric ton
or tonne weighs 2,204.6 pounds. A metric ton of oil
contains about 6.5 to 8.5 barrels of oil, depending
on the specific gravity of the oil. T or t
tone one of the distinctive shades ranging from black
to white on a remote sensing image
tong dies the gripping elements of serrated steel
on tongs that are used to make up or break out
drillpipe
tong jerk line or tong line a line that is wrapped
around the cathead on the drawworks of a drilling
rig to give leaverage during making up or breaking
out pipe and is used for the final tightening or
loosening of the pipe, (jerk line)
tong line a line that is used to secure the tong for
leverage on the floor of a drilling rig. The backup
line is connected to the Samson post, whereas the
break-out lines is wrapped around the drawworks
cathead.
tongman the member of a drilling crew works with
the tongs
tongpull indicator a strain gauge that shows the
tension on a tong arm on a drilling rig
tongs equipment suspended by a swing on the floor
of a drilling rig in the form of a large wrenches used
to grasp pipe or casing when making up (tightening)
or breaking out (loosening) joints. Two tongs are used.
The backup tong is held stationary by a rope or chain.
The torque tong is pulled by a rope or chain around
a cathead. Power tongs can combine both the backup
and torque tongs into a single unit and eliminate
spinning lines. They tighten to a specific torque and
are operated by air or hydraulics. When coming out
of the well, the lead tong acts as the torque tong
and the makeup tong acts as the backup tong. When
going in the hole, the makeup tong acts as the torque
tong and the lead tong acts as the backup tong. Tongs
range from 200-750 lbs in weight and cover a range
of pipe sizes by changing the lug jaws, (spanners)

tong space top hold-down

tong space the section of pipe or tool where the
tongs on a drilling rig fit
tong torque indicator an instrument that measures
the torque on the tongs of a drilling rig. The element
is attached to either the tong handle or on the deadline
or snubline.
tongue the dart on a bailer
ton-mile a unit used to measure the service of a
drilling line. A ton mile is equivalent to lifting one
ton a distance of one mile.
tonne a non-System International (SI) unit that is
allowable in SI for mass. One tonne is equal to 1,000
kilograms or 2,204.6 lbs. A tonne of average crude
oil is the equivalent of 7.33 bbl, whereas a tonne of
average light oil is 7.6 bbl or more, and a tonne of
average heavy oil is 6.8 bbl or less, t
tons oil equivalent a unit used to evaluate work
or calorific value of energy sources by comparing it
to the energy in one tonne of crude oil. One Mcf of
natural gas has 0.02 tons oil equivalent. TOE
tool an implement or instrument that is used to do
work or make a measurement. Downhole tools are
lowered into a well on a wireline or on a work string.
A logging tool or sonde is used to make a wireline
well log. tl
tool azimuth angle the horizontal angle between
north and the tool reference axis
tool dresser or toolie 1) a person who puts a new
cutting edge on a cable-tool bit 2) a driller's assistant
tool face the portion of a deflection tool that
determines the direction of the deflection. Tool face
is defined by a scribe line on a bent sub and by the
direction of the largest nozzle on a jet deflecting bit.
tool face angle the angle between the orientation
of a bent portion of a directional drilling tool and
vertical. The tool face angle is measured in a plane
that is perpendicular to the well. The tool face angle
is the direction that the bent section of a sub is pointing.
tool high-side angle the vertical angle between the
tool reference axis and a line perpendicular to the
hole axis
tool house an enclosure that stores tools when not
being used on a drilling rig. The tool house is where
the driller keeps the drilling records on a shelf called
the knowledge box.
tool joint a short metal cylinder that is attached to
the end of a tubular such as drillpipe or casing by
either flash weld or inertial weld and is used to couple
the tubular with another tubular. A tool joint is
threaded either internally (box end) or externally (pin
end). The tool joints used on casing on a cement
job are called baffle, float, and differential or automatic
fill-up collars, (coupling or collar)
tool joint leak detector a testing device that puts
hydraulic pressure on a tool joint on a drillstring
before it is lowered into a well to detect leaks
tool mark an impact mark of an object being carried
by a current of water on a muddy bottom. The tool
mark is often preserved as a cast in overlying sandstone
and will be elongated in the direction of the current.
A tool mark is a type of sole mark.

529

tool pusher or toolpusher a drilling company

employee who is in charge of drilling operations at
the drillsite. The toolpusher usually lives at the drill
site and supervises the crews and operations. The
toolpusher often has the authority to spend money
and keeps purchase and accident records. The drillers
are under the toolpusher who is under the production
superintendent. The toolpusher is sometimes called
the rig manager or superintendent, (drillingforeman)
Toolpusher a method used to push a sonde into
a deviated or bad hole using drillpipe and a sideentry sub. The system has a dual induction laterolog,
compensated density, gamma ray, compensated
neutron, and directional survey logs.
tool shiner a tool dresser
tooth the projection that is cut or milled out of a
metal cone on a milled-teeth or steel tooth rollercone bit. The top of the tooth is the tooth crest and
the lower part between two teeth is the tooth root.
The outer row of teeth on the cone is the heel row,
the nose or toe row is the inner row, and the middle
or intermediate row of teeth is located between. The
teeth are hard faced on one side with tungsten carbide
for self sharpening. Long, slender and widely-spaced
teeth are used for soft formations, whereas short,
heavier, closely-spaced teeth are used for harder
formations. Teeth interfit is the fitting of the teeth
from one cone into the teeth roots of another cone.
Teeth interfitting aids in cleaning the teeth along with
the jetting action of the drilling fluid circulating out
of the nozzles.
TOP 1) testing on pump 2) take-or-pay
top 1) the maximum amount of petroleum that is
permitted to be produced from a well in a certain
time (allowable) by a government regulatory agency
for a specific reservoir 2) the upper level of cement
in a well as determined by a temperature survey. Tp
top a tank out to fill a storage tank to the top
top connection the fitting on the top of a Christmas
tree through which completion or workover tools
can be run in the tubing
top dead center the location of a piston at the highest
part of the cylinder in an engine during a stroke.
Top dead center is in contrast to bottom dead center.
TDC
top dressing crude oil put in a well to defraud
potential investors
top drive 1) a power swivel that eliminates the rotary
table and kelly. The large, geared, electric motor
generates about 1,000 hp and moves up and down
rails while rotating the drillstring below it. The
advantage of the top drive is that the well can be
drilled three joints deep before another connection
of three joints must be added to the drillstring. This
saves rig time and is used where drilling operations
are expensive. The driller also has the ability to
circulate and rotate while tripping in and out to prevent
wall sticking. 2) a drilling rig with a top drive motor
top eater subsurface water from the pores of a
separate reservoir overlying a gas and oil reservoir
topg topping
top hold-down a sucker-rod pump anchor located
at the top of the working barrel

530

top kill torque gauge

top kill to pump heavier drilling mud into the kill

line and annulus of a well after a kick
top lease 1) an oil and gas lease on acreage that
currently has a valid lease called the bottom lease.
When the bottom lease expires, the top lease becomes
effective. A two-party top lease occurs when the lessee
of the top and bottom lease are the same. When the
top and bottom lessees are different, it is called a
three-party top lease, (future interest lease) 2) the act
of obtaining the top lease
topo topography
topographer a person on a seismic crew who is
responsible for making an accurate theodolite survey.
The topographer has one or two assistants.

top sample a sample taken 6 in. below the liquid

surface

topset beds

topographic map

topographic map a map that uses contour lines to

show the elevation of the land surface. The difference
in elevations between two adjacent contours is called
the contour interval. Topographic maps often show
cultural and physical features and are used as base
maps, topo map
topo map topographic map
top out to fill a tank to its capacity
topped crude a crude oil with the lighter ends
distilled out in a topping plant
topping the tanks out the easy way to fill tanks
with crude oil by running them over

top plug

top plug a wiper plug that is pumped down the

casing after cement slurry during a cement job. A
top plug is solid in contrast to the bottom plug and
is forced down the casing by the displacement fluid,
which is usually drilling mud, until it bumps the
bottom plug on the float collar.
tops 1) the subsurface elevations of rock layers 2)
the locations of the tops of rock layers on a well log

topset horizontal near-surface, sedimentary rock

beds deposited on a delta. Foreset and bottomset beds
are also deposited in a delta.
topside facilities the equipment on a production
platform that is located above the splash zone
topworks the section of a motor valve that houses
the mechanism used to open and close the valve
top zone allowable the maximum allowable or
amount of gas and/or oil that a government regulatory
agency permits to be produced per unit time from a
specific reservoir. The top zone allowable is usually
based on the depth of the reservoir measured with
a depth yardstick, but exceptions can be granted. TZA
TOR take-or-release
torn threads pipe or fitting threads that are ragged
torpedo 1) a wireline explosive device that is
lowered into a well and exploded for explosive
fracturing and to clean the well of paraffin and
sediments. The first torpedoes were made of tin with
a gunpowder primer and detonated with a percussion
cap and or an iron weight lowered on a wireline.
Colonel EA Roberts patented the Roberts' torpedo
in 1865. Torpedo were later filled with nitroglycerine
or blasting gelatin. Several torpedoes can be stacked
on top of each other in the well. 2) a quick connecting
and disconnecting union for electrical survey
conductors
torque the effectiveness of a rotating or twisting
force. Torque is a product of the force times the
distance or lever arm length between the force and
the axis of rotation. Torque is usually measured in
units of foot-pounds (ft-lbs). T
torque converter hydraulic equipment that is used
to transmit power between prime movers and driven
equipment. A torque converter smooths out the power
and eliminates pulses. The torque converter can
multiply engine torque with increasing loads and
decreasing speeds.
torque factor the rotary horsepower (HPg) divided
by the rotary speed in rpm (N) on a drilling rig. TF
or F
torque gauge an instrument on a chain- or shaftdriven rotary table that measures twisting forces. The
torque gauge is used to prevent twist-off of pipe. The
torque is read from a rotatable dial that is used to
zero out friction on the drillpipe.

torque indicator total life

torque indicator an instrument that measures and
records torque or twisting force on a drill or casing
string as it is being made up
torque tube the power transmission equipment that
connects the engines on the lower level of a splitlevel drilling rig with the rotary table on the upper
level
torr the international unit of vacuum measurement.
One standard atmosphere is equal to 760 torrs.
torrens system the title registration system that is
used in some states
torsion the state of stress in an object caused by
twisting or two opposite force couples acting in
different but parallel planes about an axis
torsion balance an instrument that is used to
measure gravity. A torsion balance consists of a weight
on a spring coil. Gravity, and therefore the torque
exerted on the spring coil, is affected by the density
and depth of the subsurface rocks. Gravity surveys
on the surface of the earth can often determine the
location of subsurface structures and are used in
petroleum exploration. The torsion balance is a
delicate and older device that has been replaced by
the modern gravity meter or gravimeter.
TORT tearing out rotary tools
tort a private injury or wrong
tortional strength the maximum twisting force that
an object such as drillpipe can bear before failure.
Tortional strength is measured in foot-pounds.
Tortonian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 10.8-6.7 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Upper Miocene epoch.
tortuosity a measure of the crookedness of
interconnected pores in a rock. Tortuosity is expressed
as a ratio of the distance between two points in the
rock by way of the connected pores and by a straight
line, a or T
TOT through out test
tot total

total alkalinity the sum of all alkaline ions such as

carbonates, bicarbonates, and hydroxide in a water
solution
total calculated volume the sum of measured
volume of crude oil, sediment, and water (total
observed volume) corrected to standard temperature
and pressure
total calendar allowable the scheduled allowable,
the amount of petroleum that is permitted to be
produced from a well, leasehold, or field per unit
time by a government regulatory agency, times the
proration factor. The proration factor is a decimal
from 1.0 to 0.0 that is determined on a scheduled
basis by the government regulatory agency in response
to market supply and demand for petroleum.
total curvature the three-dimensional curvature of
a well. Total curvature is typically expressed in degrees
per 100 ft (7100 ft) and is called the dogleg or dogleg
angle on directional survey calculations.
total departure the minimum distance from a
vertical wellbore to each station in a deviated well
total depth the length of a well measured from the
surface to the bottom of the well by a wireline. In

531

true vertical
depth

total
depth

total depth

most countries of the world, well depths are measured

from the top of the kelly bushing (KB) but total depth
is also sometimes measured from the drill floor (DF),
rotary table (RT), or ground level (GL). Driller's total
depth is made by measuring the length of stands of
pipe either in tension or compression. Total depth
is similar to logged and measured depth in contrast
to true vertical depth and authorized depth. TD or
td
total dynamic head the pressure that is required
to be produced by a pump when the pump is pumping
at the desired rate. Total dynamic pressure is the
difference between the head required at the pump
discharge to deliver the flow to the final destination
and any pressure that occurs at the pump intake. TDH
total formation volume factor the volume of crude
oil at a specified lower pressure plus the volume of
the free gas that evolves at the lower pressure times
the formation volume factor of the gas in units of
reservoir barrels per square cubic feet (bbl/SCF). The
units of total formation volume factor are reservoir
barrels per stock tank barrel (bbl/STB). (two-phase
formation volume factor) B,
total gas/oil ratio the sum of incremental gas
volumes that are separated from produced crude oil
by flashing processes during treating per unit volume
of oil. The total gas/oil ratio is the total gas originally
in solution in the reservoir per unit volume of oil.
The ratio is usually expressed in square cubic feet
per barrel (SCF/bbl) of residual oil at 60 F. (initial,
solution gas/oil ratio)
total hardness the sum of all multivalent cation
concentrations in a solution. Total hardness is often
approximately equal to the sum of calcium and
magnesium ions and is expressed in CaCO3
equivalents. TH
total head the velocity head plus the pressure head
plus the elevation head of a fluid
total intensity both the vertical and horizontal
components of the earth's magnetic field
total lift the working submergence plus the working
fluid level

532

total observed volume trace analysis

total observed volume the sum of the measured

volumes of crude oil, sediment, and water. The volume
has not been corrected to standard conditions.
total porosity the volume of all spaces (pores), both
interconnected and isolated, divided by the total
volume of the rock and expressed as a percentage.
Total porosity is in contrast to effective porosity and
is usually larger, (absolute porosity)
totco a downhole survey tool that is lowered through
the drillstring and punches a hole in a compass card
when it lands on the bit to show the angle and direction
of the bit inclination at that instant
to the casing point the time that a participant
-(carried interest), such as a promoter, is free of drilling
costs on a well. The costs are borne by the other
participants such as the investors. To the casing point
is up to the time of installation of the casing in the
well. Another method is through the tanks, (through
the casing point)
to the tanks see through the tanks
toughness the resistance of a substance such as
diamonds to breakage by shock
tour shift on a drilling rig. The tours on a land rig
are eight hours long and include the graveyard or
morning (12:00 A.M. to 8:00 A.M.), day (8:00 A.M. to
4:00 P.M.), and evening (4:00 P.M. to 12:00 A.M.) tours.
In remote areas or offshore, the tour is twelve hours
long. On an offshore rig, the tours are often from
11:00 A.M. to 11:00 P.M. and 11:00 P.M. to 11:00 A.M. to
give each tour some daylight hours. Tour is
pronounced as if it were spelled "tower." (trick)
Tournasian a global age of geological time that
started about 365 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Carboniferous age.
tourpusher an employee of the drilling contractor
who is an experienced driller and works under the
senior toolpusher on an offshore drilling rig. The
tourpusher usually works the 8:00 P.M. to 8:00 A.M.
shift, (junior toolpusher or nightpusher)
tour report an abbreviated record of the drilling
operations and progress during a tour or shift on a
drilling rig. The tour report is similar to a daily drilling
report and is used by the tool pusher to make that
report. The tour report includes geological and
mechanical information such as formations
encountered, footage drilled, drilling mud tests, oil
and gas shows, and equipment breakdowns along with
a drilling time log. The report also includes the names
of crew members, hours worked, list of pipe and
downhole equipment used, ton-miles of drilling line
use and general maintenance and repair. The report
is signed by the driller, tool pusher, and company
representative, and one copy is kept on the rig.
(driller's or drilling report or log)
tow barge a wide barge that is used to transport
jackets and modules offshore, (deck or flotation barge)
tower 1) a type of offshore jacket platform that is
supported by a few large-diameter legs. A tower can
be floated using buoyancy chambers into position
horizontally, tilted, and sunk by controlled flooding
into position. The tower may or may not be secured
by pilings to the seafloor. (self-floater platform) 2) a
vertical vessel

tower bird a derrickman

tower hand the senior rigman of a drilling crew
who climbs the derrick to stand on the monkey or
derrick board to help latch or unlatch the elevators
to stack drillpipe during trips. The tower hand also
maintains the machinery and is second in charge of
the crew on that tour, (derrick man, derrickman, or
monkey)
town gas methane gas formed by the heating of coal.
Town gas has a low heat (Btu) content, (coal gas)
town lot development unrestricted, dense well
spacing in an area
townmaster an employee of the drilling contractor
or a hired specialist that is in charge of an offshore
drilling rig as it is being moved by towing vessels
township a surveyed square of land 6 mi on a side
that is a unit of measurement in United States and
Canada land surveys. The township is identified by
the number of townships north or south of a base
line and east and west of a meridian. Township T4N
R4E is located in the fourth tier of townships north
of the baseline and the fourth column of townships
east of the meridian. Townships are divided into 36
sections of 1 mi2 each (640 ac). twp or TWP
township line east-west lines that are 6 mi apart
used in land subdivision in the United States and
Canada. Township lines are numbered north and south
of a base line starting with one.
TP or T.P. 1) tubing pressure 2) turning point
Tp top
TPAY, T/pay, or T/P top of pay
TPC tubing pressure closed
Tp,. pseudocritical temperature
TPF 1) tubing pressure flowing 2) threaded pipe
flange
TPG magnetic taping
^ electromagnetic-wave traveltime
TPLG 1) tester plugged 2) tool plugged
tpma electromagnetic-wave traveltime in rock-matrix
Tpr pseudoreduced temperature
TPSI tubing pressure shut in
t^ electromagnetic-wave traveltime in water
TR or tr tract
Tr or tr trace
Tr tremolite
TR 1) temperature recorder 2) transport ratio 3)
reservoir temperature
Tr 1) reduced temperature 2) reservoir temperature
3) pseudoreduced temperature
trace 1) the record made by one recording channel
such as in seismic. The name trace is derived from
earthquake seismograph records, (track) 2) a curve
on a well log 3) the intersection of a geological surface
with another surface such as a bedding plane or a
fault 4) a substance that is detectable but cannot be
quantitatively measured. Tr, tr, or TRCE
trace analysis a computation of correct seismic
reflection times for all geophones and the plotting

trace fossil transform fault

of the reflection times in their accurate position with
reference to each other and the seismic source
trace fossil the track, burrow, boring, or trail of an
ancient animal in a sedimentary rock, (ichnofossil)
trace line a small pipeline in a bundle of mud or
water lines that has been covered with insulation.
Steam is pumped through the trace line to keep the
pipes from freezing.
tracer a dye or radioactive substance that can be
injected into a subsurface reservoir and detected in
adjacent wells to trace reservoir fluid movement
during a tracer test. A tracer is also used to estimate
lag time in a well being drilled Corn, glass, carbide,
lentil, or rice is dropped into the well, and their return
is timed. A radioactive tracer is used in a survey to
determine vertical flow in a well by travel time between
stationary gamma ray detectors. The radioactive tracer
method is usually confined to injection wells.
Radioactive tracers are also used to locate lost
circulation zones.
tracer log or survey the injection of a radioactive
gamma ray source into a well to monitor its movement
and locate cement channeling or evaluate the effect
of a secondary cement job. Radioactive sand tracers
are used for hydraulic fracturing and gravel packing.
TL
tracer test the injection of small amounts of an easily
detected material into a reservoir through injection
wells and its detection at producing wells to determine
reservoir flow patterns and rates. The tracer test is
used in cyclic injection to determine oil saturation.
The tracer is often radioactive.

WELL LOG
TRACK 2

TRACK 1

tracks

track 1) one vertical column containing a graph on

a well log. Track 1 is located to the left on the depth
strip on a well log, and Track 2 is located to the
right. Sometimes a third track (Track 3) is located to
the far right. 2) the record made by one recording
channel such as in seismic, {trace) 3) a section on
digital magnetic tape that records bits of information.
Several magnetic heads can record several bits of
information at the same time on the same tape. The
magnetic tape used to record seismic data often has
7, 9, or 21 tracks and is called 7-track, 9-track, and
21-track tape, (level)

533

tract land that is available for oil and gas leasing or

that is leased. A tract can be described as wildcat,
drainage, or development. TRor tr
tract factor a number that is computed to determine
the amount of royalty an interest owner will receive
in a pooled unit. The tract factor is defined in the
pooling clause of the lease. As stated in the lease,
the tract factor is the lessor's royalty times the ratio
of the lease tract area to the entire pooled unit area.
traction load the coarse sediments that are rolled
or bounced along a sediment-water interface such
as the bed of a stream by a current of water, (bedload)
trade service see geophysical library
train a series of successive events
trans 1) transmission 2) transfer
transceiver a device that can both transmit and
receive energy
transcribe to convert information from one form
to another
transcurrent fault a large strike-slip fault with a
steep fault plane that is confined to the crust of the
earth
transducer a device that is powered by one system
in order to power a different type of system. A
transducer converts one type of energy into another.
transfer bottle a container, usually made of stainless
steel or aluminum, that is used to transport a sample
of fluids obtained from a drillstem test for analysis
to a laboratory
transfer prover a meter that is used to test and
calibrate a positive displacement gas meter or turbine
gas meter that is in service. The transfer prover has
been calibrated against another standard. It is
connected in series with the line meter to be
calibrated, and its reading is compared to the meter
in service. The transfer prover measures the true
volume of the gas, and a meter factor is determined.
A master meter uses the same process on a positivedisplacement liquid meter or turbine liquid meter.
Other types of meter provers include volumetric and
displacement-type provers.
transform to convert one form of information into
another
transformation the systematic numerical change of
a variable
transformed clay an authigenic type of clay mineral
that forms from the alteration of a preexisting mineral
in a sedimentary rock. Examples of clay transformation
include the alteration of biotite to kaolinite and
feldspar to kaolinite.
transformer an electric device that a) increases
voltage and decreases amperage or b) deceases voltage
and increases amperage
transform fault a large strike-slip fault oriented
perpendicular to a midocean ridge. A transform fault
cuts the lithosphere as a plate boundary. A transform
fault is caused by differential spreading rates along
the crest of the midocean ridge. The apparent lateral
displacement on a transform fault is opposite that of
the actual displacement.

534

transform margin transparency

transform margin the boundary between two

lithospheric plates that is characterized by shear. A
transform margin is in contrast to a divergent or
convergent margin.
transgression the sea's advance onto the land. A
transgression could be caused either by an absolute
rise in sea level (eustatic) or by subsidence of the
land. An erosional transgression is caused by erosion
of the shoreline, (marine on lap)

LAND

SEA LEVEL

transgression

transgressive sediments deposited by seas that were

advancing onto the land. Transgressive sediments have
a characteristic fining upward sequence and usually
display an onlap pattern.
transient an event of short duration. In electricity,
transient is a repetitive or nonrepetitive electric
current or voltage pulse. A pressure pulse is transient.
transient decline the natural production decline
due to the expansion of gas, oil, and water in a well's
drainage region that has a continuously expanding
radius. Transient decline is in contrast to depletion
decline, (infinite-acting decline)
transient pressure test or analysis the
measurement of the effects on fluid production or
injection rates on pressures. Types of transient
pressure tests include a) pressure buildup, b) pressure
drawdown, c) multiple rate, d) injection buildup or
falloff, e) multiple well interference, and f) drillstem.
Multiple well interference tests include the alteration
of the production or injection rate in a well and
measurement of the effects on an observation well.
The long-term effects are measured in interference
testing and the short-term effect in pulse testing.
transient state a flow regime in a producing well
in which the well has sensed one physical boundary
in the reservoir but not the others. The transient state
occurs after the infinite-acting state and before the
pseudosteady state.
transistor an electronic device that is used as a switch
in computers and an amplifier in radios. A transistor
consists of a thin layer of semiconductor (a base)
sandwiched between two layers of opposing types
of semiconductors called the emitter and the collector.
TRANSIT a marine naviagation system that uses a
satellite that broadcasts two stable frequencies with
a time signal and orbit location data. (Navy Navigation
Satellite System)

transit 1) a survey instrument consisting of a

telescope mounted on a tripod. A transit is used to
measure vertical and horizontal angles. A transit is
less accurate but similar to a theodolite. 2) the
movement of an offshore drilling rig from one location
to another, (rig-move)
transite pipe a composition tubular designed for
corrosive liquids
transit line a straight line between two transit
stations

transit traverse a survey made with a metal tape

to measure distances and a transit or theodolite to
measure angles
transition zone 1) the area in a formation behind
the wellbore in which mud filtrate and formation fluids
are mixed. The transition zone is located between
the flushed and uninvaded zones and is part of the
invaded zone, (annulus zone) 2) the area between
a normal and an abnormal high-pressure zone 3) the
zone in a petroleum reservoir in which large saturation
changes occur in a short vertical distance. The water
saturation in a reservoir ranges from 10096 water to
irreducible water saturation for an oil/water contact
and from 100% liquid to irreducible water saturation
for a gas/oil contact. The transition zone is located
between the saturation and pendular zone, (funicular
zone) 4) the part of the drillstring between the drill
collars and the drillpipe
transit time the sound velocity of a rock layer
measured on a sonic or acoustical-velocity log. Transit
time is measured in microseconds per foot (jtsec/ft)
and varies with the lithology, porosity, and fluid
content of the rock layer, (t or bt)
transit-time integration the integration over depth
of interval transit times off a sonic log to obtain a
total transit time. 777
transl translucent
translational fault a fault in rocks with displacement
but no rotation
translucent the property of a substance such as a
mineral to transmit light but not an image. The mineral
is neither transparent nor opaque, transl or trnsl
transmissibility or transmissivity the product of
permeability and producing zone thickness.
Transmissibility is an index of producibility for a
reservoir
transmissibility coefficient the flow rate of water
in gallons per day through an area of a subsurface
aquifer that is 1 ft wide and equal in height to the
thickness of the aquifer while under a unit hydraulic
gradient, (coefficient of transmissibility)
transmission a device that uses gears, pulleys,
chains, shafts, or other mechanisms to transfer power
from a prime mover to a driven machine, trans
transmission charge the price that a pipeline
charges, usually in dollars per million British thermal
units ($/MMBtu), to transport gas
transmission line 1) a large-diameter pipeline that
connects an oil or gas field with a refinery or
transportation terminal, (main or trunk line) 2) the
cable that connects the eccentric on a central power
unit to the pumping units. The transmission line is
kept 10-15 ft off the ground by rockers, (jack line)
transmission loss the difference between output
and input horsepower. Transmission loss is often
expressed as a percentage of input horsepower.
transmitter a transducer that emits energy
transmitter current the high-frequency signal that
is generated by an induction tool in a well
transparency the ability of an offshore structure to
pass rather than absorb wave forces. Transparency is
related to the amount of exposed surface on the
structure.

transponder traverse survey

transponder a device designed to emit a signal
either at regular periods or upon receiving another
signal
transportable gas natural gas that received the
minimal processing in the field for transport through
a pipeline to a final processing plant. The processing
can involve the removal of water, hydrogen sulfide,
and condensate.
transport ratio the ratio of the velocity of well
cuttings (ycu) to mud velocity (Vm) in the annulus of
a well. TB

Wind

transverse dune

transverse dune an asymmetrical sand dune

oriented perpendicular to the prevailing wind.
transverse fault a fault in rocks that trends oblique
to the structural trend of the area
transverse thruster a marine propulsion system that
consists of a propeller mounted in a tunnel on the
side of a drillship or semisubmersible near the bow
or stern. A transverse thruster is used to keep the
vessel on station. Bow navigators are located near
the bow, whereas the stern thrusters are located near
the stern.
transverse wave see shear wave
transversing a surveying method in which the survey
rod and transit alternately leapfrog over each other.
The transit is backsighted to the survey rod at the
turning point.
trap 1) a subsurface configuration of reservoir rock
and cap rock or seal that has the potential to
concentrate petroleum in the pores of a reservoir
rock. A trap is a geological feature of a reservoir rock
that restricts the flow of fluids. A trap can contain
one or more reservoirs. Types of petroleum traps
are structural, stratigraphic, and combination. 2) a gas
sampling device used in mud logging. The gas trap
is located on the possum belly of the shale shaker
or in the sluice box on the flow diversion line.
Mechanical agitation is the preferred method to
separate the gas from the mud. 3) see separator
trap-door block a block formed by the intersection
of two faults with the most uplift at the intersection
of the faults
trap-door mechanism the formation of half grabens
traveling-barrel insert pump a type of downhole
pump for oil wells that is run and pulled on the rod
string. The pump has a traveling barrel with a standing
sucker-rod valve that remains stationary. The suckerrod string causes a traveling barrel to rise and fall
to pump the oil. A traveling-barrel insert pump is in
contrast to a stationary-barrel insert pump and to
tubing and casing pumps.

535

traveling block a metal assembly which houses

parallel inline sheaves on a shaft with bearings which
are lubricated with a grease system. It is suspended
in a derrick or mast with wire rope from the crown
block. The traveling block is also used to raise and
lower equipment in the well and moves up and down
in the mast or derrick. The traveling block is used
to hang tools and equipment such as elevators, bails,
and rod hooks. The traveling block is designed with
a low center of gravity to prevent tipping. On a drilling
rig, the traveling block is used to run or pull strings
of drillpipe and casing and is controlled from the
driller's console. The traveling block is in contrast
to the crown block, which is stationary at the top of
the derrick. On a workover rig, the traveling block
is used to hold the power swivel and to run drillpipe
or casing. On a pulling unit, it is used to run tubing
or rods in or out of the well. The traveling block is
sized for the maximum safe working load in tons
suspended from it (hook block or moveable block)
traveling-block bumper a rubber cushion located
on top of the traveling block to prevent damage in a
collision with the crown block
traveling-block compensator a type of motion
compensator used on a semisubmersible or drillship.
The traveling-block compensator is a cylinder filled
with compression fluid from a reservoir and a piston
that is attached to the traveling block that moves up
and down vertical rails. The piston stroke is 20-25
ft.
UP

DOWN HOLE PUMP

DOWN

OE;

traveling valves

traveling valve a ball-and-seat gate in the plunger

of a downhole sucker-rod oil pump that allows fluids
to flow in only one direction (upward). The traveling
valve rises and falls with the sucker-rod string to pump
the oil. A traveling valve is in contrast to a stationary
valve. TV
traveltime 1) the time on a seismic record between
the time break and an event 2) the time required
for seismic energy to travel from source to detector
traveltime curve a plot of the time required for
seismic energy to go from the source to the detector
versus distance, (time-distance curve or graph)
traverse a series of connected seismic profiles
traverse survey a survey line or connected survey
lines joined end to end. The traverse consists of

536

traverse well trend surface analysis

measured straight lines and angles connecting

surveyed points.
traverse well a well drilled through the subsurface
of a property. A traverse well neither starts on the
surface of the property nor bottoms out under the
property.
travertine a white, tan, or cream-colored limestone
deposited from ground water or hot springs.
Travertine is often hard, dense, finely crystalline, well
layered with small, irregular holes, and colored by
iron oxides.
tray 1) a flat receptacle that holds a liquid and lies
horizontally across a sheave on a traveling or crown
block 2) the receptacle or bubble-cap tray that holds
the absorbent such as glycol in a bubble tower
TRC temperature recorder control
TRCE trace
TRD data transmission
tread diameter the diameter of a sheave measured
from the bottom of the groove to the bottom of the
groove
treasury growth rate the sum of the discounted
cash flows until payout plus the undiscounted,
unappreciated value of cash flow after payout. TW
treasury worth index the treasury growth rate
divided by the amount of the investment
treater 1) a vessel used on a lease to separate an
oil and water emulsion using heat from a fire tube,
chemicals called emulsion breakers or demulsifiers,
and/or electrostatics. A vertical or horizontal heatertreater uses both heat and chemicals. A horizontal
electrostatic treater uses a high-voltage electric grid.
The vertical treater is 4-12 ft in diameter and 2040 ft tall. It is usually mounted on a skirt and flat,
cement base and is not insulated. The horizontal
treater is 10-20 ft in diameter and 30-50 ft long. It
is heavily insulated with glass wool and mounted on
legs. The horizontal treater has a longer retention
time than the vertical treater. trtr 2) the person in
charge of a hydraulic frac job. The treater monitors
the injection rate and charts.
treating the use of gravity, heating, mechanical
means, and/or chemicals to separate oil, water, and
gas from wells. TRT, trt, or trtg
treating packer a packer used to isolate an interval
in a well for a high pressure treating fluid or cement
slurry. Three types of retrievable treating packers are
a) hook-wall, b) tension, and c) compression. A treating
packer can be used in conjunction with another packer
(commonly a1 retrievable bridge plug) to isolate an
interval which is above another zone.
treating plant an installation that removes basic
sediment and water from oil. The process includes
both gravity settling, chemicals, and heating the oil
to aid separation which can include a steaming plant.
treble see thribble
tree surface completion equipment over a well that
flows to the surface under its own pressure that is
used to control the flow. The tree consists of a
casinghead housing, casing and tubing head spools,
and production valves and chokes. Trees vary in
construction, but all have at least one master valve
to control the flow of the well. On the top is a swab

tree (Kerr-McGee)

valve and a pressure gauge. To the side of the flow

cross or tee is the flowline valve. Most trees are singlewing but some are double-wing when the well is a
dual completion. Most trees are machined out of a
solid block of metal (block tree), whereas some are
assembled with individual valves (loose-valve tree).
The tree has a hollow passageway that connects to
the top of the tubing in the well. Flowing wells that
use trees include all gas wells and, less commonly,
oil wells especially early in the development of the
field. On the seafloor, they can be either wet-trees
or dry-trees. (Christmas or production tree)
tree cap a cover that protects and seals the vertical
components of a subsea Christmas tree and acts as a
hydraulic control-line connector. The tree cap latches
onto the tree mandrel and is easily retrieved.
tree-running tool a tool used to run and retrieve
a subsea tree and the tree cap as units. The tree-running
tool is run on a completion riser, drillstring, or an
individual tubing string. The tool has a hydraulically
activated connector that latches onto the top of the
tree cap or the tree manifold.
tree saver a sleeve or piping that is put through
the valves and spools of a Christmas tree on top of
a well to protect the equipment when the well is
acidized or fraced. The tree consists of a mandrel
with a seal that extends through the tree and seals
the top of the tubing string.
trellis drainage pattern a stream drainage pattern
characterized by long, subparallel streams with
tributaries that are oriented at right angles. A trellis
drainage pattern forms where dipping, alternating
weak and resistant formations are exposed on the
surface. The streams are aligned parallel to the strike
of the formations. A fault trellis formation forms along
parallel faults.
Tremadonian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 500-490 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Ordovician epoch.
Trempealeauan a North American epoch of
geological time that ended 500 m. y. ago. It is part
of the Cambrian period.
trench basin a basin formed by an ocean trench
located oceanward of an island arc system
trend surface analysis a computer analysis of data
distributed about an area for the best polynomial
surface such as first-degree, second-degree, and third-

trespass to try title triplex hook

degree that fits the data. The least-squares method is
used to fit the surface to the data. The fractional part
of the data that deviates from the polynomial surface
is called the residual.
trespass to try title the legal action used to resolve
a rival claim or quiet title controversy. 777*
Tret-O-Lite a chemical demulsifier
Tri Triassic
triangle fecies map a triangular diagram that shows
the percentage of sandstone, limestone, and shale in
a rock unit such as a formation
triangular coring sidewall coring with saw-type
blades that are oriented at 45 to cut triangular cores
triangulation a surveying technique that uses a
triangle to accurately locate a point at one corner of
the triangle. Triangulation uses the angles between
two known locations and a point to be located and
an accurately measured baseline between the known
locations.
triangulation net a series of surveyed triangles that
interconnect with common legs and apexes.
Triassic a period of time 250-200 m. y. ago. It is
the earliest period of the Mesozoic Era. The Triassic
is subdivided into the Upper Triassic, Middle Triassic,
and Lower Triassic global and North American epochs.
Tri
triaxial borehole seismic survey a method used
to determine the orientation of hydraulic fractures
in a wellbore. The survey uses a downhole tool with
three seismic detectors that record microseismic
events during the fracturing process.
trick see tour

tricone drilling bit

tricone bit a common type of roller-cone drilling

bit having three rotating cones with steel teeth (milledteeth) or inserts (button) mounted on bearings on a
journal on each of the three legs of the bit. The teeth
on the cones intermesh to help clean the teeth of
well cuttings. The tricone bit with interlocking teeth
was introduced in 1933 to replace the bicone bit.
The conventional type has watercourses through the
bit body, whereas the jet bit has high-pressure nozzles.
(three-cone bit)
triethylene glycol a colorless, combustible liquid
that is used as a desiccant. TEG
trigger bit a drilling bit with a removable center
used to run surveying instruments into the well. A

537

trigger bit was used to survey wells before the use

of nonmagnetic drill collars.
trigger level the number of logs necessary to
recognize sedimentary rocks that have apparent
porosity on logs but are not porous. These rocks
include coal, anhydrite, gypsum, and salt.
Tril trilobite
trilo trilobite

trilobites

trilobite an extinct marine anthropod that belongs

to the class Trilobita in the phylum Arthropoda.
Trilobites existed from the Lower Cambrian epoch
to the Permian period. Trilobites are good guide fossils
for the Cambrian and Ordovician periods, trilo or
Tril
tri-max bit a drag bit with a cone-shaped body
having spiral grooves and diamond-edged tungsten
carbide cutters on the bottom and sides
trimetric plot a three-dimensional graph with three
variables
Trip or trip tripoli
trip tripping
trip pulling out (tripping out) and then putting in
(tripping in) drillpipe or tubing in a well, (round
trip or roundtrip)
trip gas the natural gas that flows into a well during
tripping out. The flow can be caused both by the
swabbing action of the drillstring being raised in the
well and by a decrease in mud height and bottomhole
pressure in the well. TG
triple see thribble
triple completion a single well that is producing
from three separate reservoirs with production
separated from each reservoir. The production is by
either 1) two reservoirs producing up two tubing
strings and the third reservoir producing up the
tubing-casing annulus or 2) three reservoirs producing
up three tubing strings.
triple junction in the theory of seafloor spreading,
a triple junction is three spreading centers that radiate
out from a center. One arm will eventually stop
spreading (failed arm), and the other two will continue
to spread forming a single rift.
triple point the temperature and pressure at which
the solid, liquid, and gas phases of a substance can
occur in equilibrium
triplex hook a hook that is combined as a unit with
a traveling block on a drilling rig. The triplex hook
has one large safety hook for the swivel bail and two
smaller hooks or ears on the sides for the elevator

538

triplex pump true fluid

bails. The capacity of the hook is greater than 500

tons.
triplex pump a pump that has three pistons and
three removable liners. A triplex pump is single acting
as the fluid is pumped only on the upward stroke of
the piston. Triplex pumps are a common type of mud
pump on a drilling rig and have higher rated speeds
than the duplex pumps of equal capacity. Triplex
pumps on a drilling rig commonly have an input of
275-1700 hp and are rated for maximum fluid working
pressure.
trip margin the excess of mud density that results
in a hydrostatic pressure above the anticipated
formation pressure in a well. The trip margin allows
for the reduction in effective mud weight caused by
the swabbing action of pipe during tripping out. Trip
margin is commonly about 0.5 lbm/gal resulting in a
200-500 psi pressure above the formation pressure.
tripoli a very fine-grained, porous, siliceous
sedimentary rock. Tripoli is white, gray, buff, yellow,
pink, or red in color and is used for polishing. Tripoli
is thought to have formed from the weathering of
chert or siliceous limestone. Trip or trip
tripping to pull the drillstring from the well (tripping
out) or to lower the drillstring into the well (tripping
in). About 20%-40% of rig time is spent tripping.
trip
tripping in lowering the drillstring into the well.
(run in)
tripping out raising the drillstring from the well.
(pulling out or running back)
tripping out wet a drillstring filled with drilling mud
during tripping out. Tripping out wet causes drilling
mud to splash out on die drilling floor when the
drillpipe is broken out or unscrewed. Tripping out
wet is caused by plugging on the bottom at the
drillstring such as plugged jets on the drill bit. (wet
trip)

on the rig floor, b) a small (25-50 bbl) gravity-fill

tank at the level of the bell nipple or c) a large (50200 bbl) pump-fill tank at ground level, (possum belly)
trip tank console an instrument on the floor of a
drilling rig that indicates the level of drilling mud in
the well
trip time the time that it takes on a rig to make a
round trip of tripping the drillpipe out of the well
and then tripping the pipe back into the well. A rule
of thumb is 1 hour of trip time for each 1,000 ft of
well depth.
trk truck
TRM thermomagnetic remanent magnetism
trnsl translucent
trnsp transparent
trough 1) the maximum downward travel of a wave.
A trough is the opposite of a peak. 2) a fluid bypass.
A mud trough is used to bypass a mud tank section.
troy a system of weights in which 1 lb troy equals
12 oz, 5,760 gr, or 0.82286 lbs avoirdupois. Twentyfour grains equal one pennyweight, and 20
pennyweights equal 1 oz.
TRP treating pressure
TRT or trt 1) treat 2) treating 3) treatment 4) treated
TRTT testing with treatment
trtd treated
trtg treating
trtr treater

truck mounted drilling rig

trip tank

trip tank a metal tank on a drilling rig that contains

drilling mud and is used to a) keep the hole filled
with mud during tripping out, b) to indicate the
amount of fluid flowing in and out of the well, and
c) to measure the amount of mud. A trip tank gives
and receives drilling mud from the annulus as pipe
is tripped out and in and has a level indicator to
measure the mud volume within + or 1 barrel.
The trip tank can be either a) a small gravity-fill tank

truck-mounted rig a small drilling workover rig

that is installed on a truck
true amplitude section a seismic section with no
gain control. A true amplitude section is used to show
amplitude variations and evaluate amplitude
anomalies.
true bearing a compass reading with respect to
geographical north. A true bearing is in contrast to a
magnetic bearing.
true bed thickness the thickness of a bed measured
perpendicular to the bed surface in contrast to
apparent bed thickness
true fluid a fluid in which stress is proportional to
shear rate. Water and crude oil are true fluids. A true
fluid is in contrast to a non-Newtonian fluid such as
drilling mud. (Newtonian or viscous fluid)

true north tubing

true north the direction toward the geographic
north pole. True north is parallel to lines of longitude
and is in contrast to magnetic north which is measured
with a compass and moves with time.
true resistivity the resistivity of the uncontaminated
or uninvaded zone back beyond the wellbore in a
formation. Rt
true-to-gauge hole a well in which the diameter
of the well is the same as the diameter of the bit
along the entire length of the well. A true-to-gauge
hole is in contrast to an undergauge or overgauge
hole, (full-gauge hole)

true vertical
depth

total
depth

true vertical depth

true vertical depth the depth of a well measured

vertically from the surface to the bottom of a well.
True vertical depth is in contrast to the total, measured,
and logged depth and driller's total depth that are
measured along the course of the well and are usually
longer. TVD or Zv
true vertical depth log a well log from a deviated
or crooked hole in which the depths have been
converted to true vertical depth
trumpet log a type of microlaterolog in which the
guard electrodes are concentric about the current
electrode to concentrate the current flow back into
the rock in the form of a tube
truncate to abruptly terminate
truncated rocks that are terminated or cut off, usually
by erosion or faulting
truncation trap a petroleum trap formed by an
unconformity. A reservoir rock is truncated under the
unconformity that has a seal lying on it.
trunk line a large diameter pipeline that connects
an oil or gas field with a refinery, or transportation
terminal, (main or transmission line)
trustee the party that acts in a fiduciary capacity for
another party
TS 1) tensile strength 2) teflon steel 3) tray spacing
ts static tubing pressure
T.S. thin section
Ts or Ts surface temperature

539

t, time for stabilization of a well

T/S top of salt
T^. temperature, standard conditions
TSD or T.S.D. temporary shut down
T/sd top of sand
TSE thread small end
TSE-WLE thread small end-weld large end
TSI temporarily shut in
TSITC temperature survey indicates top of cement
at
TSP thermally stable polycrystalline
TSP separator temperature
T-spread a type of geophone spread used in seismic
exploration. The geophones are arranged in a linear
array and the shot point is located at a significant
distance perpendicular from the midpoint of the line
of geophones. (broadside)
TST 1) formation evaluation test 2) well testing
Tst standard temperature
tst test
tstd tested
tste taste
tstg testing
TSTM or tstm too small to measure
TSTR or tstr tester
TT through tubing
TTF test to follow
TTT 1) total time integrator 2) transit-time integration
TTL 1) total time lost 2) two-way time log
TTP total target penetration
TTS time to surface
TTT trespass to try title
TTTT turned to test tank
To absolute formation temperature
Tub or tub 1) tube 2) tubular
tube to run tubing in a well
tube or tubing bundle a group of tubing joints
arranged parallel to each other and fastened together
tube wave seismic energy that is propagated through
drilling mud in the well. A tube wave is noise on
vertical seismic profiling.
tubing small-diameter, steel pipe (% to 4V4 in. in
diameter) that is suspended in a completed (cased)
well. Tubing is defined by range, grade, end finishing,
and weight per foot. API Range 1 is 20-24 ft in length
and Range 2, the most common, is 28-32 ft. Tubing
can have either plain or upset (thickened) ends and
can have either threaded or integral joints. It is used
on both a Christmas tree and with artificial lift to
conduct the produced fluids to the surface. Tubing
suspends the pump on the bottom of a pumping oil
well, permits placing of treatment fluids and chemicals
in the well, and protects the casing from corrosion
and thermal stress. Tubing is a landing base for pumps,
well monitoring, and evaluation equipment and safety
valves, chokes, and plugs. Tubing is removable in
contrast to casing. Coiled tubing is used for workovers

540

tubing anchor tubing-retrievable mandrel

and for logging deviated wells, (production tubing

or tubing string, TBG, Tbg, or tbg
tubing anchor a downhole device that is similar
to a packer but without a packing element and is
attached to a string of tubing and clamps to the casing.
A tubing anchor prevents the tubing from rising and
falling with the motion of the sucker rods in a pumping
well but does not restrict flow in the annulus. A tubing
anchor is commonly used in artificial lift wells.
tubing bending a problem in gas and flowing oil
wells when temperature and pressure changes cause
the tubing to corkscrew in a helical pattern
tubing board the small platform near the top of a
mast on a well servicing unit or workover rig. A
member of the crew stands on the tubing board to
rack tubing stands in fingers as the tubing is pulled
from the well.
tubing broach a tool with graduated rings that have
diamonds or are case hardened and sharpened. The
tubing broach is run down a tubing string to deburr
any metal and imperfections in the tubing before a
service tool is run.
tubing collars or couplings short steel tubulars
with internal threads that are used to connect tubing
joints
tubing conveyed a downhole operation such as
wireline well logging or perforating that is run on a
coiled tubing string. Tubing conveyed is used in
deviated and horizontal holes.
tubing-effect factor R divided by (1 - K), in which
R is the seat area (Ap) in square inches (in.2) of a
pressure valve on a gas lift system, divided by the
total effective bellow area (Afc) in square inches. The
tubing-effect factor is expressed as a percentage. TEF
tubing elevators a device used to grip tubing when
it is run in or pulled out of a well. The tubing elevators
are hung from the traveling block by bails. The tubing
elevators are hinged in the back with a latch in the
front so they can close around the tubing. Tubing
elevators come in different sizes for different tubing
sizes.
tubing-end locater a tool with a dog on a spring
that is used to accurately locate the end of a tubing
string in a well
tubing flow production from tubing in a well
tubing flow valve the valve on the wing of a
Christmas tree. A tubing flow valve is used to open
or close flow to the flowline. A tubing flow valve
can also be found on the wellhead of a pumping
well, (flowline valve)
tubing hanger a steel housing containing slips that
is located on a wellhead and is used to suspend all
or pan of the weight of the production tubing string
in the well and provides a pressure seal at the top
of the tubing-casing annulus. The tubing hanger is
held in place by the weight of the tubing and locking
studs or by radial hold-down screws on the top of
the tubinghead spool. A tubing hanger is sometimes
called a doughnut.
tubinghead or tubing head spool a flanged steel
fitting made of a body and hanger-packer mechanism
(tubing hanger) that is part of the wellhead and is
mounted on the top flange of the uppermost

casinghead. The tubinghead seals the annular space

between the casing and tubing string while suspending
the tubing string in the well. On a low-pressure well,
the tubinghead is directly connected to the casing
and not the casinghead.
tubing job a well workover consisting of pulling
and running the tubing string. A well servicing unit
is used.
tubingless completion a type of gas well
completion used in gas wells that produce no liquids.
The gas flows up small-diameter casing. A tubingless
completion is also used in a geothermal or hot water
well.
tubing packer a packer set in the tubing-casing
annulus near the bottom of a tubing string. The tubing
packer helps support the weight of the tubing string
and protects the casing above the packer from
corrosion by produced fluids. A tubing packer is a
type of production packer.
tubing perforator a wireline device that uses either
a mechanical punch or an explosive-activated punch
to perforate tubing. The punch is designed to retract
after the perforation is made.
tubing plug a retrievable plug that is set in a landing
nipple in a tubing string. The tubing plug can retain
pressure either above it (a circulating plug), below
it, or in both directions.
tubing power tongs a wrenchlike device that is used
on the floor of a drilling rig to hold tubing when
they are made up or broken out
tubing pressure the pressure on the fluid in the
tubing measured at the top of the well. Tubing pressure
can be measured either when the well is flowing or
shut in. Shut-in pressure is equal to casing pressure
in gas wells with no fluid in the tubing or casing
above the perforations. TP
tubing pump a type of sucker-rod pump that is run
as part of the tubing string. The standing valve is set
in a seating nipple. The plunger and traveling valve
are run on the sucker-rod string. Tubing pumps can
have either a) a common working barrel with a steel
barrel connected to the bottom of the tubing string,
b) a full-liner working barrel with a single steel tube
machined in one piece, or c) a sectional liner
consisting of an outside steel jacket with honed liners
assembled end to end on the inside of the jacket.
The plungers can be a) cup-equipped or soft-packed
made of leather, rubber-impregnated canvas or
synthetics, b) metal, or c) concentric tubes. Tubing
pumps can have either a) a fixed standing valve that
is attached to the bottom of the tubing or b) a
removable standing valve. The tubing has to be pulled
to pull the tubing pump, but the tubing pump has a
greater displacement than an insert pump. A tubing
pump is in contrast to a rod insert or casing pump.
(tubing sucker-rod pump)
tubing-retrievable gas lift valve a gas-lift valve
mounted on a tubing-retrievable mandrel. A tubingretrievable gas lift valve was the first type of gas-lift
valve, and the tubing had to be pulled to retrieve
the valve, (conventional gas lift valve)
tubing-retrievable mandrel a short tubing joint
(pup) with a lug for fitting a conventional gas lift
valve, (conventional or standard mandrel)

tubing riser turbine

tubing riser a vertical pipe used on a subsea
wellhead when flowlines are not used. The tubing
riser connects the tree to a permanently moored
floating vessel on the surface.
tubing rollers a long steel tool with a series of rollers
on the sides. Tubing rollers are forced down a well
and rotated to open and straighten any damaged tubing
in the well.
tubing safety valve a safety valve used in the tubing
string of a well that will shut in the production if a
certain pressure is reached
tubing slips a device that is installed on the top of
the wellhead or blowout preventers and is used to
prevent the tubing from falling back into the well
when the tubing is being pulled from the well. Two
jaws with replaceable inserts grip the tubing. The
tubing slips are activated by an air cylinder or
hydraulically and are controlled from the driller's
console.
tubing spider a metal tool on a drilling rig that is
used to hold the tubing as it is raised or lowered
from a well
tubing spool a steel fitting that is flanged to the
casinghead of a well and is used to hold the tubing
hangers
tubing stop a device used in a tubing string that
does not restrict flow up the tubing but is designed
to arrest any wireline tool that might be dropped
down the tubing. Three type of tubing stops are a)
collar stops, b) slip-type stops, and c) landing-nipples.
tubing stretch the elongation of the tubing string
due to cyclic stress during the pumping cycle, e,
tubing string see tubing
tubing stripper a device that is used to strip oil
from tubing being pulled from a well. The tubing
stripper is designed to prevent oil waste.
tubing sucker-rod pump see tubing pump

tubing swage

tubing swage a tool with a cylindrical body that

tapers inward toward the bottom and is used to reopen
tubing to its original inner diameter. Tubing swage
is run on a wire line and has ports and channels for
mud circulation. The operation can be repeated with
increasing diameter swages.
tubing the well to run production tubing in a well
tubing tongs a wrenchlike device that is used to
grip and make up or break down strings of tubing
on the derrick floor. Two sets of tubing tongs are

541

used. One set, the backup tongs, holds the tubing

steady so the other set can rotate the tubing.
tubular goods or tubulars any pipe. Tubulars
includes drillpipe, casing, tubing, and flowlines. Tub
or tub
TU DB tracer displacement with dump bailer
tuff a volcanic deposit of small particles (less than
4 mm in diameter) of volcanic glass with up to 50%
other particles. Tuff is deposited by settling out of
air. TF or tf

tugger line a wire rope that is attached to a hydraulic

or pneumatic motor and used for light lifting on a
drilling rig
tune or tuning constructive wave interference
where amplitudes are increased. Tuning seismic
energy strengthens the reflectors. Several air guns
of different sizes and distances apart and at different
delay times are tuned to blend the bubbles to yield
one large, flat detonation and partially cancel the
bubble effect.
tung carb tungsten carbide
tungsten carbide an extremely hard alloy (W2C)
that is often used as granules for hardfacing drilling
equipment, as inserts to form the cutting edges on
drill bits, and on mills and shoes. Tungsten carbide
has a very high melting point and is sold in 18-in.
sticks or rods. Irregular particles of sintered tungsten
carbide are alloyed into a bronze matrix on a mill
or shoe by a brazing process using oxygen-acetylene
equipment, tung carb
tungsten carbide bit or insert bit a roller-cone
bit made of tungsten carbide inserts that are coldpressed into holes drilled in the cones. The inserts
can range in shape from chisel- to round- or
hemispherical-shaped depending on the hardness of
the rocks drilled. The tungsten carbide bits are used
to drill harder rocks than those drilled by a milledteeth or steel-toothed roller-cone bit.
turbid flow a density current with suspended
sediments. A turbidity current is an example of turbid
flow, (suspension flow)
turbidite a sedimentary rock deposited from a single
turbidity current. A well-developed turbidite will show
a characteristic vertical sequence of grain size and
structures called a Bouma sequence. Many turbidite
deposits are seen as alternating layers of sand and
shale with sharp boundaries. Sand, possible of
reservoir quality, is often deposited in a turbidite.
turbidity 1) the opaqueness or resistance to the
passage of light by a fluid due to suspended and
colloidal matter 2) the ability of suspended and
colloidal matter to cause a fluid to become opaque
turbidity current a dense mass of water mixed with
suspended sediments that is moving by gravity down
a submarine slope. A turbidity current can be divided
into a head at the front, a body, and a tail. A turbidite
is deposited by a turbidity current coming to rest.
turbine a motor that consists of a rotating shaft with
propellers or blades that are driven by a fluid. A
turbine-type motor consist of a) 25-250 sections of
blade-type rotor and stator sections, b) a thrust-bearing
section, and c) a drive shaft. The stator deflects the
fluid toward the blades which are mounted on the
shaft.

542

turbine drill twin

turbine drill a type of downhole motor that gives

rotation and torque to the bit while transmitting the
drill-collar weight to the bit. The turbine drill is driven
by the circulating drilling fluid that is pumped through
the drillstring to drive blade rotors in stators.
Downhole motors are used a) to initiate a wellbore
kick-off for a directional hole and drill a smoothly
curved hole in a buildup or drop-off section, b) to
drill with diamond or high-speed insert bits in soft
formations, and c) to be combined with measurement
while drilling tools for navigational drilling. The
downhole motor turns at 40-200 rpms to drive the
bit up to 800 rpm. Turbine drills are good for about
300 hours of drilling and are usually obtained on a
rental basis. The other type of common downhole
motor is a positive displacement motor, (turbodrill)
turbine meter a meter that is used to determine
the velocity and volume of fluid flow. The axial-flow
turbine meter has fluid flow parallel to the rotor axis.
The speed of rotation of the propellers on a shaft is
proportional to the rate of the flow. The volume can
be determined by the number of revolutions of the
turbine per time. A turbine meter is available with
either mechanical or electrical output and has a high
flow range.
turbine motor see turbine drill
turbine pump a pump that uses rotating blades on
a shaft and centrifugal force to move fluids
turbodrill see turbine drill
turbodrilling rotary drilling with a turbine drill or
turbodrill located just above the drill bit. The turbine
is driven by circulating drilling mud being pumped
down the drillstring. The drillpipe does not rotate,
and there is no need for a rotary table.
turbolators baffles in a firetube that enhance
turbulence to promote more effective heat transfer
Turbonpress a hydraulic downhole pump used
primarily on geothermal wells

turbulent flow

turbulent flow a type of fluid flow in which the

direction of flow changes at each point in the fluid
with time. There are eddies and whirls in the fluid.
Turbulent flow is characteristic of circulating drilling
mud and is in contrast to laminar flow. Turbulent
flow has a dimensionless Reynolds number greater
than 3,000.
turd in your pocket a dirty trick played on you
turn a change in the azimuth or direction of a well.
A turn is either a right or left turn when observed
from the surface.
turn around the time between the submittal of data
and reception of the computer-processed results
turnbuckle a wire fixture with a threaded swivel
and two threaded ends. A turnbuckle is used to tighten
wires.

turning point the location of a transit that is

backsighted to a reference station and sighted forward
to the next rod station
turning to the right to turn clockwise. Turning to
the right is usually applied to the rotation of a
drillstring. The pipe is screwed together
counterclockwise. Turning clockwise prevents the
drillstring from unscrewing.
turnkey contract a drilling contract for all work
and equipment necessary for drilling and completing
a specific well at a certain price. The contractor
furnishes the rig, crew, and all the equipment to drill,
test, and complete the well. The contractor will deliver
either a properly completed producer or a properly
plugged and abandoned dry hole. The turnkey type
of contract usually costs more than a day-rate or
footage-rate contract. Sometimes a turnkey contract
includes only drilling a well to a specific depth. A
turnkey type of contract is used primarily by drilling
funds and in developmental drilling.
turnkey rate a fixed rate for drilling a well to a
certain depth or stage of completion. The drilling
contractor provides the rig, crew, contractual services,
and specific material and supplies. The operator is
responsible for logging, coring, drilling mud, and well
equipment.
turntable see rotary table
turn to the right see turning to the right
turnover a reversal of dip in sedimentary rocks along
a fault that is opposite in direction than would be
caused by drag or friction along the fault plane.
Turnover forms rollover anticlines on growth faults.
(reverse drag or rollover)
Turonian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 92-90 m. y. ago. It is part of the Upper
Cretaceous epoch.
turret mooring a drillship mooring system using
a roller-mounted turret on the bottom of the hull in
the center of the drillship below the derrick. The
anchor lines radiate outward from the turret that
contains the winches. A turret mooring allows the
drillship to change heading to minimize wave action
while staying on station.
turtleback a clamp used to join shackle rods. A
turtleback has two shells that are connected with a
nut and bolt.
TV traveling valve
TVD 1) true vertical depth 2) total vertical depth
TVF 1) time variant filter 2) time-variant filtering
T-VOL treating fluid volume
TVT 1) borehole televiewer 2) true vertical thickness
TW treasury growth rate
TWC test-well contribution
24 a pipe wrench with a 24-in. handle
twin 1) to drill a well adjacent to an existing well.
Twinning is often done when the original well cannot
produce due to an engineering problem such as
collapsed casing or formation damage or to produce
from another horizon that cannot be dually completed
or commingled with the original well's production
or when there are different ownerships of the two
producing reservoirs. 2) a well that is adjacent to an

twin well type log

existing well and has been drilled to about the same
producing horizon
twin well a well producing from two production
zones
twister a rotary driller
twist-off the mechanical breakage of a drillpipe by
excessive torque applied by the rotary table to a
drillstring. twst off
two-barrel separator see double barrel separator
two-cone bit a roller-cone type of drilling bit that
has two cones mounted on bearings. The two-cone
bit was the original rolling cutter bit introduced in
1909. A two-cone rock bit is used in drilling soft
formations that a drag bit could not drill and is made
only with milled teeth. The original cones did not
mesh, and there was a problem with bit balling during
drilling soft shales. The two-cone bit was redesigned
in the 1920s to have intermeshing teeth that were
self-cleaning. A two-cone bit is in contrast to the more
common tricone drilling bit. (bicone bit)
two cycle or stroke engine an engine in which
the crankshaft turns once as the piston moves from
bottom to top and back to bottom dead center to
complete a cycle. A two-cycle engine is in contrast
to a four-cycle or stroke engine.
two-party top lease a lease (top lease) on acreage
with a current lease (bottom lease). The lessee for
both top and bottom leases are the same. The top
lease becomes effective when the bottom lease
expires. The two-party top lease is in contrast to a
three-party top lease.
two-phase an electrical system with two alternating
electromotive forces of the same frequency and wave
form that are located 90 apart. A two-phase generator
has two circuits in the stator windings. The two-phase
system is common and is in contrast to the threephase system.
two-phase flow the movement of two phases such
as natural gas and crude oil or crude oil and water.
Phases have distinct properties and sharp boundaries
between other phases.
two-phase formation volume factor see total
formation volume factor
two-phase separator a horizontal, vertical, or
spherical tank with a metal shell that uses gravity and
centrifugal motion to separate produced fluids into
gas and liquid, either oil or an emulsion. An inlet
diverter is used to make the initial separation. Baffle
plates and/or a swirl cylinder aid in the separation.
A mist extractor separates liquid from gas on the gas
outlet. The gas outlet is located on the top and the
liquid outlet on the bottom of the separator. A twophase separator is in contrast to a three-phase
separator that separates oil, gas, and water.
two-pronged grab a wireline fishing tool that uses
two vertical rods with barbs on their inner sides
2 spot a type of waterflood pattern used in pilot
studies. The two-spot pattern has one injector well
and one producer well.
two-stage compressor a compressor that uses two
chambers to raise the pressure of a gas in two
successive steps

543

two-pronged grab

two spot waterflood

two-stage farmout a contract in which a party that

exercises the first part of the agreement such as drilling
a well or running seismic has the right to a farmout

two-stage separation

two-stage separation a system that uses one

separator connected to a stock tank to separate natural
gas from crude oil on a lease. Two-stage separation
is used on low gravity oils, low gas/oil ratios, and/or
low wellhead flowing pressures.
two-step pipe threads a double pin pipe connection
with threads on two different taper levels. The overall
taper is less than a standard pipe connection but the
makeup time is the same.
two-way travel time the time that it takes seismic
energy to travel from the source down to the reflector
and be reflected back to a detector on the surface.
The time is recorded and is plotted on the vertical
axis of a seismic record. One-way travel time can be
computed by dividing two-way travel time by two.
(reflection time)
TWP or twp township
TWSTO twisted off
twst off wist off
TWTM too weak to measure
Typ or typ type
typ typical
type log a wireline well log that has been selected
to be most representative of the vertical sequence

544

Type 1 sequence boundary T2A

of sedimentary rocks or stratigraphy of a particular

area. There is as little deformation of the rocks as
possible. A type log has no or little faulting with lost
and double sections. Unconformities can be present,
but as little of the section below the unconformity is
missing as possible. A type log is used as a standard
to compare and identify rocks on other well logs from
the area.
Type 1 sequence boundary a rock surface that is
defined as the result of subaerial exposure caused
by a eustatic fall in sea level that exceeds basin
subsidence. There is stream rejuvenation and a
downward shift of facies. A Type 1 sequence boundary
is defined in seismic or sequence stratigraphy.
Type 2 sequence boundary a rock surface that is

the result of subaerial exposure caused by a eustatic

fall in sea level that is less than basin subsidence at
the depositional-shoreline break. There is a downward
shift of coastal onlap landward of the depositionalshoreline break but no stream rejuvenation or
downward shift of facies. A Type 2 sequence boundary
is defined in seismic or sequence stratigraphy.
type well a well that has been cored and is used
as the stratigraphic standard for an area or a field. A
type well in a field is usually the second well drilled
in that field.
T-X time-distance curve
Tz layer temperature
TZA top zone allowable

U un

u
U 1) group velocity 2 ) volumetric photoelectric crosssection
U or U/ upper
u 1) flux 2) flow rate/area 3) unburned 4) upper
UBHO universal bottomhole orienting sub

U-bolt
U-bolt or clamp a clamping device in the shape of
a closed U that is used to hold two wires together.
The U with threaded ends has a bar fitted across the
two ends and is tightened with a nut on each end to
bind the wires together. A Crosby clip has the nuts
on the same side, whereas a Laughlin, or twin-base
clip, has the nuts on opposite sides, (wire-rope clip)
Uc underclay
Uc units of consistency
U/C under construction
UDT underwater demolition team
UEL upper explosive limit
U/G 1) undergauge 2) underground
UHF ultrahigh frequency
UL 1) Underwriter's Laboratories, Inc. 2) university
lands
U/L upper and lower
u/1 unlimited
ullage the space in a storage tank between the liquid
surface and the top of the tank, (outage)
ullaging to gauge the amount of crude oil by
measuring the height of the surface of the oil in the
stock tank
ULSEL ultralong-spaced electric log
Ulsterian a North American epoch of geological time
that occurred about 405-385 m. y. ago. It is part of
the Devonian period.

545

ult ultimate
ultimate net income ratio a ratio of total actual
value profit divided by the cumulative maximum
negative cash flow on an investment such as drilling
and completing a well. UNIR
ultimate net profit or ultimate net income the
cumulative net cash flow of an investment such as
drilling a well. Ultimate net profit is the amount of
monies made minus the monies spent, (actual value
profit)
ultimate recovery the total expected amount of gas
and/or oil production from a well, lease, or field under
present economic and engineering conditions
Ultimate recovery can include only primary
production or can also include waterflood and
enhanced oil recovery when economically justified.
ultimate tensile strength the maximum stress that
a sample can sustain prior to necking divided by the
cross-sectional area
ultrafine solids particles with a diameter between
2-44 it.
ultralong-spaced-electric log a log that used ultralong spaced electrodes (75, 150, 600, or 1,200 ft) to
detect resistivity anomalies in the vicinity of the
wellbore. The log is used to detect large anomalies
such as salt domes or to locate drillpipe in wild wells
from a relief well. ULSEL
ultrasonic a wave frequency above the audible range
or higher than 20,000 Hz
ultrasonic inspection the examination of welds for
discontinuities using pulse echo ultrasonic equipment
ultrasonic testing a nondestructive testing method
that uses reflected ultrasonic waves to gauge thickness
and detect flaws in materials
ultraviolet light light waves shorter in wavelength
than visible blue-violet waves (3200-4000 A). Crude
oils and certain minerals will fluoresce under
ultraviolet (UV) light. The fluorescent colors of crude
oils range from yellow to green to blue. The aromatic
oils are most fluorescent.
ultimate strength the maximum stress that a
substance can support under given conditions
(Uma)a apparent volumetric photoelectric cross
section of rock matrix
umbilical a flexible cable that connects instruments
umbilical hose a flexible rubber hose that connects
a compressor with a diver. The compressor pumps
a certified breathable output, either air or heliox, to
the diver, (dive hose)
umbrella a basket that is attached to the tubing in
a well and is designed to catch sloughings off the
sides of the well, (cave catcher)
UMC underwater manifold center
UN unclassified well
un unit

546

unaccrued royalty underream

ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY

NONCONFORMITY

PARACONFORMITY

DISCONFORMITY
unconformities

unaccrued royalty payments (royalty) on

production for gas and oil that has not been produced.
Unaccrued royalty is in contrast to accrued royalty
on production that has occurred.
unassociated gas see nonassociated gas
uncased well a well without casing, (open hole)
Unconf or unconf unconformity
unconformity an ancient, buried erosional surface.
Some types of unconformities include angular
unconformity, disconformity, nonconformity, and
paraconformity. Unconf or unconf
uncons unconsolidated
unconsolidated loose, uncemented sediments.
uncons
uncontrolled acidizing treatment an acid job in
which the acid followed by a displacement fluid is
pumped down the casing. Tubing may or may not
be present in the well. The technique is fast and
inexpensive but does not control where the acid goes
and is in contrast to a controlled acidizing treatment.
uncontrolled sidetrack the side tracking of a well
in which the sidetrack direction is not important and
no effort is made to control it. (blind sidetrack)
unconventional gas natural gas with a production
cost using current technology that is more expensive
than the current market value of the gas.
Unconventional gas is in contrast to conventional gas.
underage the amount of oil and/or gas produced
under or less than the amount of the allowable granted
by a government regulatory agency.
(underproduction)
underbalance the condition of a well or drilling
fluid when the weight of the drilling fluid exerts a
pressure less than formation or fluid pressure in a
well. Underbalance is in contrast to overbalance.
underbalanced drilling drilling with a mud weight
that results in a hydrostatic pressure in the well that
is less than formation pressure. Gas will flow out of
the formation and into the well. A rotating head is
used to prevent the gas and mud from flowing up
the rotary. A gas separator is used on the flow line
and the gas is flared. Underbalanced drilling has a
higher penetration rate than balanced or overbalanced
drilling.

underbalanced perforating perforating with

downhole pressure less than formation pressure so
formation fluids will flow into the well when the casing
or liner is perforated to clean the perforation tunnels.
(reverse-pressure perforating)

underclay the fine-grained sediments, usually clay,

that lie under a coal seam. Underclay is the soil in
which the plants that formed the coal grew. Uc
undercut pin a rim that is located near the end of
a sucker rod between the rod shoulder and pin thread.
The makeup of the rod coupling against the undercut
pin puts tensile stress on the pin that increases the
pin life.
underflow the flow of liquids and solids coming
out of the bottom of a hydrocyclone such as a desander
or desilter. The overflow takes the more liquid portion
out the top of the hydrocyclone.
undergauge bit a drilling bit with an outside
diameter reduced by abrasion during drilling
undergauge hole a wellbore that is narrower than
the bit. An undergauge hole is in contrast to a fullgauge or overgauge hole.
underground blowout an uncontrolled flow of
fluids up a well and into another subsurface formation
that has a lower pressure
underground circulation the flow of drilling fluids
from a well into a low-pressure reservoir
underlift/overlift provision a condition in a joint
operating agreement between parties. If one of the
parties does not produce (underlift) that party's share
of production during a period, that party can produce
an equal amount of production (overlift) over that
party's share of production during a later period.
underload a condition in which a pump is working
but there is no fluid to flow. An underload can damage
an electric submersible centrifugal pump because of
the lack of cooling fluid, (pump off)
undermigration the insufficient movement of a
dipping reflector on a seismic profile by migration
because of using too slow a sound velocity
underpressured a reservoir having a fluid pressure
less than normal hydrostatic pressure
underproduction see underage
underream a drilling operation to enlarge a

underreamer uniform flux fracture 547

wellbore using an underreamer tool with bits or
cutters on expanding arms activated by hydraulic
pressure. A completion fluid is often used to prevent
formation damage. Underreaming is done to enlarge
the area of the face of the wellbore at the level of
the producing zone to increase production. Barefoot
and gravel-packed completions are underreamed. UR,
U.R., or U/rmg

underreamer

underreamer a sub with hydraulically activated,

expandable cutting arms that is rotated to enlarge
the wellbore at a specific interval in the well. A singlestage underreamer has cutter arms to enlarge the hole
but cannot drill the hole. The underreamer might
have a spade point to force through debris. The
double-stage underreamer has a tricone bit on the
lower section and can drill the hole along with
enlarging it with the cutter arms. The cutter arms
are interchangeable. The underreamer is rotated on
a drillstring to underream or enlarge the wellbore
for an open hole or gravel pack completion. The
cutting arms fold back into the tool when it is brought
back up the well, (hole opener)
undersaturated a liquid that is capable of dissolving
more of a gas, another liquid, or solid than it has at
a specific temperature and pressure
undersaturated pool an oil reservoir without a free
gas cap. There is natural gas (solution gas) dissolved

OIL

undersaturated pool

in the oil in the pores of the reservoir rock, but the

oil could hold more gas under the subsurface reservoir
conditions and is undersaturated. An undersaturated
pool is in contrast to a saturated pool.
undersize a particle size that passes through a screen
under given conditions
underthrust fault a thrust fault that moves the lower
rock mass under the upper rock mass
undertorque to make up a tool joint that is not
tight enough. The tubular could wobble off.
Undertorque is in contrast to overtorque.
underwater diposal flume a system for diposing
of drilling solids on an offshore rig. The flume consists
of two concentric strings of large-diameter pipe from
the drilling floor to beneath water level. The outside
string extends further down into the water than the
inside string. The drilling solids are dumped down
the inner string. Any oil is caught in the outer string
as it floats up and is pumped up the annulus by a
submersible pump.
underwater manifold center or centre a type of
seabed production system. The underwater manifold
center provides a base structure for a template to
drill wells and to tie in satellite wells. The center
collects fluid from producing wells and delivers them
to a platform. It distributes treated seawater to an
injection well. The center permits maintenance of
valves and controls on the manifold with a remote
maintenance vehicle. The center is controlled by
electrical and hydraulic lines to the surface. UMC
underwater safety valve a valve on a subsea
wellhead that is designed to automatically close when
power is lost. USV
underwater television a television camera that is
mounted on a frame and lowered on guide lines along
the side of the marine riser on a semisubmersible
or drillship to monitor the installation and status of
subsea equipment
undeveloped reserves proven reserves in
undeveloped drilling and spacing units. Undeveloped
reserves are located so close to developed units that
there is high probability they will be produced when
drilled.
undiff undifferentiated
undisturbed zone the area of the formation located
back from the wellbore where the formation fluids
have not been diluted by mud filtrate. The transition
and invaded zones are located between the
undisturbed zone and the wellbore. (uninvaded or
virgin zone)
undivided working interest a working interest in
a well in which the working interest costs are
proportional to the working interest revenues from
production. An undivided working interest is in
contrast to a disproportionate working interest.
(proportionate working interest)
undly underlying
uni uniform
unident unidentifiable
uniform flux fracture a reservoir fracture in which
a constant amount of reservoir fluid is produced per
unit length of the fracture

548

uniformity coefficient

unretarded slow-set cement

uniformity coefficient the ratio of sieve size that

will pass 60% of filter sand to the effective size. The
uniformity coefficient is used in specifying sand.
uninvaded zone see undisturbed zone
union a pipe coupling device that uses a flanged,
threaded collar to make the connection. A union is
used to connect pipe without rotating the pipe.
UNIR ultimate net income ratio
unit 1) several leases operated by one company 2)
one lease operated by several companies under a
unitization agreement, un
unit area all lands, oil, and gas leaseholds and
interests intended to be developed and operated
under a joint operating agreement, (contract area)
unitization 1) the combining of adjacent small tracts
of fractional interests in mineral rights in order to
drill a well, (pooling) 2) the combining of mineral
rights of larger, adjacent tracts on a producing
reservoir in order to coordinate pressure
maintenance, waterflood, or enhanced oil recovery
that will maximize the ultimate recovery from that
reservoir. Unitization can be either voluntary
(voluntary unitization) or by order of a governmental
regulatory agency (compulsory or forced unitization).
Unitization can be imposed in all states except Texas
and New Mexico. This is the most common usage of
the term unitization. (communitization)
unitization clause a provision in an oil and gas
lease that allows the lessee to unitize the lease acreage
unitized derrick a derrick on a drilling rig that is
raised and lowered as a unit. A unitized derrick is a
mast and is in contrast to a standard derrick.
unitized working interest working interests from
several leases that have been combined or unitized
and are operated as a unit, (pooled working interest)
unit manager the person that manages the operation
of a unit
unit-of-production an accounting method that
depreciates lease and equipment costs based on the
annual production and remaining reserves from that
lease
unit operator 1) the company that is in charge of
developing and producing from a field that has been
unitized by several companies 2) the person in charge
of a workover rig or pulling unit and its crew
unit volume the volume of a solid, liquid, or gas
that occupies a cube that measures one unit such as
a foot or meter on a side
unit well a well drilled on a unit formed by pooling
univ universal
universal a coupling between two rotating shafts that
are not in line, (universal joint) univ
universal gas constant the constant (R) in the ideal
gas law, PVm = Rt or PV - nRt, in which P is the
pressure, Vm is the molar volume, t is the temperature,
and n is the number of moles. The universal gas
constant is 10.732 if the moles are in pounds, the
pressure is in psi, the volume is in cubic feet, and
the temperature is in R It is 0.729 if the moles are
in pounds, the pressure is in atmospheres, the volume
is in cubic feet, and the temperature is in R. The
universal gas constant is 8312.0 if the moles are in

kilograms, the pressure is in Newtons per square

meter, the volume is in cubic meters, and the
temperature is in K.
universal joint see universal
universal joint sub a short length of pipe that
consists of two segments with a degree of angular
movement between them. A universal joint sub is used
between a wireline tool and a sinker.
universal orifice plate a type of orifice plate that
is designed to measure fluid flow through a flow line
by measuring the differential pressure of the fluid
flow through the orifice. A universal orifice plate, is
designed to be used in orifice fittings and is a circular,
flat piece of metal. The bore of the orifice is machined
to + or 0.0005 in./in. Types of orifice bores include
concentric (the most common), segmented, and
eccentric.
unjaying the tool rotating the drillstring in a well
to release a J-tool
unjust enrichment clause a provision in a gas
balancing agreement. The underproduced party must
reimburse the overproduced party for the difference
in the gas price received by the overproduced party
at the time of initial sale, and the gas price received
by the underproduced party when the underproduced
party exercises its makeup right.
UNKN unknown
UNL unload
unless clause a provision in an unless type of oil
and gas lease that terminates the lease if the lessee
does not drill a well or pay delay rentals at specified
times during the primary term of the lease
unless lease an oil and gas lease that will expire
unless either drilling operations are commenced or
delay rental payments are paid at specific times during
the primary term of the lease
unload a well to remove the liquid from a well.
Unloading a well is usually done by swabbing.
unloader a device on a reciprocating compressor
that is used to keep the intake valve open throughout
the intake stroke in order to shut off the compressor.
Unloaders are used during compressor starting.
unloading the removal of liquids from a gas well.
The gas flowing up the tubing can bring the liquid
up in slugs.
unmanned submarine or submersible a nearly
neutral buoyancy submarine that is manipulated from
the mother ship by an umbilical. The vehicle is used
for both observation of subsea equipment and to
maintain the equipment with a manipulator, (remotely
controlled or operated vehicle)
unpooling the termination of a pooling or
unitization agreement
unproven acreage an area without any test wells
unproven property property with no proven
reserves in contrast to proven property
unretarded slow-set cement cement with an
increased setting time due to a reduction in the cement
components such as tricalcium silicate or tricalcium
aluminate that rapidly hydrate. An unretarded slowset cement is in contrast to a retarded slow-set cement.

unsaturated USGS
unsaturated a solution that is able to dissolve more
solute at a given temperature and pressure
unsaturated bond a double or triple bond between
two carbon atoms. Benzene (C6H6) is an example of
the aromatic or benzene series that has molecules
with unsaturated bonds.
unsaturated hydrocarbon a hydrocarbon that
contains double or triple bonds in contrast to a
saturated hydrocarbon. More hydrogen atoms can be
included in the unsaturated molecule. Aromatics are
examples of unsaturated hydrocarbons that form
circles with double bonds. If the hydrocarbon
molecule has double bonds between carbon atoms,
it is an alkene or olefin. Alkynes have triple bonds
between the carbon atoms. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
tend to be more unstable and chemically reactive than
the saturated hydrocarbons.
unscheduled trip a round trip with the drillstring
on a drilling rig for an unplanned activity such as
fishing
unsealed reservoir a subsurface petroleum
reservoir that is open on one or more sides. An
unsealed reservoir does not have four-sided closure.
unseat to loosen the grip of packer slips and break
the seal
unsorted biosparite a limestone that has more
sparry calcite than limestone mud (micrite) and a
wide range of sizes of allochems (1) larger transported
particles)
UNSRT unsorted
unstabilized crude oil oil before the dissolved or
solution gas has been separated
updip or up dip a direction or location up the slope
or angle of a plane such as the top of a rock layer.
An updip location is higher in elevation on the
particular rock layer than a downdip location.
updip well a well located higher on the structure
upgrade to increase the depth capacity of a drilling
rig. The upgrade is usually done by increasing the
number of lines to the traveling block.
uphole geophone or jug a detector or geophone
located on the surface about 10 ft from the shothole.
An uphole geophone is used to determine shothole
time in seismic exploration and to help with
topographic correction, (shotpoint seismometer)
uphole shooting the explosion of several charges
at different depths in a shothole during seismic
exploration. Uphole shooting is used to determine
the weathering or low-velocity layer thickness and
near-surface velocities.
uphole stack a method in which seismic records
from shots at different depths in a shothole are
combined. An uphole stack is used to eliminate ghost
energy.
uphole time the time that it takes the seismic energy
used in seismic exploration to travel the distance in
a shot hole from where the shot was detonated to
the surface, (time at shot point)
uplift an area in the crust of the earth that has been
forced upward
upper kelly cock a short sub that is installed just
above the kelly and acts as a backpressure valve to

549

prevent fluids from flowing up the kelly and to protect

the equipment located above the kelly. The upper
kelly cock is in contrast to the lower kelly valve or
drillstem safety valve.
upper-phase microemulsion a stable, finely
dispersed mixture of oil, water, and chemicals that
has a high concentration of oil
upper sample a sample taken from the middle or
the upper one-third of a tank
upper-tier crude oil new oil, released oil, or
stripper oil that qualifies under the United States
Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975. The oil
could be sold at market price. Upper-tier crude oil
is in contrast to first-tier oil that has a fixed price.
(second-tier oil)
UPR upper
upright fold a fold in sedimentary rock in which
the dip on the axial plane is 80-90. An upright fold
is in contrast to an inclined or recumbent fold.
upset 1) the thicker wall part of a tubular that is
usually located on the ends. Interior-upset tubulars
such as drillpipe and casing have the extra thickness
extending inward. Exterior-upset tubulars such as
tubing have the extra thickness extending outward.
The upset is designed to increase the strength of the
tubular in the section where the threads are cut. 2)
to increase the diameter of a bit or a tubular by
flattening the end
upside down packer see tension packer
Y expansion factor
upstream 1) exploration, drilling, and production
operations for crude oil and natural gas. Upstream
is in contrast to downstream which includes
transportation and pipe lining, refining, and marketing.
2) the gas-gathering facilities and pipelines that deliver
the gas to the trunk line 3) the end or direction of
the pipe or line that faces the source of the fluid.
The opposite direction is called downstream.
upstroke the movement of a piston up the cylinder.
Upstroke is in contrast to downstroke
up-structure a direction or location further up
toward the top of a structure such as a dome
upsweep a Vibroseis seismic signal that increases
in frequency with time. Upsweep is in contrast to
downsweep.
upthrown the side of a fault that appears to have
moved up relative to the opposite or downthrown
side
up time see lag time
up-to-the-coast fault a dip-slip fault in which the
side of the fault closest to the coast has moved up
relative to the other side
up-to-the-basin fault a dip-slip fault in which the
side of the fault closest to the basin has moved up
relative to the other side
UR or U.R. underreaming
URE ultimate recovery efficiency
URRS ultrashort-radius radial system
U/rmg underreaming
USGS United States Geological Survey

550

US ton U/W

US ton a unit of weight in the United States and

Canada. A US ton weighs 2,000 lbs. The long ton used
by Great Britain weighs 2,240 lbs. A US ton is equal
to 0.907 metric tons and 0.893 long tons, (short ton)
usufruct a life tenancy in Louisiana
USV underwater safety valve
utility air air that is not as pure as instrument air
and is used to drive air motors, (plant air)
utility system the power generation, heating and
air conditioning, venting, fuel supply, instrument and
utility air supply, water supply, treatment, and disposal
equipment on an offshore platform
UTS underwater tethered submersible
U-tube method a technique used to free stuck pipe
in a well if there is no check or float valve in the

drillstring. The drillpipe and well annulus are used

as a U-tube. A specific volume of light fluid such as
diesel oil is pumped down the drillstring to reduce
the hydrostatic pressure. The light fluid is then allowed
to flow back up the drillstring due to the heavier
drilling fluid in the annulus reducing the hydrostatic
pressure in the well.
UV or u.v. ultraviolet
UV box a portable metal box containing an ultraviolet
light. A UV box is used at drilling sites to detect mineral
and crude-oil fluorescence in samples. The box has
doors on both ends through which samples such as
well cuttings and cores are put.
UW uniform wear
U/W used with

V vapor-liquid equilibrium

V
V I ) volume 2) volumetric 3) moles of vapor phase
4) voltage 5) velocity 6) very 7) volt
v 1) volt 2) very 3) velocity 4) specific volume 5)
vaporization 6) molecular velocity
Va 1) ash content in volume 2) volume of annulus
3) apparent velocity
va volt-ampere
va velocity in annulus
VAC or vac vacuum
vacant public land United States federal land that
has no reservations in contrast to reserved lands
vacuum 1) the amount of pressure reduction on a
fluid below atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric
pressure minus vacuum equals absolute pressure 2)
the complete absence of any molecules in a space.
The absolute pressure would be zero, vac or VAC
vacuum degasser a vessel used on a drilling rig
to remove natural gas from gas-cut drilling mud when
it circulates back to the surface. A vacuum degasser
is a vessel that uses a vacuum to draw the gas out of
the mud.
vacuum oven a closed oven containing a vacuum
line. Moisture is removed by vacuum from heated
samples in the oven.
vacuum pump a pump that is used to reduce the
pressure in the wellbore in order to increase oil or
gas production
vacuum stripping the use of a vacuum to remove
gases from a liquid
vacuum truck a service company tank truck that
uses a vacuum to remove basic sediment and water
from stock tanks.
Vad or vad vadose
VA display variable area display
vadose zone the area above the water table in the
subsurface rocks. The pores of the rocks in the vadose
zone are filled with air and water vapor. The vadose
zone is important for the formation of solution pores
in limestone and is located above the zone of
saturation, (zone of aeration) Vad or vad
vagile a sea-bottom dwelling organism that moves
about
Valanginian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 135-130 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Cretaceous epoch.
valence the number of electrons lost, gained, or
shared when an atom combines into a compound.

551

Valence can be described as plus or minus and as

mono-, bi-, or trivalent.
valley fill fluvial (river) sediments filling an erosional
valley
valve a mechanical device that is used to regulate
the flow of a fluid. Some types of valves used in the
oil field are described by their construction as
butterfly, needle, plug, ball, gate, bellows, and globe.
Other valves named after their use include metering,
check, control, safety, relief, regulating, pilot, and shut
off. vlv
valve and seat the arrangement in a reciprocating
pump that moves the fluid. The seat forms the seal
for the valve and is fixed. The valve moves up and
down with a stem in the cylinder. The valve is unsealed
from the seat and moves up the chamber on the suction
stroke. The valve then moves down the chamber and
is sealed on the seat during the discharge stroke.
valve pot the chamber that holds the suction and
discharge valves in a reciprocating or plunger pump.
The valve pot is located on the fluid side of the pump.
(pot)
valve tray a tray used on a contact tower or absorber
to contain liquid. The perforations in the tray that
allow the gas to bubble up through the liquid are
regulated by valves that control the size of die orifices
with gas pressure.
vane a metal plate used in an impingement separator
to direct gas. The vane has liquid collection pockets.
Van Krevelen diagram a graph that plot the
elemental concentration of organic matter. The ratio
of hydrogen to carbon is plotted on the vertical axis
and oxygen to carbon on the horizontal axis. The
Van Krevelen diagram is used to distinguish Types I,
II, and III organic matter and their stages of maturation
as they progress toward graphite.
Vann tool gun a perforating gun that is mounted
on the bottom of a tubing string. The gun creates a
backsurge to clean the perforations after it perforates
the well.
vap vapor
Vaporchor a marine seismic source Vaporchor
discharges a slug of steam from a valve on the ship
into the water. The bubble condenses and implodes
forming the seismic signal with no secondary bubbles.
vapor frac a type of well stimulation used to fracture
gas reservoirs. The frac fluid is a gelled fluid that is
a liquid at the surface but a gas under reservoir
conditions. The frac fluid is either a) CO2 and LPG
or b) CO2 and alcohol.
vaporizing gas drive a reservoir drive in miscible
displacement enhanced oil recovery. At the contact,
the residual oil is stripped of the light and intermediate
fractions by the miscible fluid to reduce the residual
oil saturation.
vapor-liquid equilibrium YJXt in which Yt is the
mol fraction of a component in the vapor phase and

552

vapor lock variance

Xt is the mol fraction of the component in the liquid

phase. The vapor-liquid equilibrium is a function of
temperature, pressure, and composition, (equilibrium
constant, K factor, or partition coefficient) K
vapor lock an accumulation of vapor in the fuel line
of an engine. Vapor lock can cause the engine to
stop.
vapor or vapour pressure the pressure of a vapor
that is in equilibrium with its liquid. Vapor pressure
varies with temperature and is usually expressed in
pounds per square inch absolute at 100F. Propane
has a vapor pressure of 188.0 psia. Vapor pressure
is important in determining the liquid content of a
gas. VP
vapor-proof equipment that is not affected by gases.
Vapor-proof light fixtures are used on drilling rigs
to prevent an explosion.
vapor recovery unit facilities used to collect gasses
from stock or storage tanks. VRU
Var or var 1) variable 2) variation
vara an absolute and inexact Spanish unit of length
that varies from location to location and time to time.
A 1919 Texas law defines the vara as 33V2 in.
vari variegated

variable area display

variable area diplay a seismic section display

method in which the peaks of traces are filled in
with solid black that is proportional to signal
amplitude. The display is easy to see close up but
some detail is lost. Variable density is the other
common display method. VA display
variable area meter a device that is used to measure
fluid velocity. A variable area meter consists of either
a float in a tapered tube or a tapered float in a fixed
orifice. The float will rise and fall with the flow rate.
variable bore ram a pipe ram, a closing element
on a blowout preventer, that is designed to fit around
a range of pipe sizes. The variable bore ram can be
thrown either by manually or by hydraulics, (variable
pipe ram) VBR
variable choke an orifice in a flowline that can be
made smaller or larger with a valve. A variable choke
is used to regulate the flow and pressure of a fluid
in the flowline.
variable density a display that uses changes in
darkness or density to indicate variations in
measurements, (variable intensity)

variable-density column a liquid column that

increase in density with depth and is used to determine
the density of well cuttings. Shale cuttings are dropped
in the top of the column and they fall until the density
of the cutting is equal to the liquid density. The liquid
is made by mixing bromoform, carbon tetrachloride,
and other liquids.

variable density display

variable density display a seismic section display

method in which the photographic density of gray is
proportional to the signal amplitude. The display is
easier to see at a distance but hard to reproduce.
Variable area is the other common display method.
VD display
variable-density log a type of acoustic or cement
bond log that plots depth versus time and displays
the full wave train recorded in variable photographic
density or intensity modulated-time mode. The
variable-density log is displayed as black and light
stripes in which the contrast depends upon the
amplitude of the wave peaks. Shades of gray with
the darkest area have the largest positive amplitudes,
and the lightest areas have the largest negative
amplitudes. If the casing is poorly bound, most of
the acoustic energy travels through the casing and
there is a high amplitude on the wave train and great
contrast on the log. With good bonding, there is little
amplitude and low contrast on the log. The variabledensity type of logs are also commonly used to locate
fractures in reservoirs. VDL
variable intensity see variable density
variable load the weight of the supplies such as
drillpipe, fuel, water, cement, and drilling mud on a
semisubmersible or drillship
variable overriding royalty interest a share in a
well in which the size of the interest in production
varies with the amount of production from the well.
The variable overriding royalty interest usually
increases during months during which the average
production exceeds a specific amount, (flexible
overriding royalty interest)
variable pipe ram see variable bore ram
variable royalty a payment or royalty for production
that varies with the amount of production. Variable
royalty is in contrast to a step-scale royalty that
decreases in levels with increasing amounts of
production, (sliding-scale royalty)
variance an exception or delay granted by the
government.

varic Venturi meter

varic varicolored
variegated a sedimentary rock that has various colors
in irregular spots and blotches, vari, vgt, or VARIG
VARIG variegated
varve a very thin sedimentary rock layer or lamina
that was formed during one year. Varves are caused
by the effect of seasonal changes such as winter-spring
on sedimentation.
Vb 1) bulk volume 2) rock matrix volume 3) volume
of mud at bubblepoint
V-belt an endless synthetic fiber and rubber band
with a trapezoidal cross section that is used to transmit
power between wheels, pulleys, and/or sheaves. A
V-belt drive is used on the mud pump transmission
of a drilling rig.
Vc compression-wave velocity
vc critical velocity
v.c. very common
VCB vertical center of buoyancy
V.C.G. vertical center of gravity
VC-GR very coarse grained
V,;! clay content
Vday clay fraction
V dco clay cutoff content
(Vcl)GR clay content deduced from gamma rays
c a content
(VCI)N ' y
deduced from neutron log
(Vci)R day content deduced from resistivity
(Vcl)SP clay content deduced from spontaneous
potential (SP) log
Vco coal content in volume
V,;,, cuttings velocity
VD vertical pump intake setting depth
vd average displacement velocity
VD display variable density display
VD-GR variable density, gamma ray log
VDL variable density log
VDL log three-D log
V-door the opening in a derrick (derrick window)
with the shape of an inverted V that is located opposite
the drawworks and above the pipe rack on a drilling
rig. The V-door is used to pull drillpipe or casing
from the pipe racks onto the drill floor. (V-window)
VD trace variable density trace
vector processor a type of computer capable of
high-speed calculations
VEL or vel velocity
VEL-L velocity log
velocimeter seeflowmeter
velocity the distance traveled per unit of time taken
to travel that distance. Velocity of a wave is equal to
the frequency of the wave times the wavelength. VEL
or vel
velocity filter a filter that removes selected dips from
sesmic data. The velocity filter is used in areas of
flat bedding to remove steep noise lineups and
multiples, (dp rejection or moveout filter)

553

velocity focusing the bending of seismic waves by

curved velocity surfaces. The surfaces act as lenses
to focus or defocus the waves.
velocity log a wireline well log that records sound
velocity through rock layers in a well. The velocity
is recorded in units of microseconds per foot (jisec/
ft) and called interval transit time t or At. The tool
has a transmitter and two receivers, one located 3 ft
from the transmitter and the other 5 ft. The
compensated velocity log has two sound transmitters
on the sonde. Their values are averaged to reduce
errors due to sonde tilt or borehole size changes.
The velocities are used to determine the lithologies
and compute the porosity of the rocks. Shale strongly
affects the porosity of a formation determined by a
velocity log, and shaly formations must be corrected
for this effect. Gas will decrease the sound velocity
and increase the apparent velocity. Porosity measured
by the velocity log does not record vugular and fracture
pores, (sonic or acoustic-velocity log) VEL-L
velocity map a map of interval velocities derived
from sonic logs or seismic stacking velocities. The
velocity is used to convert two-way travel time to depth
in feet on seismic sections.
velocity pull-up the vertical displacement upward
of seismic reflectors located under a high-velocity layer
on a seismic section. Velocity pull-up is in contrast
to a velocity pull-down, (pull-up)
velocity pull-down the vertical displacement
downward of seismic reflectors located under a lowvelocity layer on a seismic section. Velocity pull-down
is in contrast to velocity pull-up, (pull-down)
velocity survey a seismic technique used to
determine velocity information about rock layers in
a well. The source is a slush pit bang which is either
an explosive charge, an air gun, a thumper, or
Vibroseis, and the geophone is located in the well.
Originally, a single explosive was used in a shallow
hole. Recently, many small explosives have been
simultaneously detonated for reinforcement. A
logging cable or separate wireline on a rig or A-frame
is used to convey the geophone. It can be used in
either a cased or open hole. In a cased hole, a leaf
spring keeps the geophone against the casing as it is
dragged up. In an open hole, one or two arms or
pistons keep the geophone against the sides. The
geophone is run further up the hole for each shot.
Vertical seismic profiling is similar, but yields more
accurate velocity data. VIS or VELSV
VELSV velocity survey
velvet the shallowest of two or more producing zones
in a well
vent ventilate
vent an opening, pipe, or hatch that allows gas to
escape and prevents a pressure buildup
venting of gas the release of gas into the atmosphere
vent line a line at the top of a marine riser on a
semisubmersible or drillship that connects it to a
diverter to vent gas
vent stack a chimney used to release gas to the
atmosphere without burning
venture a well being drilled
Venturi meter a head-type meter that is used to

554

Venturi valve vertical seismic profiling

determine the velocity of a flowing fluid, usually gas.

A Venturi meter consists of a tube with a constriction
in it with a smooth entry and exit. The fluid flows
faster at the constriction and the pressure on the fluid
drops. The pressure differential is used to determine
the velocity of the fluid. The square root of the
differential pressure varies proportionally with the
flow velocity. Venturi meters are used on pipelines
of known diameter to compute the volume of flow
through the pipeline.
Venturi valve a valve with a smaller diameter conduit
in the closing member than the opening end. A Venturi
valve is streamlined to reduce pressure loss.
VEQ equivalent volume
verbatim abstract an abstract of title that contains
the exact wording of any conveyances in the title. A
verbatim abstract is in contrast to a bobtail or
abbreviated abstract.
verm vermillion
vermiculite a clay mineral that is closely related to
montmorillonite and chlorite. Vermiculite has a
chemical formula of Mgo^jCMgjgAljXSijpAlj j)O10
(OH)2 with or without 4H2O, a density of 2.55 or
2.14 (with 4H2O), and a cell dimension of 10.10 or
14.45 (with 4H2O)A. Vermiculite is formed by the
weathering of micas.
VERT or vert vertical

vertebrate fossil

vertebrate an animal that has a backbone.

Vertebrates are in contrast to an invertebrates that
are common as fossils in sedimentary rocks, (chordate)
vrtb
vertical control the determination of the vertical
height in feet above sea level of a survey location
vertical depth the depth of a horizontal well
measured vertically from the surface to the target
vertical drilling the drilling of a straight hole within
3 of vertical
vertical exaggeration a ratio of the vertical scale
to the horizontal scale on a profile or cross section
vertical iault a fault that deviates less than or equal
to 5 from vertical. A vertical fault is in contrast to
an inclined fault.
vertical field balance a magnetometer used to
measure the magnitude of the vertical component
of the earth's magnetic field by the torque on a
horizontal permanent magnet. Two types of vertical
field balances are the Schmidt field balance and the
torsion magnetometer.
vertical flow horizontal separator a horizontal oil
and gas separator that is engineered so that the fluids
follow a long vertical path through the separator. The

longer path results in a longer retention time and

effective processing path for more effective separation.
VFH separator
vertical fold a fold in sedimentary rocks in which
the fold axis plunges between 80-90. A vertical fold
is in contrast to a horizontal or plunging fold.
vertical hole a well drilled vertically into the
subsurface. There is usually some tolerance allowed
in the drilling contract, for example, no more than
3 from vertical for each 100 ft of depth in the well.
(straight hole, well or wellbore or vertical well)
vertical integration the situation in which a
company does everything from obtaining raw
materials through marketing the final product. An
example would be a full integrated oil company that
explores, drills, produces, transports, refines, and
markets petroleum.
vertical-moored platform a floating drilling and
production platform that is held in place by cables
attached to the seafloor
vertical permeability permeability measured in the
vertical plane of the reservoir. kv
vertical photograph an aerial photograph taken
with the camera oriented vertical or nearly vertical
to the earth's surface. A vertical photograph is in
contrast to an oblique photograph.
vertical pressure log a wireline tool that is used
to sample reservoir fluids and measure formation
pressure versus time at specific depths in an open
hole. The tool consists of a piston device and a packer.
At each station, the vertical-pressure log tool first
records mud pressure and then inserts a probe into
the sidewall. A fluid sample (10 cc) is taken at a low
flow rate and the pressure drawdown is measured.
A second sample is taken at a faster rate and the
pressure drawdown is again recorded. The pressure
buildup is then recorded. The probe is retracted and
reset at the next depth. Two large sample chambers
can be fitted to hold 1-12 gal of formation fluids.
The pressure drawdown and buildup records are used
to calculate formation permeabilities. The tool has a
shallow depth of investigation and works only in lowpermeability formations, (repeatformation tester'"')
vertical racking system a system used to rack
tubulars vertically in an offshore derrick. The system
consists of a lower, intermediate, and upper carriage
on the outside of the derrick. Each carriage is mounted
on tracks to move across the width of the derrick. A
powered arm with hand travels from the center of
the derrick through the carriage to rack the tubulars.
The lower racker is used to run casing and move
the kelly. The intermediate and upper rackers are
used for drillpipe and collars. The rackers are remotely
controlled.
vertical release a Pugh clause or Freestone rider
in a lease that releases specific zones at the end of
the primary term or after a specific period
vertical resolution the thinnest bed resolved by a
logging tool or seismic
vertical section see seismic section
vertical seismic profiling the recording of seismic
energy from a source next to the drill hole by
geophones in the well to obtain a high resolution

vertical separation V,

555

vertical separator a vertical vessel used to separate

either gas and liquid (two-phase separator) or gas,
oil, and water (three-phase separator) A vertical
separator is often used with low to intermediate gas/
oil ratios and large volumes of liquid. An inlet diverter
spreads the liquid as a thin film against the vertical
separator shell and gives the liquid centrifugal motion.
The gas escapes from the oil film and rises to the
top as the liquids go to the bottom. The small liquid
particles that rise with the gas are separated by a
centrifugal baffle below the gas outlet. The separator
can be fitted with a false cone bottom for sand
separation. A vertical separator occupies less floor
space than a horizontal separator and is easier to clean.
vertical severance the partition of undivided
interests into separate surface tracts. Vertical severance
is in contrast to horizontal severance.
vertical slip see vertical separation
vertical stack a superposition of seismic records
made by several shots from almost the same position
without corrections for offset distances

vertical sweep efficiency the fraction of zones

Seconds

vertical seismic profile (courtesy of Alfred Balch)

image of the subsurface adjacent to the borehole.

Vertical seismic profiling is similar to check shooting
or a velocity survey except it uses more downhole
geophones, usually at a regular spacing interval of
100 ft or less. One geophone or one three-component
geophone at each depth level is used per seismic
shot. It records and shows direct arrivals from
reflectors below the detectors. The shape of the first
arrival is important and the recording continues for
some time after the first arrival. It is plotted as depth
(vertical axis) versus arrival time in seconds
(horizontal axis). Vertical seismic profiling gives
reliable velocity information and is usually done at
the same time that the well is being logged with a
wireline well log. The seismic source is usually a
vibrator. Vertical seismic profiling is used to explore
the geology of the subsurface next to the wellbore.
It is used in developmental drilling to yield a detailed
image of the reservoir and show where to most
efficiently drill. Vertical seismic profiling is also used
to correlate the subsurface geology in the well with
surface seismic profiles in order to accurately
determine interval velocities in seismic and to convert
from time to depth in feet. Some variations of vertical
seismic profiling include zero offset VSP, in which
the shot is located 300-500 ft from the well; constant
offset VSP, in which the shot is up to a mile from
the well; and walk away VSP, in which a seismic line
is shot near the well. Three-D vertical seismic can
also be run. VSP
vertical separation the vertical component of dip
slip on a fault. Vertical separation is in contrast to
horizontal separation, (vertical slip)

measured vertically in a reservoir that are effectively

contacted by an injected fluid during a waterflood
or enhanced oil recovery process
vertical time 1) the time for the first seismic energy
to reach the surface from the shot in the shothole.
(uphole time) 2) the arrival time for a seismic reflection
if the wave travel path had been vertical
vertical-variability map a type of facies map that
shows the thickness and/or number of a specific rock
type such as sandstones in a stratigraphic unit such
as a formation
vertical well see vertical hole
very rich gas natural gas that has more than 5 gal
of recoverable ethane and higher hydrocarbons per
1,000 ft3 at 60F
ves vesicular
vesicular containing small cavities, ves
Vesl vessel
vessel a container. Vesl
vest to grant or give right or power
VF flowmeter fluid viscosity
Vf 1) fracture volume 2) fluid velocity
VF-GR very fine grained
v-f-gr very fine grained
VFH separator vertical flow horizontal separator
VG very good
Vg gas volume
V-G meter a direct-indicating viscometer. The V-G
meter uses electric or hand-crank rotated outer
cylinder or rotor sleeve that revolves at 300 rpm and
600 rpm to measure apparent viscosity, plastic
viscosity, yield point, and gel strength, (viscosity-gel
viscosimeter)
vgt variegated
VHF very high frequency
VHOCM or v-HOCM very heavily oil-cut mud
VI or V.I. viscosity index
Vj volume inside a tubular

556

vi viscometer or viscosimeter

vi violet
v, velocity inside a tubular
vibracore a small diameter core (3-4 in.) that was
taken in relatively unconsolidated sediments by a
small, portable, vibrating, and rotating coring
apparatus. A vibracore is used for offshore-platform
site investigations.
vibrating screen the sloping screen on a shale
shaker. The woven cloth screens are made of different
sizes and shapes (square or oblique) and can be as
fine as 50 (j- in size. The mesh size describes the
number of openings per inch. The vibrating screen
is used to separate the coarse well cuttings from the
finer well cuttings and drilling mud.
vibration dampener a tool that is usually installed
in the drillstring between a bit and drill collar and
uses steel or rubber springs to absorb shocks when
the bit bounces and vibrates off a hard formation.
Sometimes the vibration dampeners are located 30
or 60 ft above the bit. (shock absorber or sub)

wave train of controlled, changing frequencies that

are usually between 7 and 35 seconds long. The
frequencies can he scanned from 0.1 to 120 Hz. The
most common scan is an upsweep with frequencies
changing from low to high with time. The records
are processed and enhanced by computers.
Vibroseis is a very portable technique and is used
where there is good coupling between the truck and
the ground to transmit energy into the subsurface.
In some areas, loose soil, sediments, or water on the
surface can prevent sufficient coupling.
vintage the year in which a gas supply was first
committed to sale. The 1978 National Gas Policy Act
in the United States created 26 gas categories according
to vintage and other factors. Each category of gas has
a ceiling price and price escalation schedule.
Virgilian a North American epoch of geological time
that ended about 290 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Pennsylvanian period.
Virginia system a land measurement and
description system based on metes and bounds with
natural landmarks. The Virginia system is used in the
southeastern part of the United States and Texas.
virgin pressure the pressure on the fluids in the
pores of a reservoir before it is disturbed by wells
and production. Virgin pressure is usually hydrostatic
pressure and will decrease with production, (original
pressure)

vibrator truck (Seismograph Service Co.)

vibrator a specially designed truck that weighs about

8 tons and is used to induce energy into the subsurface
for a seismic survey. A hydraulically operated plate
under the truck is lowered and part of the vibrator
truck is lifted off the ground. It is controlled by a
radio signal from the recording truck. Hydraulic
motors on the back of the truck then use the weight
of the truck to vibrate the ground creating a wave
train of controlled frequencies. The vibrator gives a
sweep of frequencies commonly ranging 10-70 Hz.
The sweep commonly lasts from 7 to 35 seconds.
Three or four vibrator trucks lined up at 30-50 ft
intervals are often used in phase. The plate is then
lifted and the truck moves to the next shot point.
The tradename for the process is called Vibroseis
vibrator hose a hard rubber hose similar to the
rotary hose that transmits the drilling mud from the
mud pumps to the mud discharge line and standpipe
which are made of steel pipe. The vibrator hose is
used to absorb fluid shocks and eliminate ells in the
line. API classifications of vibrator hoses include 3
and 3V2 in. diameter hoses with 10, 12, 15, 20, and
30 ft lengths. The hose has nipples with male threads
on each end. (shock hose)
Vibroseis a seismic exploration process in which
the seismic energy is put into the subsurface by
hydraulically vibrating a truck called a vibrator that
weighs about 8 tons. The energy is in the form of a

virgin zone the area of the formation located back

from the wellbore where the formation fluids have
not been diluted by mud filtrate. The transition and
invaded zones are located between the virgin zone
and the wellbore. (undisturbed or uninvaded zone)
VIS, vis, or vis. viscosity
vis visible
vise viscosity
viscometer or viscosimeter an instrument used to
measure the viscosity of a liquid. A rolling-ball
viscosimeter uses a steel ball that rolls through a barrel
filled with oil that is tilted at an angle. It can be sealed
and the oil measured at any temperature and pressure.
The time required for the ball to roll through the
tube is electronically measured and is calibrated to
centistokes of viscosity. Absolute viscosity is usually
measured by a capillary-type instrument by
determining the time a given volume takes to flow
through a glass capillary. It is measured in centistokes
or centipoises. Drilling mud viscosity is measured in
the field by a container with a hole or jet on the
bottom. A standard Marsh-funnel holds 1 qt of drilling
mud. The time that the drilling mud takes to drain
is measured in seconds and called funnel or Marsh
funnel viscosity. In the laboratory, a Saybolt Universal
(SSU) or Saybolt Furol is used in the United States
and is recorded in seconds. A Redwood I or Redwood
II is used in the United Kingdom and records in
seconds. An Engler viscosimeter is used in Europe
and records in Engler degrees. A concentric cylinder
viscometer uses two cylinders, an outer cylinder or
rotor sleeve and an inner stationary cylinder. A fresh
sample fills the cylinder up to a line, and the outer
cylinder is rotated at 300 rpm and 600 rpm. The torque
on the inner cylinder is measured with a precision
torsion spring. The common Fann viscometer works

viscosifier Vogel's equation

on this principle. Some viscometers can rotate at 3,
6, 100, 200, 300, and 600 rpm. (rheometer)
viscosifier a drilling-mud additive such as bentonite
or attapulgite that is used to increase viscosity
viscosity a measure of the internal resistance or
friction of a fluid to flow or stress/rate of shear.
Viscosity is the resistance to a change of form and is
affected by temperature, pressure, the amount of gas
in solution in a liquid and the type and size of
molecules in the fluid. Viscosity is the ratio of stress
to shear per unit of time which is (force x distance)
divided by (area x velocity). The less viscous a liquid,
the more fluid the liquid. The viscosity of crude oil
depends on the molecular composition of the oil,
which is reflected in the density or "API of the oil,
the amount of dissolved gas, and the temperature.
Viscosity (dynamic) is measured in cgs units called
poises (p) or centipoises (cp). Kinematic viscosity,
the ratio of the viscosity in poises to the density of
the fluid, is expressed in stokes or centistokes.
Apparent viscosity is the viscosity of a fluid measured
on an instrument at a given rate of shear. Plastic
viscosity is the viscosity of a fluid that is due to the
amount, size, and type of solids suspended in a fluid.
Funnel viscosity is measured with a Marsh funnel. A
viscometer is used to measure viscosity in the
laboratory and is used to measure the plastic viscosity
and yield point of drilling mud. Crude oil viscosity
is measured with a rolling-ball or capillary viscometer
whereas natural gas viscosity is estimated from the
specific gravity of the gas. The viscosity of the oil
will influence the rate of oil production and the
amount of ultimate recovery of the oil. A drilling mud
has a viscosity of about 15 cp, whereas water at 20C
has a viscosity of 1.005 cp. Crude oil usually has a
viscosity of 1 to 3 cp at reservoir conditions, oilfield
waters have less than 1 cp, and natural gas has about
0.015 cp. vise, vis, or VIS
viscosity-gel viscometer a direct-indicating
viscometer. The viscosity-gel viscometer uses an
electric or hand-crank rotated outer cylinder or rotor
sleeve that revolves at 300 rpm and 600 rpm to measure
apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point, and
gel strength. (V-G meter)
viscosity index a measure of the change of oil
viscosity with temperature. The viscosity index consists
of numbers between 0 and 100. One hundred on
the viscosity index means that the oil does not become
viscous at low temperatures and more fluid at high
temperatures. VI or V.I.
viscosity-reducing additive material that is used
in drilling fluids to reduce viscosity. Viscosity-reducing
additives include lignites, lignosulfonate, phosphates,
tannates, and sodium polyacrylate. They are in contrast
to viscosifier.

557

viscous-fluid pump a type of downhole pump that

is used to lift viscous fluids such as heavy oil. A viscousfluid pump is either a tubing or stationary barrel with
top or bottom holddown. (Circle-A pump)
Visean a global age of geological time that ended
about 340 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Carboniferous.
VISI visible
visible light light with wavelengths between 4007,000 A. Shorter wavelengths than visible are called
ultraviolet, and longer wavelengths are infrared.
vit vitreous
vitreous a luster or reflection off a mineral grain
or rock that is smiliar to glass, vit
vitrinite a maceral group formed by lignified, higherland plant tissues such as leaves, stems, and roots.
Vitrinite comes from the humic-acid fraction of humic
matter. Vitrinite is light orange to dark brown in
transmitted light and grey to yellow in reflected light.
Three types of vitrinite are structured, unstructured,
and detrital. Vitrinite will produce gas with maturation
and is Type III kerogen.
vitrinite reflectance a widely used technique that
measures the reflectance of polished vitrinite in shale
under a reflecting microscope. Increased reflectance
is caused by aromatization of kerogen and loss of
hydrogen. Vitrinite reflectance is used to determine
the maturation of the organic matter and whether
petroleum has been generated. The reflectance (/?o)
is determined by a reflection microscope and the
organic matter is classified as immature, mature, and
post mature. The vitrinite starts with a reflectivity of
0.2% at the surface. The onset of petroleum generation
initiates at 0.5%-0.7% reflectance, depending on the
type of organic matter. At a vitrinite reflectance of
135%, crude oil is cracked into thermal gas.
vitriolic acid sulfuric acid
V/L vapor/liquid ratio
VLF very low frequency
vlv Valve
VM 1) molar volume 2) average velocity
Vm mud velocity
\m!l matrix velocity
VMg gas molar volume
Vjm liquid molar volume
VMP vertically moored platform
Vn or vn vein
Vnlet veinlet
Vo oil volume
V,,,. oil velocity in casing

viscous flow a type of fluid flow in which the

direction of flow remains constant at each point in
the flow with time. Viscous flow is characteristic of
fluid flow through permeable rocks and is in contrast
with turbulent flow, (laminar flow)

Vogel's equation an equation based on a computer

study that is used to evaluate a dissolved-gas drive
reservoir with pressure below the bubblepoint. The
equation is

viscous fluid a fluid in which stress is proportional

to shear rate. Water and crude oil are viscous fluids.
Viscous fluid is in contrast to a non-Newtonian fluid
such as drilling mud. {Newtonian or true fluid)

(<?o) m3 x

% = 1 - 0 . 2 (%A - 0.8
\Pr)

in which qo is oil flow rate in barrels oil per day at

Pup (qo)m3X is maximum oil flow rate in barrels oil
per day at P^ equal to 0, P^ is wellbore flowing

558

VOL or vol vortex-shedding meter

pressure in pounds per square inch, and Pr is static

reservoir pressure in psi.
VOL or vol volume
Vol or vol volcanic
volat volatile
volatile a substance that will evaporate at a relatively
low temperature, volat
volatile oil 1) a crude oil with an initial producing
GOR of 2,000 to 3,300 SCF/STB. The stock tank oil is
colored brown, orange, or green and is usually above
40 APG. Volatile oil has fewer heavy molecules than
black oil, but the dividing line between black and
volatile oil is arbitrary. The producing gas/oil ratio
of volalite oil will increase with time, (high-shrinkage
crude oil) 2) crude oil that has a methane content
of about 55 mol %, a C2 to C6 content of 30 mol %,
and Cy and higher of 15 mol %.
volatility the ease in which a liquid vaporizes. A low
boiling point and high vapor pressure indicate
volatility in a liquid.
Vole or vole volcanic rock
volt a derived unit in System International (SI) for
electric potential that is calculated by W/A. A volt is
a unit of electromotive force or difference in potential.
A potential of 1 V applied to a resistor with one ohm
resistance will cause an electric current of 1 amp to
flow across the resistor. V
voltage a measure of electromotive force or
difference in potential usually measured in volts
voltmeter an instrument used to measure the electric
potential difference between two points in a circuit
in volts
volume flux a volume per unit time
volume meter an instrument that is used to measure
the volume of fluid flow. The volume meter separates
the fluid such as a gas stream into separate volumes
and measures the number of volumes. A volume meter
provides information on the volume rather than the
flow rate. Two common types of volume meters are
a diaphragm meter and a rotary meter. The diaphragm
meter uses two diaphragms in the meter case that
are alternately filled and emptied to measure the gas
volume. It is used for low volumes of clean, dry gas
and is the type of meter used in home gas meters.
The rotary meter uses a lobed impeller or rotating
vanes to measure the gas. The lobed impeller has
two figure-8 lobes positioned at 90 from one another.
The rotating vane type uses a rotating idler and rotating
valves or pistons. The rotary meters are used to
measure high volumes of gas and can be used with
high pressures. (PD meter, positive displacement
flowmeter, or volumeter)
volume tank a small cylinder on a small diameter,
natural gas line leading to a gas engine on a lease. A
volume tank is located near the gas engine and is
designed to provide a steady flow of gas to the engine
and to trap any water or condensate from the gas.
volumeter see volume meter
volumetric balancing a method in which an
underproduced party in a gas well can be compensated
for underage in a gas balancing agreement by taking
more than that party's share of gas at a future date.

The other method is cash balancing, (in-kind

balancing)
volumetric drive see dissolved-gas drive
volumetric efficiency the volume of fluids pumped
divided by the volume of the fluid displaced by the
pistons, rotors, screws, or other displacement devices
in a pump. In a reciprocating gas compressor,
volumetric efficiency is equal to the volume of the
gas drawn into the cylinder corrected for suction
temperature and pressure divided by the volume of
piston displacement. Volumetric efficiency is usually
expressed as a percentage.
volumetric method an equation used to calculate
the reserves of an oil well reservoir. It states:
recoverable stock tank barrels =
A x t x 7,758 x <>
j x So x R .
in which A = area of
FVF
reservoir drained, t = net thickness of pay, <>
| =
porosity of reservoir rock, So = oil saturation, R =
recovery factor, and FVF formation volume factor.
The reservoir area is usually expressed in acre feet.
{saturation method)
volumetric prover an instrument used for meter
proving. A volumetric prover consists of a vessel of
known volume. It is put in line downstream from
the meter to be tested and the true volume of fluid
is compared to the indicated volume of fluid from
the tested meter to calculate a meter factor. The other
meter-proving methods are master meter and
displacement-type meter.
volumetric sweep the fraction of the total reservoir
volume within a waterflood or enhanced oil recoveryprocess pattern that is effectively contacted by the
injected fluids
voluntary pooling the voluntary combination of
small tracts of fractional interests in mineral rights
in order to drill a well. This is usually done to comply
with well spacing regulations and to avoid drilling
more less-economical wells.
voluntary unitization the voluntary combination
of mineral rights on large tracts on a producing
reservoir to coordinate pressure maintenance, water
flood, enhanced oil recovery, or any other methods
that will maximize the amount of ultimate production
from that reservoir
volute a spiral passage downstream from an impeller
that converts velocity energy into static pressure
vortex breaker two metal bars that are located above
the liquid outlet in a separator. The vortex breaker
is used to prevent a vortex from forming and the
gas escaping from the separator through that outlet.
vortex finder a hollow cylinder that extends a short
distance down into the top of a hydrocyclone such
as desander or desilter. A vortex finder forms the
overflow outlet.
vortex-shedding meter a device that is used to
measure the velocity of fluid flow. A vortex-shedding
meter has a nonstreamlined body in the fluid flow
that forms eddy currents or vorticies. The differential
pressure formed by the vorticies that form and
dissipate are measured by a piezoelectric crystal, and
the pulses are counted. The number and speed of
the vorticies are related to the fluid velocity. The

VP
frequency of the vorticies is linearly proportional to
the velocity of the fluid. A vortex-shedding meter has
no moving parts.
VP vapor pressure
VP P-wave velocity
V p pore volume
V.P.S. very poor sample
VPSRT very poorly sorted
VR relative volume
v.r. very rare
VRF volcanic rock fragment
VRMS root-mean-square value
Vims root-mean-square velocity
vrtb vertebrate
vrtl vertical
VRU 1) vapor recovery unit 2) vertical reference unit
vrv varve
vrrd varved
Vs S-wave velocity
V/S velocity survey
V9 1) solid volume 2) shear wave velocity
vs versus
VSD variable-speed drive
VSFR viso-frac
VSGCM very slightly gas-cut mud
Vgh shale content or fraction
Vsl slippage velocity
v-sli very slightly

559

VSP 1) very slightly porous 2) vertical seismic

profiling
VSSG very slight show of gas
VSSO very slight show of oil
VST stock tank volume
V, 1) total volume 2) volume of fluid in turbulent
flow
V2 subweathering velocity
VUG 1) vuggy 2) vugular
Vug or vug vuggy
vug a large, roughly spherical pore. Vugs are
commonly, but not always, formed by solution of a
moldic pore and occur in carbonates, (bug hole)
vuggy or vugular a sedimentary rock that has many
vugs. VUG, Vug, or vug
vugular porosity void space in a rock that is
composed of large, roughly spherical pores
V/V volume to volume
WG variable velocity gain
WI variable voltage inverter
WS variable velocity stack
Vw water volume
V^ apparent water volume
Vwc water velocity in casing
V-window the opening in a derrick (derrick window)
with the shape of an inverted V that is located opposite
the drawworks and above the pipe rack on a drilling
rig. The V-window is used to pull drillpipe or casing
from the pipe racks onto the drill floor. (V-door)
VWSRT very well sorted
Yxa apparent filtrate volume

560

W walking-beam pumping unit

w
W 1) west 2) work 3) wackestone 4) weight on bit
(axial load) 5) watt 6) initial water in place 7) water
or moisture content 8) power
w 1) watt 2) water 3) well conditions 4) mass flow
rate 5) west
w/ with
WA west addition
wa apparent wellbore
Wa weight in air
wacke 1) a dirty sandstone with angular and unsorted
sediments ranging from rock particles to clay matrix
2) see graywacke

occurs after a string of casing has been run into the

well and is suspended from the elevators while being
cemented. The time involved in waiting on cement
depends on a) the type of cement job, b) depth, c)
bottomhole temperature, and d) cement strength
needed and can be determined by federal, state, or
local regulations. Waiting on cement can be as short
as 4-6 hours. During waiting on cement, the rig floor
is washed, and the cementing equipment is dismantled
and moved out. (cement time) WOC
walk 1) the turning of a rotating bit into the side of
the wellbore causing a change in the well direction.
Roller-cone bits with offset have a right-handed walk
tendency. Turbine drilling has a left-handed walk
tendency. 2) the deviation of a wellbore from vertical

DERRICK

ENGINE

wackestone

wackestone a limestone with significant amounts of

large (sand-sized) particles such as shell fragments
or oolites surrounded and supported by fine-grained
particles (mud supported) of limestone mud or
micrite. A wackestone does not have good original
porosity. Wkst or W
wadi a steam bed, channel, or steep ravine in a desert
environment
wafer valve a type of quick opening valve that uses
a disk or wafer on a pivot in a chamber to open
and close. The wafer valve is used to turn the flow
on and off. (butterfly or fishtail valve)
WAG water-alternating-gas
WAG process an enhanced oil recovery process in
which alternating slugs of water and gas are pumped
down an injection well
wait-and-weigh method a method of well control
in which heavier kill mud is circulated while a constant
downhole pressure is maintained by pressure relief
through a choke. The waiting time is for preparation
of the kill mud. One circulation is used to remove
the kick fluids from the well. The wait-and-weigh
method is in contrast to the driller's method.
waiting on cement to suspend drilling operations
while cement in a well is setting. Waiting on cement

walking beam (cable tool drilling rig)

walking beam 1) the beam on a pumping unit that

rocks up and down on center or saddle bearings
mounted on the Samson post. One side of the walking
beam is attached to the die pitman arms by the
equalizer and the other side of the beam has a
horsehead and bridal to support the sucker-rod string.
The walking beam is made of steel and is classified
by the American Petroleum Institute according to
maximum stress and other design features, (rocking
beam) 2) a wood beam that pivots on the Samson
post of a cable tool drilling rig to transfer motion
from a crank on the band wheel to the drilling line.
walking-beam pumping unit artificial lift
equipment that uses a walking beam to raise and lower
a sucker-rod string in the well to activate a
reciprocating piston-plunger pump to lift the oil. The
five major parts of the walking beam pumping unit
are a) structural members, b) bearings, c)
counterbalance, d) gear or speed reducer, and e)
prime mover. The walking beam pivots up and down
on a center bearing supported by the Samson post
to provide a reciprocating action with a stroke between
12 and 240 in. for the downhole pump. The walking

walking-beam stirrup warm a connection

fc,.
walking beam pumping unit

beam is connected to the gear reducer and prime

mover with two pitmen and an equalizer. The prime
mover is either an electric or internal combustion
motor. The sucker-rod string and polished rod are
attached to the horsehead end of the walking beam
with a bridal and carrier bar. Three types of walkingbeam pumping units include crank counterbalanced,
beam balanced, and air balanced. A Class I lever
pumping system has the speed reducer rear mounted
and the fulcrum at midbeam. A Class III lever pumping
system has the speed reducer front mounted and the
fulcrum at the rear of the beam. The air balanced
and Lufkin Mark II are this type. The pumping unit
weights between 2,000-6,000 lbs. Walking beam
pumping units are classified by the American
Petroleum Institute by gear reducer torque capacity,
unit structural capacity, and maximum stroke length.
(beam pumping or rocking-beam pumping unit)
walking-beam stirrup the attachment of the
walking beam to the pitman on a beam pumping unit
or cable-tool rig
walk of the hole the azimuth direction of a crooked
well, (hole walk)
walk to the right tendency of a well to be deflected
from left to right because of the clockwise rotation
of the bit (right-handed walk)
walkway a long platform located near the top of a
series of tanks or connecting installations, (catwalk)
wall cake the solid particles in drilling mud
(primarily clay minerals) that are plastered to the sides
of the well by the circulating mud during drilling.
The liquid that goes into the formation is called filtrate.
The volume of the filtrate and the thickness of the
wall cake can be determined in the laboratory by a
filter press. The thickness of the wall cake is measured
in V32 in. and described as soft, firm, or tough, (filter
or mud cake)
wall cleaner, scraper, or scratcher see wall scraper
or scratcher
wall hook or wall hook guide a hook-shaped tool
that is part of the washover shoe on a fishing operation.
A wall hook is used to position the top of the fish
into the overshot fishing tool when the fish is not
aligned with the well. A wall hook is also used with
knuckle or bent joints and bent subs.
wall-hook packer a type of packer uned in a cased
hole that has friction blocks or drag springs and slips
with teeth pointing downward. The wall-hook packer

561

is lowered into a well on a drillstring or tubing. The

string is manipulated to release a J-slot and seat the
packer when weight is applied. A wall-hook packer
can be disengaged by reversing the rotation, (hookwall packer)
wall log a microresistivity wireline well log
wall off a technique used in fishing operations in
which junk pieces are pushed and buried in the
formation surrounding the wellbore by a mill
wall over-cone packer test an open hole drillstem
test used on a cored hole. A tapered packer without
an anchor pipe, called a wallover-cone packer, is used
to seal the core section for testing.
wall rock the impermeable rock barrier to the sides
of a petroleum reservoir

wall scratcher

wall scraper or scratcher a ring (reciprocating) or

strip (rotating) of metal wires that are attached to
the casing string as it is run in the hole. Normal
circulation is maintained during scratching as the wall
scratchers are either moved up and down
(reciprocating) or turned (rotating) to scrape the filter
cake off the wellbore in preparation for a cement
job. scraper, scratcher or wall cleaner
wall sticking the adhesion of the drillstring to the
well walls due to the difference in the hydrostatic
pressure of the circulating drilling mud in the well
and the formation pressure at that level. The condition
is called stuck pipe, and the vertical movement of
the drillstring in the well is restricted but circulation
can maintained. Wall sticking is aggravated by
permeable formations and is more frequent when
the drillstring is left motionless in the well for a period
of time. Freeing the stuck pipe can be accomplished
by a) reducing the hydrostatic pressure in the well,
b) the use of a spotting fluid, or c) a back-off operation.
The spotting or releasing fluid is made of diesel oil
with special additives or an oil mud that is used to
dissolve the mud cake and equalize the pressure.
Dissolving agents such as hydrochloric acid can be
used for limestones. The soaking process takes 6-12
hours before the assembly is worked loose. Spiralgrooved pipe can be used to reduce the contact
between the drillstring and the well walls to alleviate
differential pipe sticking, (differential pipe or pressure
sticking)
wall stuck pipe drillpipe that is stuck against the
side of the wellbore by differential pressure sticking
wantage rod a gauge rod
WAR water-to-air ratio
warm a connection to strike a collar or threaded

562

warm shutdown water-base drilling mud

connection with a hammer to loosen it. (heat or whip

a connection)
warm shutdown the ceasing of production from a
production facility with continued maintenance of
equipment so that the facility can be easily restarted.
A warm shutdown can be due to a fall in the price
of oil and its impact on a marginally profitable facility.
warm stacking the storage of a drilling rig with a
small crew maintaining the rig. Warm stacking is in
contrast to cold stacking.
warm up hammering the coupling on a pipe to
loosen the threaded connection
warranty a guarantee
warranty clause a provision in an oil and gas lease
in which the lessor guarantees that the title to the
land is without defect
warrantee contract a gas contract in which the
producer delivers a specific amount of gas but there
is no specifications as to the field of origin for the
gas
wash to clean natural gas by running it through or
over a liquid
wash around one circulating mud cycle in a well
Washburn-Bunting method a technique used to
determine the porosity of a sample such as a core.
The apparatus consists of a sample chamber with a
calibrated tube on top. The chamber is connected
to a mercury chamber and the sample floats on the
mercury in the sample chamber. As the mercury drops
in the chamber, gas in the pores of the sample expands
and displaces mercury in the calibrated tube in
proportion to the porosity of the sample.
washed cuttings sampled well cuttings that have
washed off to remove drilling mud prior to
examination
washer a device that is run on the bottom of a tubing
string and is used to clean perforations in a well
washers and spacers fluids that are circulated down
the well before a cement job. Spacers are high viscosity
and high-density fluids designed to displace the
drilling mud in the well. Washers are lighter fluids
designed to clean the rock sides of the wellbore to
provide a better bond for the cement, (spacers and
washers)

washing demagnetizing a substance

washing in to clean a well of drilling mud by
circulating salt water or oil
wash oil the oil used to absorb liquid hydrocarbons
from a gas stream
wash out to remove salt from oil separated from
an emulsion using fresh water
washout 1) the termination of overriding royalty or
other working interest share when the lease is
surrendered by a sublessee or assignee. A washout
can be prevented by an extension and renewal clause
in the lease. 2) the excessive erosion and enlargement
of a wellbore by drilling mud 3) damage on a drillstring
where fluids flow through the walls of the pipe.
Washout is caused by a fatigue or corrosion crack
or worn or damaged threads. On a drillstring, this
usually occurs at a connection, and the drilling mud
flows from the inside of the pipe to the annulus.

washover a technique used to free stuck drillpipe

in the well. A large-diameter pipe (wash pipe) is
lowered down the well over the stuck pipe. Drilling
mud is pumped down the wash pipe to wash away
the debris around the stuck pipe. WO
washover back-off connector tool a fishing tool
that allows washover, back off, and pulling a fish out
of a well in one operation
washover cutter a fishing tool that is lowered on
a fishing string and run over stuck pipe. Cutting knives
extend out from the inside to cut the pipe as the
tool is rotated.
washover ran a fan-shaped deposit of sand deposited
by a storm landward of a beach
washover pipe or washpipe a fishing tool that uses
a circulating fluid to flush out the sides of a fish in a
well. A washover pipe consists of a washover shoe
on a washpipe which is a length of high-strength casing
with flush joint connections. The washover pipe is
run down the hole on a drillstring. Circulating drilling
muds clear the debris from around stuck pipe or a
fish in the well. Jars and safety releases are often
attached above the washover pipe. A releasable
overshot, washover back-off connector, or drill-collar
spear can be used in the washover pipe assembly to
retrieve the fish after the washover operation. In other
cases, the washover pipe is run back up the hole
and a fishing tool is used. WP, WSHP, or WASP
wash pipe or washpipe 1) a short pipe in the swivel
through which circulating drilling mud flows from
the gooseneck into the kelly and drillstring. The
washpipe is surrounded by the washpipe stuffing box
containing packing and packing rings. The washpipe
commonly has a bore of 3 in., but a smaller 2V4-in.
bore is also available. WP or WSHP 2) the channel
in a tool where the drilling mud flows
wash tank a large-diameter gravity separator that is
used on a lease to separate oil and free water. The
wash tank is a metal tank equipped with a spreader,
oil draw-off, level control, and a low-pressure
separator. The oil flows from the wells into the lowpressure separator on the top of the wash tank to
remove the natural gas. The oil then flows to the
bottom of the wash tank where a spreader disperses
the oil out, causing the oil to rise by buoyancy through
the water. The oil is then drawn off the top of the
water. The older types of wash tanks were made of
wood. A wash tank is also called a settling tank.
waste-water lease a lease for land to be used for a
saltwater disposal well
wasting asset a mineral asset, such as oil and gas,
that is not renewable and is used up when it is
produced. A wasting asset is in contrast to a renewable
asset such as timber.
water-back to add water to drilling mud to readjust
the mud weight and solid content
water-base drilling mud drilling mud with water
as the fluid continuous phase. The water can vary
from fresh water (fresh water-base) to low solids
brines (saltwater-base). Salts such as sodium chloride,
calcium chloride, or potassium chloride can be added
to the water. The reactive fraction includes bentonite
or attapulgite. The inert fraction can include sand,
barite, chert, galena, or limestone. Types of water-

water bath water-finding rule

base drilling mud include a) clear water, b) native
mud, c) calcium mud, d) lignosulphate mud, e) KC1/
polymer mud, and f) salt-saturated mud. Water-base
drilling "mud is the most common drilling mud.
WBMUD

water bath the bottom portion of a vertical treater

which is fed produced fluids by a downcomer to gravity
separate fluids before the firetube heats the emulsion
to separate the oil from water (free-water orfreewater
knockout sector)
water block the reduction of formation permeability
caused by the invasion of water into the pores causing
capillary blocking of pore throats by surface tension
and/or clay swelling. Waterblock can be caused by
mud filtrate in the formation adjacent to the wellbore.
It occurs most often in low pressure and permeability
reservoirs. The Jarmin effect is an old term for
waterblock.
water bottom the bottom of an oil storage tank
water brake a hydraulic apparatus that is located
on the drum shaft of a drilling rig and takes part of
the weight of a string being lowered in a well
water-break detector a device that is attached to a
hydrophone streamer used in a marine seismic survey.
The water-break detector is used to measure the
distance between the near hydrophone subarray and
the source array.
water breakthrough the first appearance of water
from an injection well in a producing well during a
waterflood. Once the water breakthrough occurs, the
injected water will flow through the zone between
the injection and producing well and will bypass oil
in other zones.
water-cement ratio the weight of water divided by
the weight of cement in a slurry. W/C
water coning the drawing of underlying waters or
an oil/water contact up into an oil reservoir in the
shape of a cone. Water coning is caused by too rapid
production, (coning)
watercourses or water courses passages for the
circulating fluid through a roller-cone bit. The regular
or conventional watercourses were the first type
developed. They direct the drilling fluid through the
center of the bit and onto the cutters to clean both
the cutters and the hole. The nozzle velocities are
in the range of 100-500 ft/sec. Bit balling, cone erosion,
and poor performance are problems with this type
of watercourse. Jet water courses are more commonly
used today. The drilling fluid is diverted down the
center of the bit to the jet nozzles that are located
on the periphery of the bit. Water courses clean the
hole and even help cut the hole.
water cushion a slug of water. The water cushion
during a production test is the water load in the
drillpipe that retards fill-up. A water cushion is used
in perforating to control the pressure differential
between the well and formation. WC
water cut 1) the fraction of water volume produced
from a well 2) a fluid diluted with water. WC
water-cut meter or watercutmeter a throughtubing production log that measures the amount of
water in a fluid. The meter is sensitive to the dielectric
constants of the fluid. Hydrocarbons have dielectric
constants between two and six, whereas water is 80.

563

water-cut paste a substance that turns color on

contact with water. Water-cut paste is used on a gauge
bob or weight to measure the height of free water
below the crude oil on the bottom of a stock tank.
water dew-point the temperature at which water
will condense from a gas
water dip the depth of free water located above the
strike plate on the bottom of a crude-oil storage tank
water displacement a method used to take a gas
sample for analysis. The gas displaces the water that
fills the sample container.

PRODUCTION

ULTIMATE
(PRIMARY

PRODUCTION
RECOVERY)

water drive

water drive a type of reservoir energy in which the

pressure of water beneath an oil reservoir forces the
oil into the wells. Water drive is a very efficient drive
mechanism and can often produce 60%-70% of the
oil. The reservoir pressure remains at or near original
pressure during production until the wells water out.
water-drive pool an oilfield with a water drive
supplying the energy to cause the oil to flow through
the reservoir rock and into wells
watered out an oil and/or gas well that now produces
large amounts of water that make oil and/or gas
production unprofitable. Watered out often occurs
in a water-drive reservoir. Watered out can also be
caused by coning or water breakthrough from an
injection well to a producing well in a waterflood.
(gone to water)
water encroachment water flowing into an oil or
gas zone as the oil or gas is produced
water encroachment map a map that shows the
percentage of water produced and the location of
wells that have watered out. A water encroachment
map is used to show the advance of water
encroachment in a water-drive reservoir and is often
made at regular time intervals.
water entry survey the use of a a) temperature log,
b) radioactive tracer log, or c) conditioning survey
to locate water flowing into a well
water finder see water-finding rule
water-finding paper a test paper that is sensitive
to water and is used to gauge the height of water in
an oil storage tank
water-finding rule a graduated metal rod with
water-sensitive paper or paste that is discolored by
water. A water finding rule is used to measure the
depth of free water in a crude-oil storage tank, (water
finder)

564

water flood or waterflood water injection

o o oo

o | - o - + - O - + - O A

H-O--f-O(--O-I--O-H

I
I

I
A

o6

direct line drive

staggered line drive

A
I
I
I
A
circle flood

A
I
|
I
A

five-spot
seven-spot
waterflood patterns

water flood or waterflood the field, reservoir, and/

or equipment which is involved in a waterflooding
project. WF
waterflooding an engineering method used to
produce more oil from a reservoir after the oil is
produced from its natural reservoir drive. Water is
pumped down injection wells which either can be
drilled for that purpose or converted from producing
wells. The injected water displaces the oil in the
reservoir and drives it to producing wells. A waterflood
can be initiated either before or after primary
production from the natural reservoir drive has been
completed. A five-spot pattern is often the most
effective type of waterflood. Some other patterns are
dump, direct-line drive, staggered-line drive, seven
spot, and circle. Water for flooding must be purified
before injection. Suspended fine solids can plug the
producing formation and are removed by filtration.
Organic matter and bacteria can produce slimes and
are neutralized by biocides. Oxygen can cause
bacterial grawth and corrosion and is removed by
de-aeratio/i and the use of an oxygen scavenger such
as sodium sulfite. (water injection)
waterflood kick the first increased production on
a waterflood project due to the injection of water. At
first, the injected water compresses and redissolves
the gas in the pores of the reservoir rock back into
the oil. After this, the oil can be moved by the injected
water toward producing wells to produced the kick.
waterflood mobility ratio the ratio of mobility of
injected water to the mobility of the oil being displaced
during a waterflood
waterflood residual or waterflood residual oil
saturation the oil saturation remaining in the pores
of the reservoir rock after waterflooding
water flush an old term for circulating water on
an early rotary drilling rig
water formation volume factor the change in
volume of oilfield brine between reservoir and surface

conditions. The water formation volume factor is rarely

greater than 1.06.
waterfrac a common hydraulic fracturing technique
using fresh or saltwater as the frac fluid. Waterfrac
was originally developed for gas wells but is also used
in oil wells. The water has good pumpability and is
not combustible. Gelling and fluid loss agents are
often added to the water. WFR
water gun a marine seismic source that is similar
to an air gun and injects suddenly a volume of water
through ports in the gun. The water is driven by a
ram piston that is propelled by compressed air.
Cavitation causes an implosion with a pulse that is
very reproducible and does not have a bubble effect.
water haul an unsuccessful fishing attempt in a well
water hauler a person or service company who is
contracted to transport saltwater brine from producing
wells to a disposal site, (saltwater hauler)
water hit the sound that a water slug makes when
it strikes the Christmas tree on a well as the well
unloads water
water holdup the volume fraction of water in a well
at a given instant of time. ywater
water hole a dry hole
water influx reservoir an oil or gas reservoir in
which the flow of water into the reservoir from the
sides and bottom to replace produced fluids helps
maintain the reservoir pressure during production
watering-back a method of diluting drilling muds
that have been made heavier with drilled solids. Liquid
additions are made to the drilling mud in the tanks
after they have passed through the solid-control
equipment.
water injection 1) see waterflooding 2) a type of
air drilling with water added to the well to prevent
sluffing or caving. Water injection is used in drilling
dry, unconsolidated sands.

water-in-oil emulsion water wettability index

water-in-oil emulsion a stable mixture of water
and oil in which oil is the continuous phase, and
droplets of water (the discontinuous phase) are
suspended in the oil. A water-in-oil emulsion is more
common than an oil-in-water emulsion. A heatertreater is often used to separate the emulsion. WIOE
or WO
water jet A high-pressure nozzle used to direct a
stream of water onto the sides and bottom of a vessel
to remove sediments, (sand jet)
water knockout see separator
water leg a pipe system that controls the flow of
water and the oil/water interface level in a treater or
tank. A vertical loop of piping is adjusted in height
to accomplish this, (grasshopper or water siphon)
water line the oil/water contact in a reservoir
water loss a property of water-base drilling mud to
lose water (filtrate) into permeable formations as a
filter cake of mud is deposited on the sides of the
wellbore. Water loss is measured in the laboratory
by passing the water-base drilling mud through a filter
cell in a filter press in a filtration test. WL
water-loss additive a drilling-mud additive used to
decrease water loss. Water-loss additives include
bentonite, emulsified oil, dispersants, CMC, and starch.
watermelon 1) a term used to describe the shape
of a tool. The tool is similar in shape to a watermelon
or football: wide in the middle and narrower at both
ends. 2) a weight used on a rod line
water of hydration water that is chemically
combined in a crystalline compound. Water of
hydration can be liberated by heating.
water/oil ratio the number of barrels of water
divided by the number of stock-tank barrels of oil
that a well produces. WOR
water outlet the outlet on a gun barrel separator
for water from an emulsion. It has a grasshopper,
outside siphon, or water leg attached to it.
water plane the water level on the columns of a
semisubmersible when it is at working draft
water pressure see fluid pressure
water-pressure maintenance an improved oil
recovery method in which water, usually produced
water, is reinjected into the reservoir to maintain
formation pressure and increase hydrocarbon
recovery
water sand a driller's term for clean and bright
sandstone well cuttings brought up in the drilling
mud
water saturation the fraction or percentage of the
pore volume that is occupied by formation water.
The remainder of the pore space is occupied by oil
and/or gas.
water sensitive formation a formation in which
water can cause reduced permeability.
Montmorillonite swelling is a common cause.
water shut-off the cementing of water-bearing
formations in a well
water siphon a pipe system that controls the flow
of water and the oil/water interface level in a treater.
A vertical loop of piping is adjusted in height to
accomplish this, (water leg or grasshopper)

565

water/solids ratio the weight of water divided by

the weight of the total solids in a slurry
water string a length of casing that is used to shut
off water from subsurface formations during the
drilling of a well

PORES - AIR
WATER

TABLE

PORES - W A T E R

water table

water table (off rotary drilling rig chart)

water table 1) the subsurface level below which the

pores in the soil and rocks are saturated (filled) with
water. The water table is overlain by the vadose zone
and underlain by the phreatic zone or zone of
saturation. The water table elevation can vary with
seasons. Maximum limestone solution occurs at the
water table. 2) the hole in the hull of a drillship or
semisubmersible through which the drilling occurs,
and the drillstring and marine riser pass into the sea.
The water table is located at the center of gravity of
a floating rig and is generally 20-25 ft in diameter.
(moonpool or drillwell) 3) the opening in the crow's
nest where the crown block fits into the top of the
derrick on a drilling rig. The opening ranges from 5
ft 6 in. to 7 ft 6 in. in width.
water washing a natural process in which water
flowing by crude oil, either in the subsurface or on
the surface, dissolves and removes some of the lighter
fractions from the oil leaving the heavier fractions
such as asphalt
water wash process the sweetening of natural gas
by passing the sour gas through a contactor with water
(aquasorption)
water-wet rock a porous rock in which water is
the wetting fluid. A rock containing water and oil is
considered to be water wet if the contact angle of
the water is less than 70. The rock is considered to
be neutral if the angle is between 70-110 and oil
wet if the water contact angle is greater than 110.
Most sandstones are water wet, whereas most
carbonates are neutral or oil wet.
water wettability index a core test based on the
observation that a strongly wetting fluid will
spontaneously imbibe until the residual saturation of
the nonwetting fluid is obtained. The core is flushed
with water to remove gas and residual oil in
preparation for the test. The core is then placed in

566

watt wear brushing

an imbibition tube under oil. The water displaced

by oil is measured (A). The core is then flushed with
oil, and the water displaced is measured (B). The
sample is then placed in the imbibition tube under
water. The oil displaced by spontaneous water
imbibition is measured (C). The core is then flushed
with water, and the oil displaced is measured (D).
The water wettability index is equal to c . D- The
oil wettabililty index is equal to
watt a derived unit in System International (SI) for
electrical power. A watt is calculated by Joules divided
by seconds 0/s). A watt is equal to 1 J/s, 0.746 hp,
and 1 amp x IV. W or w
wave a disturbance that passes either through the
body (body wave) or on the surface (surface wave)
of a substance with no resulting net movement of
the material. Body waves are either P-waves
(compressional) or S-waves (transverse). Some
common types of surface waves are Rayleigh and Love
waves. A wave can be described by period, wavelength,
and height. P-waves are used in conventional seismic
exploration.
wave amplitude the displacement between the crest
and null point (halfway between the crest and trough)
of a wave. Wave amplitude is one-half of wave height.
wave breaker vertical baffles in a horizontal
separator. The wave breakers are oriented
perpendicular to the fluid flow and cross the gas/liquid
interface.
waveform a plot of wave motions versus time
wave frequency the number of waves that pass a
point during a specific interval of time. Wave frequency
is the inverse of wave period.
wavefront the interface during wave propagation
between particles at rest and particles in motion
wave guide effect a phenomenon in which a seismic
wave called a channel wave is trapped in a subsurface
rock layer that is bounded by reflectors having
reflectivities approaching unity, (normal mode
propagation)
wave height the displacement between the crest and
a successive trough on a wave. Wave height is twice
the wave amplitude.
wave length or wavelength the distance, measured
perpendicular to the wavefront, between successive
similar points on the waves, such as crests or troughs.
wavelet a pulse of VA to 2 cycles that is the basic
response in seismic exploration. The wavelet lasts 50100 ms and has polarity and amplitude. It is the result
of convolution by the earth of the seismic impulse.
A wavelet can be zero minimum phase.
wavelet inversion the conversion of a peak to a
trough or visa versa on a wavelet by a filter
wavelet processing a process that undoes the effect
of waves passing through a filter. In seismic
exploration, wavelet processing removes the changes
in the wave form or seismic energy made by the
passage of the seismic wave through the subsurface
rocks. Wavelet processing recompresses the sound
and results in clearer reflections and suppression of
multiples, (deconvolution)

wavenumber the number of wave cycles per unit

distance. The wavenumber is equal to 1/wavelength.
wave period the time that it takes a wave to make
one complete cycle. Wave period is the time that it
takes two successive wave crests to pass a point and
is the inverse of wave frequency.
wave ray a curve that is perpendicular to all points
on the wave crests of a refraction diagram.
(orthogonal)
wave surface the surface of wave propagation along
which all wave movements are in phase
wave train several cycles of a wave
wave train log an acoustic log that displays the
acoustic wave either in an a) intensity modulated-time
mode or an b) amplitude-time mode
wax 1) solid paraffins removed by chilling, dewaxing,
or de-oiling. The heavier paraffins (C17+) in a paraffinbased crude oil separate upon cooling and accumulate
on the inside of tubing and flowlines, thereby
restricting flow. Wax is not affected by common
reagents such as acids and oxidizers. (paraffin) 2)
the lipid fraction of organic matter that is composed
of long chain (C16 to C36) normal alkanes and alcohols
3) native bitumen mineral wax such as ozocerite.
wax bearing a Hempel distillation key fraaion with
a cloud point above 5 F
wax free a Hempel distillation key fraction with a
cloud point below 5 F
wax inhibitor an additive used to lower the pour
point of crude oil. The inhibitor is usually polymeric.
The most commonly used is ethyl-vinyl acetate (EVA)
copolymers along with polyalkyl acrylates,
methacylates, and low molecular weight polyethylene
waxes.
WB water blanket
Wb weber
Wb buoyant weight
WBIH went back in hole
WBMUD water-base mud
WC 1) wildcat 2) watercut 3) water cushion
Wc weight of counterweight
W/C water-cement ratio
WCC weighted cost of capital
WCM water-cut mud
WCO water-cut oil
WCST water cushion to surface
WD 1) water depth 2) water disposal well
Wd wood
Wd cuttings density
WDS wavelength-dispersive spectrometer
WE welded ends
We cumulative water encroachment
weak point a deliberate point of weakness in a
connector or cable that is designed to break before
the survey cable and leave the fishing neck in a position
to be fished
wear bushing a ring-shaped device that is placed
inside a wellhead to act as a bit guide and protect

wear knot weight in air

the top of the casing from abrasion when the drill
bit is run in the hole. The wear bushing must be
removed when a casing string is run.
wear knot a contact pad that is used on drillpipe
in a deviated well to distribute the bending load on
the pipe and prevent contact of the pipe with the
well wall
wear pad a section of rubber-like material that is
attached to subs such as stabilizers and is designed
to reduce wall contact. The wear pads can be
replaceable.
wear sleeve a cylinder that can be attached to the
middle of a joint of pipe to minimize pipe-wall contact
with the well walls
weathered crude crude oil that has lost its volatiles
weathering 1) the physical and chemical breakdown
of rocks 2) the near-surface, low-velocity layer in
seismic exploration. Weathering velocities are about
2,000 ft/sec compared to subweathering velocities of
about 5,000 ft/sec, (low-velocity layer) Wx
weathering correction the time correction that is
applied to reflection and refraction seismic data to
compensate for the weathered or low-velocity layer
on the surface of the earth. Uphole shooting or other
calculations are often used to make the correction.
weathering map a map used in seismic exploration
that shows the thickness of the low-velocity layer
weathering shot the detonation of a small seismic
shot in the near-surface, weathering or low-velocity
layer (LVL) to determine the characteristics of that
layer for seismic refraction (poop or short shot)
weathering velocity the velocity of a seismic P-wave
through the weathering or low-velocity zone on the
surface of the earth. Weathering velocity is about 2,000
ft/sec.
weather window a period of relatively good weather
between bad weather periods. A weather window can
be either short term such as between storms or longer
term such as the summer season. Construction and
drilling in offshore and hostile environments is
scheduled during weather windows.
weber a derived unit in Systems International (SI)
for magnetic flux. It is calculated by volts times seconds
(V X s). A weber is one joule/ampere. Wb
WeCTOGA West Central Texas Oil and Gas
Association

wedge out

567

wedge-out 1) the form of a rock layer that decreases

in thickness laterally until it becomes zero 2) the
disappearance of a rock layer in the shape of a wedge
laterally into another rock layer
wedge-planar crossbeds layering in sandstones
deposited in dunes. The crossbed layers are up to
36 from horizontal (the angle of repose in dry sand)
when deposited and are bounded on the top and
bottom by planar surfaces that form wedges.
wedges see sips
weeping a rock that yields water
weeping core a fresh core sample in which crude
oil is coming out of the pores. The weeping is due
primarily to expansion of solution-gas bubbles in the
oil as the core was brought to the surface, (bleeding
core)
weevil 1) see boll weevil 2) the lubricator on a rock
bit
weevil-proof tools or equipment that are easy to
use or assemble
weigh mud to measure the weight of drilling mud.
The weighing is done with mud scales.
weight 1) the gravitational force acting on a body.
Weight is measured in force units such as pounds,
kilograms, and newtons. On a drilling rig, tubular
weight can be either a) weight in air or b) submerged
or effective weight. Nominal weight is calculated
weight. Weight is not the same as mass. 2) the density
of a drilling mud. Mud weight is usually expressed
as pounds per gallon (lb/gal), pounds per cubic feet
(lb/ft3), or pounds per square inch (psi) hydrostatic
pressure per 1,000 ft of depth. Normal drilling mud
has a weight of 9-10 lb/gal, and heavy drilling mud
often weighs 15-20 lb/gal.
weight bars round steel rods that can be filled with
lead and are used to give weight to a wireline-tool
string and to jarring operations. The bar has a pin
connection and fishing neck on the upper end and
a box connection on the bottom. Weight bars come
in lengths of 2, 3, and 5 ft and have outer diameters
of 3A VA, VA, and 1% in. (wireline stems)
weight drop a method of dropping a flat weight to
generate a seismic impulse. The weight is immediately
raised after dropping to avoid a bounce. Battleship
armour plate is often used. The weight is located in
the back of a truck and has chains hanging from it
as a warning. Weight drop is used primarily in the
desert.
weighted array an arrangement of geophones used
in seismic exploration over an area. The geophones
make unequal contributions for different parts of the
area.
weighted cement a cement that contains an additive
such as hematite or barite to increase density
weighted cost of capital the estimated return by
interest or dividends for a company. WCC
weight factor a number that is multiplied by the
number of face stones on a diamond rotary coring
bit to determine the recommended weight on the
core bit during coring. K
weight in air the weight of an object weighed in
air in contrast to submerged or effective weight

568

weight indicator wellbore farmout

weight indicator 1) a gauge on the driller's console

on the derrick floor that shows hook load and weighton-bit. A weight sensor, usually a pressure transducer
or a sensitive load cell, is used on every drilling rig.
The weight indicator has a pointer for both hook
load and weight-on-bit and has reversible face plates
to use with different drilling lines and arrangements.
2) the instrument or weight sensor used to measure
the weight hanging from the traveling block on a
drilling rig. The weight indicator can be a) attached
to the traveling block to directly measure the hook
load, b) attached to the dead line and use a bend in
the line to measure tension on the line, or c) a pressure
transformer and indicating gauge connected with
hydraulic hose. 3) an instrument used in wireline
operations to show the weight on the wireline. Weight
indicators are mechanical, hydraulic, and electric and
are incorporated into or attached to a measuring
device. The weight indicator is calibrated in pounds.
weighting material an additive that is used to
increase the density of a fluid. Heavy weight material
consists of small particles of inert and nonabrasive
particles of high specific gravities such as barite that
are added to the drilling mud to increase its weight.
Galena is used to make very heavy drilling mud.
Hematite is often used in cement slurries. Calcium
carbonate is added to completion fluids to increase
density. Some weighting material trade names are
Magcobar, Baroid, Milbar, Controlbar, and
Maccowater. (heavyweight or weight material)
weight-loss corrosion a loss or pitting of material
by corrosion. Weight-loss corrosion can be prevented
by painting, galvanizing, plating, anodizing, or plastic
coating. Weight-loss corrosion is in contrast to stresscracking corrosion.
weight material see weighting material
weight on bit the hanging weight of the drillstring.
The weight on bit is shown on a weight indicator
on the driller's console that is connected to a weight
sensor. In general, harder rocks require greater weight
on the bit. WOB or W.O.B.
weight pipe a joint of heavy drillpipe that is run
along with several other joints of weight pipe on the
drillstring between the drill collars and pipe to
strengthen the location separating compression and
tension on the drillstring. (flexible weight pipe)
weight up to increase the density of a fluid such
as drilling mud or cement slurry by adding a weighting
material such as barite or galena
Weiner filter the filter that best produces a desired
output. Weiner filters are used in seismic processing
and are named after Norbert Weiner. (optimum or
least squares filter)
weir a solid vertical dam used in a liquid
compartment such as a separator, treater, or mud tank.
Liquid is dammed to the height of the weir behind
the weir and flows over the top of the weir to the
other side. The weir is used in gravity separation of
liquids such as oil and water, with the lighter liquid
flowing over the weir.
WEL well evaluation log
weld decay a type of intergranular corrosion that
occurs adjacent to a weld due to the sensitizing of
the grain structure by welding

welded-blade stabilizer a stabilizer with blades

welded to the body. The blades are hard faced with
tungsten carbide and have bevelled edges. A weldedblade stabilizer is used in relatively soft formation.
weld joint the manner in which two components
are fitted for welding
WELID well identification
well a hole drilled through subsurface rocks for the
original intended use of either a) extracting water,
gas, or oil from the subsurface rocks, b) injecting a
fluid into the subsurface rocks, or c) obtaining
subsurface rock samples for information. Types of
wells drilled for petroleum are new-field wildcat wells,
new-pool wildcat wells, shallow-pool test wells,
deeper-pool test wells, outpost wells, and
development wells. Some other types of wells include
controlled exploratory, in-fill, appraisal, confirmation,
step-out, delineation, injection, service, and
stratigraphic test wells. The well can also be a straight
hole or a deviated well and can be described as vertical,
slant, crooked, or horizontal. A well is named after
the operator, owner of the land, or plot identification
and followed by the number of the well in the drilling
sequence, such as ARCO Prudhoe Bay State No. 1.
Wlorwl
well authorization a form used for the approval
of drilling a well. A well authorization usually contains
a) the operator and property names, b) the well
number with target and total depth along with drilling
target formation name, c) property description and
land data with bottomhole location, field, state, lease
expiration, working interest ownerships, and
percentages, d) cost with IDCs and tangibles, e) monies
requested including net dry hole, net producer, gross
dry hole, and gross producer, f) authorization
signatures, and g) economics including payout, return
on investment, and success factor. There is also a
well repair and a well abandonment authorization.
wellbore or well bore the hole drilled by the bit.
(borehole)
wellbore cleanup or cleanout treatment the fillup and soaking of a well with acid, usually hydrochloric
or hydrofluoric acid, to remove cement residue, mud,
scale, and/or perforation debris. There is little or no
circulation of the acid during wellbore cleanup.
wellbore damage the formation damage and
decreased permeability caused primarily by mud
filtrate in the shallow zone extending back from a
wellbore. Wellbore damage occurs during drilling,
completion, stimulation, workover, or production in
the well. It is caused by clay swelling, migration of
fines, mud particle invasion, chemical precipitation,
formation of emulsions, bacterial growth, increases
in connate water, and deposition of paraffins or
asphalts. Wellbore damage causes an excess pressure
drop that occurs around the wellbore and reduces
the formation fluid flow into the wellbore. The
pressure drop is expressed as a dimensionless number
and is normally in the order of +1 to +10 for a
new well, (skin damage or effect)
wellbore farmout a type of farmout agreement in
which the farmee acquires the rights to the wellbore
and production from that wellbore but not the leases.
The farmor can drill other wells on the leases or
deepen the wells.

wellbore storage well log library

wellbore storage the volume of fluid held by the
wellbore
well cleanup burner a gas flare located at the end
of a boom on an offshore platform. A well cleanup
burner is used to dispose of any unwanted production
gas and can also be used during a drillstem test and
during a kick in a well. The burner often has a water
spray ring around it.
well control the methods used to prevent losing
control and having a well blow out during a kick.
The two most common methods are the driller's
method and the wait-and-weigh method. In the
driller's method, the drillpipe pressure is maintained
constant by circulating heavy-weight kill mud through
the kill line after circulating all the kick fluids out of
the well. In the wait-and-weigh method, a constant
bottomhole pressure is maintained by circulating kill
mud at the same time as adjusting drillpipe pressure
through a choke.
well completion the services and installation of
equipment that are necessary to prepare a well for
\ production after it has been drilled and tested. Well
completion includes setting and cementing casing,
perforating, running tubing, installation of pumping
equipment or a production tree, installation of
flowlines, separators, stock and storage tanks, and well
treatment such as swabbing, acidizing, and fracing.
well conversion cost the cost of changing a
producing well into an injection well
well cuttings rock chips produced by chipping and
crushing action of the drill bit on the bottom of the
well. The largest cuttings are made by roller-cone
bits, whereas those made by diamond bits and by
air drilling tend to be smaller in size. Well cuttings
are commonly sampled at 10-20 ft intervals when
drilling the well and at closer spacing when drilling
the target. The well cuttings are washer, dried, stored
in cloth sacks or envelopes, and labeled, (cuttings)
well diagram a cross section of a well containing
geological and engineering data. A well diagram can
show the rock formations, size of the hole, casing
program, producing zone, perforations, lostcirculation and abnormal high-pressure zones, and
completion equipment.
well disconnection clause a provision in a gas
purchase-and-sales agreement authorizing the buyer
to cease from purchasing gas and discontinue
maintaining a connection with its gathering and
transportation facilities with any well from which it
is no longer economical to purchase the gas.
(disconnection clause)
wellhead or well head 1) the portion of an oil
well that is above ground. The wellhead is the large,
forged or cast steel hardware with machined surfaces
such as flange faces and ring grooves that seals the
top of the well onto the surface casing or conductor
pipe. The wellhead includes the casinghead and
tubinghead. It is used to a) contain the pressure in
the tubing or tubing-casing annulus, b) land tubing,
c) control the flow of fluids and reduce the pressure,
and d) run tools. The flanged or studded fittings are
standardized for sizes by the American Petroleum
Institute and for pressure ratings by the American
National Standards Institute. All connections have bolt

569

and flange connections with metal sealing rings set

in ring grooves. WH 2) see Christmas tree
well-head or wellhead cellar the pressure
chamber for wellhead equipment on the seafloor. The
wellhead cellar can contain the blowout-preventer
stack and production-riser connection or the wellhead
connectors, the wet tree, the blowout preventer and
control valves, and flowlines. It is installed by guide
lines attached to the guide posts. In a dry cellar, the
cellar contains the wellhead, dry tree, flowlines, and
valves. The dry cellar is serviced by a crew from a
service capsule through an entry in the top. Work is
done in a dry, 1-atm environment.
wellhead or well head housing the pressure
vessel containing the casing and tubing hangers
located on a subsea wellhead. The well is drilled
through the wellhead housing.
wellhead or well head netback the net price an
operator of a gas well receives for the gas, usually
in $/MMBtu, after transmission and production area
charges have been deducted
wellhead or well head pressure the pressure on
the fluid at the top of the well after the well has
been shut in for a period of time, usually 24 hours.
Wellhead pressure is indicated on a gauge on the
wellhead.
wellhead or well head price the price for gas or
oil at the well
wellhead separator a separator used on a subsea
well to separate water, condensate, and sediment from
the gas stream before it goes to the choke manifold
well jacket the protective structure around an
offshore well. A well jacket is equipped with warning
lights and other signals to alert boats.
well length the productive length of a horizontal
well
well log a record of rock and fluid properties with
depth in a well. A well log is usually plotted on a
long strip of paper with depth in the well in the depth
track down the length of the strip. The horizontal
scale on the well log is usually 1 or 2 in./lOO ft
(correlation scales) or 5 in./lOO ft (detail scale). A
well log can be either a single type of measurement
or several types of measurements plotted together.
Some different types of well logs include drilling time,
sample or lithologic, mud, and wireline well logs.
The wireline well logs are made by lowering sensors
in a sonde or tool down the well on a wireline. Wireline
well logs include electric, induction, gamma ray,
neutron porosity, formation density, caliper, and
dipmeter logs. Measurement while drilling (MWD)
makes well logs as the well is being drilled. Some
types of logs are calculated from well logging
measurements such as movable-log plots and
synergetic logs.
well-loggers block a wheel on top of a well that
is used to raise and lower the wireline for a well
logging instrument in a well
well log library a location where well logs (or copies
of well logs) from a particular region are on file.
For a membership fee, a person can become a member
and examine and copy the well logs. Scout cards,
production data, and other information are often
collected by the libraries. Well log libraries are located

570

well operating costs well spacing

in most of the important petroleum cities and can

operate either for profit or nonprofit.
well operating costs the expense of producing oil
from a well. Well operating costs are the operating
costs of the wells including the gathering and
separating equipment but do not include the costs
of drilling and completing the wells or transporting
the oil. (lifting costs)
well permit the authorization by a government
regulatory agency to drill a specific well. The well
permit states the spacing and regulations for the well
and lists the operator and proposed well depth.
well platform an offshore structure designed to
receive flowlines and to support producing subsea
wells. The well platform usually has a platform above
the surface of the water to accommodate the
equipment such as wellheads, tanks, separators,
treaters, and pumps along with the crew to operate
it. One well platform can often service an entire
offshore field with numerous wells drilled out from
the platform with deviation drilling. The treated oil
and gas is usually brought ashore by a submarine
pipeline. The well platform can be a piled-steel
platform, gravity structure, articulated platform,
tension-leg platform, or subsea production platform.
(production or producing platform)
well potential the maximum production capability
of a specific well during a 24-hour perioid. The
potential is often determined from a test that is
required by a government regulatory agency.
well pressure see reservoir pressure
well program a list of information needed by a tool
pusher and the drilling crew to drill a specific well.
The well program shows the depth to be drilled,
formations to be encountered, hole size and bits to
be used, sampling instructions, completion
procedures, and plug-and-abandon instructions.
well puller a well-service crew member
well sampler a person responsible for collecting
the well cuttings at regular intervals during the drilling
of a well

pump or repair the rod string. The rods are suspended

in the mast by their upper ends. The well service
unit is also used to pull tubing by rearranging the
equipment to accomodate the heavier load. The stands
of tubing are stacked vertically on end in a rack on
the mast. The unit is equipped with tools to handle
several sizes of rods and tubing. A well-service unit
that is designed for more extensive repairs on a well
is called a workover rig. (service or pulling unit or
pulling machine)
well servicing maintenance and repair on a
producing gas or oil well. Well servicing often involves
repair or replacement of the downhole pump, sucker
rods, gas lift valves, tubing, packers, and other
equipment and is done with a well servicing unit.
well servicing fluid a fluid that is used during well
servicing to protect the producing formation and to
keep the well under control during servicing. Three
types of well servicing fluid are a) water base, b) oil
base, and c) foam. WSF
well shooter a person who uses explosives to
fracture a well, (shooter)
well shooting a method used to determine average
seismic velocity as a function of depth in a well. A
geophone is lowered to different depths in a well to
record shots from a shothole.
wellsite the surface location where the well is drilled
wellsite computer log a well log that is processed
by an onboard, truck-mounted computer at the
wellsite. The most common logs use deep resistivity,
spontaneous potential, gammaray, neutron and density
porosity, and caliper measurements to calculate water
saturation. Other types of wellsite computer logs
include lithology analysis, dipmeter computations,
two-way travel times, vertical seismic profiling,
borehole profile, cement volume, and wellsite
production log. (quick-look log)
wellsite geologist or well sitter the operator's
supervisor of geological procedures at the drillsite.
A well sitter is a geologist who stays at or near the
well during drilling operations, usually 24 hours a
day, to perform geological tasks such as collecting
and examining well cuttings at regular intervals and
recommending and supervising coring and well
logging. The wellsite geologist makes sure that all
information is obtained from drilling the well and
an accurate record is made for evaluating the well.
wellsite survey an engineering survey of the seabed
and the shallow subsurface that is conducted by
drilling personnel before the rig is moved on site.
The survey is usually required by the rig owner's
insurance company, (hazard survey)

well-service unit

well sorted a sedimentary rock with clastic particles

that are relatively uniform in size. A well-sorted
sandstone such as an orthoquartzite has good original
porosity and can be a good reservoir rock. Well sorted
is in contrast to poorly sorted. WSRT

well-service unit hoisting equipment including a

mast and winch that is mounted on a truck or trailer.
The well service unit is designed to do maintenance
work on a producing interval in an oil or gas well
and has its own crew. Most commonly, the sucker
rods are pulled from the well to change the downhole

well spacing the legal regulation of the number and

location of wells in a producing reservoir. In the United
States, well spacing is set by a state regulatory agency
and often states the surface area per well, the minimum
distance from lease lines and between wells. Well
spacing is designed to prevent the drilling of too many

well spotting wetting fluid or phase

wells and the waste of oil or gas. Oil wells are often
assigned 40 ac, and gas wells often have 640-ac spacing.
well spotting locating wells on a base map
well status map a map showing the location of wells.
Producing wells have the well number, production
in barrels of oil and water per day and gas/oil ratio
printed next to them. Injection wells have the well
number, barrels of water injected per day, pounds
per square inch, and cumulative injection in thousands
of barrels.
well stimulation a mechanical and/or chemical
action by the operator of a well, such as fracturing,
acidizing, or workover, to increase production from
the well
wellstream the fluids produced from a well. The
wellstream can include natural gas, natural gas liquids,
and water from a gas well. Wellstream can include
crude oil, natural gas, and water from an oil well.
well tester a permanent or skid- or trailer-mounted
separating and measuring unit for produced oil, water,
and gas
well tie a well through or by which a seismic line
is run so seismic events on the seismic record can
be correlated with a well log from the well
WELND well number
Wendlockian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 420-415 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Lower Silurian epoch.
Werner filtering a method used in magnetic
exploration to calculate the depth to a magnetic body
by assuming a shape of either a) dikes of infinite
strike or b) thin magnetic sheets
Westphal balance an instrument used to measure
the density of a liquid. A weighted plummet or solid
body is immersed in the liquid and weighed.
Westphalian a global age of geological time that
occurred about 320 m. y. ago. It is part of the Middle
Carboniferous.
wet a well or reservoir rock that contains water with
no commercial amounts of oil or gas
wet bottom the excessive discharge of liquid
through the underflow of a hydrocyclone such as a
desander or desilter
wet box a metal cylinder that is hinged to fit around
a joint of drillpipe as it is being broken out
(unscrewed) when tripping out of the well. The wet
box prevents mud from being lost by squirting out
onto the surrounding area. The drilling mud is
emptied with a drain plug onto the shale shaker, (mud
box, mud saver, Mother Hubbard, or splash box)
wet completion a common subsea completion in
which the subsea completion system is exposed to
sea water. A wet completion is in contrast to a dry
completion.
wet fluid the water, gas, oil, and/or suspended
sediments that are produced, (wet stream)
wet gas natural gas that contains significant amounts
of condensate and/or other hydrocarbons such as
propane and butane that can be liquified. The liquid
content is reported in barrels per million standard
cubic feet of gas (bbl/MMscf) and is often 7-14 bbl/
MMSCF. In North America, wet gas is defined as

571

containing more than 0.3 gal of natural gas liquids

per Mcf. For engineering, wet gas can also be defined
as gas that produces more than 50,000 SCF/STB. The
natural gas in the free gas cap of a saturated 0.7 pool
is always wet gas. Wet gas is in contrast to dry gas.
Rich gas contains condensate, wg or WGAS 2) Natural
gas that contains water (saturated or wet natural gas)
wet glycol triethylene glycol that has absorbed water
in a contact or absorber tower. Wet glycol can be
reconcentrated into lean glycol by heating it to drive
off the steam, (rich glycol)
wet job pulling tubing that is filled with oil or water.
As each joint is unscrewed (broken out), the fluid
sprays over the rig floor.
wet method the inspection of material using
ferromagnetic particles suspended in a liquid
wet natural gas see wet gas
wet oil crude oil that has not been processed to
remove water
wet stream the water, gas, oil, and/or suspended
sediments that are produced, (wet fluid)
wet string a length of pipe such as tubing containing
water, drilling fluid, or oil. If the wet string is pulled
from a well and the connection between joints is
broken, the liquid will squirt out.
wettability 1) the relative degree to which a fluid
will spread out on the surface of a solid when in
the presence of other immiscible fluids. Wettability
depends on a) the chemical composition of the fluids
such as the asphaltine content of crude oil and b)
the nature of the pore walls. 2) the work necessary
to separate the wetting fluid from a rock surface.
Wettability is measured by the wettability index
wettability index a number that is based on the
observation that a strongly wetting fluid will
spontaneously imbibe until the residual saturation of
the nonwetting fluid is obtained. The wettability index
is the log of the work required for oil to displace
water divided by the work required for water to
displace oil in a sample such as a core. A wettability
index of 1.0 is strongly oil wet, 0 is neutral, and
+ 1.0 is water wet.
wettability number a measure of how much a
reservoir rock is water- or oil-wet based on capillary
pressure curves
wettability reversal the reversal of preferred fluid
wettability in a rock. The reversal can go from oilwet to water-wet and vice versa. Wettability reversal
can be obtained by chemicals in enhanced oil recovery.
wetting the process in which a liquid covers and
adheres to a surface such as the rock surface of a
pore. If two liquids such as oil and water occupy a
pore, one will be the wetting fluid or phase. The
wetting fluid will occupy smaller pores and corners
where sand grains or rock surfaces contact. The wetting
fluid will be harder to produce than the nonwetting
fluid or phase.
wetting agent see surfactant
wetting fluid or phase the liquid, when two liquids
are present on a surface, that has the most affinity
for the surface. The contact angle of the wetting phase
is less than 90. The other liquid is called the
nonwetting fluid. In a hydrocarbon reservoir, natural

572

wetting the gas cap whole-core analysis

gas is always the nonwetting fluid, crude oil is the

wetting fluid relative to gas, and crude oil is the
nonwetting fluid relative to water in sandstones.
Carbonates are neutral or have crude oil as the wetting
fluid.
wetting the gas cap a process that occurs if the
pressure on a gas cap is reduced more rapidly than
the pressure on the underlying oil reservoir. As the
oil and solution gas migrate upward into the gas cap,
the liquids fill the pore spaces of the gas cap. The
liquids now filling the gas-cap pores are more difficult
to produce than had they remained in the oil reservoir.
wet tree a Christmas tree-type of completion with
valves, chokes, and gauges over a flowing well on
the sea bottom. A wet tree is exposed to the water
and is in contrast to a dry tree. Dry trees are used
on land and are less common than wet trees on sea
completions.
wet trip a drillstring filled with drilling mud during
tripping out. A wet trip causes the drilling mud to
splash out onto the drill floor when the drillpipe is
broken out or unscrewed. A wet trip is caused by
plugging on the bottom of the drillstring such as
plugged jets on the drill bit. (tripping out wet)
wet well a well that produces only water with no
commercial petroleum, (duster or dry hole)
WF 1) waterflood 2) wide flange 3) well files
Wf weight of fluid
WFD wildcat field discovery
W/4 west quarter
WFR waterfrac
WG Worn out of gauge
wg 1) wet gas 2) water in gas cap
w.g. water gauge
WGAS wet gas
W.G.P. Western Gas Producers
WGR water/gas ratio
WH wellhead
Wh mass flow rate

wh or wht white
whale a well that is a gusher
wheel-type back-off wrench a manual wrench in
the shape of a wheel that is used to break out a suckerrod string when it is pulled from a well, (back-off
wheel or circle wrench)
when you're out you're out provision a clause
in an agreement such as a joint operating agreement
in which any party that goes nonconsent at any stage
of the agreement is out of the well and possibly the
entire agreement
WHIP or whip whipstock
whip a vibration in the sucker-rod string in a well
caused by the pump operating at a resonant speed
or improper connection of the string to the downhole
pump
whip a connection to strike a collar or threaded
connection with a hammer to loosen it. (heat or warm
a connection)
whipline a light lifting line

whip off to break off casing in a well

whipstock

whipstock 1) to drill a deviated hole 2) a tool used

to drill a deviated hole. A whipstock is a long, tapered
or wedge-shaped steel casting that is concave on the
inside. A ring on the top of the whipstock is used to
guide the drillstring and retrieve the whipstock. The
whipstock is run into the well on a special sub and
oriented to cause the bit to drill out at an angle up
to a maximum of 4. The whipstock often has a chisel
point to anchor it. The concave groove or channel
in the whipstock guides the drillstring which initiates
a kick off with a small-diameter gauge bit to drill a
pilot hole. After drilling 10-20 ft below the whipstock,
the assembly is removed, the pilot hole is surveyed
and then a regular drillstring is run in the hole. Three
types of whipstocks are a) standard, b) circulating
with a port to clean the bottom of the hole, and c)
permanent that acts as a bypass for collapsed casing
or a fish. The original whipstock was wooden and
was used for sidetracking a well. Whipstocks date back
to the 1890s and have been partially replaced by
downhole mud motors and bent subs. WHIP, whip,
orWS
whipstock anchor a permanent plug set in a well
just below a whipstock used to deviate a well or mill
a window in the casing. A whipstock anchor prevents
the whipstock from being pushed downward.
whirley an offshore crane that can turn 360
witcher a geologist
white mica see muscovite
white oil see retrograde gas
Whiterockian a North American epoch of geological
time that started 485 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Ordovician period.
WHOF wellhead open flow
whole core a cylinder of rock with a diameter of
PA to 5V4 in. and lengths of 20-90 ft that was drilled
by a rotary coring bit from the bottom of a well. A
whole core is in contrast to a smaller diameter wireline
or sidewall core, (full-diameter or full-hole core)
whole-core analysis an analysis such as a
permeability or wettability measurement that uses the
entire core in contrast to plug samples. A whole-core

Whse wind guy line

analysis is used when a plug sample will be inaccurate
due to heterogeneities such as vugs and fractures in
the rock. A whole-core analysis uses large instruments.
Whse wholesale
WI 1) working interest 2) water injection 3) washing
in 4) drilling fluid weight
W| cumulative water injected
wickers frayed strands of wire along the outside of
wire rope
wicker spear a fishing tool composed of a solid,
metal bar with a barb on the bottom or with barbs
along its length that is used to fish cable (center or
rope spear)
wide open a well or pipe that is flowing without
restrictions
wiggle stick see walking beam
wiggle trace a plot of seismic energy amplitude
versus two-way traveltime. A wiggle trace is an old
type of seismic record.
wiggle-variable area trace a trace on a seismic
section with the recorded energy peaks filled in with
black. It is used on a variable area display, wiggleVA trace
wiggle-VA trace wiggle-variable area trace
wigglie a flexible drillpipe used in deviation holes.
The wigglie has a jig sawer or figure-8 type of cut
on the end.
WEH 1) water in hole 2) went in hole
W.I.H. water in hole
Wilcox a North American age of geological time that
occurred about 55-50 m. y. ago. It is part of the Eocene
epoch.
wildcat 1) an exploratory well. WC 2) a drum with
deep grooves that is used to reel a chain on a windlass
wildcat risk or success ratio the probability that
several favorable geological conditions will be
encountered when drilling an exploratory well and
will result in a producing well. The ratio is computed
by dividing the completed wildcat wells by the total
number of wildcat wells drilled.
wildcat tail the part of a development well that is
drilled below the producing zone to test a deeper,
unproven zone
wildcatter a person or organization that drills
exploratory wells
wildcatting drilling exploratory wells
wildcat well an exploratory well. The wildcat well
can be either a new-field or new-pool wildcat. A
wildcat well is drilled in an area that has no production
(new-field), or is drilled to test a new reservoir rock
(new-pool) that has no current production in a
producing area, (controlled exploratory well) WC
wildflysch a European term for a sedimentary rock
deposit consisting primarily of shales and sandstones
characterized by large and poorly sorted boulders
caused by tectonics and contorted bedding due to
slumps and slides
wild gasoline see retrograde gas or natural gasoline
wild well a well in which gas and/or oil is blowing
uncontrolled into the air. (blow out)

573

WIN water input well

winch a powered reel, drum, or spool of cable or
wire rope that is used to raise, lower, or pull
equipment

winch type pumping unit

winch-and-cable or winch-type pumping

unit artificial lift equipment that balances the rod
string that drives the rod pump in the producing well
with a hanging counterweight of cast iron weights
in an adjacent, shallow well. The winch-and-cable
pumping unit consists of a winch, cable, and rotary
cam mechanism. The cable connects the rod string
with the counterweight and the polished rod is
replaced with a polished tube. The winch-and-cable
pumping unit gives long (30-40 ft), slow-pumping
strokes that decrease peak load on the rods and yield
a higher fluid output than other pumping units. (Alpha

windbreak the sheeting that is used around the drill

floor and monkey board on a drilling rig to protect
the crew from the weather
windfall profit tax a deductible excise tax on crude
oil production after February 29, 1980, in the United
States. The windfall profit tax was on the excess of
sales price of a barrel of oil over an adjusted base
price plus the severance tax adjustment. The tax was
collected by the purchaser of the oil through a
withholding system. Oil was classified into Tier 1 (oil
from properties that began production before 1979),
Tier 2 (oil from stripper wells or a Naval Petroleum
Reserve), and Tier 3 (new oil found after 1979, heavy
oil, and tertiary recovery oil). Tier 1 was taxed the
highest. The tax rate also depended on whether the
producer was integrated or an independent. The
windfall profits tax was repealed in 1988. WPT
wind gas nitrogen
wind guy line the guy line that is used to secure a
mast or derrick on a drilling rig, workover rig, or
well servicing unit from swaying in the wind. Wind
guy lines are wire cables that are attached to the mast
or derrick on one end and to guyline anchors or

574

windlass wireline or wireline grapple

deadmen on the ground. There are usually four lines,

one in each direction. Wind guylines are in contrast
to load guys.
windlass the winch used on a boat, drillship, or
semisubmersible to raise the anchor(s)
wind-load rating a maximum wind speed that a
drilling rig, with and without its racks filled with stands
of pipe, is designed to withstand. The wind-load rating
of a derrick is commonly 75 mph with stands of pipe
and 115 mph without the stands.
Winchmobile a self-propelled, triple-telescoping,
mobile mast that handles Range 2 triples and backs
in
wind noise background noise recorded on seismic
geophones
window 1) an uncommitted portion of a pooled or
unitized reservoir 2) an opening milled in the side
of pipe. A window is milled or ground into the casing
of a well to kick off deviation drilling. 3) an interval
of time during which a function such as autocorrelation
occurs (gate) 4) the oil window during which organic
matter is maturated to form crude oil. The oil window
occurs between about 150 and 300F and is time
dependent.
window lease a lease that has a small period of
time within which to exercise the option to drill on
that lease
window mill a tool that is rotated to grind (mill) a
hole (window) in the casing of a well for directional
drilling. The window mill is used after a starting mill
initiates the window in the casing.
wing valve a valve on one of the horizontal sections
(wing) on a Christmas tree. The wing valve is used
to regulate the flow from the well to the treating
equipment and pipeline.
winnow the sorting or removal of fine particles by
fluid flow such as wind or water washing
winterized rig a drilling rig that has been modified
to drill in cold weather. Temporary winterization can
include windbreaks around the rig floor and monkey
board and heating from an automatic boiler and
radiators. Permanent winterization can include
insulated mud and water lines, with steam-heating,
enclosed mud tanks, and protected blowout preventer
stacks.
winter rig see winterized rig
WIOE water-in-oil emulsion
wipeout the elimination of deep reflections on
seismic by a shallower, very slow velocity layer
wiper 1) an outer sealing ring that prevents particles
from entering the working surfaces of a downhole
tool such as a jar 2) see wall scratcher
wiper plug a hard rubber cylinder that is pumped
down the casing string during a cement job. The wiper
plug is used to separate the cement slurry from the
fluids in front of and back of it and to prevent cement
contamination. A top plug that comes after and bottom
plug that precedes the cement are often used. The
bottom plug has a hole in it covered by a diaphragm
to allow the cement slurry to flow through, whereas
the top plug is solid. The wiper plug is made of a
cast aluminum body with molded rubber fins.

DISPLACEMENT FLUID

wiper plug

wiper trip 1) the running of a rotating drill bit and

drillstring up and down the well to remove the filter
cake. A wiper trip can be done to condition the hole
before logging or before running casing. After a wiper
trip the hole is circulated to remove cavings and
cuttings. 2) the running of the bit on a drillstring up
to the bottom of the last casing string to ream out
any keyseats and doglegs
wiping rubber a rubber cylinder with a hole down
the center. A wiping rubber is used to scrape oil and
water off tubing when pulled from a well. It is placed
in a plate that is inserted between the tubing slips
and the blowout preventers or wellhead.
wireline or wire line cable that is commonly used
to raise and lower equipment in a well. Wireline is
usually made of wire rope which is made of several
twisted strands of braided steel wires. Wireline
diameters range from 3/i6 to 3 in., but the smaller
diameters are more commonly used. Solid wireline
or slick line is made of a single strand of very strong
steel wire that is about 0.066-0.092 in. in diameter.
WL
wireline clamp a device that is used to hold the
end of a wire rope to the main rope
wireline coring a method of coring a well without
tripping in and out with the drillstring. The core is
raised by wireline in a retractable core barrel inside
the drillstring. The cores range up to 15 ft in length
and between V/*-2i in. in diameter. WLC
wireline cutter a cylindrical fishing tool that is used
to cut a sand line or other cable in a well. One type
of wireline cutter is lowered down the wireline to
be cut, and then an explosive charge is detonated to
force a cutting wedge through the wireline. Another
type of cutter is dropped down the line in the well
and uses the momentum of the impact to cut the
wire with a tapered knife. Some wireline cutters are
run on a second wireline and are activated
electronically. The tool often has a fishing neck. The
wireline cutter can also be a surface tool where a
cutter head is struck by a hammer.
wireline grab a wireline fishing tool with two or
three metal prongs extending downward with metal
barbs protruding inward on the inside of each prong.
The grab is used to recover wirelines, (grab)
wireline or wireline grapple a fishing tool that
uses several spring steel hooks to retrieve wireline
in a well

wireline jar wireline well log

wireline jar a fishing tool that is designed to deliver
either an upward or downward blow to tools or fish
in a well. Three types of wireline jars are a) stroke,
b) tubular, and c) hydraulic jars.
wireline logging the evalutation of a well using a
sonde run into the well on a wireline. The well is
first conditioned by circulating. A logging truck is
backed up to 100-150 ft in front of the V-door. The
sonde is hoisted onto the drill floor and lowered
down the well. Electrical, acoustical, and radioactive
properties of the formations and their fluids are made
by remote sensing as the sonde is brought back up
the hole under a constant speed. Different sondes
are run at different speeds, and some sensors can
be combined on the same sonde. The measurements
are recorded on a film with a depth scale and on
magnetic tape in the logging truck. A logging engineer
monitors the tool response on meters and a cathode
ray tube. The taped data can be transmitted to a distant
site by telephone or radio. Computer processing of
the information can be done either at the site or at
a computer center. A field print of the information
is made at the site. Wireline logging can be run in
wells with an inclination of 0-45.

575

wireline splicing the joining together of two ends

of a wireline line by using a metal needle to interweave
the strands of wire
wireline stems round steel rods that can be filled
with lead and are used to give weight to a wireline
tool string and to jarring operations. The stem has a
pin connection and fishing neck on the upper end
and a box connection on the bottom. Wireline stems
come in lengths of 2, 3, and 5 ft and have outer
diameters of %, VA, VA, and W* in. (weigfit bars)
wireline survey any logging operation run in a well
by wirelines
wireline test a method for testing a well's potential.
A tool is lowered into the well on a wireline to sample
the fluid in a specific reservoir. The wireline test is
usually used in unconsolidated, sandy reservoirs. WCT
wireline tools equipment that is run and pulled
from a well by wireline. Because they can be
recovered, wireline tools are classified as retrievables
and include packers, gas lift valves, swabs and pressure,
temperature and flow measurement devices.
wireline truck or unit a service company truck
that has a reel of wireline mounted on it. The wireline
is used during wireline operations to run and pull
tools in a well.
wireline valve 1) a manually operated, ram type
of closing element that is used to shut in a well around
a wireline during wireline operations, (wireline or
wireline preventers)

wireline well logging

wireline operations work performed in a well with

a tool run and pulled on a wireline. Wireline
operations can be either nonelectric such as slickline
or swabbing or electric such as logging.
wireline operator a wireline service-company
technician who operates the logging equipment
wireline preventers a manually operated, ram type
of closing element that is used to shut in a well around
a wireline during wireline operations, (wireline valve)
wireline socket the opening through which the
wireline is attached to the top of a downhole tool.
The wireline socket consists of a body, spring that
acts as a shock absorber, spring support, and disk to
which the wireline is attached. A stranded line socket
is secured by babbit.
wireline spear a fishing tool run on wirelines or
fishing string that has one, two, or three long, metal
prongs on the bottom with four to six metal barbs
protruding out at at angles of 90, 120, or 180. The
tool is used to recover wirelines.

wireline well log

wireline well log a record of the properties of rocks

and their fluids with depth in a well detected by sensors
in an instrument called a sonde that is raised up the
well on a wireline. Some types of wireline well logs
include electric, gamma ray, neutron porosity,
formation density, sonic, caliper, temperature, and
dipmeter. A field copy of the well log is made in

576

wireline or wireline wiper woodpecker hole

the recording truck after logging. A cleaner office copy

is made later, (mechanical log)
wireline wiper a flexible, rubber scraper that
removes mud, water, and oil from a wireline as it is
being pulled from a well
wire mesh a 4-6 in. thick pad of fine wire that is
used in an impingement separator. Thevapor passed
up through the wire mesh to separate liquids.
wire rope a cable made with braided steel wires
forming several twisted strands wound around a steel
core. Types of wire rope include a) round-strand, b)
flattened-strand, c) locked-coil, d) half-locked, and e)
multistrand. The round-strand type is used to make
drilling line and has six strands wound over a fiber
or a small wire rope core with one or several wires
in the core. Wire rope has a diameter between 3/ie-3
in. and is usually lVfe-lVi in. Wire rope is made from
cold drawn carbon steel. The API classifications are
extraimproved plow steel, improved plow steel, plow
steel, and mild plow steel. Wire rope is described
by type of core, number of strands wrapped around
the core, and the number of wires per strand. The
two common types of lays are Lang's lay and ordinary
or regular lay. Lang's lay has both the strands and
the strands in the rope twisted in the same direction.
Lang's lay is either right or left handed depending
on whether the strands are twisted to the left or right
as one looks away from one end of the wire rope.
Ordinary or regular lay has the strands and the strands
in the rope wound in different directions. Ordinary
lay has a shorter life than Lang's lay but is easier to
install and handle. Wire rope is sometimes called
wireline, rope, or cable.
wire rope clip see V-bolt
wire rope lay a length of wire rope in which the
strands make one complete revolution
wire rope windlass a machine that is used to tighten
and wind wire rope
wire rope wrench a wrench used to splice and pull
back twists in wirelines
wire strand a group of wires twisted together. Wire
strands are used to make a wire rope, (strand)
wire-wrapped screen a short pipe that is used in
a wire-wrapper screen completion in gravel pack wells.
The pipe has openings on the side with shaped wire
screen covers.
Wisconsian an epoch of geological time that was
the fourth and last glaciation during the Pleistocene
epoch. It is the equivalent to the Wurm in Europe.
witching the use of a forked stick, made of peach,
willow, or other wood that is alleged to be of value
in finding the location for a water, oil, or gas well.
The stick is held in both hands and pointed out in
front of someone walking over the ground. Natural
attraction of the far end of the forked stick towards
the subsurface is used to indicate a potential well
site.
withdrawal a restriction on the use of United States
public land that holds the land for a specific public
use.
wk weak
wkd worked
wkg working

wko workover
wkor workover rig
Wkst wackestone
Wl or wl well
Wl 1) west line 2) wireline 3) water loss
W/L 1) water load 2) west line
wl water loss
WLC 1) wireline coring 2) wireline core
wld 1) weld 2) welding
WLFT wireline formation test
WLNT walnut hulls
WLS well location survey log
WIT 1) wireline test 2) wireline formation test
WLTD wireline total depth
WLY or W'ly westerly
WM mud density
wm mud weight
WM density of mud carrying cuttings
WN weld neck
Wn nominal weight
WNSO water not shut off
WO 1) waiting on 2) workover 3) wash over 4) work
order
W.O. workover
W/O or w/o without
W/O 1) west offset 2) water-in-oil emulsion
WOA 1) waiting on acid 2) waiting on allowable
WO&A workover and abandoned
WO&R workover and recompletion
WOB or W.O.B weight on bit
WOC or W.O.C. waiting on cement
WOCR waiting on completion rig
woes waiting on cement to set
WOCT 1) waiting on completion tools 2) waiting on
cable tools
WOC or Woe time the shut-down time on a rig
between when the cement slurry is pumped down
the casing and when the cement plug is drilled or
the casing perforated. During WOC time, the cement
is setting.
WOE welded one end
WODP without drillpipe
WOG water, oil, and gas
WOGA Western Oil and Gas Association
Wolfcampian a North American epoch of geological
time that occurred about 290-275 m. y. ago. It is part
of the Permian period.
WOO, W.O.O., or woo waiting on orders
wood alcohol an alcohol (CH3OH) that can be
manufactured from methane, (metbanol)
woodpecker drill collar a drill collar with
indentations on one side to make an eccentrically
weighted collar, (indented drill collar)
woodpecker hole the hole in a rope socket for the
cable

WOP worm hole

WOP 1) waiting on permit 2) waiting on pump 3)
waiting on pipe
WOPE waiting on production equipment
WOPT waiting on potential test
WOPU waiting on pumping unit
WOR 1) water/oil ratio 2) waiting on rig
WORD 1) waiting on road 2) working on road
Worden gravimeter or gravity meter a type of
gravity meter used in geophysical exploration in which
gravity is measured by a mass on the end of a weight
arm opposed by a spring. The gravimeter is light
weight, portable, and insulated in a thermos container.
A Worden gravimeter is sensitive to less than 0.1 mgal.
work boat a supply boat used for offshore drilling
and production
working the undesirable up and down movement
of a tubing string in a well. Working is prevented
with tubing anchors and packers.
working date the specific date on an oil and gas
lease in which the lessee must start drilling, pay delay
rentals, or surrender the lease
working fluid level the level to which an oil and
water column would rise behind the oil string below
the casing head due to working bottom-tubing
pressure at a settled rate of production. Working fluid
level is in contrast to static fluid level.
working gas natural gas that has been stripped of
liquid hydrocarbons and is used in a gas-lift oil well.
(lift gas)
working head the distance in vertical feet between
the working fluid level and the producing formation.
Working head can also be expressed in pounds per
square in. that corresponds to the height in feet.
working interest 1) the interest in a well remaining
after all nonworking interests such as royalty,
overriding royalty, and production payment interests
have been subtracted. A working interest is a share,
such as one-fourth or 25%, of costs. Types of working
interests are a) carried, b) reversionary, c) divided,
and d) disproportionate, {operating interest) 2) the
exclusive rights granted in an oil and gas lease to
explore for, develop, and produce oil and gas from
land. Working interest also includes the full costs of
those operations, (leasehold interest) WI
working-interest area an area defined in a joint
operating agreement between two or more parties
in which each party shares proportionately in both
the costs and net revenue from wells drilled in the
working-interest area. Each party's proportion is
usually, but not necessarily, according to that party's
relative acreage contribution to the entire workinginterest area. A working-interest area is often confused
with an area of mutual interest, which is different.
working-interest oil the measured amount of crude
oil minus basic sediment and water produced from
a well or lease, (net production)
working pressure the maximum pressure that a
system or equipment such as a blowout preventer
or wellhead is designed to operate and still be under
warrantee, (maximum service or rated working
pressure) W.P. or WP

577

working submergence the vertical distance in feet

between the working fluid level and the bottom of
the tubing in a gas lift well. Working submergence
is in contrast to static submergence.
working the pipe the application of tension and
compression to the drillstring in an attempt to free
stuck pipe
work over or workover a general term for any
remedial operation on a completed well that is
designed to maintain, restore, or improve production
from a reservoir that is currently producing. Workover
can include well stimulation but excludes routine
repair and maintenance that is generally covered
under well servicing. Sand cleanout, removal of scale
or paraffin buildup, acidizing and tracing, deepening,
and plugging back are common workover procedures
and are done with a workover rig. (reworking) wko,
WO or W.O.
workover fluid a fluid, usually saltwater or mud,
that is circulated in a well during a workover to a)
keep the well under control and prevent a blowout,
b) to remove debris from the well, c) to cool bits
and tools, and d) to operate hydraulic tools. Nitrogen
is used to kick off a well and foam is used for,cleanup.
workover rig a portable, usually self-propelled,
miniature drilling rig that consists of an engine,
hoisting system, self-erecting mast, rotary system,
drilling fluid circulating system, and other equipment
that is used to do extensive repairs to a well. Three
types of workover rigs are a) truck mounted, b) carrier
or self-propelled, and c) trailer mounted. Truckmounted rigs were the earliest types and had a
drawworks on the truck bed that was often powered
from the truck's engine. The rig was fitted to the truck.
The carrier type is built specifically for the rig. It
has a higher floor clearance, stronger mast, and higher
horsepower than the truck-mounted unit. Two types
of carrier rigs are backed-in or driven-in, depending
on the location of the mast and cab. The carrier uses
the rig's engines to power it on the road. The trailermounted rig is similar to a carrier rig except it has
to be pulled. Small rigs for shallow workovers use
air-cooled braking systems, whereas deep workover
rigs use a hydromatic brake. Two types of masts are
single or double pole and structural masts. The rig
capacity is limited by braking, derrick, and
substructure capacity and drawworks horsepower. A
workover rig is never called a unit such as a servicing
unit which does not have the rotary and circulating
capabilities of the workover rig. (production rig)wkor
work string 1) a drill or tubing string that suspends
and drives a tool in the well 2) an older and stronger
tubing string that is run into a well to replace the
production string during an acid job. After the acid
job, the work string is replaced by the production
string.
worm an inexperienced drilling-crew member
worm gear a shaft with a continuous spiral on it. A
worm gear meshes with a ring gear. As the shaft of
the worm gear turns, it transmits power at right angles
to the ring gear.
worm hole an elongated cavity in a carbonate
reservoir rock adjacent to a wellbore that was formed
by acidizing the well

578

worm's eye map

WZ

worm's eye map a geological map showing the

aerial distribution of formations that occur directly
above a subsurface unconformity. A worm's eye map
is in contrast to a paleogeologic or subcrop map that
show the aerial distribution of formations that occur
directly below a subsurface unconformity.
(subgeologic map)
WORT waiting on rotary tools
WOS washover string
WOSP waiting on state potential
W.O.S.R. waiting on standard rig
WOST waiting on standard tools
WOT 1) waiting on test 2) waiting on tools
WOT&C waiting on tank and connection
WOW waiting on weather
WP 1) working pressure 2) wash pipe
W.P. working pressure
W p cumulative water produced
WPC World Petroleum Congress
WPT windfall profits tax
W.R. washed residue
Wr weight of rods
WRATE water rate
WREC water recovery
wrench fault 1) a strike-slip fault that is deep-seated,
regional, and nearly vertical involving igneous,
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks 2) any and all
strike-slip faults

WRENCH FLAT

wrench flat
wrench flat a flat area located on the coupling of a
sucker rod. The wrench flat is designed to give a
wrench a gripping surface to hold the rod to screw
or unscrew it from the string.
wrench square a part of the sucker rod with a square
cross section that is located below the pin threads
on one end. The wrench flats are located on the wrench
square.
wrench tight a connection that was tightened with
a manual wrench with 30-100 ft-lb of torque
W-RES water resistivity
wrestling to handle heavy pipe
wrinkle chaser a geologist
wrinkle pipe to cut threads on the end of a tubular

wrist pin the link between the piston and the piston
rod on the cylinder of an engine or compressor.
(piston pin)
WS whipstock
ws 1) static bottomhole 2) well static conditions
WSa apparent salinity of interstitial water
W-SAL water salinity
WSD whipstock depth
W-SD water sand
WSF well servicing fluid
WSHD or wshd washed
wshg washing
WSHP wash pipe
WSO or W.S.O. water shut off
WSONG or W.S.OJV.G. water shut off no good
WSOOK or W.S.O.O.K. water shut off OK
W.S.R. waiting on standard rig
WSRT well sorted
W/SSO water with slight show of oil
WST well seismic tool
W/sulf O water with sulfur odor
WSW water supply well
WT wall thickness
WT or wt weight
wtg waiting
wtg. weight
wthd weathered
wthr weather
WTR, Wtr or wtr water
WTR-A water analysis
WTRSP water supply well
WTS water to surface
W/2 west half
Wurm a European epoch of geological time that is
the fourth and most recent glaciation during the
Pleistocene epoch. It is equivalent to the Wisconsian
in North America.
wurtzilite a black, massive pyrobitumen found in
veins in the Uinta basin. Wurtzilite is similar to
uintahite but is insoluble in turpentine.
WUT water up to
wvy wavy
WW 1) wash water 2) water well
Wx weathering
wxy waxy
Wyoming bentonite a grade of the clay-mineral
bentonite that is almost pure montmorillonite.
Wyoming bentonite is colloidal and hydrates to form
an excellent gel. It is used as a weighting material
in drilling muds and to control viscosity and filtration.
WZ weathered zone

X Xtree

X I ) offset distance 2) reactance 3) and 4) with

x 1) offset distance 2) mole fraction of a component
in liquid phase 3) cross
xaloy An alloy that has very low friction and is used
for hard facing
xanthan a high molecular weight carbohydrate that
is made by bacterial fermentation and is used in
polymer flooding
X-bd or x-bd crossbed
XBD, X-bdd or x-bdd crossbedded
X,. capacitative reactance
X-hvy extra heavy
XI or xl crystal
Xt inductive reactance
X-lam or x-lam cross laminated
XLN, Xln, or xln crystalline
XLOG experimentation log

579

xo flushed zone
XPLO explosive treatment
XR extended range
X-R X-ray
X-ray diffraction a method that is used to determine
the mineral composition of rocks. X-rays of one
wavelength, usually 1.54 u., bombard a powdered
sample of the rock. The angles at which the X-rays
diffract off the powder are recorded and are
characteristic of the mineral's crystal-structure. X-ray
diffraction is often used to identify clay minerals and
can be used to make a semiquantitative analysis of
the different clay-mineral species. XRD
X rays electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
from 0.1 to 10 A. X-ray radiation is located on the
spectrum between gamma rays and ultraviolet
radiation. X-R
XRD X-ray diffraction
XR shoran extended range shoran in which the radio
waves are scattered and received over the horizon
x-stg extra strong
x-strat cross stratified
XTAL or xtal crystal

Xtree Christmas tree

580

Y yw

a sack of dry cement in cubic square foot per sack

(ft3/sk) when water and additives are added 4) the
amount of products obtained from a chemical reaction
yield point see yield value

Y 1) Young's modulus 2) expansion factor 3)

condensate volume
y mole fraction of a component in vapor phase
yard 1) a storage area for equipment 2) a English
unit of length equal to 3 ft or 36 in. One yard is
equal to 0.914 m. yd
yaw the horizontal twisting of a ship on the ocean
about its center axis
yazoo stream a tributary that flows parallel to the
main stream because of levees along the main stream
channel
YBP years before present
Y correction a method used to smooth out oil
volume factors for materials balance calculations with
n

two phases. The equation is Y = A

V, is the
two-phase volume factor related to bubblepoint
volume, P is pressure, and Pb is bubblepoint pressure.
(Yfactor)
yd yard
yd3 cubic yard
yd2 square yard
year a non-System International (SI) unit that is
allowable in SI for time. YRoryr
YELL or yel yellow
Yellow Dog a centrifugal pump used to pump
drilling mud from the reserve pit to the mud tanks.
(Donald Duck)
yellow dog an oil torch that was used to light a
drilling rig
yelsh yellowish
Y factor see Y correction
yt sampled seismic trace
yield 1) the relative amounts of products that can
be refined from crude oil. The average yield for crude
oil is 49.6% gasoline, 6.6% jet f u d ^ l ^ gas oil and
distillates, 9.3% residual fuel oil, 7.0% lubricating oil,
and 6.3% other products. These relative percentages
can be changed by refinery processes such as cracking
as supply and demand changes. 2) the number of
42-gal barrels of drilling mud with an apparent
viscosity of 15 cP that can be produced from 1 ton
(2,000 lbs) of a specific clay. The clay can be classified
on the basis of yield such as high-yield, low-yield,
and bentonite. Bentonite has high yields of 35-50
bbl/T. Low-yield clays produce less than 30 bbl/T. 3)
the amount of cement slurry that can be made from

faulting

STRAIN
yield point

yield point, strength, or stress the minimum stress

on a substance that initiates plastic or permanent
deformation. Yield strength is the stress required to
start a Bingham plastic fluid moving. The Bingham
yield value of a drilling mud is determined by
subtracting the plastic viscosity from the 300-rpm
reading on a direct-indicating viscosimeter. Yield stress
is reported in pounds per 100 square foot. For tubulars,
the yield strength is the tensile stress required to
produce an elongation of 0.5% of the gauge length
of the tubular. The minimum yield stress of common
drill pipe ranges from 55,000-75,000 psi. YPoryp
yield value the initial resistance to flow. The
Bingham yield value for drilling muds is measured
on a viscometer and reported in pounds per 100
square foot, (yield point)
yoke the soft, solid, or laminated magnetic material
that is C-shaped and has a coil carrying a magnetizing
current wound around it
Young's modulus a modulus of elasticity for tension
or compression that is equal to stress divided by strain.
Stress is in force per unit area of cross section and
strain is elongation per unit. Young's modulus is 30
x 106 psi for steel. EorY
yo yo a cable-tool driller
yo-yo pipe to make frequent trips with pipe in a
well
yo-yo stick the device that tightens or loosens the
set screw that holds the temper screw on a cabletool rig
YP or yp yield point
Ypresian a global stage of geological time that
occurred about 55-50 m. y. ago. It is part of the Lower
Eocene epoch.
YR or yr year
Y1D year to date
yw water or holdup proportion

Z Zr

Z 1) z factor or compressibility factor for deviation

from ideal gas law 2) depth 3) impedance 4) elevation
with respect to datum 5) acoustical impedance
z 1) zone 2) supercompressibility factor 3) mole
fraction of a component in mixture 4) depth
Zanclean a global age of geological time that
occurred about 53-4-6 m. y. ago. It is part of the
Pliocene epoch.
Zj, gas compressibility at base condition
Z chart a plot of Z (gas compressibility) versus
reduced pressure at various reduced temperatures
Z,, depth drilled
zener barrier A semiconductor that allows electrical
current passage in only one direction
zenith a point directly overhead
zeo zeolite
zeolite a group of metamorphic minerals that are
hydrous aluminosilicates. Some of the more common
zeolite minerals include natrolite, heulandite,
analcime, chabazite, stibite, mesolite, scolecite,
phillipsite, laumontite, mordenite, clinoptilolite,
erionite, and harmontome. Zeolites are used in the
base-exchange method of water softening and as a
gas absorbent and dessicator. zeo
zero to set a dial or indicator
zero gas the gas value of a mud logging detector
when circulating in a clean and balanced well with
no vertical gas movement. Zero gas is in contrast to
background gas and a gas show.
zero-length spring gravimeter see La CosteRomberg gravimeter
zero-phase wavelet a wavelet that is symmetrical
about its highest peak or trough
zero weight point the location on a drill string
where tension becomes compression. The zero weight
point is usually located above the drill collars.
zero-zero gel a drilling mud that fails to form a
gel during a quiescent time interval of usually 10
minutes
zeta potential the electrokinetic potential of
particles that causes colloidal particles to repel and
stay in suspension
Zj compressibility or deviation from ideal gas law
z factor a decimal that is used in gas equations. The
z factor takes into account that a real gas such as
natural gas in not an ideal gas. Real gas contains

581

molecules that take up volume and repulse each other

electrostatically.
zig-zag fold a fold in sedimentary rocks in which
the fold limbs are straight with uniform thickness but
there is an angular hinge line with thickening.
(accordion or chevron fold)
zinc chloride a soluble salt (ZnCl2) that is used to
increase the density of water and to accelerate cementslurry thickening time
zircon a brown, green, pale blue, red, orange, golden
yellow, grayish, or colorless mineral that occurs as
tetragonal prisms and has the chemical composition
ZrSiO4. Zircon occurs in igneous and metamorphic
rocks and some sedimentary rocks such as crystalline
limestones. Zn or Ze
Zn zircon
Zn or zn zone
Zn time delay of n units
zonal damage the reduction of permeability of a
producing zone adjacent to the wellbore. see skin
effect or formation damage
zone 1) a characteristic bed of rocks. A zone can
be defined by its petroleum content (oil or gas zone),
by lithology (shale or sand zone), or by fossil content.
2) a single continuous deposit of gas and/or oil in
the pores of a reservoir rock. A zone has a single
pressure system and does not communicate with other
zones. A zone is defined in an operating agreement
as a stratum of earth thought to be productive of oil
and gas and does not communicate with other zones.
(reservoir or pool) z, Zn, or zn
zone isolation the use of packers in a well to isolate
a producing zone
zone of aeration the area above the water table in
the subsurface rocks. The pores of the rocks in the
zone of aeration are filled with air and water vapor.
The zone of aeration is important for the formation
of solution pores in limestone and is located above
the zone of saturation, (vadose zone)
zone of capillarity the portion of the zone of
aeration just above the water table. The pores of the
rock are filled with water held by surface tension
(capillary fringe)
zone of saturation the zone in the subsurface rocks
where the pores are filled with water. The zone of
saturation is located below the water table. The zone
of aeration is located above the water table, (phreatic
zone)
zonule the smallest biostratigraphic subdivision of
rocks. A zonule can be a subdivision of a subzone.
A zonule is often a single layer and is defined by its
fossil content.
zooplankton floating animals
Zr zircon

582

Zublin bin Zr

Zublin bit a type of rotary drilling bit that has one

large, bowl-shaped cutter with teeth on the shell. The
bowl is mounted on a shank at an angle with a row
of steel balls in a bearing race. The teeth have a
wiggling, rolling, and scraping motion.. The wheel
is mounted off-center to give the cutting elements

an articulated motion. The Zublin bit was designed

in the 1920s to replace the heavy fishtail bit in soft,
unconsolidated formations and was sometimes called
a Simplex bit.
? t r u e v e r t i c a i d e p th

Appendix

Appendix
Drilling and Completion Records
Rotary Drilling Rig
Cable Tool Drilling Rig
Crank Counterbalanced Beam Pumping Unit
Geological Time Scale
Giant Oil and Gas Fields (World)
Giant Oil and Gas Fields in Canada and the United States
Mineral Properties
Sandstone Classifications
Limestone Classifications
Carbonate Porosity
Common Geological Map and Log Symbols
Drill Stem Test Symbols
Flow Sheet Symbols
Land Subdivisions (United States)
Geological Features
Eastern United States
Western United States
Eastern Canada
Western Canada
Alaska
Unit Conversion Factors
Atomic Weights and Numbers
Greek Alphabet

page
585
587
588
589
590
591
593
599
601
602
603
604
610
611
612
614
616
619
620
621
622
624
625

583

Appendix

585

Drilling and Completion Records

first oil wells

first dry hole

first recorded oil lease

deepest well drilled for oil or gas

deepest well drilled

first use of a rotary drilling rig for

gas or oil
first perforating gun
first drill stem test

first drilling mud

first cement job
first onsite mud logging
first roller cone bit
first cantilever mast
first offshore well
first well drilled out of sight of land

first
first
first
first
first

jack-up rig
seismic discovery
reflection seismic discovery
gravity meter discovery
wireline log

first hydraulic fracture job

first reported waterflood
first casing
first well stimulation
longest footage for milled-tooth bit
longest footage for insert bit
longest footage for a diamond bit
longest footage for a PDC bit

Oilsprings, Ontario, Canada - 1858. The well was drilled to 60 ft. by

James Miller Williams.
Drake well, Titusville, Pennsylvania - Sunday, August 28, 1859. 69V2 ft
TD. Driller was William "Uncle Billy" Smith, operator was Edwin
Laurentine Drake and Seneca Oil Company. The well flowed 20 BOPD
Grandin well, Warren County, Pennsylvania - 1859 134 feet TD
July 4,1853, Cherrytree township, Venango County, Pa. The lease had a
5 year term with the proceeds from the development of an oil spring
being divided half and half.
Bertha Rogers No. 1, Washita County, Oklahoma - 1974 31,441 feet TD
The superdeep well on the Kola Peninsula near the Murmansk region
of the USSR, 250 kms north of the Arctic Circle. The well was at 39,570
feet as of December, 1989- The scientific well is being drilled with a
bottom-hole turbine, emulsion mud and a 4 or 6 roller-cone cutter
head. The rig is an Uralmash - 1500 drilling rig. The drill pipe is made
of high-strength, aluminum alloy. The well was spudded in basement
rock and cased to 2,000 m. (6,500 feet)
1895-1900, M.C. and C. E. Baker in Corsicana, Texas.
1932, (bullet) and 1946 (jet)
El Dorado, Arkansas - 1926, the tool was a conical packer made from
oil-field belting, a slip joint and a heavy spring to hold the valve on
the bottom closed.
Spindletop, Beaumont, Texas -1900
1903 at Lompoc field, California. Casing was puddled to shut off water
above pay. The two plug method was first used in 1910.
1937 at Cameron, Louisiana
1909 Designed by Howard R. Hughes and used at Goose Creek, Texas.
1938 Manufactured in Tulsa, Oklahoma and 87 feet high.
1897 on a pier near Summerland, California. H.L. Williams was extending
an onshore field.
1947 by Kerr McGee on Ship Shoal block 32 in the Gulf of Mexico
southeast of Morgan City, La. The well was drilled from a fixed platform
with a barge-tender 10.5 miles offshore in a water depth of 18 feet.
1950, Delong Rig No. 1.
1924 Orchard salt dome, Texas Gulf Coast, (refraction seismic)
1928, Maud pool, Oklahoma
1924, Nash Dome, Brazoria County, Texas (torsion balance)
September 5, 1927, Pechelbronn oil field, France. Electrical resistivity
measured point by point by Marcel and Conrad Schlumberger.
1947 in the Hugoton field, Grant county, Oklahoma and 1948, in the
Rangley field, Colorado by Stanolind Oil and Gas Company.
1880, Pithole City, Pennsylvania. The waterflood was accidental and
waterflooding was illegal in Pennsylvania before 1921.
1808, David and Joseph Ruffner using wood strips on a salt-water well
at Great Buffalo Lick, West Virginia.
1865, Colonel EA.L. Roberts, Ladies well, Titusville, Pennsylvania using
a torpedo made of tin with a gunpowder primer and an ordinary fuse.
Susan Unit 17, Kimball County, Nebraska - 1987 5469 feet (7% inch)
Heston Martin No. 2, Latimer County, Oklahoma -1987 7580 feet (9%
inch)
Delta Carter No. 1, Henderson County, Texas -1982 6395 feet (45/s inches)
multiple run (16), North Sea - 1987-88 18,016 feet (17V2 inch)
single run Pine Tree 2-68, Converse County, Wyoming - 1985 8776 feet
(83/4 inches)

586

Appendix

fastest penetration rate

most oil from a well
most oil from a well during a day
largest oil field
largest gas field
deepest depth water drilling
deepest well drilled by cable tools
deepest water production
deepest water production from fixed
platform
deepest sustained oil production
deepest gas production
deepest fishing job
greatest depth, weight and length of
135/B in. casing string

Weld County, Colorado - 1987 275.3 Mir (7% inch)

Cerro Azul No. 4, Mexico over 57,000,000 bbls oil
Cerro Azul No. 4, Mexico Feb. 19, 1916 - 260,858 bbls oil
Ghawar, Saudi Arabia 75 billion bbls oil (ultimate recovery)
Urengoy, USSR 210 Tcf (ultimate recovery)
Sonat Discoverer Seven Seas 534 - 1987-88 7520 ft. water (17,430 ft.
TD) at Mississippi Canyon Block 657, Gulf of Mexico
11,145 feet Kesserlring N.I NYS Natural Gas Corporation in New York,
1953. It took 2V2 years to drill.
1,760 feet, Jolliet field, Gulf of Mexico located 170 miles southwest of
New Orleans.
Bullwinkle platform, 1350 feet of water in Green Canyon Block 65, Gulf
of Mexico
5240 meters (17,192 feet) in the Bulla-More field of offshore Baku, Caspian
Sea.
7,663-8082 meters (25,142-26,517 feet) in the Mills Ranch field, Anadarko
basin, Oklahoma.
7544 meters (24,744 feet) in the Baden well, Anadarko basin, Oklahoma.
Exxon in OCS-G 5601 No. 1 well, South Timbalier Block 107, Gulf of
Mexico in December, 1988.1,834,000 lbs air weight and 1,500,000 pounds
buoyed weight to depth of 17,340 feet.

Some of these records were compiled by Drilling, the Record Book (SPE)

1 accumulators
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29

30 monkey board

annular blowout preventer

blowout preventer stack
brace
cathead
online boom
cellar
choke manifold
crown block
crown platform (crow's nest)
degasser
derrick (mast)
desanders and desilters
dog house
drawworks
driller's console
drill (derrick) floor
drilling line
drill pipe
duck's nest
elevators
fingers
fuel tank
Geronimo line
girt
hoisting line
hook
kelly
leg

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57

mouse hole
mud discharge line
mud-gas separator
mud (rotary) hose
mud pumps (hogs)
mud return line
mud tanks (pits)
pigpen
pipe rack
pipe ramp
prime movers
pulsation dampeners
ram blowout preventers
rathole
reserve pit
reserve tanks
rotary table
shale shaker
shock hose
stairways
standpipe
substructure
swivel
tongs
traveling block
trip tank
water table

<

41

20

38

Rotary Drilling Rig

588

Appendix

Cable Tool Drilling Rig

gin pole

crown block

derrick

engine
master control
sand reel
cellar

Appendix

589

Crank Counterbalanced Beam Pumping Unit

walking beam

, center bearing

equalizer bearing
horsehead

bridle
polished rod clamp
carrier bar

polished rod

stuffing box
casing head
counterweight
prime mover

crank pin bearing

O 1
ft

*
Ig
O

Qffi

T2.

0*

R1

Giant Oil and Gas Fields

ank
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Field Name
(discovery year)

Country

Ghawar (1948)
Burgan (1938)
Urengoy (1966)
Safaniya (1951)
Bolivar Coastal
(1917)
Yamburg (1969)
Bovanenkovo
(1971)
Cantarell Complex
(1976)
Zakum (1964)
Manifa (1957)
Kirkuk (1927)
Marun (1963)
Hassi R'Mel (1956)
Zapolyarnoye
(1965)
Samotior (1965)
Romashkinskoye
(1948)
Rumaila (1953)
Prudhoe Bay (1968)

Saudi Arabia
Kuwait
USSR
Saudi Arabia
Venezuela

Northwest Dome
(1976)
Abquiq (1941)
Hugoton (1926)
Berri (1964)
Groningen (1959)

Recoverable Reserves
Oil Equivalent
Oil
mm bbl
mm bbl
82,000
87,500
75,000
87,083
47,602
2
38,066
36,100
30,100
30,100

Trap
Gas
Tcf

(feet)

Reservoir
Rock

72.5
285.6
11.8
-

7,500
4,800
4,000
5,250
3,000

anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline
stratigraphic

carbonate
sandstone
sandstone
sandstone
sandstone

33

USSR
USSR

27,983
24,416

_
-

167.9
146.5

3,600
4,000

broad arch
anticline

sandstone
sandstone

Mexico

20,000

20,000

5,000

carbonate

Abu Dhabi
Saudi Arabia
Iraq
Iran
Algeria
USSR

18,400
17,800
17,000
16,195
16,100
15,716

18,400
17,000
17,000
9,500
1,000
-

4.8
40.2
90
94.3

9,100
7,600
2,800
7,450
6,900
4,000

anticline
(faulted)
anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline

USSR
USSR

15,114
14,510

15,114
14,510

7,300
5,800

anticline
anticline

sandstone
sandstone

Iraq
USA

14,000
13,783

14,000
9,450

26

10,650
8,500

sandstone
sandstone

Qatar

13,333

80

anticline
angular
unconformity
anticline

Saudi Arabia
USA
Saudi Arabia
Netherlands

13,133
12,995
12,616
12,333

12,800
1,412
12,000
-

anticline
stratigraphic
anticline
uplift
(faulted)

carbonate
dolomite

2
69.5
3.7
74

6,500
2,850
7,400
9,650

carbonate
sandstone
carbonate
carbonate
sandstone
silty sandstone

carbonate

carbonate
sandstone

592

Ahwaz (1958)
Aghajari (1938)
Orenburg (1966)
Raudhatain (1955)
Arkticheskoye
(1968)
Zuluf (1965)
Bermudez (1958)

Iran
Iran
USSR
Kuwait
USSR

12,160
11,993
11,166
11,000
10,800

10,160
9,000
700
8,800
300

12
18
62.8
13.2
63

6,500
6,500
5,300
8,000
7,850

Saudi Arabia
Mexico

10,600
9,916

10,600
7,000

_
17.5

5,800
14,200

USSR
Abu Dhabi

9,166
9,120

8,000

55.0
6.7

8,200
7,600

33.
34.
35.

Kyrtaiol'skoye (1970)
Murban Bu Hasa
(1962)
Medvezh'ye (1967)
Khurais (1957)
Hassi Messaoud (1956)

USSR
Saudi Arabia
Algeria

9,099
9,016
9,000

8,500
9,000

54.6
3.1
-

4,250
5,100
11,000

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.

Troll (1979)
Gach Saran (1928)
B. Structure (1972)
Kangan (1973)
Dauletabad (1976)
Moran (1956)

Norway
Iran
Iran
Iran
USSR
India

8,966
8,500
8,333
8,333
8,118
8,042

1,400
8,500

4,750
4,200
7,500

42

45.4
50.0
50.0
48.7
48.0

42.
43.
44.
45.

Daqing (1959)
Rumailia North (1961)
Abu Sa'fah (1963)
Kharasaveyskoye
(1974)
Minas (1944)
Shaybah (1968)
Majnoon (1976)
Qatif(1945)
Kruzernshtern

China
Iraq
Saudi Arabia
USSR

8,000
8,000
7,850
7,449

8,000
8,000
7,500
-

2.9
44.7

4,492
10,500
6,400
5,000

Indonesia
Saudi Arabia
Iraq
Saudi Arabia
USSR

7,000
7,000
7,000
6,800
6,583

4,000
7,000
7,000
6,000

18.0
4.8
39.5

2,400
5,000
7,000
7,700

24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

46.
47.
48.
49.
50.

9,800
9,200

anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline

carbonate
carbonate
carbonate
sandstone
sandstone

anticline
anticline
(faulted)
anticline
anticline
reef
anticline
anticline
anticline
(faulted)
anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline
stratigraphic
anticline
(faulted)
anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline

sandstone
dolomite

anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline
anticline

sandstone
carbonate
carbonate
carbonate
sandsto

sandstone
carbonate
sandstone
carbonate
sandstone
sandstone
carbonate
sandstone
dolomite
sandstone
sandstone
sandstone
sandstone
carbonate
sandstone

modified from American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 40, Future Petroleum Provinces of the WorldGiant Oil and Gas Fields, by S. W.
Cormalt and B. St. John

I
g

Giant Oil and Gas Fields in Canada and the United States
Rank

Field Name
(discovery year)

1.

Prudhoe Bay (1968)

2.

Hugoton (1926)

3.

East Texas (1930)

4.

Elmworth (1976)

5.

Carthage (1936)

6.

Wilmington (1932)

7.

Eunice (1929)

8.
9.

Midway Sunset
(1894)
Yates (1926)

10.

Wasson (1936)

11.

Kern River (1899)

12.

Scurry (1961)

13.

Pembia (1953)

14.

Blanco (1927)

15.

Elk Hills (1919)

16.

Slaughter (1936)

17.

Sho-Vel-Tum (1914)

Country

USA
(Alaska)
USA

Gas
Tcf
26

12,995

1,412

69.5

5,600

5,600

3,333

Depth
(feet)

Trap

Reservoir
Rock

8,500

angular
unconformity
stratigraphic

sandstone

angular
unconformity
stratigraphic

sandstone

2,850
3,700

dolomite

20

18

6,000

anticline.

limestone
sandstone

sandstone

3,150

150

2,977

2,758

1.3

2,200

2,291

941

8.1

3,700

anticline
(faulted)
anticline

2,179

2,090

0.5

5,000

anticline

sandstone

2,046

2,046

1,250

anticline

carbonate

2,041

1,878

1.0

6,200

anticline

dolomite

1,949

1,949

1,000

stratigraphic

sandstone

1,926

1,701

1.3

5,000

stratigraphic

limestone

1,800

1,800

5,200

permeability

sandstone

1,788

25

10.6

6,065

sandstone

1,719

1,478

1.4

8,000

sandstone

1,671

1,505

6,500

porosity
wedge
anticline
(faulted)
stratigraphic

1,500

1,433

1,500

anticline
(faulted)

sandstone

sandstone

dolomite

"^

1
593

USA
(Texas)
Canada
(Alberta)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(California)
USA
(New Mexico)
USA
(California)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(California)
USA
(Texas)
Canada
(Alberta)
USA
(New Mexico)
USA
(California)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Oklahoma)

Recoverable Reserves
Oil Equivalent
Oil
mm bbl
mm bbl
9,450
13,783

Giant Oil and Gas Fields in Canada and the United States (Con't)
Rank

Country

Field Name
(discovery year)

18.

Ventura Avenue (1916)

19.

Kuparuk (1969)

20.
21.

Huntington Beach
(1920)
Monroe (1916)

22.

Koakoak

23.

Port Thompson (1975)

USA
(California)
USA
USA
(California)
USA
(Louisiana)
Canada
(NWT Franklin)
USA

Recoverable;Reserves
Oil
Oil Equivalent
mm bbl
mm bbl
1,396
991

Gas
Tcf
2.4

Depth
(feet)
7,000

Trap

Reservoir
Rock

anticline
(faulted)
stratigraphic

sandstone

anticline
(faulted)
anticline

sandstone

1,250

1,250

6,500

sandstone

1,231

1,095

0.8

5,000

1,204

7.2

1,200

1,200

11,000

sandstone

1,183

350

1,118

937

1.1

7,500

1,020

20

6.0

6,775

1,000

6.0

sandstone

1,000

500

3.0

10,500

sandstone

1,000

1,000

6,500

sandstone

998

115

5.9

9,000

drag fold

limestone

990

657

2.0

7,500

salt dome

sandstone

962

129

5.0

10,300

anticline

sandstone

960

5.7

6,500

facies change

sandstone

958

958

5,500

sandstone

956

540

2.5

rollover
anticline
reef

limestone

(Alaclr'^

24.

Long Beach (1921)

25.

Katy (1934)

USA
(California)
USA
^ 1 CXaoy

26.

Drake Point (1973)

27.

Kopanoar (1979)

28.

Cisco (1981)

29.

Whitney Canyon (1977)

Canada
(NWT Franklin)
Canada
(NWT Franklin)
Canada
(NWT Franklin)
USA

30.

Cailou Island (1930)

USA
f

31.

Old Ocean (1934)

32.

Basin (1947)

33.

Greta (1934)

34.

Kaybob South (1958)

/^l

4 c* *

rt

* ^

rt

anticline
(faulted)
anticline

sandstone
sandstone

^Louisiana )
USA
^texasj
USA
(New Mexico)
USA
(Texas)
Canada
(Alberta)

carbonate

36.

Kettleman Hills North Dome (1928)

Swan Hills (1968)

37.

South Sand Belt (1926)

38.

Salt Creek (1906)

39.

Coalinga (1887)

35.

USA

948

456

2.9

7,200

anticline

sandstone

(California)
Canada

931

931

8,100

reef

carbonate

900

900

3,000

anticline

dolomite

891

766

0.7

1,000

anticline

sandstone

867

830

2,200

anticline

sandstone

5,500

anticline

dolomite

4,800

anticline
(faulted)
drag fold

sandstone

stratigraphic

sandstone

(Albertaj
USA
^iexas)
USA
(Wyoming)
USA

(California)
40.

Goldsmith (1934)

USA

866

866

41.

Hawkins (1940)

(lexasj
USA

850

850

USA

846

180

4.0

6,800

(utanj
Canada

833

5.0

833

5.0

5,500

(Texas)
42.
43.

Anschutz Ranch East

(1978)
Claresholm (1978)

(^AiDertaj
AlKot-t-'^

limestone

sandstone

44.

Whitefish (1979)

45.

Buena Vista (1909)

USA

831

648

1.1

5,000

anticline

sandstone

Redwater (1948)

(California)
Canada

805

805

3,300

reef

carbonate

804

755

6,000

anticline

sandstone

111

189

3.5

9,500

salt ridge

sandstone

161

622

0.8

1,145

sandstone

760

760

6,200

755

755

5,000

750

750

2,900

anticline
(faulted)
anticline
(faulted)
anticline
(faulted)
anticline

741

730

1,000

anticline

sandstone

741

741

5,200

sandstone

740

615

0.7

5,000

anticline
(faulted)
salt ridge

46.
47.

Rangley (1906)

48.

Bayou Sale (1937)

49.
50.

Santa Fe Springs
(1919)
Hastings (1934)

51.

Oklahoma City (1928)

Canada
(NWT Franklin)

(AiDertaj
USA
^vjOiorauoj
USA
(Louisiana)
USA

(California)
USA
(Texas)
USA

(Oklahoma)
52.

McElroy (1926)

53.

Belridge South (1911)

54.

Conroe (1931)

55.

Bay Marchand (1949)

USA

sandstone
dolomite

sandstone

i
595

^ i exas)
USA
(Caiirorniaj
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Louisiana)

sandstone

Giant Oil and Gas Fields in Canada and the United States (Con't)
Rank

Field Name
(discovery year)

56.

McArthur River (1965)

57.

Hecia (1975)

58.

Bradford (1871)

59.

Mocane Laverne (1952)

60.

Webster (1937)

61.

Golden Trend (1944)

62.

Timbalier Bay (1938)

63.

Bastian Bay (1941)

64.

Coalinga Nose (1938)

65.
66.

South Pass Block 24

(1950)
Judy Creek (1959)

67.

Venture (1979)

68.

Smackover (1922)

69.

Spraberry Trend (1949)

70.

Elk Basin (1915)

71.

Parsons Lake

Country

USA
(Alaska)
Canada
(NWT Franklin)
USA
(Pennsylvania)
USA
(Oklahoma)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Oklahoma)
USA
(Louisiana)
USA
(Louisiana)
USA
(California)
USA
(Louisiana)
Canada
(Alberta)
Canada
(Nova Scotia)
USA
(Arkansas)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Wyoming)
Canada
(NWT Franklin)

Recoverable Reserves
Oil Equivalent
Oil
mm bbl
mm bbl
670
550

Gas
Tcf
0.7

Depth
(feet)
5,400

Trap

Reservoir
Rock

anticline

sandstone

sandstone

666

4.0

658

658

2,000

anticline

sandstone

653

20

3.8

4,250

stratigraphic

sandstone

640

640

6,100

sandstone

624

458

1.0

6,600

sandstone

624

507

0.7

12,000

anticline
(faulted)
anticline
(faulted)
salt dome

621

80

3.3

12,675

salt ridge

sandstone

605

505

0.6

6,400

stratigraphic

sandstone

600

475

0.8

8,000

sandstone

600

600

anticline
(faulted)
reef

599

3.6

17,650

599

599

2,500

594

594

585

543

583

sandstone

carbonate
sandstone
sandstone

7,000

anticline
(faulted)
anticline

3,900

anticline

sandstone

3.5

sandstone

72.

Rio Vista (1936)

73.

Bateman Lake (1937)

74.

Bonnie Glen

75.

Cowden South (1932)

76.

Fullerton (1942)

77.

Keystone (1930)

78.

Van (1928)

79.

San Ardo (1947)

80.

West Ranch (1938)

81.

Cushing (1912)

82.
83.

Eugene Island Block

300 (1971)
Seminole (1936)

84.

Burbank (1920)

85.

Cowden North (1930)

86.

Thompson (1931)

87.

La Gloria (1939)

88.

Tiger Shoal (1958)

89.

Brea ((1884)

USA
(California)
USA
(Louisiana)
Canada
(Alberta)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(California)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Oklahoma)
USA
(Louisiana)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Oklahoma)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Louisiana)
USA
(California)

583

3.5

3,800

dome
(faulted)
anticline

575

75

3.0

9,750

570

445

0.8

568

485

4,700

anticline

dolomite

565

315

15

8,000

anticline

dolomite

564

314

1.5

9,500

dolomite

546

546

2,800

545

529

2,200

544

378

1.0

6,000

anticline
(faulted)
anticline
(faulted)
anticline
(faulted)
anticline

540

490

2,700

anticline

sandstone

540

290

1.5

4,300

sandstone

533

460

5,100

anticline
(faulted)
anticline

533

533

2,850

stratigraphic

sandstone

533

450

4,400

anticline

dolomite

533

499

5,400

sandstone

531

31

3.0

6,000

530

30

3.0

9,000

528

441

0.5

4,000

salt dome
(faulted)
rollover
anticline
anticline
(faulted)
anticline
(faulted)

sandstone
sandstone
_

sandstone
sandstone
sandstone

dolomite

sandstone
sandstone
sandstone

Rank

90.

Field Name
(discovery year)

91.

Grand Isle Block 43

(1956)
Kenai (1959)

92.

Vacuum (1929)

93.

96.

West Delta Block 30

(1949)
South Pass Block 27
(1954)
Vermilion Block 39
(1949)
Agua Dulce (1928)

97.

Sand Hills (1931)

98.

Swan Hill South (1959)

99.

Blinebry-Drinkard
(1935)
Borregos (1937)

94.
95.

100.

Country

USA
(Louisiana)
USA
(Alaska)
USA
(New Mexico)
USA
(Louisiana)
USA
(Louisiana)
USA
(Louisiana)
USA
(Texas)
USA
(Texas)
Canada
(Alberta)
USA
(New Mexico)
USA
(Texas)

Recoverable Reserves
Oil Equivalent
Oil
mm bbl
mm bbl
524
358

Gas
Tcf
1.0

Depth
(feet)
5,000

Trap

Reservoir
Rock

anticline
(faulted)
anticline
(faulted)
anticline
(reeO
salt dome

sandstone

sandstone

525

3.1

6,600

sandstone

524

524

6,400

516

424

0.5

8,600

516

383

0.8

12,000

515

15

3.0

8,700

513

147

2.2

salt dome
(faulted)
anticline
(faulted)
-

512

246

1.6

4,000

anticline

dolomite

510

510

8,000

reef

carbonate

506

256

1.5

6,000

anticline

dolomite

503

503

7,000

anticline
(faulted)

sandstone

dolomite
sandstone

sandstone
-

modified from American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 40, Future Petroleum Provinces of the WorldGiant Oil and Gas Fields, by S.W.
Cormalt and B. St. John

Appendix

I3

I-J

in
o

QJBt

m
p
in

oo
p
in

oo
o
in

ON

ON

NO
ON

^r

l/N

ON

rH

(N|

*
(N

ON
rH

GN

NO

rr,

ON
I-H

o
rr>

<U D C
- *n '

2.2

00
N

3,

SO
rH

34

SJO

NO

NO

NO

rxi

CM
rO

1^
ON

CO
00

in

ON

rH
ON

00
00

O
(N

CN

fr^

rr,

rH

00

00

p
o'

p
d

3
ON

vfs

\f\

970.

136.

a;

CM

O\

O\

i s i8 8

rr,

rH

3N
IN

ii

ii

in
NO

ON

00

in
in
in

-sr
in

rn
r-^
r~

r
rH

00
in
M

ON

in

NO
m

00
-H

599

feldspars
orthoclase
KAlSi3Og
albite
NaAlSi3O8
anorthite
CaAl2Si2O8
gypsum
CaSO4-H2O
halite
NaCl
limonite
FeO(OH)-2.05H2O

2,57

278.35

69.0

2.61

262.24

75.6

2.76

278.22

47.2
55.1
45.0

2.32

172.18

52.5

2.16

58.45

24.8

14.9

67.0

116.0

3.60

125.79

60.1*

31.3

56.9

480.39

59.7
41.1
61.5
42.9

42.3
12.4
41.1
22.2

129.8

84.4

mica
biotite
3.22
K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
muscovite
2.84
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
olivine
forsterite
Mg2SiO4
fayalite
Fe2SiO4
pyrite
FeS2

398.33

25.6

2.55

2.54

2.86

2.59

2.58

1.68

2.74

2.74

313

2.37

2.35

3.99

0.25

2.07

2.03

4.65

102.6

0.28

3.63

3.70

13.00

49.4
70.1
47.2
59.8

81.8
150.9
79.4
108.0

0.21
0.36
0.23
0.28

3.16

3.20

8.70

2.82

2.83

2.40

35.7

60.5

0.23

3.20

3.24

1.54

4.17

4.28

17.17

97.7

0.35

3.22

140.73

4.34

203.79

5.01

119.98

147.4

132.5

37.6

58.8

0.15

4.84

5.00

16.97

237.72

94.1
13.5
111.2

57.0
24.1
63.7

42.2
81.5
39.6

72.9
112.1
69.5

0.25
0.06
0.26

3.05

3.08

7.79

3.29

3.33

3.53

100.41

3.20

3-23

1.62

248.11

3.49

3.55

9.58

109.87

3.45

3.51

5.85

pyroxene
augite
3.10
(Ca,Na)(Mg,FeAl)(Si^l)2O6
diopside
3.30
CaMg(Si2O6)
enstatite
3.21
Mg2(Si2O6)
hedenbergite
3.55
CaFe(Si2O6)
hypersthene
3.50
(Mg,Fe)2(Si2O6)
quartz
2.65
SiO2
siderite
3.96
FeCO,

216.58

60.09

33.6

45.0

50.5

74.0

0.06

2.65

2.64

1.81

115.86

123.7

51.0

43.8
47.0

84.9

0.32

3.83

3.91

14.69

modified from The Technical Review, 1988, v. 36, no. 1

Appendix

601

Sandstone Classification
Q+C

Quartzarenite
Sublitharenite
25

Subarkose
25

Q - Quartz
C - Chert
F - Feldspar
RF - Rock Fragments
URF - Unstable Rock Fragments
C - Detrital Clay
25

F + GRF + 25
Gneiss RF

Other URF
+C

Folk, R. L, 1968, Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks: Hemphill's Book Store, Austin, Texas.

95%

A - QUARTZARENITE

SUBFELDSARENITE-/

V-SUBLITHARENITE

75%/

Q = Quartz
F = Feldspar
R = Rock Fragments

Folk, R. L, P. B. Andrews and D. W. Lewis, 1970, Detrital sedimentary rock classification and nomenclature for use in
New Zealand: New Zealand Jour. Geology and Geophysics, v. 13, p. 937-968.

SOURCE

> 30% FELDSPAR

GRANITE

ARKOSE

METAMORPHIC
OR
VOLCANIC

> 90%
QUARTZ
SUBARKOSE
ORTHOQUARTZITE

GRAYWACKE
> 10% FELDSPAR

SUBGRAYWACKE

602

Appendix

Limestone Classification
ALLOCHEMICAL
ROCKS
I
SRARRY CALOTE
CEMENT

E
MOWCRYSTALUNE
CALCITE MATRIX

ORTHOCHEMtCAL
ROCKS
m
MKROCRYSTALLME CALQTE
LACKING ALUOCHEMS

INTRAHCtl/TEW

hUCMTECU

m
OISMICRITEtm*X)

OOWCRITEOJ

BIOMICRITECXU

AUTOCHTHONOUS
REEF ROCKS
BT

'^rZyrr^i
BIOUTHITEtm

KLMICRlTEO,)

KLSPARITEO,)

LIME MUO MATRIX

I SPARRY CALCITE CEMENT

Ttrrigtnous
Analogues

Folk, R. L., 1962, Spectral subdivision of limestone types: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. 1, p. 62-84.

DEPOSITIONAL

TEXTURE

Original Components Not Bound Together During Deposition

Contains Mud
(Particles Of Clay and Fine Silt Size)
Mud Supported
Less Than
10 Per Cent Grains

More Than
10 Per Cent Grains

Mudstone

Wackestone

Grain Supported

Packstone

Lacks Mud
and is
Grain Supported

Grainstone

Original Components
Were Bound Together
During Deposition...
As Shown By Intergrown
Skeletal Matter.

Boundstone

Dunham, R. J., 1962, Classification of Carbonate Rocks According to Depositionai Texture: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists
Mem. 1,p. 108-121

Appendix

603

Carbonate Porosity
BASIC

POROSITY TYPES

| FABRIC SELECTIVE 1

I W O T FABRIC

INTERPARTICLE

BP

INTRAPARTICLE

WP

INTERCRYSTAL

BC

MOLOIC

MO

FENESTRAL

FE

SHELTER

SH

CROITHFRAMEWORK

6F

| FABRIC

3S

BRECCIA
BR

Ki /

SELECTIVE I

FRACTURE

FR

CHANNEL*

CH

VUG*

VU8

CAVERN'

CV

''Cavern oppllit to mon-tiid or largor p w t t of

chonntl or vug thaptt.

S E L E C T I V E OR N O T 1

BORING
BO

BURROW
BU

SHRINKAGE
SK

Pray, L. C. and P. W. Choquette, 1970, Geologic Nomenclature and Classification of Porosity in Sedimentary Carbonates:
Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull. 54, p. 207-250.

604

Appendix

COMMON GEOLOGICAL MAP SYMBOLS

STRUCTURE SYMBOLS

^26

STRIKE AND DIP

WELL SYMBOLS

LOCATION
DRY HOLE

ff)

HORIZONTAL

BEDS

OIL WELL
GAS WELL

OVERTURNED BEDS
CONTACT WITH DIP

GAS AND OIL

ABANDONED OIL WELL
CONDENSATE WELL

ANTICLINE

ABANDONED GAS WELL

DRY (SHOW OF OIL)

SYNCLINE

DRY (SHOW OF GAS)

SHOW OF OIL AND GAS

DIP SLIP FAULT

INJECTION WELL
SLANT HOLE f"x" at bottom)

STRIKE SUP FAULT

DISCOVERY WELL
THRUST FAULT (barbs on side of
upper plat*)

PROPOSED WATER INJECTION WELL

COMPLETED WATER INJECTION WELL
PROPOSED GAS INJECTION WELL
COMPLETED GAS INJECTION WELL
DRILLED AS SALT WATER
DISPOSAL WELL
CONVERTED TO SALT WATER
DISPOSAL WELL
PROPOSED WATER SUPPLY WELL
COMPLETED WATER SUPPLY WELL
CORE TEST WELL
PROPOSED CONVERSION WELL

Appendix

605

COMMON GEOLOGICAL SYMBOLS FOR ROCKS

SHALE

GRANITIC
BASEMENT ROCKS

SANDSTONE
SCHIST

LIMESTONE
CONGLOMERATE
DOLOMITE
*

if t

wmm

COAL

MICRO FOSSILS

ANHYDRITE-GYPSUM

PLANT FOSSILS

SALT (POTASSIUM)
CALCAREOUS SHALE
CALCAREOUS SANDSTONE
SANDY SHALE -SILTSTONE
1?
1 /^

OOLITIC LIMESTONE

1 /-N 1

r? I? I V

SHELLY LIMESTONE

1 A

CHERTY LIMESTONE
BENTON ITE

Oh

CONCRETIONS

606

Appendix
siliciclastic
rock
symbols

miscellaneous
rock symbols

quartz sand

anhydretic

quartz sandstone

argillaceous

A A
carbonate
rock
symbols

chalky

crystalline

calcareous

arkosic sandstone
carbonate rock symbols

carbonaceous

LZL
limestone
sucrosic

feldspathic sandstone

\7

II

cherty
1

_Z"

dolomitic

dolomitic limestone
micaceous
crystalline with
recognizable particles

calcareous dolomite

7_~7

salt hoppers

dolomite
fossils

i I i

very sandy

itr.

oolites

mudstone

wackestone

ii
sandy

slightly sandy

lithoclasts
packstone

sltty
IT

pelletoids

grainstone

boundstone

quartz cement

Appendix
structure
symbols

sedimentary
structure
symbols

-o-

crossbeds

A?

roundness
of grains

angular

burrowed

crossbeds with angle

sub angular
bored

subrounded

chevron crossbeds
tracks and trails
climbing crossbeds

ash

vertebrate tracks

mud cracks

mica

rain drops

feldspar

irregular bedding

pull-apart

graded bedding
\

glauconite

slump and contorted bedding

no apparent bedding
nodular bedding

convolute
bedding

load
structure

teepe structure

symmetrical ripples

c
pull-over flame structure

birdseye fabric

_n_
styolite

fractures

scour and fill

slickensides
flute cast

-Dgroove cast

*
striation
parting
lineation

H
hematite

phosphate nodule
limonite
pyrite

asymmetrical ripples
interference ripples

-h

plant roots
festoon crossbeds

planar crossbeds

rounded

tectonic breccia

euhedral quartz crystal

anhedral quartz crystal

O
quartz

siderite

s
sulfur

V
volcanic glass
vug filling

solution breccia
vein or fracture filling

607

608

Appendix
sample and mud
log symbols
poor oil stain
good to / -
excellent oil
stain
tarry or
gummy oil

dead oil

reaction
o oilin acid

faint cut
fluorescence

strong cut
fluorescence

poor stain, faint cut

fluorescence

hydrocarbon
0 Oder
t

gas indication

salt water
sulfurous salt water

|-L S

fresh water

sulfurous
fresh water

+_
Hj5

core symbols

core
recovered
core
unrecovered
core partially
recovered
core recovery
unknown
apparent dip
from core
oriented
core dip

18?
Az <

180
sidewall core

Appendix
source rock
symbols

porosity
symbols

1
II
III
(III

trace
poor

(1-5%)

fair

(5-10%)

good
excellent

(10-15%)

P
F

analyzed organic lean

analyzed organic rich

vitronite value

(>15%)
continuous
sequence of

V trace vuggy
(1-5%)
L poor vuggy
(5-10%)
U fair vuggy
III good vuggy (10-15%)
till excellent vuggy (>15%)
\X visibly connected
(1-5%)
X poor moldic
(5-10%)
tt fair moldic
good moldic

' excellent moldic

analyzed
samples

(10-15%)

(>15%)

Modified from American Association of Petroleum Geologists Sample Examination Manual by R. G. Swanson.

609

610

Appendix

Drill Stem Test Symbols

drill stem test
symbols

drillstem test

H2S
minor oil recovery

sulfur odor

oil to surface

minor gas show

6500
casing point

4200
plug back depth

400
gas flow rate to surface
perforated interval
fresh water discovery
X
completion zone
salt water recovery

Appendix

Flow Sheet Symbols

valve

check valve

*
relief valve

air cooler

heat exchanger
control valve

shutdown valve

choke

level
controller

pressure
controller

temperature controller

compressor

fire tube

punip
compressor

(til)
punip
Fl'
^ '

flowmeters

pump

pressure
vacuum
valve

flame arrester

6ll

Land Subdivisions (United States)

prime
meridian

Appendix
I
B A S ELINEi
LINE^

TWTSN.-RNGS. E.C.M.

INDIAN MERIDIAN

CIMARRON MERIDIAN
TOWNSHIPS NORTH

TOWNSHIPS NORTH

Ml ES
5

^-"

t
6

/
/

4
3

L
\

IIS
1
5

TOWNSHIPS SOUTH
RANGES WEST

TOWNSHIPS SOUTH
RANGES EAST

1
|

5
_L

BASE LINE

LAND SUBDIVISION

--

MERIDIAN

REGULAR SECTION
1 MILE-

REGULAR
^

TOWNSHIP
m

6 MILES

10

II

10

17

IS

14

19

20

ft

22

23

30

29

28

27

26

51

32

33

34

IB

16

12

24

3a

WELL LOCATION: 1500' SNL & 1000 EWl

OF N W / 4 , SEC. 24-18N-I2W

Note: The order of sections is reversed in Canada

613

614

Appendix

10

11

12

10

11

12

Appendix

615

Eastern United States

Map
Code
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
4
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
5
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
2
36
37
38
39

Geologic Feature
Adirondack uplift
Apalachicola embayment
Appalachian basin
Appalachian overthrust
Arkoma basin
Baltimore Canyon
Black Warrior basin
Blake Plateau
Canadian Shield
Cape Fear arch
Cincinnati arch
Desha basin
Eastern Interior basin
Eastern Ontario basin
Eastern Overthrust
Findley arch
Forest City basin
Georges Bank
Gulf Coast Salt Dome basin
Hatchetigbee anticline
Illinois basin
Jackson Dome
Lake Superior syncline
La Salle uplift
McAlester basin
Michigan basin
Mississippi embayment
Mississippi Interior Salt Dome basin
Mississippi River delta
Monroe uplift
Nashville dome
Newark basin
Ocala uplift
Ozark uplift
Sabine uplift
South East Georgia embayment
South Florida embayment
South West Georgia embayment
Tuscaloosa trend
White Mountains
Wiggins anticline
Wisconsian arch

Map
Location
B 11
E 10
D9
C,D 10
D 7,8
C 11
D9
Ell
A 7,8,9,10
D 11
C9
D8
C9
B 11
C,D 10
C10
C7
B12
E8
E9
C8
E8
A8
E8
D7
B9
D8
E8
E8
D8
D9
C 11
E10
D7
E7
E 10
F10
E2
E8
A12
E9
B8

616

Appendix

r>

f {

C \

>

s3

/ -

20

^7

36
/

93

/ (v
j

Ie

70

77

\
\

66

66
68
73

1"
'

90

"~?

84

63

7
/

48
63

2^

48

16

8 0 30

24

1
50

62

41
72

ss

72

!2

3 5

~1

17

1
1

50

<c

28

71

_ 53/

15

44
72

C
\

60

/
\

"

4C

>

<

78 1

"/

10

)'

Jf'
/ 85

61
M

12

63
90

61

' SI V

C87
\67

77

<

~66

64

13

- \

13

"

>

^ 1

. )
91

17

<
2>

"

47^

49

83

14 58

\
\
45

86
_

V46

25

33
\

100

?00

Q
1

MILES
200

300

400

88

400

KM

8I

rL^-*

88

42

Appendix

617

Western United States

Map
Code
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

Geologic Feature
Alberta basin
Anadarko basin
Arbuckle Mountains
Ardmore basin
Arkoma basin
Austin Chalk trend
Bend arch
Big Horn basin
Black Hills
Black Mesa basin
Blue Mountain uplift
Bridger basin
Cascade Ranges
Central basin platform
Central Kansas uplift
Central Nebraska basin
Central Oklahoma platform
Chadron arch
Coastal Range
Crazy Mountain basin
Dalhart basin
Delaware basin
Denver-Julesburg basin
Dodge City embayment
East Texas Salt Dome basin
Elsinor fault
Eocene basin
Forest City basin
Fort Worth basin
Front Range
Great basin
Green River basin
Gulf Coast Salt Dome basin
Hanna basin
Hardeman basin
Harney basin
Hollis basin
Hugoton embayment
Kaiparowitz basin
Laramie basin
Las Vegas basin
Llano uplift
Los Angeles basin
Los Animas arch
Marathon uplift
Marfa basin
Mexia-Talco fault
Mexican highlands
Midland basin
Nemaha ridge
North Park basin
Olympic uplift
Ouachita Overthrust
Ouachita Mountains
Palo Duro basin
Paradox basin
Pedregosa basin
Permian basin
Permo-Triassic basin
Piceance basin

Map
Location
A 2,3
D5
E6
E6
D5
E,F 5,6
E5
B4
B5
D3
B2
C3
B1
E4
C5
C5
D6
C5
B 1
B4
D5
E4
C4
D5
E6
D 1,2
C2
D6
E6
C,D 4
C3
C3
E,F 6
C4
D5
B2
D,E 5
D5
D3
C4
D4
E5
D1
D 4,5
E4
E4
E6
D3
E 4,5
D6
C4
A1
D,E 6
D,E 6
D4
D3
E3
E 4,5
C2
C4

618
Map
Code
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
63
91
92
93

Appendix

Geologic Feature
Powder River basin
Raton basin
Rocky Mountain overthrust
Sacramento basin
Salina basin
San Andreas fault
San Fernando basin
San Gabriel basin
San Jacinto fault
San Joaquin basin
San Juan basin
San Luis basin
San Pedro basin
Santa Barbara basin (channel)
Santa Maria basin
Sierra Grande uplift
Sierra Nevada
Sioux uplift
Snake River downwarp
South Park basin
South Texas Salt basin
Tucumcari basin
Tyler basin
Uinta basin
Uncompahgre uplift
Val Verde basin
Ventura basin
Vicksburg trend
Washakie basin
Washita fault blocks
Western Overthrust
Wichita Mountains
Williston basin
Wind River basin

Map
Location
B~4
D4

B,C,D 2,3
B1
C6
C,D 1
D1
Dl
D1
Cl

D3
D4
D1
D1
D1
D4
C1
B,C6
B2,3
D4
F6
D4
E6
C3
C3
E5
Dl
F6
C4
C3
B,C,D 2,3

D5
B5
B4

622

Appendix

Unit Conversion Factors

Length
1 km = 0.62137 mile = 3281 ft = 1000 m
1 mile = 1.60935 km = 5280 ft = 8 furlongs
1 m = 32808333 ft = 39.3700 in = 1.09361 yd
1 foot = 0.3048006096 m
1 cm = 0.3937 in = 108 A = 1000 ft = 393.7 mil
1 in = 2.54000508 cm = 25400 p. = 25400 jtm
1 |j.m = 1 |x = 10"6 m
1 ft/s = 18.288 m/min
Area
1 km2 = 247.1044 acres = 0.3861006 mile 2
1 mile2 = 640 acres = 2.589998 km2
1 acre = 0.4046873 ha = 4046.873 m2 = 43560 ft2
1 m2 = 10.76387 ft2 = 1550 in2
1 ft2 = 0.09290341 m2
1 cm2 = 0.001076387 ft2 = 0.15499969 in2 = 154999.7 mil2
1 in2 = 6.4516258 cm2 = 106 mil2
Volume
1 m3 = 6.28983 bbl = 264.173 gal = 35.31333 ft3 = 1000 liters
1 bbl = 0.15899 m3 = 42 gal = 5.61458 ft3 = 158.99 liters
1 liter = 0.26417022 gal = 61.02329 in3 = 1 dm 3
1 gal = 3.785434 liters = 231 in 3 = 3785.434 cm3
1 ft3 = 28.31701 liters = 1728 in3 = 7.48052 gal
1 quart = 946.3529 cm3 = 0.25 gal
I acre foot = 1233.49 m3 = 43560 ft3 = 7758.37 bbl
Mass
I1 = 1000 kg = 2204.6223 lb = 1.1023 sh tn
1 sh tn = 2000 lb = 907.1849 kg = 0.90719 t
1 kg = 2.204622341 lb (avoir.)
1 lb (avoir.) = 45359243 g = 7000 gr
1 g = 0.00220 lb = 0.035274 oz = 15.4324 gr
Density
1 kg/dm3 = 1 g/cm3 = 62.428 lb/ft3 = 8.3304 lb/gal
1 lb/ft3 = 0.0160 g/cm3 = 0.1334 lb/gal
1 lb/gal = 0.1200 g/cm3 = 7.4940 lb/ft3
Oil gravity in degrees API
141 5
M
"API = c
G ' 60/ Op - where "Spec. Grav. /aa F" means specific gravity of oil at 60F referred to water at
60F
Viscosity
1 mPa s = 1 cP = 6.895 x 106 lb s/ft2
1 lb s/ft2 = 0.1450 x 1CT6 cP = 0.1450KT6 mPa s
1 mPa s = 1 cp = density cSt
Pressure
1 kPa = 0.1450 psi = 0.0102 kg/cm2 = 0.0100 bar = 0.0098 atm
1 psi = 6.8948 kPa = 0.0703 kg/cm2 = 0.0689 bar = 0.0680 atm
1 kg/cm2 = 98.0665 kPa = 14.2223 psi = 0.9806 bar = 0.9678 atm
1 bar = 100 kPa = 14.5030 psi = 1.0197 kg/cm2 = 0.9869 atm
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 14.6959 psi = 1.0333 kg/cm2 = 1.0133 bar
Pressure gradient
1 kPa/m = 0.0476 psi/ft = 0.0102 kg/cm2/m
1 psi/ft = 21.0207 kPa/m = 0.2311 kg/cm2/m
1 kg/cm2/m = 98.0665 kPa/m = 4.3349 psi/ft
psi/ft = 0.433 x density (g/cm3)
psi/ft = 0.0069 x density (lb/ft3)
psi/ft = 0.0519 x density (lb/gal)
kPa/m = 98066 x density (g/cm3)
bar/m = 0.0981 x density (g/cm3)

Appendix
Hydrostatic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure (kPa) = Mud density (kg/dm 3 ) x 9-80665 x Depth (m)
Hydrostatic pressure (psi) = Mud density (lb/gal) x 0.0519 x Depth (ft)
Temperature
F = 1.8C + 32
C = 0.555 x (F - 32)
R = (Rankine) = F + 459.67
K (kelvins) = C + 273.16
Concentration
1 gr/U.Ss gal
0.017118 g/liter
1 gr/U.S. gal (in ppm)
17.118 divided by the density in g/cm3
1 g/liter
58.417 gr/gal
1 g/liter (in ppm)
1000 divided by the density in g/cm3
3
1 g/liter = 1 kg/m = 0.3505 lb/bbl
1 lb/bbl = 2.8530 g/liter = 2.8530 kg/m3
ppm = mg solute/kg solution

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